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Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 II w«^ i^^Vir-* ,• mmvm \1 •'V ■ ^iu National Library Bibliotheque nationale ■ ^r of Canada du Canada Reserve *. > #. i^-- I MILLER'S ANALYTICAL AND PRACTICAL GRAMMAR Of THI ENGLISH LANGUAGE, ON THE BASIS OF BULLIONS, •iovrAnnMO, in addition to othkr nbw mattir, a ruLL gouesi or ▲NALY8I8, XXAMIVATION QUISTIONB AND XXXSOISn OW XAOH TOPIC ; DU0RAM8 rOR BXXROISRS ON THS TKRB { FORKS rOE RXREOFSBI IN ANALTBH ; A 810TI0N ON THK 8TRU0- TURB OF WORDS ; A VOOABULART OF SAXON, LATIN, HlKil AND QRIKK ROOTS ) 8XLXCTI0NS IN PROS! AMD PORRT FOR ANALTSIS ; AND A OOMPLrrK OOURSR OF INSTRUCrriON AND SZBR0I81S IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. BY T. G. CHESNUT, PRXNCIFAL OF THE TOSONTO TRAINING SCHOOL ; LBCTURBE ON ■ BNGLISH ORAMMAR, BTC. THIRD CANADIAN EDITION. ^ TORONTO: PTTBLISHED BF ADAM MILLER, 62 KING ST. EAST, /7 AND FOR SALS BT ROBERT MILLER, MONTREAL. 1M7. A Entered, according to the Act of the Provincial Parliament, in the year one thousand eight hundred and sixty-six, by Adam Millek, in the office of the Registrar of the Province of Canada. t'-kV INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND CANADIAN EDITION. Wc have reason to congratulate ourselves, that in most depart- ments of study, Canadian Schools are now supplied with excellent ten books, many of them prepared in tha country by Canadian Teachers. In the department of English Grammar, however, it is scarcely necessary to say, that among all classes of teachers the utmost dissatisfaction is felt. It is the peculiarity of almost every English Grammar in use that, while they may be very good, or even excellent, in some department of the subject, they either entirely omit others of, at least, equal importance, or are so inaccurate, or me-'.gre, or behind the times, in the manner of treating them, that, in many cases, it would be be better had they been altogether passed over. The consequence is, that a teacher who would make his course of instruction comprehend what is necessary to render it practically useful and give it a degree of completeness, is compelled, either to depend on oral instruction to supplement the deficiencies of the text book, or to submit to the inconvenience and needless expense of introducing several dffer- ent books. To this, more than any other cause, is, doubtless, to ha attributed the fact, that the study of English Grammar does not occupy that position in our schools to which its importance entitles it. Whatever opinion, therefore, may be entertained of the pretensions of the text book now presented, of this, at all events, the editor is fully assured, that both teachers and pupils will appreciate the attempt to render their labour in this department somewhat more pleasant and remunerative, and will cheerfully recognise whatever merit it may possess. In undertaking the revision of Bullions' Analytical and Prac- tical Grammar, the intention, in the first place, was merely to correct some of the numerous inaccuracies, and supply a few of its worst defects ; but the more closely it was examined with a view to this, in the light of the latest improvements in the mode of treating and presenting the subject, the more obvious it became, that such superficial changes, so far from satisfying the 4 INTRODUCTION TO SECOND CANADIAN EDITION. reasonable demands of intelligent teachers, could scarcely be eir^ pected to allay the existing dissatisfaction to an extent sa&icient to procure for it even a temporary recognition. Such being the aspect of the matter, the Editor found that he had no alternative but to abandon the project altogether, or face the enquiry,— what, alterations and additions must be made to supply a text book, such as is required ? — what must such a book contain ? — and how should the matter be presented, to bring it fully up to the stand-* «rd of philosophical accuracy, which late writers, especially Morell, in his scientific treatment of the subject, has so conclu- sively shown it to be capable of? In prosecuting this enquiry, one Elimination^ Alteration, and Addition, aft^r another, was found necessary, till the original has undergone such an entire transformation, that, like the miser's stockings, it may now fairly quest'on its own personal identity. The opportunity of collecting facts and observing results, wlibh an extensive acquaintance with teachers and many years experi- ence in teaching English Grammar, have afforded the Editor, has convinced him that our best grammars are not sufRciently prac- tical, — tha. with a text book adapted to the purpose, the grammar clap'' might be made to contribute much more directly to the grand end in view, viz : readiness, accuracy^ and elegance, in the use of language. In order to remedy this defect, and render all the assistance possible to teachers who would be practical, Examination Ques- tions followed by thorough practical exercises, are placed at proper intervals throughout the book, and a general exposition of the Principles of English Composition followed by a complete course of Exercises designed to be taken up in connection with Analysis and Syntax, is appended. A glance at these examination Tests, (for they are rather tests than questions,) will convince any one, that, so far from leading to " Mechanical teaching," they are de- signed and fitted to call forth the highest intellectual efforts of the pupils. The subject of analysis has been completely re-written, and "will, it is confidently believed, be found fully up to the most ap- proved standard. Diagrams to be used in conjugating the verb> INTRODUCTION TO SECOND CANADIAN EDITION. and in oral and written exercises in parsing and in the analysis of simple and compound sentences, have been prepared, and are presented in such a manner, that they cannot fail to prore valuable aids to both teacher and pupil. The Section on the Structure of Words, followed by Examination Questions and practical Exercises on each part of speech, will supply a great want in this durection, and, taken in connection with the Yo* cabulary of Saxon, Latin and Greek roots, at the close, may be riewed as forming a complete and distinct text-book of itself on this important branch of the subject. The Selections in Prose and Poetry, embracing a great variety of construction, will furnhh ample exercises in analysis, and will be found suited to the wants of every class of pupils. Most teachers will consider it a decided improvement, that correct and incorrect examples are mixed together in the exercises unde the rules of Syntax, re- quiring the pupil constantly to draw upon his knowledge of the subject and to apply it as he proceeds. In conclusion, the Editor would express how much it has been a matter of constant regret to him, that he has been absolutely limited as to time. Although this circumstance has not been allowed to interfere with the general features of the book, it has prevented that careful consideration, that might, in* some instances, have resulted in greater accuracy or better selections, and com- pelled him to avail himself of the labors of others, more especially of Mohell & Anderson, (to whom he takes this opportunity of acknowledg'ing his great indebtedness) more freely than he would \inder other circumstances, have felt at liberty to do. Toronto, Canada West, July, 1866. PllEPACE TO THE TTlfRD CANADIAN EDITION. The very general favour with which tlie Second revised edi- tion of this gr»immar'ha3 betn received, as indicated by its rapid sale and the iiumerous expressions of approval from teachers and others, in every part of tho country, has encouraged the publisher to spare no expense to render the present edition still more serviceable to teachers, and worthy of public confidence. The quality of the paper and binding, it will be observed, is Tery much superior to that in the last edition, and some impor- tant alterations and additions have been made ; these are not, however, of such a nature that any serious inconvenience will result from introducing this edition into classes in which the last is already in use. The section on English Composition has been rendered much more practical and complete, by simplifying the rules and exer- cises on Punctuation, and by adding examination questions on the general principles of Compositi6n and an article on the Elements of (Style, and by giving it such a position as will indi- cate the order in which this branch of the subject should be taken up. The want of time, in preparing the last edition, ren- dered it necessary to omit the preparation of examination ques- tions on the Syntax ; this omission has been supplied in the present edition. Thrfse questions and exercise will eflFect a great saying of time to teachers, and afford valuable assistance in conducting the examination of classes. And lastly, a series of exercises, composed of sentences of common occurrence, ex- hibiting the most usual faults in the use of language, are pre- sented under one general rule, to be examined and corrected before entewng on the study and application of the more special principles of Syntax. ToBONTO, April, 1867. INDEX AND TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAQB Grammar, Definition ami Division of 13 Part I.— OIITHOGRAPHY. Letters, Division and Power of 14 8yllablcs IG Spelling, Rules for • . . 18 Capitals, Use of 20 Pakt II.— etymology. Words, General Division of 21 Parts of Speech, and Definitions of 22 Method of Introducing the Subject 23 Noun, Classification of 24 1st ExiRcisi — Classification of Nouns 26 Properties of the Noun, Gender 26 2nd Exbroisb — Gender 29 Person 30 Number, General and Special Rules 31 3rd Exbrcisb— Number , 32 Nouns, Irregular in the Plural 33 Compounds, Plural, how formed 34 Words from Foreign Languages, Plural, how formed. . . 35 4th Exercise — Nouns, Irregular in Number 36 Plural of Proper Names 37 5th Exercise — Proper Names Pluralized 38 Case 38 Possessive. Rules for forming 39 Observations on the Possessive 40 Syntax of the Noun • 41 Order of Parsing the Noun 42 6th ExBRCt^K — Cases of Nouns 43 General Examination Questions on the preceding. ... 44 The Adjective 45 Classification of Adjectives 46 The Limiting Adjectives ; a, an, the, (Article) 48 Comparison of Adjectives 48 Irregular Comparison 50 Syntax of the Adjective , 51 Order of Parsing the Adjective 52 Examination Questions on the Adjective 52 7th Exercise — Parsing, The Adjective, tion of the Verb 105 14th Exiroisb — Parsing Verbs, kc 100 Irregular Verbs (List of; 107 Adtirb 113 Classification of Adverbs —Conjunctive Adverbs ... 114 115 Syntax and Order of Parsing Adverbs 116 Examination Qukbtionb and Exeroibes on the Adverb. . IIC 15th Exercise — Parsing the Adverb 117 Preposition US Classification of Prepor' : ions, Table . . 119 120 Syntax of the Preposition— Order of Parsing 120 121 Examination Qubbtions on the Preposition 121 16th Exercise — Parsing the Preposition 122 CONJUNOTION 12'2 Classification and Table of Conjunctions 123 124 Examination Qdbbtionb on the Conjunction 125 17th Exercise— Parsing, Conjunction 125 Interjection. 126 Forks for Written Exercises in Parsing 12T 18th Exeroisk— General — in Parsing 129 Part III. -SYNTAX. ANALT8I9. Definitions, Proposition, Sentence, Clause, Phrase, &c 131 Examination Questions on the terms defined 183 19th Exercise 133 Simple Sentei^cb ISii Elements employed in forming 136 Primary Elements— Subject 186 Predicate 188 Enlargements of the Subject. 140 Extension of the predicate 142 10 INDEX AND TABLE OF CONTENTS. PlOE Examination Questions on the Primary Elements, and on the Modifications of the Primary Elements 143 20ti:F: **) Pj 9* ^i 'i i* V, X, z ; and to and y before a vowel sounded in the same syllable, as in war, youth. 16. A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound. Diphthongs are of two hinds, proper and improper. 17. A Proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels are sonnded, as ou, in cil{ peril, pistol, pommel, quarrel, ravel, revel, rival, rowel, shovel, shnvel» snivel, tassel, trammel, travel, tunnel, unravel. MMn ORTHOGRAPHY — SPELLING. 19 68. So also t and p are geuerally doubled io kiaf^ toorthip and kidnap ; as biataing, worshipper, kidnapping. Webster, and many writers following biro, in these words coufurm to tbe general rule. UULK V 64. Words ending with tl drop one / before the terminations le»$ and /y, to prevent trebling ; as, skill, skillesa ; full, fully ; and eome writers before nw» and full ; M,fulne»$, ikilful. 65. But words ending in any other double letter, preserve the letter double before Uhs, li/, ne$8, and/?*//; ay, harmlensfj/, itiffiy gruffne»», t&c. RULE /r. 66. Silent e is preserved before, the terminations ment^ /«», Iff, and/u/ ; as, paleneat, peaceful^ abatement^ &o. 67. Exceptions. — Duly, truly, awful, and generally, judgment, acknowledgment, lodgment, abridgment, am excepted. Argument from the Latin argumentum, is not an exception. RULE VII. 68. Silent e is omitted before terminations beginning with a vowell; afl, slave, slavish; cure, curable ; sense, sensible, lodge, lodging ; love, lovest. 69. Blaiiie, move, reprove, sale, and their compounds, sometimes, though improperly, retain e before able; as, blameable, &c. 70. But words ending in ge and ee retain e before able, in order to preserve the soft sound of g and c; as, changeable, peaceable, Ac. For the same reason we have singeing, and swingeing ; dye has dyeing, to distinguish it from dying. So also words ending with e hard insert k before a syllable beginning with « or t to pre* serve the hard sound ; m^ frolic, frolicked, frolicking. 71. The letters ie at the end of a word, are changed into y before ing ; as, die, dying : lie, lying, RULK VIII. 72. Simple words, ending in //, when joined to other words gen- erally drop one I when they lose the accent; as, awful, hopeful, handful, careful, already. 73. But when they are under the accent, the double / should be retained ; as, fulfill, willful, recall, foretell. But, until, welcome always, also, withal, therewithal, wherewithal, have single /. 74. In words under this rule, however, usage is far from uniform, fulfil And fulfill; willful and wilful; recal and recall; foretel and foretell ; and similar varieties are common. 75. Other compounded words are generally spelled in the same so ENGLISH GRAMMAR. manner m the wimple words of which they are formed ; as glats- houae, mill-wright^ thereby. ^0. Mnny words In English admit of two or more different modes of spelling; as, connection, connexion; enuuire, inquire; chemi»- try, ehyiniitry, &c. lu such cases, prevailing usage and analogy must be our guides. CAPITALS. 77. Formerly every noun began with a capitnl letter, both id writing and in printing; but at present only the following words begin with capital letters:— 1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or of any other piece of writing. 2. The first word after a period ; also after a note of interro- gation, or exc!nmation, when the sentence before, and the one after it, are independent of each otlier. But if several interrogatory or exclamatory Rentences are so connected, that the latter sentences depend on the former, all of them, except the first, may begin with a small letter ; as " How doth the city sit solitary, that was full of people 1 how are her hab* itations become as desolate ! how is she become as a widow I S. Proper names, titles of ofHce or honor, names of months and days ; as, George Washington, General Lee, Judge Story^ Sir Walter Scott, America, the Ohio, Pratt, Woodford^ mit the meaning of a noun ; as, an honest man ; ten days ; this book. nieai ETYMOLOGY WORDC. 5. A PRONOUN ii « word iiied to tupply the piace of a noun ; a«, when our frienda bad Tisited Niagara th*y returned to Hamilton. 4. A VKBB ia A word uied to make an as»trtion ; or, a word which affirmi the act, bting, or »tat§ of ito lubjeet ; an, I mitt, lie i« /omJ. 6. Au AOviRB ia a word uaed to modify the aenae of a verb, an adjeetive. or aoother adverb; aa, "She reada vwy eorrectijf.*^ A rrmwkmhly diligent boy. d. A PBiPoaiTioN ia a word uaed to expret^a the grainmatieml r«- lation of a noun or pronoun depending upon it, to aome other word in the aentcnoe ; aa, He went frcm Montreal to Halifax. We aioved up the river in a amall boat. 7. A ooMJUNcrioM ia a word uaed to oonncot words, phraaea, or aeotenoek ; aa, He and I muat go ; but you may atay. Of him, anJ t« him, and through him, are all things. 8. An iMTEBJEcnoN ia a word uaed merely to expre»» emotion, without any connection with other wordn ; as, " Oh I what a fall waa there 1 " Ala$ ! my friend ia no more. METHOD or INTBODITOINO THE SIJIMECT. Instead of following the order of the book, at first, the teachor would find it an excellent plan, when Ralisfied that the cloas rcallv uDilerBtands the definition of each part of Hpeuch, to introduce the subject, by calling upon the pupils to point out the nonnn and pro- Tioun% in any piece that may be selected ; then the adject iven, con- necting each with the noun to which it beloug.-* ; then the verb<, connecting each with its subject; then the aduerb^, noting their modifying effect upon their verbs, adjectives, Ac ; then the prepo- sitiont, marking the words related by each, in accordance with the definition ; then the oonjanctions, noting particularlv the words or clauses connected by each. Then, after giving aufilcieDt explana- tions and illustrations of the nominative case, go over the piec.- again, pointing out the nominative$ ; then, explaining tlie dif- ference between a tran$itive and intrantitive verb, return in search of objectivet to verbs; then, having illustrated the fact that every prepotition requirea to be completed by its objective noun or pro- noun, the objectives to prepositions should be pointed out; then, having made it understood that each preposition nnd ita objeet ii a mere completing adjunct to some other word, let the antecedent term of relationship be pointed out in the cnne of each preposition ; then the possecsive cases; then nouns and pronouns which are neither nominative, possessive, nor objective ; ihut i?, nouns inde- pendent by address, by pleonasm^ by exclamattoit, and before a participle. Before leaving, the piece which has been gone over in this monner, (he cla^s should be exercised on It till they can give, wirhnut hpsitation, the construction of the wordf*. in the ord^r ir. which they occur. 24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Then, having made the class uoderstand what is metDt bj a propontioti or sentence, the propositions in the piece should be separated from each other, and counted off. Then, having got the class to understand, by the use of simple and familiar illustra- tions, the distinction between a principal and subordinate proposi- tion, proceed to classify the propositions in the piece accordingly. When, by oral instruetion alone, the class has been made fami- liar with every thing of this kind contained in the piece, a new piece should be selected, but not before. The class should re- ceive sufficient oral instruction to enable them to understand and do every thing required within this limit before taking up the subject in the regular order in which it is presented in the text- book. This *nuch would constitute a complete initiatory course on the elatsiji cation and relation of wordt and clauses ; and this is really the only introduction which beginners require to master, be- fore entering on the regular study of the " Analytical and Prac- tical Grammar ; " and this they require before entering with ad- vantage on the study of any text-book, however elemenicry. The selections for these initiatory exercises should, at first, be as simple in construction as possible, becoming gradually more complex and difficult as the class advances. graSOTION?' FOR INTRODUOTOBT COURSE OF EXERCISES, IN' AOOORD- ANOS WITH THE ABOVE SUGGESTIONS. Sentences in Exercises 2nd, 6th, 'Zlh, 8th, 14th, 16th, 16th, 17th, I9th. NOUNS. 96. A Noun is the name of anything; as, tree^ Toronto^ kindness, 96. Nouns may be divided into three classes, Froper, Common and Abstract, 97. A Proper Notm is the name applied to an individual only; as, John, London, America, the Ohio, 98. When a proper noun is used to denote a whole class, it be- comes common, and generally has an article before it; as, "Tke twelve CcBsare," " He is the Cicero of his age," ** A Daniel come to judgment." A Camphell, i.e., one of the Campbells. 99. Common nouns become proper whed personified and also when used as proper names ; as, Hail, Liberty I The Park. 100. A Common Noun is a name applied ETYMOLOGY NOUNS. 25 in common to everything of the same kind ; as, man, chair, (able, book, Oommon Nouns may be subdivided into,^ 1 . Class Names. — Names applicable to any one of a class ; as, book, 2. Collective nouns — the name of a number of individuals united together ; as people. 8. Material nouns — names of subfitanccs not made up of indivi- dual parts; as, honey, butter. 4. Names of numbers, weights, measures, &c. ; as, an ounce, a peck. 101. An Abstract Noun is the name of anything which we only conceive of as having a real existence ; as goodnpss, rest singing, to sing. Abstract nouns may be divided intcy, — 1. Names of qualities ; as, simplicity, size, courage. ^ 8. JVame« of actions, ineluding verbal nouni> ; %9, flight, walking, to toalk. 8. Names of states or conditions ; as, poverty, sickness. 18T EXERCISE.* 1. In the following list, distinguish between |)roper, oommon, and abstract nouos ; and give a reason for the distinction :~- Albany, city, tree, nation, France, Philip, dog, horse, house, garden, Dublin, Edinburgh, London, river, Hud- son, Ohio, Thames, countries, America, England, Ire- land, Spain, sun, moon, stars, planets, Jupiter, Venus, Mars, man, woman, boy, girl, John, James, Mary, Susan, mountain, stream, valley. 2. In the following sentences, point out the nouns. Say why they are nouns ; tell whether they are proper, common, or ab- stract, and why ; and to which class of the common, proper, or * Thelezercise furnished here, and thoruehout this work, are intended merely as a specimen of the way in which the leading truths and facts in Qrammar may be wrought into the minds of pupils, by means of exercises properly devised. It is not, however, expected or desired that the teacher should limit himself to these. Every active and ingenious teacber^isrlH devise such new and various methods of exercising his pupils as thelti-age, capacity, and circumstances, and his own )udgment and experience niay suggest, as best calculated to drato out their powers, and cultivate in them a habit of thinking and reasoning for themselves. 26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. abstract they belong, and why. Thus, ** Army^ a noun, because the name of a thing ; common, because applied to all things of the »ame kind ; and collectiye, because it is a name of a number united together. The table and chairs in this room belone to John ; the book case, writing-desk, and books, to his brother. They landed at Quebec on Monday. The peace of the country is disturbed. They are the people of his choice. His forbearance was remarkable. The iron of Marmora is excellent. I bought a dozen pencils for a shilling. It is pleasant to travel by moonlight. His decision was commendable. Contentment is the best fortune. Coral is produced by marine animals. I am impatient to depart. The coachman has harnessed the horses. Ottawa is the capital of Canada. Canada is one of the brightest gems in the British crown. The roofs of bouses are sometimes coTered with slate. There is a great deal of wood in Canada, but no coal. He has \)een chairman of the board for ten years. 3. Go over this exercise again, and point out the verb and mh- eect in each Bentence, and give the construction of the words that modify the subject, then the words that modify the verb. Obs. — This direction is given assuming that the subject has. been introduced in the manner recommended. INFLECTIONS OF THE NOUN. Nouns and Pronouns are inflected, that is> changed in form by the addition of termi- nations to express Gender, Person, Number and Case. GENDER. 103. Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to sex. 104. There are three genders, 7dasculiney Feminine, and Neuter, 1 05. Nouns denoting maies^are llascvlhie as, man, hoy. CTTMOLOOY — NOUNS — GENDER. 2T 106. Nouns denoting females are Femi' nine; as, wonKm^ girl. 107. Nouns denoting neither males nor females, i. e., things without sex, are Neuter ; as; house^ booky tree. 108. Nouns which denote either males ar females, such as pat' «n<, neighbour^ friindf . itli the first or second personal pronoun, for the sake of explanation or emphasis ; and (sometimes in the second person, witliout .1 pronoun, as the object addressed. 126. A noun in the predicate is generally, though not always, 'a the third person, even when the subject is in the first or second ; as, "I mn Alpha," ttc, '* who »»." So with the pronouns /and thoti ; as, " I am //e." " Thou art the man.*' NUMBER. 127. NuMBEK is the distinction of one from more than one. 128. Nouns have two numbers, the SiU" gular and the Plural. The singular de- notes but one object: as, hooh^ tree; the plural, more than one ; as, hooka^ trees, 129. The plural is commonly formed by adding « to the singular ; as, hook^ books. 1st. Words ending in a sound that will not unite with the sound of 8, form their plural by adding a. ISO. Nouns in », «/^, x, and ch soft; that is, ending in a sound that will not unite with the sound of $, form their plural in es ; as, fox, foxes ; match^ matches. 181. 2Dd. — Most nouns ending in 0, preceded by a consonant form their plural in es; as, cargo, cargoes. Exceptions. — Canto, momento, octavo, two, zero ; with respect to grotto, junto, portico, quarto, solo, tyro, halo, and a few others, usage is not uniform, 132. Srd. — Nouns in y after a consonant, form their plural ia es; as, (changing y into i, according to Rule III., for spelling) lady, ladies. Nouns in y after a vowel, and all proper nouns in y, follow the general rule ; as, day, days ; the Porrtpeys, the Tullyn, &c. S2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 133. 4tli. — Nouns in forfe, form the plural in m, clianging / into V ; ap, loaf, loaves ; life, livet. Exceptions. — Dwarf, scarf, reef; brief, chief, grief, kerchief, handkerchief, mischief; gulf, turf, surf; safe, fife, strife; proof, hoof, reproof, — also nouns io^^'; as, mnff^ muffs; except staff, plu- ral staves ; but its compounds are regular; m, flagstaff , flag staffs ; wharf 1ms either wharfs or wharves. 8rd exercise. 1. Give the plural of the following nouns, and the rules for forming each; thus, Fox, plural foxes. Rule— Nouns in s, sh, x, ch, soft, form the plural by adding es. Or, more briefly ; Nouns in X form the plural by adding es. Fox, book, leaf, candle, hat, loaf, wish, fish, sex, box, coach, inch, sky, bounty, army, duty, knife, echo, loss, cargoe, wife, story, church, table, glass, study, calf, branch, street, potato, peach, sheaf, booby, rock, stone, house, glory, hope, flower, city, difficulty, distress, wolf. Day, bay, relay, chimney, journey, valley, needle, en- emy, army, vale, ant, hill, sea, key, toy, monarch, tyro, frotto, nuncio, punctilio, embyro, gulf, handkerchief, oof, staff, muff, cliff, whiff, cuff, ruff, reef, safe, wharf, fief. 2. Of what number is each of the following nouns ; viz : — Book, trees, plant, shrub, globes, planets, toys, home, fancy, mosses, glass, state, foxes, houses, prints, spoon, bears, lilies, roses, churches, glove, silk, skies, hill, river, scenes, stars, berries, peach, porch, glass, pitcher, alleys, mountain, cameos ? NOUNS IRREQULAB IN THE FLURAL. 134. Some nouns are irregular in the formation of their plural; such as — Singular. Man Woman Child Foot Ox Plural. Singular Plural. men. Tooth teeth women Goose geese children Mouse mice feet Louse lice oxen Cow formerly kine but now regular cows ETTHOLOOY — NOVN8 NUMBER. M 185. Some Qouni have both a regular and an irregular form of the plural, but with differeot signifioAtioos ; as — Singular Plural, Brother (one of the same family) brothers (one of the same society) brethren (a stamp for coining) dies (a small cube for gaming) dice (a man of genius) geniuses (a kind of spirit) genii (a table of reference) indexes (a sign in algebra) indices (as a distinct seed) peas (as a species of grain) peaso (an individual animal) sows (the species) swino (a coin ) ponnios pence Brother Die Die Genius Genius Index Index Pea Pea Sow Sow or Bwine Penny Penny 136. NoTE.- (a sum or value) Though pence is plural, yet such expressions as fourpence, sixpence, poonful ; erratum, medium, radius, genius, lamino, automaton, phenomenon, stratum, axis, ellipsis, stamer^ iruli^x, cherub, si'raph, &c. Of what number is — Dice, arcana, fishermen, geese. M ENGLISH GRAMMAR. dormice, alms, riches, thanks, snuffers, tongs, teeth, woman, child, courtmartial, apparatus, miasma, genii, Seniuies, indices, indexes, mathematics, Matthew, ames, John ? OnSKIlVATrONS ON NUMBER. 144. Some nouns are uaed in the tingular only. Such are the names of metalt, virtuet, vie«$, artt, icieneea, abstract qualitiei, and things weighed or measured ; as, gold, meekneta, piety^ idleness, intemperance^ sculpture, geometry, wisdom, jlour, milk, Ac. Except xvhen different sorts of things are cxprossed ; as, wines, teas, sugars, liquors, Ac. 146. Some nouns are used in the plural only ; as, annals, anti' podes, archives, assets, ashes, billiards, bitters, breeches, clothes, calends, colors (military banners), dregs, goods, hysterics, ides, intestines, literati, lees, letters (literature), minutia:, manners, morals, nones, orgies, pleiads, or pleiades, shambles, tidings, thanks, vespers, vitals, victuals; Also, things consisting of two parts ; as, bellows, drawers, hose, nippers, pincers, pliers, snuffers, scissors, 9hsan, tongs, Ac. 146. A few words usually plural, viz., bowfls, embers, entrails, ^ungif have sometimes a singular, denoting a part or portion of that expressed by the plural ; as, 60100/, lung, do. 147. Some nouns are alike in both uumbei-s; as, deer, sheep, twine, vermin ; grouse, saimon, tench, trout ; apparatus, hiatus, terics, congeries, species, superficies; head (in the sense of indiyid- ual), cattle; certain building materials; as, brick, stone, plank, joist, in mass; also fish, and sometimes fowl, denoting the class. But seyeral of these, iu a plural sense, denoting individuals have the regular plural alsi; ;. as, salmons, trouts, fishes, fowls, ORDER OF PARSING THE NOUNS. Sing. Noun. > Number. Abstr. ) Plur. ) Nom. ) Poss. f Case according Objec. I to Rule. Indep. ; Example. — " Romulus founded the City of Rome." Romulus is a noun, proper, third singular, nominative to the \erh founded. Rule I. (Repeat it.) City. — Noun, common, third, singular, objective to founded' Rule V. (Repeat it.) Borne. — Noun, proper, third singular, objective to preposition of. Rule VI. (Repeat it.) 5th exercise. NOUN. Give sentences -with nouns in the nominative, possessive, objec' tive to verbs, objective to prepositions, and independent case* Give sentences each containing nouns or pronouns in every case. Point out the nouns in the following sentences, and give the ease of each, with the reason. Ga over them a second time, and parse each according to the form and example given above. Eomulus founded the City of Borne. It was I who ^rote tlie letter, and he who carried it to the post-office. The king's heart is in the hand of the Lord. The pro- phets ! do they live for ever ? They represented him to be a good man. A wise man's anger is of short duration. Genius lies buried on our mountains, and in our valleys. Ye are they who justify yourselves. Columns, arches, pyramids; what are they but heaps of sand ? Bless the Lord, O, my soul ! Honour thy father and thy mother. O, the depth of the riches / 44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. of the wisdom of God ! I have always preferred cheer- fulness to mirth. Jesus I know, and Paul I know, but who art thou ? The sun having risen, we departed on our journey. Boys Jove to play. Ease, fortune, life, all were squandered ! Them that honour me I will honour. He left the country ten years ago. We love him. The world's prosperity often brings pain. Go over this exercise again, and point out the Subject and Verb in each seuteuco, and give tlie coiistrztction of each word. GENERAL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. Into how many claeses may words be divided, in respect to theit formation ? — Define each, and give an example of each. How are they divided, in respect to inflection ? — Define each, and give an example of each. How are words divided in respect to significa- tion and use ? — Define each, and give an example of each. Into what classes are nouns divided ?— Define each, and give an example. — Into what classes are common nouna subdivided i Give an example of each. — Into what classes are abstract nouns divided I Describe each, and give an example of each. What are the acci- dents or properties of nouns. What is gender ? — Why so called ? —Name the genders ? — Define each, and give a reason for its name. — What are the differ- ent methods of denoting the masculine and feminine ? — What is the feminine corresponding to brother ? — King ? — Author ? — Heir ? — Hero ? — Gentleman ? — Landlord ? — Mention two words which are masculine only. — Two which are feminine only. What is person ? — How many and what persons do nouns have? —What does the Ist person denote ?— The 2nd ?— The 8rd ? « What is number ? — How many numbers are there ? — What does each denote ? — Give the general rule for forming the plural. — Give the Ist special rule. — Give examples of words that form their plural by it. — Repeat the 2nd special rule, — Give examples of words that form their plural by it. — Repeat ihe 3rd special rule. — Give examples of words that form their plural according to it. — Repeat the 4th special rule. — Give examples of words forming their plural by it. — Repeat the exceptions under each rule. — Mention some nouns that are irregular in the formation of the plural. — Mention some that have different significations, and a diflferent plural for each. — How do compounds generally form the plural ? — Give examples. — How are letters, numerical figures, Ac., made plural ? — How do words adopted from other languages form their plural ? — Latin words in um, is, a, ua ? — Give examples. — ETYMOLOGY — A D J ECTI VE. 45 Greek words in a, it, ou ?— Oive examples ? — Give some nouns that are ueed in the plural only? — Some that are used io the singular only 1 — Some that are alike in both numbers ? — Some that are either singular or plural ? — Some plural in form, but singular in meaning ? — How do proper names with Mrs. prefixed, or with any title preceded by two numerals, form the plural t— Give an example ? — When several persons of the same name are spoken of individually, and distinguished by a particular appellation, how is the plural formed?— Give an example. When persons of different names are spoken of to&;ether, and distinguished by & particular appellation, how is the plural form- ed? — In what case is usage unsettled ? — Give examples of cases in which usage is unsettled, and state the different ways of forming the plural in such cases ? What is case? — Why so called? — Name the cases? — Which case denotes the subject? — Which the object? — Which denotes possession ? — What does ihe objective follow ? — Give a sentence containing an example of each. Spell the possessive singular and plural of friend — of dove — of eagle. May there be more than one nominative to a verb? — May there be more than one objective after a verb or preposition ? — Give an example. For what is the inde- pendent case used ? — Form a sentence with a nominative, a pos- sessive, an objective, and an independent in it. Give the order of parsing the noun. — Repeat the rules of Syntax for the nominative case and give sentences containing examples to illustrate each. — Repeat the rules for the possessive and give sen- tences containing examples to illustrate each. — Repeat the rules for the objective and give sentences containing examples to illus- trate each. — Repeat the rule for the independent case, and give sentences containing examples of the independent case, by address by pleonasm, before a participle, by exclamation. THE ADJECTIVE. 175. An adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a noun ; as, * A good boy ;" " that box ;" *' ten dollars )^ we found him ^oor." / 176. A noun is qualified or limited by an adjective, when the object named is thereby described, limited^ or distinguished (voxn. o^er things of the same name. This is done in two ways :-< 1. Certain adjectives connect with their nouns som^ quality by which the objects named are described'or distin- guished from others of the same kind; ts, ''A red a 4e ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I flag ; " " AD amuting ttory.'* Such are qualifying adjec- tivet. 2. Others merely limit, without expreaeing anj quality; as, "Ad American book;" "ten doUara;'* "laet week," "thie year;" ** every day/' &c. Such are limiting or e2r/{fi«/(ntfi^ adjectives, including nil words Joined to uouut to difini, or in anj way iimtt, their meaning. Under the frenenri head of Qualifying or Dttetiptive adjeotiveR, may be claated :— 1. Prvptr Adj«etive9, — Those derived from proper uouni ; as, Canadiamt Britith, 2. Vtrbal or Participial^ — Those derived from verba ; as, utingf wriittn^ having ntn. S. ^«f6to/,— Tboae ezprening a quality resuUing from the aotioD of the verb and afiecting the meaning of both the noun and the verb, with which it is connected ; as, '* H« painted the door gretn,^ ** Be rnbbed the tilver brighO Undar the general head of limiting or dtfining adjectives, may be classed : — 1. Ordinal Nvmeral. — Tboae used in numbering ; fir»t^ »ee9nd, third. 2. Cardinal Numeral. — Those used in counting ; as, ontf two, three. 3. Indefinite Numeral. — Those which do not denote any exact number ; such as, a//, any, eome, few, other t tevertU, eer* tain, divers. 4. Multiplicative Numerale. — Those wltich indicate the repe* tition of the noun ; as, twofold, &e. 5. Dietributive, — Those which point out separately and singlv the objects that make up a number; They are, each, every, eithevy neither. 6. Demonstrative. — Those that point out their nouns precisely to the exclusion of all others; They are, this, these, that, those, the words /or»w«r aud latter ^ — the indefinite article ''a" or "an "usually limiting the noun to a class of things to the exclusion of all other classes, — the definite article " the " usually limiting the noun to a particular individual of the class to the exclusion of others, — the word yon, as, " rbn tall cliff;" which, what, before a noun ; as, " which things are an allegory,*' '* take what book you plesse. 7. Interrogative. — The words tohich and what joined to nouns in asking questions ; a«, " what book is that ?" " lohich horse will you take?" 8. Exclamatory. — The word what, Adj. Compar. > Degree. < ing with the noun, ccllne ** who." — To what are wAoand which applied ? — To what nro that and what applied t— JJnder what circuniHiances is that as a relative to be preferred to who or which! — In the sen- tcnoe " Take what you want," state what is the ohjectivo to the verb take.—* What is the nominative to the verb injurea, in the sen- tence, *• Whoevor deceives a friend, injures himself." — What is the object of the verb conceal in the «entcnoe " What he knows he will conceal t"— Why is it not necessary to make what, whatever, kc, represent both the antecedent and the relative t — What is suggested as the best name for what, whatever, &o., when not used as simple relatives? — Is t(>Ao ever ined as an indefinite relative? Give an example. — What is the effeot of ever attached to these pronouns ? What is the force of »o prefixed to the everf Illustrate this by an example. — Are what, whatever, Ac, ever used at adjectives? Give examples. — Give an example of a relative, used in an additive clause. — Givean exan.ple of the relative, used in a restrictive clause. — How do you distinguish the one from the other! — Givean example of a», so used, that it may be considered a relative. — Are whic!,, and what, uBed in asking questions, always interrogative pronouns? — Give examples illustrating their use as interrogative pronount:, and as interrogative adjectivea — In asking questions, to what is who, which, anauhat applied ? — When applied to persons, what does who, which, and what enquire for!-- In the sentence " I know who wrote that letter," how would you parse who, and what would you say is the objective of the verb know? — In the sentence " Your pleasures are past, mine are come," how would you parse your and mine ? Repeat the rules of Syntax that apply in parsing the relative pronouns. Repeat the ordor of parsing the relative pro- nouns. 10th exercise. 1. In the following classify who, which, and what according to the manner in which they are used, and parse them according to form. Who steals my purse, steals trash. — To whom did you give that book ? — What I do, thou knowest not now. — Who you are, what you are, or to whom you belong, no one knows. — What shall I do ?— Who built that house ? — Do you know by whom that house was built ?— Is that the man, who built that house ? Which book is yours ? — Do you know which book is yours ? I saw a book, which was said to be yours ? — 1 know which book is yours. — What in me is dark, illumine. — 66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. m j:!li What ia crooked, can nut be made straij ht. — What is wanting, can not be numbered. — What is wanted? — I know what is wanted. 2. Write sentences, which shall contain exiunples of the various uses of thcBe pronouns. Classify these sentences into principal and subordiaate; and give the construction of tlie words in each. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 252. The PossEssivE Pronouns are mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, when they inciude the possessor and the thing possess- ed; as, your pleasures are past, mine are to come. (See 217.) Tb'^ exercise on the pcreonal pronouns, already given, includes the Possessive Pronouns. THE V^ERB. 253. A Verb is a word used to make an assertion : or, a verb is a word used to affirm the act, being, or state, of its subject ; as, *' John runs'^ "* The boy sleeps,^^ *' He k lovedJ'^ 254. The eisential and distinguishing characteristic of the verb is, that it IB the word used to make an astertion ; or, in other words, to affirm the act, being, or state of the subject. It is not the dis- t'lnguishing characteristic of the verb, that it expresses action or being. A word may express action or beingy and not be a verb ; i 0, for instance, " I wish to work." " The bov's manner of reading is bad." " That horse running through the field is a fine animal." " Call that boy sitting by the window," &g. In these examples, '*to work !^ " reading" and '* running," express the action of "I," " boy," and " horse ; " and ** sitting" expresses the state of " boy;^' but, they are not verbs; they are, it is true, words derived from yerbs, but are merely used, the first two as verbal nouns, and the last two M verbal adjectives. A verb, always, either directly or in- directly, makes an assertion, and must have a word standing related to it as the name of the thing, about which the assertion ia mode ; a verbal, on the contrary, though expressing the action or state of something, and though it may govern an objective, or be modified by an adverb, yet, it never makes an assertion. It merely aisutnetthe ETYMOLOGY — VERB. 67 act or state, wluch. if used as a verb, it would assert, aud always standij rplated to tlio other •w«)rds as a noun, or u3 an ndjectiTe* The words thus used as verbals are the Ii'finitive ami ParticipUi ; between these verbals, aud the verb, the pujiil inuet carefully distinguish. 255. The words " assert" and " affirm" as used irj the definition, must be understood as applying to all kinds of sentences, whether affirmative — I teach; negative — I do not teach; interrogative — do I teach ? imperative — teach me ; or exclamatory— how you teach ! 256. Verbs, in respect to the sense they express, are divided into two kinds — Transi- tive and Tntrasitive. 257. A Transitive verb is one which ex- presses an action that passes from the agent or doer, to some person or thing which stands as the object of the verb in the Active Voice, and the »ubject of the verb in the Passive Voice ; as, "James struck 'Wi]lia>m.** — " William was struck by James." 258. It will be observed by examining the above examples, that there are two ways of expressing the sanae idea ; in the first, the doer of the act—" James" — stands as the subject of the Verb, and the person to when* the act is done — " William " — stands as the object of the Verb. When this form ia used, the Verb ia in the Active Voiee. In the second, the persoa to whom the act is done, — '• William " — stands as the subject of the Verb, and the person who does the act, — " James" — stands connected with the Verb, as the object of the preposition <* by." When this form is used the Verb is in the Passive Voice. 259. Voice, then, can only apply to tran- sitive verbs, as it is merely a term used to distinguish between these two methods of expressing the same idea. In the Active VoicCy the subject is represented as acting upon the object, and is, therefore, the agent ; in the Passive Voice, the subject is represen- ted as being acted upon by the agents :i i !$ i 68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 260. Obs. — The Passive VoicCy it will be observed, is always exprepscd by usinp^ the perfect participle with the verb ^* to be,' nod hence, may alwaye be distinguished from the Active by its form, as well as by the sense expressed. 261. The following advantages arise from these two forms of expression; 1. We can, by the form alone, direct attention chiefly, either to the actor, or to that which is acted upon — to the former, by using the active voice — *' God created the world," — to the latter, by using the passive — " The world was created by God." 2. By means of the passive voice, we are able to state a fact, when we either do not Know, or, for some reason, may not wish to state, by whom the act was done. Thus, we can say, "The glass is broken," though we do not know who broke it; or, if we know, do not wish to tell. 3. By this means, also, we have a variety, and of course, a choice of expression, and may, at pleasure, use that which to us appears the most perspicuous, convenient, or elegant. 262. Some transitive verbs, are sometimes used to express an action, as a quality inherent in the thing which stands to it, in the relation of the subject; but, which is properly neither the agent nor the object ; as, •' This sentence does not read well." — "The horse drives badly in harness." The meaning, in such sen- tences, is neither active nor passive, but more properly, ^hat might be called middle voice. Sometimes, also, the active form of the verb is used to oonvey a passive meaning ; as, for instance, " The house is building." — " The church opens at eleven o'clock." — '* A house to lety Sometimes, also, the passive form is used to convey an active meaning; as, " Tear after year it steals till all are fled." 263. An Intransitive Verb is one which makes an assertion, without expressing ac- tion as done to anything; as, **The horse lay down." — " The boy ran across the field.'' QUESTIONS ON THE VERB. What is a verb ? — Why is it not sufficiently accurate to say, a verb is a word which siguifies to he, to do, or to suffer ? — Give ex- amples of words in sentences, expressing being, doing, and suffering, which are not verbs ? — State what these words are ? — How do you understand the words assert and affirm, as used in the definition of the verb? — How will you distinguish between a verb and a verbal ?— In respect to the nature of the action, into what classes do you di- vide verbs ? — How do you define a transitive verb ? — How many ETYMOLOOy VERB — MOOD. 69 ways are there of presenting the agent or tloer of an aof, exf ressed, by a transitive verb ? — Illustrate this by an example. — How many ways are there of presenting the thing to which the action express- ed by a transitive verb is done? — Illustrato this bynn example. — How are the agent and object presented in the Active Voice, and how in the Fa$sive Voice ? — Why cannot an intransitive verb be used in the Passive Voice? — What is always used with the verb ^o 6ff, to form the Passive Voice? — Give an example.— Give an example of a verb, used in a sense, wh ch is properly neither Ac- tive nor Passive. — Give an example of a verb in the active form, i\Bedin& passive sense. — Of the/7aff8it)«/or7nused in an active sense. llTH EXERCISE. 1. In the words expressing action, distinguish between verbs and verbals. 2. Distinguish between transitive and intransitive verbs. 8. State which of the transitive veibs are in the Active Voice, which in the Passive, and which have an active form, and passive meaning, and which have, properly, neither. He struck me. We ought not to complain of our lot. They were seen by us. He sat by the wayside. I teach my sister music. The wine tastes sour. He wishes to do right. I have been offered a situation. Let our friends know. Eomulus built Kome. Who read last ? The sun is rising calm and bright. The serpent having devoured his prey, slept. He undertook to thwart me. I am happy to answer yes. Home is a place, which must be loved by all. Write a sentei e containing transitive and intransitive verbs — verbs in the passive voice — verbs with an active form aud passive meaning — verbs used in a st ise neither active nor passive. Give, orally, other .' imilar sentences. MOOD. 264. Moo I is a term used to denote the manner in which the verb is employed. 265. Verbs have five* moods ; the Indi- •The Infinitive and Participle are pJaced among the moods of the verb merely out of deference to custom. It must be understood, however, that they are moods of tlie verb in a different sense from the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative : that is, only in the sense, that being derived from verbs, they possess many of the characteristics of the verb. But, what distinguishes them clearly (rom the verb is, that they are never useA to make an assertion. *•' 70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. cative, the Subjmiciive, the Imperatives^ the Injinitive, and the Participial, 266. The indicative mood is that which makes a declaration or asks a question ; as, He learns ; Does he learn ? He can learn. 267. The Indicative Mood has iwo forms ; the com- mon form and the potential form.f 268. The common form of Ike indicative mood is that which >ne7f/y expresses a declaration or an interrogation; as, "He im- proves ; " — " Will you go? '^ 269. Th& potential form of the indicative is that which makes a declaration or asks a question, and also implies possibility, liberty, power, determination, obligation, necessity, etc. ; as, " He can walk ; " — " We must return ; " — " What would they have ? " [In speaking of the common form of the indicative, it will ge* nerallj be found convenient to employ merely the term indicative mood; and in speaking of tbe potential form, to designate it a» the potential indicative.'\ 270. Were is sometimes used for would btt,Qv should be; aS; ** Ah 1 what were man, should Heaven refuse to hear? " 271. Had is also occasioually employed for would have or should have : as, " Had thought been all, sweet speech had [would have] been denied." — Young, 272. The subjunctive mood is that which implies condition, supposition or uncertainty/ ; as, " If he had the opportunity, he would tThe recognition of the potential as a distinctive mood in so many popu- lar grammars, affords a striking example of the power of custom. The ex> pressions, " It may rain," " He may go," " I can ride," Ac, are manifestly declarative. " I can walk," expresses quite as distinct a declaration as, " I walk." " I can walk," declares that I nave the power to walk; while, " 1 walk," declares the act of walking. " As to the potential mood, it may, I think, in all cases, be resolved into either the indicative or the subjunctive." — Beattie^s Theory of Language. " The forms of expression, / can go. we may ride, he must obey, are really declaratory and properly belong to the indicative."— Webster. The potential mode is also rejected by Jamieson, H. Ward, Martin, Coote, Oobbett, Lewis, Hazlitt, Hodgson, St. Quentin, JBell, Barrie, Buchannan, Coar, Tinder, Adam, Arnold, Higginson, Giles, Beall, Pearce, Boss, Nutt< ing, J. P. Wilson, Willard, Hallock, Dearborn, J. Flint, D. Adams, Judson, Pue, Cardell, Cutler, Balch, French, Spencer, and many others. ETYMOLOGY VERB MOOD. 71 improve rapidly;" — "Take heed, lest any man deceive you." 273. Every verb in the subjunctive implies two propositions ; the one principal, and the other subordinate. The subordinate clause is usually preceded by the conjunction if, — subjoining it to the antecedent, or principal clause, on which it depends. Thus, in the sentence, " I will remain if you desire it," the dependent clause, "you desire it," is preceded by the conjunction t/, which subjoins it to the principal clause, I will remain." 274. The condition of a verb in the subjunctive is sometimes expressed by transposition, without the aid of a conjunction ; as, " Had he taken the counsel of friends, he would have been saved from ruin." 275. The subjunctive mood, like the indicative, admits of the potential form ; aa, "He might improve, if he would make the ne- cessary effort." 276. The subjunctive mood does not differ, in form, from the in- dicative except, occasionally, under peculiar circumstances, in the present tense ; and in the present and past of the verb '* to he!* 277. In parsing, that only should be called the subjunctive mood, which has the subjunctive form. When the indicative or potential is used subjunctively, it should be so stated. 278. The Imperative mood is that which is used to command, exhort, entreat or per- mit; as, " Go thou." ^^ Study diligently," ^^ Forgive us our^trespasses." ^^ Depart in peace." 279. The Infinitive mode is a verbal noun, usually distinguished bv the sign ^Uo'^ and expressing action or state, as a thing ab- stractly considered; as, "I love to skate,'* " To attempt it would be vain." " A desire to learn is praiseworthy. 280. The infinitive active, by an anomaly not uncommon in other languages, is sometimes used in a passive sense ; as, " You are to blame " (to be blamed) — " A house to let " — " A road to make'* — *• Goods made to sell " — *' Knives to grind,^' time, being used to express liberty, ability, purpose, or duty, Bometiraes with regard to what is past, eometimeB with regard to what is pre- sent, and sometimes witli reg; to what is future; thus — Past — " He could not do it then, for he was otherwise engaged." Present — " I would do it with pleasure now, if I could." Future-—*^ If he would delay his journey a few days, i might [could, would, or should,] accompany him." 312. The Eigns of the Past potential are, might, could, would, should. 313. The Past-perfect potential, also, never corresponds in time to the past-perfect indicative ; that is, it never represents an act' «fec., as completed at a certain past time, but expresses the liberty, ability, purpose, or duty, with respect to the act or state expressed by the verb, as now past and completed, thus, " He could have written," means, " He was able to write.^' 314. The signs of the Past-perfect potential are, viight have, could have, would have, should have. 316. The Future and Future-perfect conjugated affirmatively vfith '^ will" in the first person, and "sAa//" in the second and third, express a promise, determination, or authority; they are therefore properly Potential, and are here placed as tenses of the Potential Mood. # '^m ^^^ I i^H to ^H scrv( |H ^^ert |B ^H whei IjH placi: JB l)rotl ^m HP pi'ees ■B no ^H ETY MOLOOY — VERBS — TENSES. 11 TENSES OF TnB 8UL. OKCTIVK MOOD. 316. Tho Subjunctive mood, in its proper form, has only the Present tense. The verb 'Uu be" has the present and the pjigt. The indicative mood uHpd subjunotively furnishes what may b« called a second form of the present uubjunctivc, and the cinly form of tho other subjunctive tenses. 317. The Present c^ubjunctive, In its pr<»per form, according to present approved usage, has always a future roforeuce; that is, it denotes a present uncertainty or contingency respecting a suppofl* ed future action or event ; thus, " if he write,' is equivalent to, " If he should write," or, '* If he shall write."* 318. Uncertainty oi contingency respecting a supposed present action or state, is expressed by the present indicative, used subjunc- tively ; as, " If he writes, as well as he reads, he will succeed." 819. The r&ESENT-FEBFEGT subjuuctive is only the same tense of the indicative, used subjunctively. Such expressions as " If she have brought up children," &c. (1 Tim. v. 10,) are now obsolete. 820. The Past subjunctive is used in two senses — 1 . It is used to express a past action or state as conditional or contingent ; as, " If he wrote that letter, he deserves credit, and should be rewarded." "If he was at home, I did not know it. 2. It expresses a Bupposition with respect to something j^resen^, and implies a denial of the thing supposed; as, "If I had the money now, I would pay it," implying, I have it not. Used in this way, the verb"fo be" (and, of course, the passive voice of transitive verbs) has a separate form in the singular, but not in the plural, viz., I were, thou wert, he ivere ; for I was, thou v^ast he was; thus, " If my kingdom were of this world, th( a would my servants fight," implying, it is not of this world ; " tjiat thou wert as my brother," implying, " thou art not." 321. In this way, the Past subjunctive eeems to be alw.'^ys used, when the conjunctive term is omitted, and the verb or auxiliary is placed before its nominative; as, "Hadst thou been htre, my hrother had not (would not have) died." 322. When a supposition, &c., respecting something past, is ex- pressed in this way, the Past-perfect must be used ; as, " If I had find the money yesterday, 1 would have paid it," implying, I had it not , " t'jat thou hadst been as my 'brother," implying, " thou ^vast not." rf. ...'!• ■If. 78 ENGLISH OHAMMAR. m iiii 1^ .323. Though the pant tense, used in this way, rofera to n pntent act or Btutc, y(?t, m it hiw the piiut foi;m, it Bhould, in purging, he called the puat teiiee. TKNpS OK THK IMPKBATIVK MOOD. 324. The Imperative rnood has only tho present tense, and that, haa respeot to the time of the command, rxhortation, «tc. The* doing of the thing commanded, niunt, of course, he posterior to the command requiring it. TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 325. The Infinitive mood has two tenses, the Present and the Perfect ; as, " To write," — " To have written." 826. In tho other moods, the time expreosed by the tenses, ip estimated from the time of speaking, which is always regarded as present; as, *< I wrote" (that is, in a time now past). '*! write" (that is, in time now present), " I shall write " (that is, in time noio future). But the innnitivo represents the action or state expressed as present, not, however, always at the time of speaking, but at the time indicated by tne preceding verb, or some other word in the sentence ; as, " He wishes to write " — now — to-morrow—next week, &c.; " Ho wished to write " then {y'iz, at the time of wishing, now past)~~next day — this day — to-morrow^ ffc; "He will wish to write " — then (viz , at the time of wishing, now future) — next day, &rm and pawlv voice are rendered emphatic, by placins? emphasis on tlie avf.xiliary; as, " I have written." " 1 am writing." *' The letter is written." nil etymology; — VERBS — CONJUGATION. 85 ---*- In annexinjjf the tensft and pergonal endinga to the verb, the Hides III., IV., aud VII, fur spelliug worda, must bo carefully cbseived. AUXILIARY VERBS. 362. Auxiliary (or helping) verbs are those, by the help of which, other verbs are Inflected. They are, do^ he, have; — shall, will; — nKty, can, must. Except have and he, tliey are all used in the present and the past tenses, thus : — Present. Do, shall, will, may, can, must. Past. Did, should, wuuld, might, could, . 363. Do, aud hav«'^ are also principil verbs. Be is used as an auxiliary in all its puts ; have, in the pre.^ent, past, and future. .364. In affirmative sentence?, shall, in the iift person, eiraply foretelli? ; as, " I sAa^ wiile." In the second and third persons, shall is used potentiidly. denoting a promise, command, or determi- nation; as, " You shall be rewarded ; " — "Thou shall not kill ; " — "He shall be puni.-heii." Will, in the first person, is useiJ poten- tially, denoting a promise or determination ; as, '• I will go, at all hnziirds." In the second and third persons, will simply foretells; 4" You will soon be thet e ; " — " He will expect you." 65. In interrogative eenteuces, sh(ill, in the first person, may either be used pottniially to inquire the wdl of the party ad- dressed, as " Shall 1 bring you another book f " or it may simply ask whether a certain event will occur, as ** Shall I arrive in tim for the cars?" When shall is used interroi'ativelv in the second person, it simply denotes, futurity ; a-^, " Shall you be in New York next week ? " Shall, emp!«»yed interrogatively in the third person, has a potential signification, and is used to inquire the will of the party addressed ; a?", '* Shall John order the carriage?" Will, used interrogatively in the second person, is potenti.il in its signification ;aik ♦* Will you go?" Will may be used interroga- tive v in the third person, to denote n:ere futurity, as " Will the boarleave to-day ? " or it may have a poteutial signification, in- 86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. tm quiring the will of the party spoken of, as " Wi he hazard bia life for the safety of his friend ? " 866. In the subjunctive mood, shall, in all the persons, denotes mere futurity ; as, " If thy brother shall trespass against thee, go and tell him his fault." Will, on the contrary, is potential in itu signification, having respect to the will of the agent or subject'; as, " If he will strive to improve, he shall be duly rewarded." 867. The following conjugation of shall and will is inserted to give the pupil a more distinct idea of the proper use of these auxiliaries : — SHALL AND WILL. Deolabativk. simple ixdicative. (Eipressiug simple futurity.) Singular. Plural. 1st Person, I ^hall 1. We shall 2d Person, You will 2. Tou will 3d Person, He will 3. They will POTENTIAL INDICATIVE. ^(Expressing a promise, command, authority, Ac.) Singular. 1. 1 will •2, You shall 3. He shall 1. 2. 8. Plural. We will You shall They shall ImERBOGATIVK. SIMPLE INOIOATIVK. (Expressing Simple futurity. Singular. Plural. 1. Shall II ' 1. Shall wet 2. Shall you ? 2. Shall you I 3. Will he I 8. Will they? FOTKNTIAL INDICATIVE. (Enquiring the will of the person addressed.) Singular. . ' Plural. 1. Shall I ? 1. Shall we ? 2. Will you ? 2. Will you ? ?. Shall or will he! 8. Shall or will they t H ETYMOLOGY — •VERBS — CONJUGATION. ■ Simple Subjunctivi. d bU ^H {Simple futurity.) H Singular. Plural. notes 1 If I shall. 1. If we shall e, go H If you shftll 2. If you shall in itu 1 If be shall. 8. If they shall )ject'; 1 POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE. ed to these H (Referring to the will of the agent.) H Singular. Plural, H If I will 1. If we will H If you will 2. If you will ^1 If he will , S. If they will 87 368. Should, the post tense of shall, and would, the past tense of will, may be used with a simple indicative as well as a potential eignificatioii ; thus, Should and Would. Declarative. SIMPLE INDICATIVE. 1. o 8. Singular. 1 should You would He would 1. 2. 3. Plural. We should You would They would POTENTIAL INDICATIVE. Singular. 1. I should or would 2. You should or would 3. He should or would Plural, 1. We should or would 2. You should or would 3. They should or would Interrogative. SIMPLE INDICATIVE Singular. 1. Should I? 2. Should you ? 3. Would he? ' 1. 2. 8. Plural. Should we f Should you ? Would they ? POTENTIAL INDICATIVE. Singular. 1. Should or -^quU I ? 2. Should or would you § Should or would he ? Plural. 1. Should or would we ? 2. Should or would you f 3. Should or would they h 88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Sl'BJrNCTITE. SIMPLE SCBJUNCTIVK. 1. If I Bh..Mld 2. If V<'ii 8l»'>«:M 3. If be bIiouIiI Plural. 1. If we Kliould 2. If you Bhou1(l 8. If Ihcy should POTENTIAL SUHJUNOTIVE. Singular. Plural. 1. If 1 would 1. If we Wf'uld 2. If you would 2. If you would 3. If iie would 3. If they would o69. In the solemn style, t/iou, with the (prniinntiou at, would be used fustcnd of yni, in the i^eeoud peivon singalur. Will, used as a principal verb, is conjugated leguiarly. Examples of Correct use of Sliall, Will, kc. •'Yes, my son, I will point out the way, nnd my eoui f>hall pnide yours in tli*^ ascent; for we will take oir flii,dit togelh (Jod,'— '* I pray to .God." ;{87. Would, witlj a ne{]fative, used in this way, is not merely negative of u wish or desire, but 'niplies strong opposi- tion or refusal ; as, "How often would I have gathered thy children — but ye loould not/' 'Ye loould nono of my reproof." 388. Shoxdd is used in all persons to denote present duty, uod should have^ to denote past duty; as, "You thf^'i^U write;" " I should have written ;" " The lich should re- member the poor." It often denotes merely a 8Ui)po9ed future event; us, "If he should promise, he will per- fornt.^' It is sometimes used in an indefinite sengc after that ; as, *' It is surprising that you should say so. 389. Should and tvould are sometimes used to express an asser- tion in a softened manner ; thus, instead of saying, *• I think him insane" — "It seems to be improper," it is milder to say, ^'\ should think him insane" — *' It would seem to be improper." PRINCIPAL PARTS. 390. The |?rm6?^p«Z parts of a verb are the present tense, the pa^st tense, and the perfect participle. They are called the principal or radical parts, because all the other parts are formed from them. Thus : Present, Past. Perfect participle, Megular Love, loved, loved. Irregular IV vita, wrote, written. INFLEOTIOM OK TUB IRaEGULAR VERB " To Be." 391. The irregular and intransitive verb H (I ^ ^^,^ v>.^. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TA8G£T (MT-3) 1.0 1.1 tii|^ 125 m 9^ H2.2 i£ 1.25 U 11.6 ^ t; y # PhotPGiraphic Scfences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STitEET WEBSTER, N.Y. USSC (716) 872-4503 .^^^ 92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ^^tohe^' is used as a principal verb; and also, as an auxiliary in tlie passive voice, and in the progressive form of the active voice. It is tt moods and tenses : It is thus inflected throug-h all its rRIXCiriAL PARTS. JPreseni, Am. Past, Was. Perf. participle, Been. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESEiNT TENSE. \st Pert. Singular. I am Plnralf 1. We are f, j You are (com. style) "' ( Ye are (so]m. style) Sd Per8. He is ' 3. They are 392. The solemn style, is given id connection with the common style all through the verb " to be." This will be sufficient to show its form in every verb. 2d Pers. I J-O" ^'^ (<^ora. style) Thou art (solm. style) He is PAat TENSE. 1. 2. 8. Singular, I was j You were (com. style) ( Thou wast (solm. style) He was Plural. 1. We were o j You were (com. style) • ( Ye were (solm. style) 3. They were FUTURE TENSE. Singular. 1 . I shall be ., j You will be (com. style) "• ( Thou wilt be (solm. style) 3. He will be Flural. 1. We shall be p t You will be (com. style) ^* "l Ye will be (solm. style) 8. They will b« PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. 3. Singular. I have been You have been Thou hast been He has been 1. 2 Plural. We have been J You have been ■ ( Ye have been 8. They have been :?*", ■ /::'■ ETYMOLOGY VERBS — CONJUGATION. 93 i. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. Singular. I had been 5 You hid been ( Thou hadft been He Lad been FUTURE singular. I shall have been j You will have been ( Thou wilt have been He will have been PAST PERFECT TEW8E. Plural. 1. We had been (y 5 ^^" ^'^^ been "* l Ye had been 3, They had been PERFECT TENSE. J'lural. 1. We phall have been p ( You will have been *" ( Ye will have been 3. Thejr will have been SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PECULIAQ FORM.* Singular. 1. If 1 be „ \ If you be \ If thou be If he be 1. Plural If we be 3. „ j If you be -•J If 1. • I If 3. If ye be 8. If they be HYPOTHETICAL FORlIr.f If I were ; ov, were I 1. If we were ; or, were we you were ; or, were you „ (If you were ; or, were you thou wert ; or, wert thou ' ( If ye were ; or, were ye he were ; or, were he 3. If they were ; or, were they 393. The past subjunctive of other verba is often employed in a similar mauuer ; as, *• I would walk out, if it did not rain ;" — " If I had the power, I would assist you cheerfully." 391. The subjunctive mood in its ordinary form is the same, (except in the use of shall and will,) as the Indicative ; as follows : •This form is used only when both contingency and futurity are implied ; aw, *' If he study, he will improve." f Thii form of the verb to be is commonly used, in Ihe subjunc- tive mood, to express a supposition or hypothesis. When em- ployed in a negative sentence, it implies an affirmation ; as, " If it toere not so, I would have told you." When used in an affirmative seotenee, it implies a negation; as, "If it wre possible, they would deceive the very elect." The time denoted by this use of the verb, is sometimes present, and sometimes indefinite. mm 94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. PRESEKT TENSE • 5/ri^u/ar. Plural. 1. 2. 8. If I am If you are If thou art If he is 1. 2. •3. If we are j If you are ( If ye are If they are PAST TENSK. Singular. Plural 1. 2. .3. If I was ( If you were "l If thou wast If he was 1. o 3. If wo were If you were If ye were If they were FUTURE TENSK 1. 2. 8. Singular. If I Phall be If you shall be If thou shalt be If he Bliall be 1. 2. 3, Plural. If we shall be j If you shall be \ If ye shall be If they shall be • PRBSENT FERyKCV TENSS. Singular. Plural 1. 2. 3. If I have been If you have been If thou hast been If he has been 1. 2. 3. If we have been ( If you have been \ If ye have been If they have been PAST PBBFEOT TENSE. 1. 2. 3. Singular, If I had been If you had been If thou hadst been If he had been 1. 2. 3i Plural If we had been If you had been If ye had been If they had been FUTURE FBRFECT TENSE. 1. Singular. If I shall have been 1. Plural If we shall have been 8. If you shall have been If thou shalt have been If he shall hjive been 2. 8. j If you shall have beea \ If ye shall have been If they shall have beea 896. The potential form of the subjunctive mood, is the same ia all the tenses except the future, as the potential form of the indi- cative, ihall being used in all the persons in the simple subjunctive, mm ETTMOLOOY — VERBS — CONJUGATION. 95 and will in all the persona in the potential subjunctive. See the conjugiition of shall and loill. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, To bo Perfect, To have beon IMPERATIVE MOOD. PttESKNT TEX8K. Singular, Be, or | g® you thou i'W.Be.orj^ey™ PARTICIPLES. Imperfect, Being Perfect, Been Perfect tense. Having been SYNOPSIS OF THE VERB To Bb. INOIOITITB. Pi estnt, I am Pastf I was Future^ I shall be Present perfect, I have been Past perfect, I had been Future perfect, I shall have been 8UBJUM0TIVK. Peculiar form. If I be Hypothetical form, If I were Ordinary Form, Present tense, Past tefite, Future tense^ Present perfect, Past perfect, Future perfect, If I am If I was If I shall be If I have been If I had been If I shall have been INFINITIVK. Present, To be Preunt perfect. To have been IMPIBATITE. Preunt, Be or Be you or thou PABTIOIPin. Impnftct, Being Perfect, Been HaTiDg beeo. ' 96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I Present, Love 1. 2. 8. C(»NJUOATIOX OF TlIK RKOULAa VERB TO LOVE, PUINCIPAL rARTS. Fast, Loved Perf, part., Loved- activp: voice. Singu!ar. 1. I love 2. You love 8. Ue loves Singular, I loved You loved He loved INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE, 1. 2. 8. PAST TENSE. 1. 2. Plural. We love You love They love Plural. We loved You loved Singular. 1. I phall love 2. You will love 8. Ue viiii love 3. They loved FUTURE TENSE. Plural. 1. We f^liall hve 2. You will love 8. They will love PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. Singular. 1. I have loved 2. You have lovod 3. He has loved Plural. 1. We have loved 2. You have loved 8. They have loved 1. 2. 8. 1. 2. 8. PAST PERFECT TENSK. Singular. Plural. I had loved 1. We had loved You had loved 2. You hud loved He had loved 8. They had loved Singular. I shall have loved You will have loved He wdl have loved FUTURK PFRFEOT TBNSS. Plural. 1. We shall have loved 2. You will have loved 8. They will have loved ETYMOLOGY VERBS — CON JUG ATION . SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 97 896. The ordinary form of the Subjunctive is tho siime as the Indicative. Wh«u both contingency jiml luturity iire iniplied, the peculiar form is used tlius — i>KGULIAa FORM. Sinyidar. 1. If I love 2. If you love 8. If he love Plural. 1. If we love 2. If you love 8. If they love INFINITIVE MOOD. Present^ To love Present perfect, To have loved IMPERATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TEN8B. Singular, Love, or Love you Plural, Love, or Love you PARTICIPLES. .Imperfect, Loving Perfect, Loved. Perfect tenser Having loved SYNOPSIS OF THE VERB. "To Love." Present, Hove Pant, I loved Future^ I shall love Present, To love INDICATIVE Present perfect, I have loved Past perfect, I had lovt>d Future perfect I shall have loved INFINITIVE. Perfect, To have loved IMPERATIVE. Present, Love, or love you PAETICIPLKF. Impfrfeef, Loving Perfect^ Loved Perfect tense, Having loved 397. In the solemn style, the Verb would take thou instead of you in the second person singular with the tennination "«<*' for the verb, and *'«/A'* for the third singular termination of the verb; and ye instead of you for the second plural ; thus: — I love ; Thou lovest; He loveth ; We love; Ye love; They love, o, as a principal verb, is conjugated like other irregu- lar verbs. INTERROGATIVE FORM. 402. In interrogative sentences, "when the verb has no auziliar;^, the nominative is placed after the verb ; when one auxiliary is used, the nominative is placed between the auxiliary and the prin- cipal verb; and when more auxiliaries than one are employed, the nominative is usually placed after the first. TO HA VE INTERROGATIVELY. INDICATIVE. • Pres. Have I ; or, Do I have ? Pres. perf. Have I had ? Past, Had I ; or, Did I have I Past perf. Had I had f Fut. Sballlhave? Fat. perf. Shall I hare had t 100 KNGLISH GRAMMAR. H NRQATIVE FORM. 404. A verb is conjugated tiegutively by introducing the negative fjirliclt'no^in coiincciion with ih« niixiliiry do* ns, I kn(»wno<, or, do not know ; I did 7i()t know ; I shall not know ; I have not known ; I hud not known ; I shall not have known, tkc. 405. Care must be taken not to confound the partq of one verb with the parts of another. There is danger of this especially with some verbs which are similar in sound and sense. The intransitive verb //>, to recline, is sometimes confounded with the transitive verb la^ ; and the intransitive verb sit with the transitive verb set. The parts are correctly used, thus : — THR INTRANSITIVE, LIE. THE TRANSITIVE, LAV. Principal parts, Lie, lay, lain. Principul purts, Lay, laid, laid. Present, I He I lay Past, I lay I laid Future, I shall He I shall lay Prea. per/. I have lain I liave laid Pant pelf. I had lam I had laid Fat. per f. I shall have lain I shall have laid THE INTRANSITIVE, SIT. Pi'ncipal parts, Sit, sat, sat. Present, I sit Past, I sat Future, I shall sit Pres. perf. I have sat Pa»t perf. I had sat Fat. perf. I shall have sat THB TRANSITIVE, SET. Principal parts, Set, set, f>et. Present, I Mt Past, I set Future, I chill .set Pres. perf. I have set Past perf. I had set Fut. perf. I shall have set 406. It is quite unnecessary to occupy more space in conjugating verbs. If the conjugation of one verb is understood, the conjugation of every verb is understood. The only verb really irregular in its conjugation is the verb to he. The other verbs called irregular are only irregular in nol forming their 'past tense and perfect par- ticiple regularly by adding ed to the present. What requires to be specially observed in conjugating and using irregular verbs, is, that thefo7'j7i for the past tense must he used only in the past tense of the Indicative and Subjunctive of the Active Voice ; and tha form for the p;brf£OT participle must be used with the verb to bet in forming every part of the Passive Voice, and with ETYMOLOGY — VERB8 — CONJUGATION. 101 tho proper auxiliaries in fc^minpj all Peiifect Tenses in every mood of tho Active f'uicc, and nov. hero cldc. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 407. A Defective Verb is ono in wliicli some of the parts are wanting. Tho follow- ing list comprises the mostim[)ortant. . They arc irregular, and chieily auxiliary : — Fresenl. Can May Must On^'ht Quoth PdHt. oould. might. rreaent. Pent. Shall .should Will would. Wis wist. Wit, ) Wot, } wot. I juoth Impcratioc — Beware. 408. Ought, originally the past tense of owe, ia now used to eignify present duty; and must to denote prepent obligation or necessity. "When they refer to paat time, a change is made in the infinitive "with which tliey are joined ; tlius, Present — '• These things ye ought to do ;" Past — " These things ye ought to have done." 409. Will, as an auxiliary, has wilt, and shall has thalt, in the second person singular, solemn style. They are both without inflec- tion in the third person. Will, as a principal verb, is regular. 410. Wis, wist, which signifies to know, to imagine, is now obso- lete. Wit, of the same meaning and origin, is now used only in the infinitive, in the phrase, " to wii," that ia, " namely." 411. i?ewartf (properly be and ware, ot loary) is now used only in the imperative, and sometimes after an auxiliary ; as, ' Beware ol him." — '* We should bewared 412. Quoth, to saij, to spfalc, is us*»d only in ludicrous language ; its nominative always cuines after the verb, and it has no variation for person, number, or tense ; as, *' Quoth he," — " Quoth they" PKOGEESSIVB FO Affi'-matively. N tively, Interroga Interrogatively Negatively. • The Progressi thePassivecanbe only in the case few Verbs, and onlvin the Present Past of the Simpl* dicative; as, " The house i> I built." -The h wa« being built." Oh I w > •<.Sm o .aj-a* U ^ t", > 5* », .:^ fl n s. O M M H o PHOGBE Afflrmat tively, I Interrog Nef o <* < 5 la i^-s'-'sw "-I a K." fc ^" '«a ■ fti ^ £ i ft. w ^ •s 5 « •»a 5 s OS ■« 5 V. Q .3 V <3 ..a w o -"•a «. « a li f? a, A. ^ c^ tli *i a, fti • -y. _ • ao( >K XAI xvc >iai II H o M \A H CO r-i 1 S ■? k W •St 1 i .I* V a. c^ i—j s •uuo^ ETYMOLGY VERBS CONJUGATION. 103 .. boa W a cd o S3 I W a n ^ B o Q es in 0^ c a > s a * ? a - «« is c. So- ft «SD >■ »- • a In ..« C8 t< »J O <-> *.< I ■ as J. « tire each respectively express Jr Conjugate ahall and will in each, so as to express this difference. How are shall and vill used in the simple indicative interrogative and in the potential indieative interrogative ? Conjugate shall and will inter- rogatively so as to express this difference of meaning. Select or write sentences to illustrate the correct and incorrect use of shall and m'//, to be presented at the next lesson. What ideas and what time does may express ? Give an example. What ideas and what time does might express? Give an example. What auxiliaries ars used to form the present perfect and the past per- fect of the potential ? Give examples. Give examples illus- trating an anomalous use of had^ will, would and should. What are the principal parts of a verb ? '<^ive the principal parts of the verbs hear to carry, and hear to bring forth — lie — lay — break — dare to venture, and dare to challenge, drinh^gei — lade — shine — sow to scatter — sing— swell — swim — thrive — loet — work — and wring. Con- jugate the verb to he, in the common style, through all its forms in full. Conjugate it through the present, present perfect, and future, solemn style. Give the subjunctive aAd nypothetlcal forms of the verb to hei For what purpose is each of them used! Give sentences illustrating the proper and improper use of these forms. With the Diagram before you, conjugate in any of the different ways indicated, such verbs as may be called for. Kepeat the rule of syntax for the verb. Repeat the five special applications of this rule. Give an example of the application of each. Repeat the order of parsing the verb. 14th exercise. THX VERB. 1. Parse the verbs in the following sentences according to the form and example given abo7e: — Peter went out and wept bitterly. They are not here now. She is coming to-morrow. Do you not know that "^ could have had you punished ? Are you taking Ja' les with you ? The goods were sold this morning. I will buy some if he can guarantee their quality. The matter is being investigated. Tear after year it steals till all are fled. That might have occurred T ETYMOLOGY TERBS — IRREGULAR. 107 when knowledge was falsely called wisdom. If he make the effort he will succeed. I felt so fatigued that I lay down on the grass. I do remember the circum- stance. Britannia rules the waves. Were I in your position the matter should be enquired into. The school closes at three o'clock. One came, methought, and whispered in my ear. We we're delayed by the storm. I may have been stunned by the fall. This medicine tastes very bitter. Give me a pound of al- monds. The last sentence reads rather awkwardly. You should wait till you hear whether he has been offered the situation. My parents never cost me a blush and I hope I shall never cost them a tear. Are not the clouds moving towords the west ? If I may be 80 bold, how came you to know that ? 2. When the seDse vill allow it, turn the verbs, in the active Toice into the passive and into the progressive, and turn those in the passive and progressive into the active. 8. Turn the affirmative forms into negative and interrogative. 4. Form sentences using the participles and infinitives of the first twelve verbs as verbal nouns and verbal adjectives. 6. Which of the verbs are used in a sense which is properly neither active nor passive. 6. Form sentences in which the hypothetical form of the verb to be shall be used correctly, and the subjunctive peculiar form of the verb go. 7. Oive a synopsi?, in any form, according to the diagram, of the verbs go, know and see, and such others as may be called for. 8. Oive sentences with verbs having an active form and passive meaning. 9. Give sentences with verbs having a passive form and active meaning. 10. Parse each word in full, according to the form given, apply- iog the proper Rule of Syntax to each. IRREGULAR VERBS. 406. An Irbegtjlab verb is one that does not form its past tense in the indicative active, and its perfect participle^ by adding ed to the present. H'.M 108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ]7oTB.— Wordb ending in e of course drop the final e, according to YIl rule of spelling. %* The following list comprises nearly nil the iirfgular verbs in the language. Those ooujugated reguhirly, aa well an irregular- ly, are marked with an B. Those in italics are obaolele, or ob- soleecent: — J^renent, Pant. Perfect participle. JLbide abode abode Am was been Arise arose arisen • Awake awoke, R. awaked Bake baked baked, baken Bear, to bring forth bore, hare born Bear, U> carry bore, bare borne Beat beat "beaten, beat Begin b'igan begun Bend bent, R. bent, R. Bereave bereft, R. bereft, R. Beseech besought besought Bid bid, bade bidden, bid Bind, un- bouud bound Bite bit bitten, bit Bleed bled bled Blow blew blown Break broke, brake broken, broke Breed bred bred Bring brought brought Bnild, re- built, R. built, R. 5urn burnt, R. burnt, R. Burst burst burst Buy bought bought Cast cast cast Catch caught, R. caught, R. Chide chid chidden, chid Choose chose chosen Cleave, to adhere cleaved, clave cleaved Cleave, to »pUt cleft, dove cleft, R. cloven. F>^ T ETYMOLOGY VE Present. Past. Cling clung Clothe clad, R. Come, 6e- came Cost cost Creep crept Crow crew, R, Cut cut Dare, to venture durst Dare, to challenyey R. dared Deal dealt Dig dug, R. Do, mis-un-do did Draw drew Dream dreamt Drink drank Drive drove Dwell dwelt, R. Eat eat, ate FaU, be- fell Feed fed Feel felt Fight fought Find found Flee • fled Fling flung Fly flew Forbear forebore Forget forgot Forsake forsook Freeze froze Get, be-for- got, gat GUd gUt, R. Gird, he-en- girt, R. Give, for-mis- gave Go, under- went VERBS IRFEOULAR. 109 Perfect participle. clung clad, R. ' come cost crept crowed cut dared dared dealt, R. dug, R. done drawn dreamt, R. drank, drunk driven dwelt, R. eaten fallen fed felt fought found fled flung flown forborne forgotten, forgot forsaken frozen gotten, got gilt, R. girt, R, given gone , " now " means at this time ; '' ihtn^' at that time, Ac. Thesfe adverbial phrases may be further expanded into adverbial sentences ; as, " The boy studies dili- gently" — in a diligent manner — as a diligent boy should study. 409. Our notions of things are expressed by nouns, and our notions of tlie qualiUes or attributes of things are expressed by adjectives hud verbs, heoce, just as we use an adjective to qualify a nono, so i 114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. w« use on adverb to qualify any word expresiing an attribute ; BDcl as adverbs are, themsclvea, attributes #f adjectives aud yerba, they may be qualified by other adverbSf 410. The subject of the verb is the principal noun in every sen- tence, and the principal attribute is contuiued in the predicate. The principal use ot the adverb U to modify the whole sentence through the principal attribute, and its secondary or subordinate use is to qualify oilier attributes in the sentence. 411. On the same principle that an adverb modifies another ad- Terb, it eornetimos also niudiBes an adjunct, a plirase, or a sen- tenee ; as, •* I met your brother far from home " — " He will be here boon after m,id day^' — "We shall go immediately a//tfr the mail arrives." 412. A few adverbs arc sometimes used as adjuncts of nouns and pronouns ; as, I only [that is, /, and no one else] am escaped alone to tell thee. — •' The women also were present," that is, the women as well as the others — in addition to the others. CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 418. Adverbs, according to the nature of the modifications which they denote, may be divided into various classes ; viz., Adverbs of Time, Place, Quality, Quantity, Mode. 414. Adverbs of Time are such as answer to the question TFken ? They naay be subdivided into Point of Time ; as, Now, then. Duration of time ; as, ever, until. Repetition of time; as, Often, seldom, frequently, &c. 415. Adverbs of place are those which answer to the questions Where, whither or whence ? .' Where? or, rest in a place ; as, there, here, within. Whither i or, motion towards a place ; as. unto, hence, hither, dbe. Whence / or motion from a place ; as, thence, thither, forth, er/)K. point of tiitit', . . Duration of Timt', . Uc'ptlitloii, . . . lii'Mt ill Motion to or fioni, . iM.inn«er, . • . . , Degree MuiiHure, .... Niimbi'r and Order Aftirnmtion, . . Nt'gation, Pntbubility or Doubt, Then. . Evt-r. Often. Here. Away, So. Very. Half. Once. Yea. No. I'erlinps. SYNTAX OF THE ADVERiJ. lluLE XIII. — Adverbs moclity 6-6'r^^, ad- jectives, or adverbs ; as, He speaks distinctly ; he is remarkably diligent, and reads very correctly. ORDER OF PARSING THE ADVERB. Time 1 f Verb PInco Number Adjective Adverb of Quantity )■ Modifying the -! Manner \ Mode Adverb Interrog. Rule XII. Example — "I have not seen him lately." ^ Not. — Adverb of mode, modifying the verb seen: nccording to Rule, " Adverbs modify," entrnc(>s. Into whiU ^erioi'til cIiie>B('H mo ndvorbs divided t Into \i'hat cluMca nro tlio^e of time 8uhdivid«'d ? Kepoul tliote of each olims. Into whnt cInHpeB are tlio«>e ot pliice Hiib iivided ? UepeRt those of cncb cla88. Into \\'hut clusHeH are those of ntnnber sub(hvidt'<| ? Ko- peat th«'Bo of «'aclj clang. Thojje of quantity ? I{('pent thera. Thopo of mr.niier ? Repeat them. IJepeat tlio^e of nioilc. Re- peat those of interrogation. Illnstrate, by exnmples, the two uses of the ndvcrb there. Give rxamplcs f»f then and »/ow, not used with reference to time. What are conjunctive adverbs/ Give fxampIcR to illuftiate how they are used. ll(»w are advcjbs com piircd t Repeat the rnio of syntax for the adverb. Repeat the order of partiiug the adverb. 16TU EXRRCISE. TIIK ADVBRH. 1. Parse the adverbs in the following sentences, according to the form and example given :— I have not seen liim lately. I have not called upon him yet. They Iiave almost all their wants supplied without labor, lie looked quite ill. The weather was exceedingly stormy below. They often call to see me. The news arrived early in the morning. Why, my friend ! are you here ? AVe shall probably return to- morrow. Perhaps you will return early. We are far from tlie city. You will first lot mo know. T hear much of your, success. Twice two is four. You may possibly be mistaken. I will return when you send for me. He discovered the mistake whilst on his way home. He was preparin^f to leave as I entered. I have .been here since morning. 1 believe I have seen you as often as was necessary. I went wherever you wished. Whither t go, ye cannot come. Return from whence you came. He talks as if he meant it. The more you talk the worse you make it. 2. Go over this exercise again, and parse the Ifouus, Adjectives, ProDouus, and Verbs, in full, according to the prescribed form. •"i PREPOSITIONS. 427. A Pbeposition is a word which 118 ENOLISH GRAMMAR. shows the relation of a noun or pronoun depending upon it, to some other word in the sentence; as, "The love oie moneys — " Come TO me'^ 427. The preposition most frequentlj shows the relation of a noun to an action ; as, " I travelled on the car»!^ It is used some- times to indicate the relation of its noun to some quality ; as, *'The climate is disagreeable in utinterV A few prepositions are oocasionalJy used to indicate the relation of one noun to anothtr; as, " The habits of the people,^* 428. Instead of a noun, a preposition may be followed by any word or combination of words supplying the place of a noun ; as, " Honored for having done his duty." — " The crime of being a young man** 429. The same word not unfrequeotly has seyeral adjuncts; a?* " He VTEinfrotn Boston, by railroad^ to New York, in eight hours.'' Also, the noun or pronoun in the adjunct, may be limited by one or more adjuncts — the whole forming a compound adjunct; as, '• It is 00N8I8TINT With the character of a man of honor.** Here, *' of honor** is the adjunct of man ; *' of a man of honor** is a compound adjunct of character ; and the whols, **wth the cha- racier of a man of honor** is a compound adjunct of consistent. 480. In the natural order of a sentence, the adjimct follows its principal ; as, " He withdrew after supper.'* It is often conve- nient, however, to arrange the aq^unct nrst; as, ** After supper, he withdrew with his friend who had called for him." Here, the same sense cannot so well be given by placing the adjunct, " after supper," anywheie else in the sentence. 481. Concerning^ excepting^ regarding, respecting^ and touchingt were originally present participles active, of transitive verbs, and as such, required an objective case after them. They may fre- quently be so construed still. During may be regarded as origi- nally the present participle active, of an intransitive verb, having the noun or pronoun in the nominative case absolute; thus, '* During life," means life during, or w/.i/e life remains. Notwiih- tiandinn^, a compound of not, and the imperfect participle with- standing, may be explained in the same way. When used, how- ever, as prepositions, the word fallowing must be regarded as in the objective casb. 482. Except and save were originally imperatives. Out of m&y be regarded either as two words — an adverb and preposition — or as one word, forming a sort of compound preposition. Of this character are the following: From between, from beyond, from within, from without, over against, and the like. Off is, for the ETYMOLOGY PREPOSITIONS. 119 most part, an adverb, and means at a distance ; ab '" Far off." With a noun or pronoun folIowiDg it, off \» a, preposition, and means not on, from, Aa ; as, " Of the table." 433. The word a in the sense of at, in, on, to, of, ko., has (he force of a preposition in such expressions as a reading, a running, « going, a hunting, Ac, and may be pnvBed ns euch. The same word is used as a prefix in such i^'ords as aboard, ashore, atlcep, sbedj ajloat, t supp!yiu||( the place of u noun depending un it, and it cannoti be lem.tved from one part of the senleace to another, except in couoectiou with this object. About at by on Above athwart concerning over aoross before down out of after behind duiing past against below except respecting along beneath excepting regarding amid ar beside or for round amidst besides from since amoD' or between in through amongst betwixt into throughout around beyond of till sa o g I 1. Place, . 2. Time, . Table of Prepositions. ' Rest in, . . . Motion to or from, < Both rest and motion, . Time as well as place, . . Time only, . 3. Agent and iDstrumeut, 4. Cause, Separation, . 5. Miscella neous ideas Inclination, . Aversion, rchar"''^ Substitution, sucn as Possession, Rieference, ^ Opposition, In. To, from. OveFc At. Till. By, wi^. For. Without. For. Against. Instead of. Of. Touching. Against. SYNTAX OP THE PREPOSITION. XV. — A preposition expresses the rela- tion between some word, noun or pronoun, depending upon it, and some other word in ETYMOLOGY — PREPOSITIONS. 121 the sentence ; as, " Let us walk through the garden ; *' I am uneasy about him.*' XV. — Certain words and phrases should be followed by appropriate prepositions ; as> confide iuy adapted to^ &c. 442. ORDER OF PARSING THE PREPOSITION. PrepoeitioD of 1 I Eiprcssing the rela- • tioD belweeu, Ac. Rule. Place Time Agent InstrumeDt Cause (^ ' Separation, dtc. Example, — " 1 was standiDg on the deck at the time." On. — A prepoBition of plase, expressing the relation between standing and deck. M. — A preposition of time and place, expressing the relation between standing and time. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES ON THE: PREPOSITION. Define the preposition. Between what kind of words does a preposition most frequently show relation ? Give examples to- show that the same preposition may have more than one object, Give examples to show that one adjunct may depend upon another^ and that again upon another, &c. Give examples to show that instead of placing the adjunct after the word on which it depends it is sometimes better to place it first. What is said about con- cerning ^ excepting, regarding ? What is said about during and notwithstanding} What is said of out of^ from between, from beyond^ &.C. ? Into how many classes do you divide prepositions ? Give those of each class. Are there as many diflferent prepositions as there are different relations existing among things and ideas? How is it that confusion does not arise from this cause ? Why has the English language a greater number of prepositions than lan> guages more inflected ? About what number of prepositions are there in the English language ? Repeat the tiible of prepositions. Classify the list of prepositions, accoi ding to the table. Repeat the rules of syntax for the preposition. Repeat the order of pars- ing the preposition. 6 11 --»r 122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 16th exercise. THS PREPOaiTION. 1. Parse the prepositions in the following sentences, according to the order and example given :— We visited the grave of my mother. I was standing on the deck at the time. We started just as the cath- edral clock struck six. Such an effort is beyond all praise. I returned from Montreal last week. The horse was running through the pasture yesterday. I have resigned on account of my health. He went on instead of returning home. We are liable to such things. He has a heart of iron. Do you still adhere to that opinion. I must laugh at your comical attempts. I heard the story of the child. On Friday last we went from Tor- onto to Hamilton by the lake in two hours. It is, on that a-ccount, not consistent with the profession of sin- cerity of purpose. I am uneasy about him. The letter was written by his brother. Let us walk around the enclosure. We were overtaken by a storm. We toiled on from that time until we were out of danger. I sup- pose you are accustomed to such things. Heaven, from ail creatures, hides the book of fate. 2. Go over this exercise again and parse according to the pres- 'Cribed form, the. nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs and preposition?. CONJU^fCTIONS. 443. A Conjunction is a word which connects words, phrases, or sentences ; as, "He and I must go, but you may stay." " Of him, and through him, and to him, are all things." 444. The distinguishing office of the conjunction is really to con- nect the different clauses of an extended sentence; but fetv of the numerous family of conjunctions are ever uaed to connect wordu or phrase*, and, in many instancos, when they appear to connect only words or phrases, they really connect clauses. A classification of conjunctions must, therefore, be based on the various relations ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS. 123 which the different kinds of clauses bear to each other, for, it is the meaning of the word used to connect them, that determines this relation. The full explanation of the use of conjunctions can therefore be given only in connection with the analysis of complex and compound sentences. 446. The following ohissificution w'.ll be found sufficient to dis- tinguish between the various relations that exist between eo ordi- nate clauses, and between principal and sttdordinate clauses. 446. They are divirled into Copulative and Disjunctive. 447. A Copulative Conjunction is one which not only joins sentences together, but also unites their meaning. 448. They are divided into two kinds, AdJitivg an I Continu' ative. The Additive are those that unite cluuses as the sign (+) plus unites quantities. They are — and, also, likewise, moreover, further, • Adversative. However. " Still. 1 Notwithstanding. ♦ ■ LYet. SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. XVI. Conjunctions connect words, phra- ses, or propositions ; as, " You and he must go, hut I will remain at home.** ORDER OF PARSING THE CONJUNCTION. ' the words, &c. Cod $ Additive. 'j "• \ Continuative. | Connecting. Disi J Distributive. ( Subordinatefy J { Adversative. J the p.ira9efl, )■ Co-ordinately, or { the oUUles. Rule. ETYMOLOGY COWJ UNCTIONS. 125 Example — " I will accompany you if you call fur ine." j7— iM a oop. conjuDctioD, contin., connecting the adverbial claoae *' If you, &c , with the principal bentence. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES ON THE CONJUNCTION. Define the CoDJunoiion. What ie the dietinguishing oflSce of the Conjunction t On what must a classification of Conjunctions be based I In connection with what subject will the Conjunction be best explained ? Into what two general classes are Conjunotions dividea I Define the Copulative. Into what classes are the Cop- ulative Bubdividedl Define the Additive. Repeat them and give examples to show their use. Define the Continuative. Repeat the Continuative and give examples to show their use. Define the Disjunctive. Into what classes are the Disjunctive divided ? De- fine the distributive and repeat them. Qive examples to show their use. Define the \dversative and repeat them. Give exam- ples to show their use. Which of those in the list of the Continu- ative are Conjunctive Advtrhti Repeat the Compound Conjunc- tions. Repeat the Correlative Conjunctions. Give examples to show how they are used. Repeat the table of Conjunctions. Re- peat the order of parsing the conjunction. Hth EXERCISE. THE CONJUKOTION, 1. Parse the Coojunctioos and Conjunctive Adverbs in the fol** lowing sentences, according to the form given. It was not the teacher but the pupil who was in fault. I will accompany you if you call for me. We had no sooner started than he became ill. The fact is so evi- dent that it cannot be disputed. I know that you are quite in earnest. You cannot tellf because you were not present. Either James or William is to blame. Precept is not so forcible as example. Time flies rap- idly, yet it appears to move slowly. He believes you because you never deceived him. Love not sleep lest you comi to poverty. And when the day was far spent ^ we went into Jerusalem. You have great reason to be thankful and contented with your lot. He was indus- trious but irritable. Nevertheless, you must make all the haste in your power. He lives but eight miles from 126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. the city. Think before you speak. Neither labor nor expense shall deter me. She is not aa diligent as her sister. 2. Go over tlna exercise again atid parse the Nouns, Adjectives^ Prononnn, Verbn^ Adverbn, and Prepositions, according to the order given for each. 8. Write sentences connected by the various classes of Conjunc- tions. INTERJECTIONS. 457. An Interjection is a word used in exclamations, to express an emotion of the mind , as, ** Oh ! what a fall was there ! *' 468. The Interjection is so called, because it is, aa it were, thrown in among the words of a sentence, without any grammati- cal connection with them. Sometimeii it stands at the beginning of a sentence, sometimes in the middle, and sometimes it stands alone, as if the eiuotion were too strong to admit of other words being spoken. A LIST OP INTERJECTIONS. 469. The following is a list of the interjections most commonly used. Tliey express various kinds of emotions, but in so vague and indefinite a way, as not to admit of accurate classification : — Ah ! alas ! O ! oh ! ha ! fudge ! tush ! pshaw ! poh ! pugh ! fie ! avaunt 1 ho ! holla ! aha ! hurrah ! huzza ! bravo ! hist ! hush 1 heigho ! heyday ! hail ! lo ! welcome ! halloo! adieu! &c. 460. Words belonging to other parts of speech, when uttered in an unconnected and forcible manner, to express emotion, ar« also called interjections ; as, nontence 1 strange 1 wonderful I shocking ! what! behold! off! away! hark! come! well done! welcmne! dec. 461. is used to express a wish by an exclamation, and should be prefixed only to a noun or pronoun, in a direct address ; ae, " Virtue 1 how amiable thou art I " Oh is ysed detached from the word, with a point of exclamation after it, or after the next word. It implies an emotion of pain, sorrow, or surprise; as, "Oh! what a sight is here 1 " SYNTAX OF THE INTERJECTION. XVII. Interjections have no grammatical ETYMOLOGY — INTERJECTIONS. 127 ^The minute»t . . . plant . or animal. if it. connection with the other words of a sen- tence. I. FORM FOR WRITTEN EXERCISES IN PARSING. • * "The minutest plant or animal, if it ia examined attentively, affords a thousand wondern, and obliges us to admire and adore that Omnipotent Hand by which it was created." A limiting adjective, belonging to plant or iinimal. Descriptive adjective, superlative degree, belongs to plant or atiimal, according to Rule. Common noun, singular, nomiuative to affords and obli^ei. Disjunctive conjunction, connects plant and animal. Common noun, singular, nomiuative to affords and obliges. Copulative conjunction, contiouative. connects adver. biai clause, expressing a condition, &c., to prin- cipal. PersoBal pronoun, neuter, third, singular, (to agree with its antecedent, plant or animal^ according to RuLB, *' Prpnouns must agree, native to it examined^ according to Rule. Verb, regular, transitive, third, singular, present, in- dioative, passive ; agreeing with its nominative it. According to RuLK, "A verb, 4rc." Adverb of manner, modifying the verb is examined. Verb, regular, transitive, third, singular, present, in* dioativ«, agreeing with its nominative plant or animal^ according to Rule, " A verb," (Sec. A limiting ndiective, belonging to thousand toonders, as one whole. Limiting adjective, cardinal, numeral, belonging to wonders^ (Recording to Rule, " Adjectives belong," bial. 8. Point out the phrases and classify them : 1st., us preposi- tional, infinitive, and participial. 2nd., as noun adjective, and adverbial. 8rd., as simple, compound, and complex. Like the leaves of the forest, they all pass away. The poor fellow, baffled so often, became, at last, dis- heartened. The money being secured, he completed the purchase. When JEneas landed in Italy is not known. It is obvious why he did not go. Life is short and art is long. What in me is dark, illumine ; 134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. what is low, raise and support. Talent is power, tact is skill ; talent is wealth, tact is ready money. Shall I study the lesson which you gave out yesterday, or shall I write my composition ? He is a sensible man, though he is not a genius. Land was very low, so I concluded not to sell mine. Enter when I ring the belL Send your harness to be repaired. " Triumphal arch ! that fillest the sky when storms prepare to part, I ask not proud philosophy to teach me what thou art." THE ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE. 481. Every thought supposes 1st., Some- thing that we think about ; and, 2nd.5 The notion we form about it. The bringir^ these two notions together, so as to cy- press the connection, forms a Proposition. The thing we think about is called. the Sub- ject ; the word that expresses what we think about it, is called the Predicate. These two constitute the Primary and Essential elements of a proposition ; as, *' Trees are growing.^* 482. The word that connects the two notions is called the eopula^ 4ind the notion tliat is connected by the copula to the subject, is called the attribute. The copula and attribute taken together, constitute the predicate. Thus, in the above example, — Predicate. Subject. Copula Treks arr Attribute. GROWING. 483. In the parts of the verb formed by auxiliaries, the copula is contained in the auxiliary ; as, He will have wi itten. 484. The Copula and Attribute are not always separated as in the above example, but are more frequently expressed by one vrordf which must be a verb, called in that case an attributive verb. 485. A PropoBition which consists only of a simple subject and '■Si/ SYNTAX ANA LYSIS. 135 predicate, and nothing more, is in its barest and most elementary form. 486. The subject, in this I ;e unmodified form, is called tho Grammatical Subject; and the predicate, the Grammatical Predi- cate. 487. If the verb is transitive, and in the active voice, it must be completed by its object; as, "The miller left the city^ 488. These primary elements may have subordinate elements attached to each of them, for the purpose of modifying or ex- tending their meaning, thus : — My father* a miller left the city» My father's unfortunate miller left the city. My father's unfortunate miller, Wihon, left the city. My father's unfortunate milleb, Wilson, from Perth, left the city. My father's unfortunate miller, Wilson, from Perth, who was convicted of itealing, left the city. 489. Here we see how the subject may be enlarged by attach- ing to it attributes of various kinds. 490. So also, the predicate may be extended by attaching to it modifications of various kinds. Take, for instance, the predicate of the same sentence, " Left the city : " — Left the city, unexpectedly. Left the city, unexpectedly, this morning. Left the city, unexpectedly, this morning, hy the cars. Left the city, unexpectedly, this morning, by the cars, /or the peni- tentiary. Left the city, unexpectedly, this morning, by the cars, for the peni- tentiary, when his wife was away. 491. These modifying words may th'^m- selves be modified ; as, " father's — my father's ; " unfortunate, " — very unfortu- nate, &c. " Left the city,"— city of Mmi- treat-; "morning," — stormy morning; "by the cars," — by the western cars : "when his wife was away,"— yw«^ when his poor wife was away, &c. iiii I 4 m ^ 136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 492. Words introduced in this way to modify the Primary Elements, aud to modify. other modifying words, may be called Sdbordinatk elements. 498. The words used simply to connect the different olausea or other parts of the sentence together, may be called Oonnectinq eUmentt. 494. Then, there are other words used occasion alii/, in a manner which distin^^uishea them from any of the three preceding. For instance : Nouns in the Inoefbndent Case ; as, George, come here ; The prophets ! where are they? iNTKajEOTioNS ; as, Alas! is he dead f Expletive Adverbs; as, There was a time. Words used in this way, having no grammatical connection with any other words, may be called iNDErENDENT elements. 495. Every word used in any sentence, must belong to one or other of these ele- ments. Hence, the elements employed in forming sentences, are : 1st. PRIMA.TIY Elements — Subject and Pre- dicate. 2nd. Subordinate Elements — Comple- ments attached to one or other of the primary or other subordinate elements. 3rd. Connecting Elements — Conjunctions, Conjunctive Adverbs, Relative Pro- nouns, Prepositions, &c. 4th. Independent Elements — Nouns and Pronouns used independently :— by Address, by Pleonasm, before a Par- ticiple, by Exclamation, &c. PBIMARY ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE. SUBJECT. • 496. The Subject, being that about which the assertion is made, must be a noun or some word or combination of words supply- as, SYNTAX — ANALYSIS 13'7 ing the place of a noun; and, as a noun may be expanded into a phrase^ or into a sen- tence; hence, The Subject of a yerb may be a wordy a phrase, or a sentence ; for instance. { Phrase A Noun — Jain«» reads the book. Word \ A Pronoun — You read ihe book. An Adjective — TKm good alone are great. An Infinitive — To tpeak plainly, is my iotentioii. A Participial—- Walking into the country is pleasant. f Fact, T(>.:*t yea were mistaken is now manifest. I Time, — When he will return is quite uncertain. Clause. -{ Place, — Where I saw you before has escaped my I Memory. (^Quotation — I cannot do t7 never accomplished anything. 8IUPLB, COMrOUND, AND COMPLEX SUBJECT. 497. The Subject may be either simple, compound, or complex. 498. A Simple Subject consists of only one subject of thought as, Lights were shining. 499. A compound subject consists of two or more Simple Sub* jects of the same kind (either words, phrases, or propositions) to which belongs but one predicate; as, William and Thomas will be here to-morrow." " My having succeeded in my mission, and' relieved myself of all responsibility, affords nie great relief." '^^Tbat he should make such a statement, and that they should credit it, surprise me much. 500. A Complex Subject consists of two or more Simple Subjects of diflferent kinds (words, phrases and clauses) or differently aon- nected, to which belongs but one predicate; as, ''The occurrence itself, and its having been concealed from you, look very suspi«> cious." " The difficulty of the undertaking, but especially that it should have been so cleverly executed, does him great credit." 601. Note. — ^The classification of subjects and predicates into simple, compound, and complex may not be practically of much' importance, it will, howevefi sometimes, be found useful, and for the sake of uniformity, it is thought better to insert it. 7- d :■ i| urn I i! ! i 114 138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Tas Pbedioate. 502. The Predicate is that which is af- firmed of the subject. 508. The Predicate nffirtns either what the subject in, or what it does, or what f« done to it; as, " James reads tha book." '^ Jame'it 18 a sttident." ''James is praised by his friends" 50-i. The simple or grammatical predi- cate, like the subject, may be expanded into a phrasey and even into a sentence, by sepa- rating the copula and attribute ; thus — «7- J 3 Attributive Intransitive Verb — The snow melts. ®^^ ( Attributive Transitive Verb— They built a ship. Copula and Noun, — James " Pronoun, — Adjective, — Adjunct, — Adverb, — Participle^ — Infinitive, — Clause [Noun sentence], — The order is, that toe must return. SIMPLE, COMPOUND AND COMPLEX PBEDIOATE. 505. The Predicate, like the Subject, is either Simple, Compound, or Complex. 506. A Simple Predicate ascribes to its subject but one attribute ; as, « Life is short:' " Tirae/w«." BOY. A Compound Predicate consists of two or more simple predicates of the same kind affirmed of one subject ; as, " He tried each art, reproved each dull delay,. Allured to brighter worlds and led the way." 508. A Predicate may be called complex that consists of two or more simple predicates of different kinds, differently connected, or 80 different in themselves, as to require special words to be at- tached to each to make them harmonize with what follows ; as, ** I consented, and was about to start, but bad not yet taken my Phrase • u a Jlnitive phratee can take. 3rd. When the Subject, Object, dc, is a subordinate clause, the sentence according to the definition would be complex. These therefore, will be examined most properly under the head of Com^ plex Bentencee. 617. BNLA&GEIDENTS OF THE NOUN. '1. By an Adjective or Adjective word. A limiting, — The house. Word -j A qualifying, A verbal, A Poss. case. — The new house. 3 — The new house built. —The governor** new house built* An Appos. noun,— The governor's new house, Oak LodgCf built. SrffT AX — ANA LYSIS. 141 f 1. Prepo«Hiooal, —The piece ofplat^. p. ) 2. Infinive, — The piece of plate toot pnaeni.^d. j 8. Participial, —The piece of plate to be preseoted, I, having b«en injurtd^ is sent to you to be repaired. 518. The aboye are the rarious enlargemeDta bj meaosof words aDd phrases, which a nouQ in any position may take. The simple grammatical subject, together with its varioua enlargements is called the enlarged or logical subject. COMPOUND EKLAUOEMENT. 519. Two or more extensions of any word co-ordinately connected, may be called a Compound enlargement ; as, PoBSESsivs,—" ^?/^n,.i/aion and Dixon' i store." Apposition, — "Thou more than hero, and^'u<< Um than sage,** Adjective,— *• A mo»t useful and interesting book." Prepositional Phrase, — " The hour of desperate struggle, and of decisive victory.** Infinitive " — " A day never to de forgotten^ and (tlvtayt to be revertd.'* Pabticipial " — " The furniture having 5een taken away and destroyed,** COMPLEX enlargement. 520. When a qualifying term is itself fur- ther qualified, and especially when this en- largement is again qualified, and so on, to a number of degrees from the principal word, it is called Complex ; for example, \ i S 4 S .« Wolsoy, the son of a butcher residing at Ipswich, a town in the 7 Mulh of England. A man skilled in the learned subtilties of the school-men vh^ generally managed to bewildWt not only their disciples^ But themselves. l 142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1 '^ He cboee a question mth many point* of praetiealinternt in it; " Some ani^el guide my peucil while I draw What noUuDg else than angol can exceed, A man on earthf devoted to the fkies, Lih^t thipt at aea, while in, above the world.** 621. These complex eztenHions should receive, special attention. The subordinate modifying clauses, like any other propositions may, of course, be either Simple Complex or Compound; for example, Complex — But we must consider, that the tender melancholy of sympathy, Is accompanied with a sensation, which they who feel it would not exchange for the gratification of the selfish. 522. Compound — If there is any passion which intrudes itself unseasonably into our miudB, which darkens our judgmeut, which discomposes our temper; whioh unfits us for discharging the duties, or disqualifies us for cheerfully enjoying the comforts of life, we may certainly conclude it to have gained a dangerous ascendant. EXTENDED OR LOGICAL FREDICATE. 523. The predicate, in addition to being completed by the objective, may be extended by wordSf phrases, or clauses, to express timey place, manner, &c., and these exten- sions, as in the case of the subject, may be either simple, complex or compotmd ; for example, — WoPDs. Fhbasbs. Time. — I shall see presently Place, — You will find it therQ. Manner, — You act witely. Result, — The milk turned sour. Negation, — I did not see it. Number, — I spoke twice. Interrogatiye, — How are you. I will go on Wednenday. He lives in London. He spoke toith caution. The wind rose to a hurricane. I do in no tciie agree with you. I see him now and again. For what reaton do you say so? of SYNTAX ANALYSIS. 143 OOMPOUND EXTBNSIOW. TiiiB, — I will (fo on Wtdnnday or Thunday. Placi,— You will find it there Of in the drawer, MANNin, — You speak truly and to the point. .Result, — He pnlnted the house white and brown and oak color. CoMPLK ErriNsiON. I will go on the first Wednesday of Mny. You will find it in the dravser of the table in the back room up fttaire. Thev act in a manner fitted to alarm the people in the neigh- bourhood of Yorkville. The wind blew a hurricane moet destructive in ite effects on the crops of the peasantry of the valley. MODIFICATION OF MODIFYINO WOBDS. 524. TVe have seen, in the examples given ■of complex extensions of the subject and predicate, how the subordinate elements may themselves be modified, 626. A noun or pronoun, for instance, as a subordinate element, may be qualified in any way in which a noun or pronoun as a principal element, can be qualified. 626. An infinitive, or participial phrase, however employed, being verbal in its character, may be completed and modified in all respects, as the verb from which it is derived. 627. An Adjeotivk may be modified : By an adverb; as, "He is remarkably diligent." By an infinitive ; as, " Ba «wift to hear" *' Slow to speak." By a prepositional phrase ; as, " Be not weary in well doing.'* 628. Am Adverb may be modified : By an adverb; as, "Yours very sincerely." By an adjunct ; as, " Agreeably to nature.** EXAMINATION QUESTIONS ON THE FBIICARY ELEMENTS, AND ON THE MODIFICATIONg OF TBI y— FBIMABT ELEMENTS BT WORDS AND PHRASES. What does every thought suppose ? When these two things are 'brought together, what is the results What then is essential to "the expression of a thought ? Of what three parts does a propo- ^sitioo consist? Give an example. How are the copula and attri- 144 EVOLISH GRAMMAR. bate usually ezpreised t; What if meant by the grammatical sub* j«ct and grammatical predioata f What then are tha primarT ele- meota of a lentenco t What are the subordioate element! f Il- lustrate, bv an example, the use of the subordinate elements. Point «at and ofaasify the aubordinate elements in the sentence intro- duced to illustrate this. Oire examples to show that these modifjing worda may tbemselTes be modified. What other elements may a aentcnce contain. Illustrate the use of conneotivea. / Qive ex- amples of sentences containing independent elements. What must the subject of a proposition be f What %eord§ may be used aa tha subject instead of a noun f Qiye examples. What phrases may be used as the subject ?/ Oire examples of each. Give an «xampla of a proposition expressing time uiied, as the subject. Qiw one expressing action— one expressing place. What is the distinetioQ between simple, compound, and cutjplex subjects f Give «n example of each. What is the predicate? How may the predicate be expanded Into a phrase, and into a clause f When the copula and attribute are expressed by separate words, by what different words may the attributen be expressed I Give exam- ples. By what phrases may the attribute be expressed ? Give an example of each. Give an example of a clause used as the attribute. Give examples to show the distinction between a compound and complex predicate. What completiondoes a transitive >rb in the active voice require ? Give uo example. When the 'tive is expressed by a single word, what worda may be BUuBuiuted for a noun ? Give an example of each. When the object is ex- pressed by a phrane, what phrases may be used ? Give an exam- ple of each. When Uie object is expressed by a clause, what clauses may be used as examples? When may the object be called compound and when complex ? Give examples to illustrate the direct and remote objects of a verb, and the direct and indirect objects. How may the primary elements of a sentence be modi- fied? In ^liat particulars do the subordinate elements resem- ble the priruary ? Under what heed does the enlargement of the noua by .vjbordinute propositions properly fall ? Why ? When a oonn is modified by smgle words, what different parts of speech may be used. Give an example uf each. When a noun is modi- fied by phrases, what phrases may be used ? Give an exam- ple of each. What is meant by the logical subject ? Give sen- tences containing examples of complex enlargemeots. What mo- difications does the predicate take ? Give examples of the predi- cate modified by words and phrases to express time, place, man- ner, result, dicatc. 6. Show by what words or phruscs the grauiiuatical pre- dicate is modified. 7. Show by what words or phrases each modifying word is modified. Select six such simple sentences from standard prose writers, and six from the standard poets, and analyze them in the same manner. ;< 1 FOBM FOR WRITTEN EXERCISES IN ANALYZING SIMPLE SENTENCES. " On the very day of onr arrival, my kind-hearted cousin Henry, anxious to hasten us forward to our distreesed friends with the least possible delay, despatched a telegram to the next village, directing the stage proprietor to be in readinens to start immedi- ately on our reaching that place." 146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. GENERAL ANALYSIS. LOaiCAL SUBJECT. (l)My (2) kind-hearted COUSIN <3) Henry (4) anxious to hastoii lis forward to our dis- tressed friends with the least possible de- lay orammat'l predicate. DESFATCnED LOGICAL OBJ. EXTENSIONS 09 THE PREDICATE. a telegram (I) On the voryflay of our arrival directinKthestapre (2) to the next vil- proprietor to bo in readiness to start immediately on our reaching that place. lago FORM FOR MORE DETAILED ALALYSIS. a. On the very day extension of the Pred. (time) (l).f b. of our arrival. . ., adjunct of day in a, (2). «. my littrib. to Sub. (1). d. kind-hearted attrib. to Sub. (1). «. Cousin Subject of Sentence. f. Henry attrib. (apposition) to Sub. (1). g. anxioun attrib. to Sub. ( I ). fa. to hasten objective completion to g, (2). i. u« . . r objective completion to A, (3). J. forviard modification of A with i (3) (direction) k. to our distressed friendi . .adjunct of A, (3). 1. with the least possible £?0/ay. adjunct of h, (8). m. dispatched Predicate of Sentence. n. a telegram object, to m. o. to the next village exten. of Pred. (1) (place to ■which). p. directing attrib. to n, (2). q. the stage proprietor object, to p. (3). r. to be in readiness indirect Obj, to p, (3). [stood). s. to start indirect Obj. to r, (4), {for under- t. immediately modification of s, (5), (time). u. on our reaching that p/actf.adjunct of «, (5.) • The figures (1), (2), (3), &c., are here intended to separate from the others, and keep distinct, each attribute of the subject and object, and each extension of the predicate. t The fi>?ur<'S (1), (2), (3), &., mean one, two, three, &c., removes from the principal parts of the sentence. SYNTAX ANALYSIS. 14T SIMPLE SENTENCES. FOR PRACTICE IN ANALYSIS. Aoaljze the following seutences according to the above forms:— 1. "Of pure barbarlBms, I do not mean to give examples, not hav- ing met with any in a reputable writer." — Connoiis Grammar, "Such terms have a pleasant facility of throwing away the mat- ter in question to scorn, without any trouble of making a definite, intelligible charge of «>xtravagance or delusion, and attempting to prove it." — I'otter'a Essays. 3. " Thi« irrationality of the romancers, and the age, provoked the powerful mind of Cervantes to expose it by means of a parallel, and still more extravagant representation of the prevalence of imagination over reason, drawn in a ludicrous form, to render the folly palpabio even to the sense of that age." — Foster's Esssys 4. " The limitation of the duration of parliament, the independence of the Judges, the suppression of the illegal taxes, and courts of ar- bitrary arrests and imprisonment, the accountability of the treas- ury, and the responsibility of ministers, were all acts conducive to the public welfare.'' — Whitens History. 5. " A huge and slovenly figure, clad in a greasy brown coat and (joarse black worsted stockings, weariug a grey wig with scorched fotetop, rolls in his arm ch iir long past midnight, holding in \ diity hand his nineteeuth cup of tea." — Collier. 6. " At that hour, just standing on the threshold of eternity, how vain was every sublunary happiness! wealth, honor, empire, wisdom, all mete useless sounds, as empty as the bubbles of the- deep." —Father Kercher. 9. " Wisdom, in sable garb array'd, Immersed in rapt'rous thought profound, And melancholy, silent maid. Still on thy silent steps attend, "With justice to herself severe. And pity, dropping soft the sadly pleasing tear."— GKray. {•.. 148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 8. " Oh, gently, i thy suppliant's head, Dread power, lay thy chast'uing hand ! Not in thy gorgon terrors clad, Nor circled with thy vengeful band, With thundering voice and threat'ning mien. With screaming horror's funeral cry, Despair, and fell disease, and ghastly poverty."— (?roy. 9. ' '* He wanders on Frono hill to dale still more and more astray, Impntient flouncing through the drifted heaps ; Stuog with the thoughts of home." — Thompson. 10. *' These are not wanting ; nor the milky drove. Luxuriant, spread o'er all the lowing vale ; Nor bleating mountains, nor the chide of streams. And hum of bees, inviting sleep sincere Into the guiltless breast, beneath the shade, Or thrown at large amid the fragrant hay." — Thompgon, 11. " How often from the steeps Of echoing hill or thicket, have we heard Celestial voices to the midnight air, Sole, or responsive each to other^s note. Singing their great Creator." — Milton. Iilaoh me:nber of the closs select extended simple sentences in prose, and in poetry, to be read and examined in tne class. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. NOUN SENTENCE. 529. We have already seen that a noun, in any position Avhich it can occupy in a sentence, may be expanded into a proposi- tion, thereby changing the sentence from simple to complex. Such subordinate clauses are called Noun Sentences, and should be construed in the analysis of the sentence in SYNTAX — ANALYSIS. 149 which they occur, as nouns in a similar relation. The following examples will illustrate the uee of the nouu gentence. Subject-—" Tliat the »oul is immortal is believed by all oatioDt, or, " It is universally believed that the »oul it immortaiy DiBECT Objective — " All nations believe that the soul ii immor- tal.** Pursue xohativer course ymt think be$tJ' Indirect Objective — "They told noe that you wish to see me.'* PaEDicATE NoMiNATiTE — *' The Universal belief is, t?iat the soul i» immortal." The fact is, what you have stated. Appobition— " We cherish ,the belief that the soul is immortal.'' The hope that w« will yet succeed encourages U8." Ob-iect of Adjective— "I was anxious .[, 1^}' I " ' "'Tilt um 160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. and how are the connectives; as, " I know who you are." He an- nounced when we should meet" " I explained hoio it is done." 632. The clauses connected by what^ whatever, whatsoever, which- ever, whichsoever and whoever should be treated as noun sentences. There would then be no necessity for making them equivalent to *' thinjf which ; " for example, ** You may take whatever you want,^' Whoever thinks so misunderstands me, &c." The first clause is the objective to take. The second is the nominative to misunderstand. ADJECTIVE SENTENCE. 533. When the attribute of a noun takes the form of a proposition, such a clause, of course, performs the office of an adjective, and may be called an Adjective Sentence. 534. A noun, in any position in which it can be modified by an adjective, may be modified by an adjective clause; for ex- ample, Subject. — '^ The ladies who were present^ approved of the pro- posal." Object. — "The Architect condemned the work which had been done.*' Attached to a modifying noun in the subject ; as, " The books in the parcel, which came in yesterdai/p are to be pre- sented to the children." Attached to a modifying noun in the predicate; is, " I purchased it at the store which is directly opposite." connectives of the adjective sentence. 535. It will be observed that the words used to connect these adjective clauses to the nouns which they describe or qualify, are theEELATivE Pjbonouns who, which and ihat. SYNTAX ANALYSIS. 151 636. Wheu such words us where, wherein, wJiithcr, why, wh:re- fore, hoWf whetif n- gions of the predicate, are not, of rout so, contined exclusively to this poiition, but may lake the place of an adverb, in any position. ABRIDGMENT OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 643. Complex Semekles way often be abridged into Sim|)le Sentences. 544. The noon, adjsctivk, and adverbial Sentence, when abridged, takes the form eithei' of a noun, cuijective, adverb, or prepositional infinitive or participial phrase; for example, COMPLEX SENTENCE. ABRIDGED TO SIMPLE SENTENCE. NOUN. " I knew that he thought «o." " I knew hie opinion.''* " I know that he is a good me- " I know him to be a good me' chanic" chanic." " That he is poor is no crime." " His being poor is no crime." ADJECTIVE. " Our house which is in the coun- '* Our country house." tri/r •'The book which contains the'* The hook containing the story." story.^' *' A book that may suit ymt." " A book to suit yotj." ADVfiBBlAL. "You will not succeed If //£?>• secotid subordinate is, ** And wananohject 0/ peculiar jealounu to £dward.'* An adjective scutunce, uopulntive to Hrit H:it)urdi- Date and conueuted with its uuun son, by the relative "who" understood. 664. FORMS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISES IN ANALYZING COMPLEX AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. COMPLEX. " could I worehI|) aught beneath the skies, Tluit earth hath seen, or ffincy could devise, Thine altar, sacred Liberty, should stand, Built by no mercenary vulgar hand, "With fragrant turf, and flowers as wild and fair. As ever dressed a bank, or sceoted summer alr.'^ SYNTAX — ANALTSItt. 159 OH o o M en r. M H H H o i I Isl 1 a o 2 I I •a •3 8 s s - ! I •5' ^T ^ J^ r^ A A 2 8 ?ta 8. 1 5 8 a d < it •-Ad •4J>0 a).2 ^•3 S .-;d- P B 0) -35 *=• d V s u p. no d a t a <-» <-« IS a •»^ d H O H H M ^ ►» o * A A o d o n eS A «> d-* t=s S 3 S ^■^■^'§ O -15 c d -«1 <1 P ■a I'd" fl feii I'M, I i' ■1 ■*l if: S I 160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. T3 d 0^ a* 00 ^ in w 1) -4-> a CI- 03 , fl CO O 4.3 a CO CO V O O a « C a a » 2 d ^15 i ^ u O f^ 8 n hH S • O ".a 8 a H 1 a C^ W £ S H ?:• d •Si O Q w o pi? O 01 .s OS 5 •*d J , '4 "d t t 13 d d o • • Q^ o A o 43 in M > 2 8 3 CO a a (A g ^ 1 •o ^ 1 into their re a H § ^ ^ d eS ® c5 a 1-T3 « — •OS *i ^ .a .2 .1 +3 •♦a CO hi tfS5S s > OQ 1 thoy boil an amb desire herd ot 8 H O 2C K pq o as t ■ d 5 i« -^ o is Is cipal sentence, co a, and co-ord. wi sub. understood. icipal sentence, a rs, to a and b, c d. with d and e. icipal sentence, co c, coord, with e. icipal sentence, wi b. and auxil. undo aod, cop. to d. sentence to {Jie\ )d. S u Go.. a a> hi != O 5 d^' —-iC •go •r-M <* •C>o ■E*- •g BJ 00 -5'.:3 Oi IX ^ a. Oi » 13 == £1 « 2? c c Si rt.t! — ^ o a g d • !-• 1— t a d ing drawn into icade by their des; tureaherd of catt yere surrounded emy 43 3 O 43 0) 5 n %,\ h i IG8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I^'i! r; Among the evils to bo guarded against, under this general rule, are the following : — I. Using too many words : that is, words not necessary to express the sense intended. II. Using too few words : that is, omitting ' words really necessary to express the sense intended. III. A had choice of words : that is, using words in a sense not sanctioned by good writers, or which do not correctly or properly convey the idea intended, or which may con- vey another with equal propriety. IV. Employing improper forms of the words to be used. V. The arrangement of words, phrases or clauses in such a way, that their true cons- truction is doubtful, or ambiguous. YI. Using injudiciously, or too fre- quently, the third person of pronouns, espe- cially in indirect discourse. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER THE GENERAL RULE. EXHIBITING TUE ERRORS SPECIFIED. 24th EXERCISE. NO NEEDLESS "WORD SHOULD BE USED, In the following, correct what is wrong, and give the reason for the correction : — She is a poor widow woman. He died in less than two hours time. His two sisters were both of them well educated. I bought it of the bookseller, him who lives opposite. You will never have another such a chance. There are but a few other similar places in the city. It ^s equally as good as the other. Mine is I LAWS OF SYNTAX. 169 equally as fjood as yourd. Who first discovered Ame- rica ? When tlie world was first created, kc. Perse- verance in laudable pursuits will reward all our toils, and will produce effects beyond our calculation. This 18 taught by Plato ; but it is taught still better by !So- lomou than by him. Most is annexed to the end of these words. Our flowers are covered over. I was not able /or to do it. My father presented me with a new knife. It is to this last feature of the game laws, to ivhich we intend to confine our notice. — Sidney Smith. The performance was approved of by all who saw it. Whenever he sees me, he always inquires after my health. This barbarous custom, and which pre- vailed everywhere, the missionaries have abolished. 25th exercise. Id the followiDg, correct what is wrong, and give the reasoa for jthe correction :— If I mistake not, I think I have seen you before. These lots, if they had been sold sooner, they would have brought a better price. These wild horses having been once captured, they were soon tamed. I don't know nothing about your affairs ; and I don't want to know. Neither you nor nobody else can walk ten miles in one hour. The lesser quantity I remove to the other side . Santa Anna now assumed the title of a Dictator. What kind of a man is he ? What sort of a thing is it? The whites of America are the des- cendants of the Europeans. There is another and a better world. My friend was married to a sensible and an amiable woman. Fire is a better servant than a master. I am a better arithmetician than a gram- marian. The terror of the Spanish and the French monarchies. — Bolingbroke. Pharaoh and his host pur- sued after them. Many talented men have deserted from the party. A catalogue of the children of the public schools of this city has been published. One can not imagine what a monotonous being one becomes if one constantly remains turning one's self in the circle of one's favorite notions. rk- * 'U I '.<•,;■; « if •i 170 ISHENOL GRAMMAR. ll 26TU EXEHCISE. NO NE0E8SARV WORD SHOULD BE OMITTED. In the following, correct what is wrong, aud give the reason for the coi rectioii : — Wliite sheop are murli more comtnon tlmii black. lie does not know you better than John. — (Ambiguous.) A squirrel can climb a tree quicker than a boy. — Webster, Ipjnorance is the mother oi" fear as well as admiration. What prevents us goina; 1 What use is it to me 1 My business prevented me attending the last meeting. The court of France or England was to be the umpire. Let us consider the works of nature and art, with proper attention. An officer on European and on Indian service are in very different situations. — -S'. Smith. — Supply ser- vice and one.) The freight was added to, and very much increased, my expenses. The money has not been used for the purpose it was appropriated. I shall persuade others to take the same mcas' os for their cure that I have. No man can be more wj . Lched than I. — (Supply am.) They either have or will write to us about the matter. Money is scarce, and times hard. — (Supply are.) The winter is departing, and the wild-geeso flying northward. This must be my excuse for seeing u letter which neither inclination nor time prompted me to. — IVashington. We ought not speak evil of others, \mless it is necessary. Please excuse my son for absence yester- day. How do you like up here ? We Hke right well up her6. The Indians are descendants of the aborigines of this country. 27Tn EXERCISE. In the following, correct what is wrong, and give the reason for the correction : — The white and black inhabitants amount to several thousands. The sick and wounded were left at this place. He thinks he knows more than anybody. Noah and his family outlived all the people who lived before the flood. In no case are writers so apt to err as in the position of the word only. — Maunder. Neither my house nor orchard was injured. — (Supply my.) Not the uge, LAWS OF SYNTAXr 171 but nbuso, of worldly things, i sinful. You must either be quiet, or must leave the room. Such a relation as ought to subsist between a principle and accessory. A man may be rich by chance, but can not be good or wise without effort. She possesses more sense, more accom- plishments, and beauty than the other. He is a man of sagacity, experiei je, and of hont.^t.. By udustry, by economy, and good luck, he soon acquired a fortune. There is no man knows better how to make money. It was this induced me to send for you. She saw at once what was best to do. This is a position I condemn, and must be better established to gain the faith of any one. Will mnrtial flames forever fire thy mind, and never, never, be to heaven resigned ? By the exercising our judgement it is improved. A wise man will avoid the shewing any excellence in trifles. Great benefit may be derived from reading of good books. 28th exercise. Correct what is wrong, and give the reason for the correc- tion : — We had laid on the ground all night. Are you going to go ? I ain't going yet. I calculate to invest my money in something else. The nursi sut him in a chair. Can you learn me to write? The business will suit any one who enjoys bad health. Who did you rite at the concert ? I expect it rained here yes- terday. The garment was neatly sown. We suspect the trip will afford us great pleasure. The thief illuded the police. He was much affected by the news. A verb ought to agree with its subject in number and person. Write for me no more, for I will certainly . He has made one crop of wheat. He throwed the ball. He was drownded. Wast thou chopping wood? A drive into the country delighteth and invigorates us. It was me that told him. She said our noise and romping must be put a stop to. He was found fault with, and taken hold of. Weights and measures are now attempted to be established. She is getting the ■%it-\ ^ 172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. !« better of her sickness. Since yon have made the tirst yon may t/o the rest. No one ever snatained anch mor- tification an I liave done to day. A poet can rise higher than a pnhlic speaker can do. — Blair. Her stupidness soon appeared. 1 thought she treated mc witli negli- gence. Take cither of the five. 29th exercise. Correct what ia wrong ; and give the reason for the cor- rection '.— Any one of the two roads will take you to town. Mankind resembles each other most in the begin- ning of society. That very point which we are now discussing was lately decided in the supreme court. These very men with whom you travelled yesterday, are now in jail. It all tends to show that our whole plans have been discovered. These evils were caused by Catiline, who, if he had been punished, the republic would not have been exposed to such great dangers. He is seldom or ever here. He said nothing farther. Such cloaks were in fashion five years since. I saw him about five weeks since. Do like I did. A dipthong is when two vowels are united. Fusion is when a solid is converted into a liquid by heat. She is such a good woman. — He is such a great man there is no speaking to him. Whether it can be proved or no, is not the thing. — Butler. Go, and see if lather has come. Tell me if we are going to have but one session to-day. By person- ification, things are treated as though they were hearers. There is no doubt but what he is mistaken. I have no doubt but you can help him. — Dr. Johnson. I am sur- prised how you could do such a thing. There is no question but the universe has certain bounds to it. He is not so tired but what he can whistle. fairest flower, no sooner blown but blasted ! — Milton. 30th exercise. Correct what is wrong ; and gi ve the reason for the cor- rection : — The loafer seems to be created for no other purpose LAWS or SYNTAX. 173 but to keep up tlic nncient order of idleness. — Irvbig. Style ia uolhinj; else but tbut sort of expression wbicli our thouj^lUs most nftturally assume. — JJlair. 'JMiere is no other un\bcrelln here l)ut mine. Searcely bad be uttered tbr word than tlie fairy disappeared. Tbe donation was the more aceeptal)l(', that it was given without solicitation. Do not let. the doij; conic in the liouse. His case bus no resemblance with mine. The soil is adapted for wheat and corn. He was accused with having acted unfairly. Tiiey spent the summer at the North, in a small village. Far preferable is a cotta^^e with liberty, tluui splendor with debt. Such were the difHculties with which the question was involved. I was disappointed in the i)leasure of meeting; you. There is constant hostility between the several tribes of Indians. The greatest masters of critical learning diifer among one another. I am looking for reinforcements, which tbe enemy cannot expect. Each then to: '; hold of one end of the pole, to carry tbe basket. There is a fresh basket of eggs. I only recited one lesson. (Only what?) Some virtues are only seen in adversity. I shall be happy always to see my friends. 3 1st exercise. Correct what is wroug, and give the reaaon for the cor- rection : — He is considered generally honest. They became even grinders of knives and razors. Please to sing the three first stanzas. At that time I wished somebody would hang me a thousand times. A lecture on the methods of teaching geography at ten o'clock. There is a re- markable union in his style of harmony and ease. — Blair. They were not such as to fully answer my purpose. We were to cautiously and quickly advance to the hill above. Cedar is not so hard, but more durable, than oak. He can and ough to give more attention to his business. The reward has already or will hereafter be given to him. We have the power of retaining, altering, and compound- Ihose images which we have received, into all the varie- » - '1 1 174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I I' ties of posture and imasje. — Addison. Parents are of all other people the worst judges of their children's merits ; for what they reckon such, is seldom any else but a repetition of their own faults. — Addison. Prepositions, you recollect, connec> -words as well as conjunctions ; how, then, can you tell the one from the other. — R. C. Smith. The empire of Blefuscu is an island situated to the north-east side of Lilli})ut, from whence it is parted only by a channel of eight hundred yards wide. — Swift. 32nd exercise. Correct what is wrong, and give the reason for the cof' rectlon. The son said to his father, I have sinned against Heaven. — A farmer w^ent to a lawyer, and told him that his bull had gc'-ed hia ox. — The Grreeka fearing to be surrounded on all sidea wheeled about and halted with the river on their backs. — Nor was Philip wanting to corrupt Demosthenes, as he had most of the leading men of Greece. — Parmenio had served, with great fidelity, Philip the father of Alexander, as well as him- self, for whom he first opened the way into Asia. — Be- lisarius was general of all the forces under Justinian the Eirst, a man of rare valor. — Lysias promised his father never to abandon his friends. — Carthage was de- molished to the ground so that we are unable to say where it stood, at this day. — Thus ended the war with Antiochus, twelve years after the second Punic war, and two after it had begun. — Claudius was canonized among the gods, who scarcely deserved the name of a man. 33aD EXERCISE. Correct what is /rong, and give the reason for the cor- rection : — Every man cannot afFord to keep a coach. The two young ladies came to the party nearly dressed alike. I only recited one lesson during the whole day. I have borrowed this horse only I intend to buy him. The interest not only had been paid, but the greater part of LAWS OF SYNTAX. 175 the principal also. If you have only learned to spend money extravagantly at college you may stay at home. Corn should be generally planted in April. He is thought to be generally honest. I am not as attentive to the studies I even like, as I should be. There is still a shorter method. The front part of the house was very differently built from the back part. We have often op- portunities to do good. lie wondered that none of the members had never thought of it. There was no bench nor no seat of any kind that was not crowded with peo- ple. Neither he nor nobody else ever raised in one year so many bushels on an acre. Neither that nor no such thing was said in m^ tiearing. To refrain from luxury is better than going into debt. This had served to increase instead of alleviating the inflammation. Spel- ling is easier than to parse or cipher. Does he not behave well, and gets his lessons as well as any boy in school ? 34Tn EXERCISE. Correct what is wrong, and give the reason for the cor- rection : — He was either misvmderstood, or represented in a false light. My friend is returned. All the flowers {f^e per- ished. You had better have left those wasps alone. If the hand is removed, the air immediately fill the vessel. Though he be poor and helpless now, you may rest as- sured that he will not remain so. Our teacher told U3 that the air had weight. I have always thought that little was ever gained by marrying for wealth. 'Tis so ; myself has seen it. The molassus are excellent. Paying visits will be losing time. The common saying of every one's being the architect of his own fortune is Jiardly true. You have behaved very bad. Previous to our arrival the captain was taken ill. There we saw somo fellows digging gold from China. He went to see his friends on horseback. In every church it must be ad- mitted there are some unworthy members. It was in vain to remonstrate. "What use is it to me ? She could not refrain shedding tears. Ignorance is the mother of ■' <■ ^ "k V I- :,w: J ■ ( ■ I 176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. fear, as well as admiration. He is a man of sagacity, experience, an J of honesty. I cannot conceive how my horse got away without sotnebody untied him. He was dismissed, not so much because he was too young, but because ho was too unskillful. 35TU EXERCISE. Correct what is wrong, and give the reason for the cor- rection ; — Do you know if the mail has arrived ? At the time that I saw her she w^as young and beautiful. He has no love nor veneration for his superiors. He could not deny but what he borrowed the money. She thinks of little else but dressing and visiting. The farm will then either be rented or sold. It happened one day he went out of curiosity to see the great Duke's hons. The important relations of masters and servants, and husbands and wives, and brothers and sisters, and friei^ds and citizens. A dipthong is when two vowels are united in one sound, A deed of trust is a deed where the lender has power to to sell to secure himself. He shoald not marry a woman in high life that has no money. A man has no right to judge another who is a party concerned. John told James that his horse had ^'un away. The lord can- not refuse to admit the heir of his tenant upon his death, nor can he remove his present tenant so long as he lives. The law is inoperative, which is not right. It is not to the point what he said. There was no profit, though ever so small, in anything, but what he took pains to obtain it. He has never preached that I have heard of. SPECIAL SYNTAX. • NOMINATIVE. 576. EuLE I. — The subject of a finite verb is put in the nominative ; as, ** I am," — " Thou art,"— " jff^ is,"—" They are." 57*7. It is improper to use both a noun and its pronoun in the same proposition, as the nominative to the same verb ; thus, " The king he ie just," should be " The king is just." Except when the RULES OP SYNTAX. 177 compound pronouns are added to the subject for the sake of em- phasis; na " The Icing himself hhz come." 578. The nominative to a verb in the imperative, and in tho answer to a question, and after than or a«, generally lias the verb understood; as "Shut the door" — " Who said so?" — "He [said so]" — " James is taller than /[am] ; but not so tall as you [are]." POSITION OF THE SURJECT. 579. The subject is commonly placed before the verb. But in imperative or interrogative sentences, and in other sentences for the sake of emphasis or euphony, the subject is often placed after the verb ; as, " Go thou " — " Did he go ? " — " May i/oil be happy 1 " —" Were /he "—"Neither did They''—'' Said /''—"There was a man,''' struction of a sentence, the distributive word is sora jliia-'i orntt- RULES OF SYNTAX, 179 ted; ?L9^''They [interrogative pronouns] do not relate [eacJt] to a preceding noun." 584. Of this character are such expressions as the followine; : " They stood in each other^s way" — tliat is, they stood each in the other's way. — " They love one another " — that is they love, one (loves) another. 585, A substantive is sometirae'i connected with another in a sort of apposition by the word as, meaning in the condition of, in the capacity of, thus, " Cicero, as an orofor, was bold — as a soldier, he was timid." But the substantive placed thus in apposition with another in the possessive case, or with a possessive, U without the sign, while in other instances it usually has it ; ns, " John's repn- tation as an author was great — his fame as an artist still greater.** 686. In designating time and place, instead of a noun iu appo- sition, the preposition o/' with its case is often used; as, "The month of August."— "The State of Ohio."— ^^ Tho City of New York." ' '1 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. APPOSITION. 1. What is the rule for the case of a noun or pronoun \n appo- sition ? 2. In the sentence, '' 7/me, labor, money, nil were lost," what principle applies to "nil"? ,3. What pi-inciple applies to "earh,^' in t.lio sentence, — "They wont each of thetn his own way.^ '' 4, What is the construction of ^' each and another" in iLhe sentences, — '' They stood in each other's way," — " Tiioy love one an- other?" 5. In the sentence, — "Cicero as an orator was bold;" what principle npplies to the coistruction of the word " orator ?^^ 6, When the noun following " as " is in apposition with a possessive does it take the possessive form? 7. Give an example. 8. la- stead of a noun in apposition, what is sometimes used in desig- nating time and place ? 9. Give an example. f - yii ■ m 5 37Tn. EXERCISE. APPOSITION. In the following sentences, say which are correct and which are incorrect. State distinctly the principle violated in the false Syn- tax, and correct it. Give the construction of all the words to which the rule or any note is applicable, and repeat the rule. Do the written exercise, as directed under Rule 1st. 1. Please give that book to ray brother, "William, he who stands by the window. 2. I speak of Virj.5il, he who wrote the Jilneid, 3. I refer to the man of honor, h^ i:i 180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, "he who resists wrong. 4. Keligion, tho su; >ort of iidversit}', adorns prosperity. 5. Do you speii so to me, I who have so often befriended you ? 6. iJyron, the poet, the only son of Captain John Byron, was born in 1788. 7. The gentleman has arrived, him whom I mentioned before. 8. Coleridge, a remarkable man, and rich imaginative poet, was the friend of "Wordsworth. 9. My brother William's estate has been sold. 10. *' And on the palace floor, a lifeless corpse she lay." Written ExsacisE. — Place the number attached to each prin- ciple under this rule, in the margin of your exercise paper, and write, opposite each number, a sentence which shall contain au example of a violation of the principle, and immediately under it a correct example. Do this at the close of each succeeding exer- cise. SAME CASE. 587. HuLE III.— Intransitive verbs, and yerbs in the passive voice, take the same case after them as before them, when both words refer to the same person or thing; as: — "Itis/"— '«He shall be called JbAu"— "She walks vl queen'' — ^ I took it to be him'* — "He eeems to be a scholar'' -"The opinion is, that he will live." POSITION. 588. The usual position of the predicate substantive is after the verb, as that of the subject is before it, and this is always the order of construction. But, in both the direct and the indirect question, and in inverted sentences, the place of the predicate substantive is often different ; thus, " Who is he ? " — " We know not "WHO he is " — " Is he a student \ " — " He is the same that he was " — " The dog it was that died " — " A man he was to all tho country dear " — " Fekt was / to the lame " — ' Far other scene is Thraiymeni now." — " Are they friends \ '' — '' Friends thev cannot be." RULES OF SYNTAX. 181 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. SAMK CASK. 1. What is the rule for uouub aud proiiouna coming after verbs, taking tho same case as the uoiins or pronouns before thcin ? 2. Illustrate by an example. 3. Umler what circumstances does the predicate substantive, sometimes come, not after the verb, but before it ? 4. Give examples. 21sT EXERCISE. SAME CASK. In the following, say which are correct and which incorrect; state distinctly the principle violated in the false syntax, and cor- rect it; give the conetruotiou of all the words to which the rule applies, and repeat the rule. Do the written exercise as directed under Rule 1st. 1. It is I. 2. Whom do you think he is? 3. It was me who wrote the letter, and him who carried it to the post-ofRce. 4. Who do you think him to be ? 5. I am sure it could not have been she. 6 Whom do men aay that I am ? 7. It is them, you said, who de- serve most blame. 8. She is the person whom I un- derstood it to be. 9. You would probably do the same thing if you were he. 10. He is the man whom you said it^was. 11. I understood it to be he. 12. Let him be who he may. 13. It may have been him, but there is no proof of it. 14. Can you tell whom that man is ? 15. If I were he, I would go abroad at once. 16. Is it not him who you thought it was ? 17. I little thought it nad been him. 18. Thomas knew not who it was that called, though quite certain it was not she whom we saw yesterday. 19. It is not I you are in love with. 20. Let the same be her whom thou hast appointed for thy servant Isaac. 2L Art thou proud yet ? 22. He was not the person whom he affected to be. 23. Ay, and that I am not thee. Written Exercise. — Place the number attached to '^ach prin- ciple under thia rule iu the margin of your exercise paper, and write, opposite each number, a sentence which shall bontaiu an example of a violation of the principle, and immediately under it a correct example. f ■i'- • f t*' ) l^f '■* %\( 'I :''^ i 182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Uil^ t I:! THE POSSESSIVE. 580. Rule IV. — A noun or pronoun nsed to limit another noun or pronoun^ by denot- ing possession, is put in the possessive case ; as, " Virtue^ s reioard^^ — " John^s books,'* 690. The possessive ciiee, mid tlio preposition of with the objec* tive, are often equivalent; us, " My/a///t'r*s house" — " Tlie house of mi/ father. 691. Sometimes the idea expressed by of with the objective can not be expressed at all by the possessive; as, "A ring of gold " — " A. cup of water " — " A piece of land " — " The hf)use of refugCy^ (tc. Sometimes, again, the ideas expressed are different; thus, "The Lords day" means the Sabbath. "The Any of the Lord" means the day of judgment. *' My fathcfa picture," means a picture belonging to my father. "A picture of my father" means a poitruit of him." " God's love" means only the love which Ciod feels. " Tho love of God" means either the love which God feels to us, or that which we feel to him, 692. Of before a possessive case, followed by the substantive which it limits, usually governs that substantive; as, "Tiie heat of the sun's rai/s." But of before a possessive, not followed by the substiintive which it limits, governs that subitantive under- stood and the expression refers to a part of the things possessed; OS, ''A discovery of [that is, from] Sir Isaac Newton's [discover- ies] ;" meaning, " One of Sir Isaac Newton's discoveries." 593. Even when the possessive ca?e, and of with the objective, are equivalent in meaning, the arrangement and euphony, as well as the perspicuity of the sentence, will often render the one ex- pression preferable to the other. When this is the case, care should be taken to use that form which, irt the circumstances, is best. Thus, " In the name of the army," is better than " In the army's name;" "My mother's gold ring," is better than "TU9 gold ring of my mother," A succession of words in either form is harfeh, and may be avoided by a proper mixture of the two ; thus, "My brother's wife's sister" — better — "The sister of my brother's wife." — " The sickness of the son of the king" — better— "The sickness of the king's son." 694. When several nouns come together in the possessive case, implying common possession, the sign of the possessive is annexed to the last, and understood to the rest ; as, " Jaue and Lucy's books," that is, books the common property of Jane and Lucy. But if common possession is not implied, or if several words in- tervene, the sign of the possessive should be annexed to each, as, m RULES OF SYNTAX. 183 *• Jane's nnd Lucy's books," that is, h^okfl, aomo of wliioh nro Jane's and othera TiUcy's. '' This gained the king's, as well as the people's, approbation." 696. "When a name is complex, consisthig of more terms than one, the Rij»n of the possessive is annexed to the last only ; as, "Julius Cfflsar's Commentaries" — "John the l}a|)ti8t'8 head" — " His brother Philip's wife" — "The Bishop of London's charc;e." — Here Julius CfPsar's is a complex name, in the poesesfive; John and brother are in the possessive, without the sign, that being an- nexed to the words Baptist and Philip, in apposition. In the last example, " London " is in the objective ease, governed by of, and the 's annexed properly belongs to Bishop, which limlta the word charge. lu parsing the words separately, the transfer must, of course be so made. But the true reason for aimexing 's to London is, that the whole phrase, " Bishop of* London," is regarded as one term, in the possessive limiting the word charge, and may be so parsed. Thus, " a complex oouu in the possessive case, In id ting the word charge." 596. When a short explanatory term is joined to a name, the sign of the possessive may be annexed to either ; as, *' I called at Smith's the bookseller," or, " at Smith the bookaeller's." But if, to such a phrase, the substantive which it limits is added, the siga of the possessive must be annexed to the last; as, "I called at Smith the bookseller's shop." 69*7. If the explanatory circumetance be complex, or consifltg of more terms than one, the sign of tho possessive must be an- nexed to the name or flust substautivo ; as, "This Psalm ia David's, the king, priest, and prophet of the people." — " That book is Smith's, the bookseller in Maiden Lane. 598. This mode of expression, however, is never elegant, and though sometimes used when the governing substantive is imder- stood, yet it would be better to avoid it, and sa^, " This ia a ppalm of David, the king," &c., or, '* This is one of tho psalms of David," (fee. But an expression like this can not, with any pro- priety, be uped when the substantive limited by the possessive is added. Thus, " Dnvld, the king, priest and prophet of the peo- ple's psalm," would be intolerable. 59*7. When two nouns in the possessive are used to limit dififer- eut words, the sign of the possessive must be annexed to each ; &B, ** He took refuge at the g )vernor's, the king's representative," that is, " at the governor's house." 600. The s after the apostrophe is sometimes omitted, when the first word ends, and the following word begins, with an «, or when the use of it would occasion a disagreeable repetition of « sounds; as, -'For righteousness' sake" — "For conscience' sake" — " For Jesus' sake "— " At Jesus' feet." In other cases, such • 't « M ■if ■' 184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. omissions would g^enernlly be impioper; ns, "Jnnios' Look"' — "Miss' kIiocs," instead of " Jamcs'n liuok " — " Mi-»'3 shoes." COl. A claurto of a sentCDce should never ccnne betvrccn the possessive case and the word which it limits; thus, " She be^an to extol the farmer's as she called him. excellent uiulerstandinij,'' should be, " the excolleut undiM'standing of the farmer, as she called him." 602. A noun limited by the posaesfiivo plural, or by two or more nouuM severally in the posBesslve Bin(j;ular, hhouUl not be plural Hnless the peuse r(?quire it. Thus, " The niou'fl health [not healthH] sutTered from the climate" — "John's and Williaiu's wife [not wives] are of the same age." 608. A noun or pronoun before a participle used as a noun re- quiroa the pansive form ; as much depends on the pupils composiD:j frequently. Johi.'s havinij; done so i evident. EXAMINATION (QUESTIONS. POSSESSIVE CASE. 1. What is the rule for the case of a noun or pronoun placed before another to indicate the owner or poesessor of it? 2. How may the ownership be sometimes expressed without using the pob- scssive case? 8. Give an example, 4. Give an example to show that the idea expressed by oj with its objective is not always equivalent to the possessive. 5. Does " My father's picture" and " A picture of my father" fonvey the same meaning? 6. What meaning may each convey? 7. Give other similar examples. 8. What does of before a possessive not followed by the noun possessed i vern; and what does such an expression refer to? 9. Illustrate this by an eximple. 10. When tho possessive case and oJ with the objective are equivalent in meimin;,', which should be chosen? 11. Illustrate this by an example. 12, When several nouns possessing the same thing in common come together, which takes the sign of the pos?e8sive ? 13. Illustrate by an example. 14. Under what circumstances should the sign of the possessive be annexed to each? 15. Illustrate by an ex- ample. 16. When a name in the possessive is complex, consisting of more terms than one, either in appo?ition, or connected in any other way, what is the rule for annexing the siga of the pos- sessive ? 17. Illustrate this by an example, and explain it in the case of such an expression as "The Bishop of Huron's charge." 18. When a short explanatory term is joined to a noun in the pos- sessive, what is the rule for annexing the sign of the possessive ? 19. Illustrate this by an example. 20. What circumstance in con- nection with this would require the possessive sign to be annexed to the last? 21. Illustrate by an example, 22. If the explana- "^ RULES OF SYNTAX- 185 tory term annexed to a noun in the posBessivo is not short, but complex, whnt i:^ tho rule for annexing the sign of tho possci^sivof 23. Illustrate this b> nn exiunple. I. What is Hirid or thin tuodo of expression I 25. L'l.Jer whnt oircuni>«tarioo8 ciinnot an ex- press* ioti of thifl kind he properly u.Hfd at all? 26. Givo m ex- ample. 27. When two nouns irj the possessive follow each other, limiting dilVerent word*?, what is tlio rule for ar)ncxing the sign of the possessive H 2f^. Give an example. 2y. Under whiit circum- stances, and for wh;i purpose, is the « after tho ape Iropho, some- times omitted ? 80. illustrate this by an exainph . :^1. {Repeat the principle violated in the followiug sentence, " She bcj^un to extol the farnior'a, as she called him, cxcellont understamliug." f;2. State the i linciplo violated in tho followinf^ sent, u'e-*, — " The men's healths Buffered from tho cli'uate." — '' James and W lliaru's wives are of the same age.*' 3". When a ])articiido is used a :; verbal nomi, in what case is a noun or pronoun cuminij before it ? Give an example. 39TH. exp:rcise. THE rossEsaivE. In the following sentences, say which are correct, and which arc incorrect. State distinctly the jjiiuciple violated in tho false syn- tax, and correct it. Give the construction of all the words to which the rule applies, and repeat the rule applicable to each word. Do the writtei exercise as directed under Rule let. 1. Virtue's reward. 2. He was averse to the na- tion's involving itself in war. 3. That knife .s yours, but I thought it was mine. 1. That landscape is a picture of m}^ fatlicr's. 5. The tree is known by the fruit of it. 6. William and Mary's reign. 7. Messrs. Pratt's, AVoodford's, Sc Co.'s bookstore is in New York. 8. Call at Smith the bookseller and stationer's. 9. That house is Smith the poor man's friend. 10. James father arrived yesterday. 11. The prisoner's, if I may say so, conduct was shameful. 12. It is the duty of Christians to submit to their lot. 13. Mans chief end is to glorify God. 14. Much depends on the pupil composing frequently. 15. My book is old, but you'' book and Koberts book are new. IG. The work yoii speak of is one of Irving. 17. The com- mons* vote was against the measure, but the lords' vote was in its favor. 18. David and Solomon's reign were prosperous. 19. Jack the Giant-killer's wonderful ex- * "i • I '^ ■M\ t ■"■ 1 rk i. i > ■| i-- V— -^- ^ V. ,. .i 'Sn ,%, ^, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 2r // /. {/. ^0 v.. !I.O I.I 1^328 ■10 2.5 t^ IIS IL25 11.4 im y.^ Hintographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MA.N STREET WEBSTER, .^.Y. '4580 (716) 872-4503 i/j 186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ploifcs. 20. The parcel was left at Jolingon'a a mer* chant in Broadway. 21. We spent an agreeable hour at Wilson, the governor's deputy. 22. King Jarae's translators merely revised former translations. 23. Peter the Hermit's as he was called, opinion. 24. We protest against this course, in our own names and in the names of our constituents. 25. My ancestor's yirtue is not mine. 26. He being rich did not make him happy. 27. Gravitation was a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton. 28. The weekly return of the Lord's day ia a blessing to man. 2^t John and William's wife are cousins. 30. The bishop's of London's charge to his clergy. "Written Exercise. — Place the number attached to each principle under this rule, in the margia of your exercise paper, and write, opposite each number, a sentence which shall contain an example of a violation of the principle, and immediately under it, a correct example. as. OBJECTIVE OF VERBS. 60^. Rule V. — A transitive verb in the active voice governs the objective case ; aSj "We love hiniJ' — " He loves W5.'' — " Whom did they send?" SPECIAL RULES. 605. — 1st. — Verbs used intransitively do not require, and must not have an object to complete the meaning ; thus : — "Repenting him of his design," should be, " Repenting of his design." Still, a few anomalies of this kind are to be found ; as, " They laughed him to scorn." — " The manliness to look the sub- ject iu the face." — •' Talked the night away." 606. 2nd. — Intransitive verbs used in a transitive sense require an c^iect to complete the meaning; as, ** He runs a race,** — " They live a holy life" 607. To this usage may be referred such expressions in poetry RULES OF SYNTAX. 187 as the following: "The biooks ran nectar"— '^ The trees wept gums and balms" — Her lips blush deeper sweets'* &.c, 608. To this rule also belongs the objective aftor cmtKutives ; as, " He runs a stage." — " John walks his horse!' — '* Ho works Aim hard," / the trutli, I was in fault." EXAMINATION" QUESTIONS. INFINITIVE MOOD. 1. What is the rule for the construction of the Infinitive Mood? 2. Write sentences containin^j oxamplcft of all the various construc- tions of the Infinitive, and point out the construction in each. JJ. Explain bv using examples the verbal and the noun character of the infinitive. 4. What is the special rule for the omission of "to" before the infinitive? vf). Give examples. 6. Is the sign "ur paper, and write opposite each number a sentence whuh (^hall contain an exiunple of a violation of the pi iociple, and inimeuiuiely under it a correct example. LIMITING ADJECTIVES. A, AN, THE. 674. — 1. The article A or an is put before common nouns in the singular number when used indefinitely; as, ^^ A man'* — ^' An apple ; " that is, ** any man " — ** any apple." 675. The ariicde the is put before common nounSy either singular or plural^ when used DEFINITELY ; as, " The sun rises " — ** The city of New York.' >9 't ..I* 4-' Ht U( I i, 204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 676. A common noun, in the singular number, without an article or limiting word, ia uBually taken in its widest sense; as, " Man is mortal" — ^^ Anger is short madness." 677. The is sometimes used before a singular noun, to particu- larize a fipecies or class, without specifying any individual under it; ap, the oak, the rose, the horse, the ravtn, meaning, not any par- ticular oak, rose, horse, or raven, but the class so called in a general sense. In such cases, whether the noun is used to denote a class or an individual, can be determined only by the sense, as in the following examples : " The oak produces acorns " — " The oak was struck by lightning." — *' The horse is a noble animal " — " The horse ranaway." — " The lion shall eat straw like the ox" — *'7%e lion tore the ox in pieces." — " The niqht is the time for repose' — " Tho night was dark." 678 When several nouns are connected in the same construction, the article is commonly expressed with the first, and understood to the rest ; as, " The men, women, and children are expected." But when emphasis, or a different form of the article is required, the article is prefixed; as, "The men, the women, and the children, are expected." — *' A horse or ari ase." 679. But when several nouns in the same construction are dis- junctively connected, the article must be repeated ; as, " The men, or the women, or the children are expected." 680. The is commonly put before an adjective used as a noun; as, " The righteous is more excellent than his neighbour." Also before adjectives in the superlative degree, when comparison is implied ; as, " Gold is the most precious of the metals.*' But when comparison is not implied, the superlative is either without an article, or has a or an preceding it ; as, " A most excellent man." 681. T/ie is sometimes put tn<, " How do you think he ran !" But " What do y(»u think of my home running to day ? " implies ho has not run, and aeks, " Dc you think he should run 1 " 699. 2. — When the verbal noun expresses somo- Ihing, of which the noun following denotes the dobb, it should have the article and preposition ; as, " It was said in the hearing of the witness." But when it ox- presses something of which the noun following does not, denote the doer, but the object, both should be omitted as, "The court spent some time in //cflrnwy the witness." 700. 3. — The perfect participle, and not the past tense, should be used after the auxiliaries have and BE; as, "I have tm^/c/i" (not wrote) — **The letter is written " (not tvrote)» 701. So also, the perfect participle should not be used for the past tense ; as, " He ran'' not run — " I saw," not seen — '• I did," not done. 702. In many verbs whose present passive expresses, not the present continuance of the tjuct, but of the result of the act in a finished state, the imperfect participle has a passive as well as an active sense ; and is used with the auxiliary verb to be, to express the present passive progressively; as, "The house is building." When, in such verbs, the participle in ing has not a passive sense— Nor where the use of it in a passive sense would be ambiguous, the proper form of the passive should be used. 703. The participle is sometimes used absolutely, having no de- pendence on any other word ; as, " Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance." EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. THE TARTIOIPLE. 1 . What is the general rule for the construotion of the partici- I ;»^. SIO ENGLISil GRAMMAR. plet 2. IHuitrate the rule by ezaraplei. 3. Whnt is the f^reat advantage lu the litrgua^e uriHiii^ liom the uae of the parliciple? 4. IlliiHtratu tliifl by uxutnplcB. 6. What «X|)luiiiiloiy ri'in; kit on the iuHuitive apply fquully to the p kt ticiple r 6. In tlie fulluwinj^ phrafes, " His btinj< an expert daucer," — *' Tin; crime of b«'iiig a younff mnn," wlnt is the cuiiatruuiion of the words " datirer " and ** man t " 7. What ih the lule fur the case of the word pnpiVt in the Reutencp, "Much depends on \.\\e pH}nV% composing frequent* ly f " 8. Can the Bume meaning always be expressed by the uom- inntive or ohjeclivo before the imperfect participle, used aa a qualifying wonl?'' 9. Illustrate by an example. 10. "When ■bould the imperfect participle, used as a verbal noun, have the ar- ticle before it, and the preposition after it ; and when should it have neither?" 11. Illustrate by an example. 12. What prin- ciple is violated in the cxpressioDS — " I have wrote," " I seeu," '* 1 done," Ac. f In what verbs has the imperfect participle a passive as well as an active sense? 14. Illustrate by examples. 16. Under what ciicnmstnnoes should the proper form of the pas* sive be used? 16. Illustrate by an exan)ple. 17. What is the construction of the particip'o in the following sentence, — "Properly speaking there is no such thing as chance ? " 46tu exercise. THK FABTICIFLE. In the following, brv which are/ correct and which incorrect ; state distinctly the principle violated in the false syntax, and cor> rect it. Give the construction of all the participles and repeat the rule applicable to each. Do the written exercise as directed under Rule Ist. 1. We could not be sure of its being bim. 2. While tbe necessary movement was being made. 3. Man re- belling against his Maker, brought him into ruin. 4. Goods are now being sold off at first cost. 5. Joseph having been sold by his brethren, was overruled for good. 6. Wheat is being sold at a fair price. 7. A man being poor does not make him miserable. 8. And still be Deing done and never done. 9. What do you think of ny horse running to-day ? 10. While these things were being transacted in England. 11. Did he run well ? 12. The court was then being held. 13. What think you of my horse's running to-day ? Will it be safe ? 14, The spot where this new and strange tragedy woi the the* she dut RULES OF SYiNTAX. 211 was being ftctcd. 15. By the obtftini'ng wisdom you will command roflj)cct. 10. The Froiich language is Spoke in every part of Europe. 17. This waa equal to the rejecting of the proposal. 18. Some fell by the woy Bido nnd was trode down. 19. Learning of anything well requires great application. 20. 1 seen the man who done it. 21. Meekness is manifested in Buffering of ills patiently — in the suflering ills patiently — in the sufler- ing of ills patiently — in tlie patient sullering ills — in patient suflering of ills. 22. Some one has took my pen. 23. In the hearing of the will read, and in the examining of sundry papers much time was spent. 24. The tree nas fell, 25. I have drank enough. 20. lie has broke his cup. Written Exeroisk.— Place the number attached to each note or remark under the rul'e, in the margin of your paper, and write im- mediately opposite each number, a sentence violating the principle represented by the numbers, and under it a correct example. i-'> w t*..' THE PRONOUN". AGREEMENT WITU THE ANTECEDENT. 704. Rule XI. — Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in gen- der, person, and number ; as, " A.11 that a man hath, will he give for his life." — ** A tree is known by its fruit." THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. SPECIAL RULES. 705. 1. — When a pronoun refers to two or more words taken together, it becomes plural, and, if they are of different persons, prefers the first person to the second, and the second tc the third ; as, " I£e and she did their duty," **John and i/ou and I will do our duty:" 'SI Vrl' 1 if 212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 70G. 2. — AVlen a pronoun refers to two or more words ill the singular taken separately, or to one of them exclusively, it must be singular ; as, " A clock or a watch moves merely as it is moved." 707. 3. — But if either of the words referred to is plural, the proaoun must be plural also; as, " Neither he nor i?:ei/ trouble themselves." Distribu- tives are always of the third person singular. 708. When eingular nouns of different genders nre taken separ- ately, they ciiu not be represented by a pronoun, for want of a singular pronoun, common gender, except by a clumsy repetition of pronouns of the corresponding genders ; thus, "If any tnan or woman sliall violate his or Jier pledge, he or she shall pay a fine." The use of the plural pionoun in such cases, though sometimes used, ia improper; as, "If any man or woman shall violate their pledge, (fee. V09. Pronouns referring to singular nouns or other wordc, of the common gender, taken in a general sense, are commonly mas- culine ; as, " A parent should luve his child." — " Every peFsou has /t 1.9 fauii,3."— "No one should commend himself." The want of a singular personal pronoun, common geader, is felt also in this construction. 710. A pronoun referring to a collective noua in the singular, expressing many as one whole, should be in the neuter singular; but when the noun expresses many as individuals, the pronoun abould be plural ; as, •' The army proceeded on its march." — " The comH were divided in their opinion." 711. A singular noun after the phrase, ''many a," may take a pronoun in the plural, but never in the same clause , as — "In Hawick twinkled many a light Behind him soon they set in night." — W. Scott. 712. Pronouns representing nouns personified, take the gender of the noun as a person; as, ** Night sable goddess, from her ebon throne." But pi onouus representing nouns taken metaphorically, agree with them in their literal sense ; as, •' Pitt was the pillar which in its strength upheld the state." 'TIS. It is improper in the progress of a sentence to denote the same person by pronouns of different numbers or forms ; as, ** I labored long to make thee happy, and now you reward me by in- gratitude." It should be •• to make yot* happy," or, " thou re- wardest." pho prii sen me are 20. RULES OF SYNTAX. 213 POSITION OF PRONOUNS. 714. When words of different persons come together, the usual order of arraogemeot, in English, is to place the second person before the third, and the first person last ; as, " You and he and / are sent for." — This matter concerns you or him or me." EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. PERSONAL PRONOWN. I. What is the rule for the agreement of the pronoun with the noun for which it stands ? 2. When the pronoun refers to two or more words taken together, what rule determines its number^ 8. If the pronoun refers to two or more antecedents of different fiersons taken together, what rule determines its person ? 4. II* ustrate by an example. 5. What number mu3t the pronoun be in when it refers to two or more words taken separately ? 6. If either of the words should be plural, what, number should the pronoun be ? 7. What inconvenience nvises from tbo want of a singular pronoun, common gender ? 8. Illustrate this by an ex- ample. 9. Write a sentence involving such a construction, in as many different ways as possible, and decide wh'ch is the best, and why ? 10. Id the sentence, — A parent should love hh child ; what principle sanctions /ii«? 11, What principle sanctions the form of the pronouns in the sentences, — "The army proceeded on its march," — *• The court were divided in their opinion ? " 12. What principle limits the use of a plural pronoun referring to the phrase '* Many a.^" 13. Illustrate by an example. 14. What gender do pronouns representing a noun personified take 1 15, Give an example. 16. How do pronouns standing for nouns taken meta- phorically agree with them? 17. Give an example. 18. What principle condemns the change in the form of the pronoun ih the sentence : I laboured long to make thee happy, and you reward me wiih ingratitude? 19. When pronouns of different persons are connected together, what is the usual order of arrangement? 20. Give an example. 47th exercise, personal pronouns. In the following, say which are correct and which are incorrect. State distinctly the principle violated in the false Syntax, and cor- rect it. Give the construction of all the words to which the rule or any remark applies, and repeat the principle. Do the written exercise as directed under Rule Ist. 1. A person's success ia life depends on liis exer* ft ! ! * . 4- H v ^ii *,' fM 214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. tiona. If he shall aim at nothing, he shall certainly achieve nothing. 2. I and my father were invited. 3. The court, in its wisdom, decided otherwise. 4. A man* 8 recollections of the past regulate their anticipa- tions of the future. 5. An invitation was sent to me and George. 6. Society is not always answerable for the conduct of their members. 7. Each of us had more than we wanted. 8. Care for yourself, if you would have others to care for you. 9. If any boy or girl should neglect her duty, they shall forfeit their place. 10. Every one of you should attend to his own business. 11. If thou forget thy friend, can you ex-- pect that your friend will remember thee ? 12. No lady or gentleman would do a thing so unworthy of them. 13. Both cold and heat have its extremes. J4f. One man may do a kindness to another, though he is his enemy. 15. One should not think too highly of himself. 16. You and I must be diligent in our studies. 17. John gave his friend a present which his friend highly valued. 18. A parent's care for her children is not always highly valued. J 9. One or other must relinquish his claim. 20. The committee were divided in their opinions. 21. Let each esteem others better than herself. 22. Neither wealth nor honor confers happiness on their votaries. 23. The earth 'is my mother; I will recline on her bosom. 24. Poverty and wealth have" each its own temptations. 25. That freedom, in its fearless flight, may here an- nounce its glorious reign. 26. As time advances, it leaves behind him the traces of its flight. "Written Exercise. —Place the nnmber attached to each note or remark intler the rule in the margin of your paper, and write, immediately opposite each number, a sentence violating the prin- ciple represented by the number, and under it a correct example. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. SPECIAL RULES. 115. Who is applied to persons, or to things personified ; as, ** The man who " — *• The/oa? who had never seen a lion." RULES OF SYNTAX. 716. Which is applied to thingt and inferior animals, — Bome- times to children, — to collective douds in the singular iinpl^^inp- unity,— and to persons in asking questions. 717. Which applies to a noun denoting a person, when the character, or the name merely as a teord, is referred to ; as, '• He is a good toriter, which is all he professes to be." — "That was the work of Herod, which is but another nanae for cruelty." 718. Thatf as a relative; ia preferable to who or which — 1. After adjectives in the superlative degree — after the worda very, same, and all — often, after no, some, and any — and generally in restrictive clauses. 2. When the antecedent includes both persons and things ; as, " The man and the horse that we saw." 8. After the interrogative who, and often after the personal pro- nouns ; as, *' Who that knew him could ihiuk so T' " / that speak in rigbteuusness." 4. When the propriety of who or which is doubtful ; as, " The little child that was placed in the midst." 719. The relatives who or which and iliat should not be mixed in a series of relative clauses having the same antecedent. 'Ibus it is improper to say, "The mati that met us and whom we saw." It should be, " who met us, or "that we saw." 720. The relative refers sometimes to the idea expressed by an adjective, sometimL-s to the infinitive. But this cunstruciiuu ia rare. 721. The relative in the objective case is often omitted: as, "Here is the 'book I promised you." The relative in the uomiua- tive case ia hardly ever omitted except in poetry ; as — " In this, 'tis God — directs, in that, 'tis nian." 722. What should not be used for the conjunction that. Thus, " I ciinnot believe but what it is so," shouLi be, " but Ih it it is so.'' Also the demonstrative that t-hould nut be used for li>e relative what ; as, " We apeak that we do know," better, *'what we do know." POSITION OV THE RELATIVE. 728. To prevent ambiguity, the relative should be placed aa near its antecedent as possible, so that there can be no uuoer- tainty as to what word it refers. 724. In most instances, the sense will be a sufficient guide in this matter; thus, "They removed their wives and children in wagons covered with the skins ot auiuials, which formed their sim* pie habitations.'' Here the sense only can dftermiue to which of I I 'I 'I -! ir 216 ENOLISH GRAMMAR. the three words, toagons, «A;tn«, or animals, the relative which re- fers. But — 725. When the antecedent cannot be deternained by the sense, it should be detei.nined by the positio.i of the relative, which, as a general rule, should belong to the nearest antecedent. Thus — ** We walked from the house to the ham \ .„. . , . „ 1 1^„„ ^.»«j.^j.f « We walked to the barn from the A^use T**'^^ ^^^ ^*° ^'^^^^^^ Here the relative which^ as determined by its position, refers, in the first sentence, to barn^ and in the second, to house. 726. So also when the antecedents denote the same object, the one being in the subject, and the other in the predicate, the rela* tite takes the person of the one next it ; as, " I am the man who commands you — not ' ' command you." If the relative refer to /, the words should be arranged, " Iwho command you am the man." Hence— 727 A relative clause which modifies the subject should not be placed in the predicate ; thus, " He should not keep a horse that can not ride," should be, " He that cannot ride, should not keep a horse." EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. BELATIVK PROHOUN. 1. To what is who applied! 2. To what is vAtcA applied I 3. What principle sanctions the following use of which, — '* He is a good writer, toAtcA is all he professes to be." I 4. tinder what circumstances should that be preferred to who or which f, 6. Give an example of each. 6. What principle condemns the following usage, — "The man that met us, aod whom we saw."? 8. Oive an example of a relative referring to an adjective or to an infini- tive. 9. What is said of thid construolion ? 10. In what position is the relative frequently i initted, and in what position is it sel- dom omitted ? 11. Give examples. 12. What principle condemns the use of what and that in the expressions, — '' I cannot believe but tohat it is so" — '' We speak that we do know." 12. lu what posi- tion should the relative be placed in relation to its antecedent t 18. Show by an example the importance of this rule. 14. in the sentence, — " I am the man who commands you," — what principle re- quires the verb to be commands and not command. 16. What principle is violated by the position of the relative in the sentence, *' He should not keep a horse that can not ride, nor boots that can not walk!" '* . ,, RULES OF SYNTAX. 48th EXEROISE. the relative feonouk. In the following Bentonces, eay which are correct and which in* correct. State distiaotly the principle violated in the false nyntax, and correct it. Give the construction of the worde to which the rule is applicable, and repeat the rule. Do the writtea ezerciae as di' rected under Rule 1st. 1, Those who seek wisdom will certainly find her. 2. Those who spend their time in idleness must not ex- pect the sympathy of the diligent. 3. The Tiger is a beast of prey who destroys without pity. 4. Oh Thou that art, and who wast, and that art to come ! 5. The court who gives currency to such manners should be exemplary. 6. He needs ho spectacles that can not see, nor boots that cannot walk. 7. Whoever came were made welcome. 8 . Tour friend is one of the com- mittee that was appointed yesterday. 9. The king dis- missed his minister without inquiry, who had never before committed so unjust an action. 10. Everything whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them. 11. The family with whom I lived has left the city. 12. I can not believe but what you have been sick. 13. O Thou hast preserved us, and wilt still preserve us ! 14. It is the best situation which can be got. 15. No man who respects himself would do so mean an action. 16. This is the same horse which we saw yesterday. 17. I who speak unto you am he. Written Exercise. — Place the number attached to each note or remark under the rule in the margin of your pnper, and write immediately opposite each number, a Hentence violating the princi* pie represented by the number, and under it a correct sentence. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 728. Rule XII. — A verb agrees with its subject in number and person ; as "I ready " Thou readest;' " He reads,'' " We read, &c. )) )> =ii \ \i- n * \ t .tf, . . 218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. SPECIAL RULES. 729. Ist. — A singular noun used in a plural sense, has a verb in the plural ; as, Ten sail are in sight." 730. 2nd. — Two or more substantives, singular, taken together, have a verb in the plural ; as, " James and John are here." 731. A sin^alar Dominative and an objective connected by with, sometimes have a plural verb ; as. " The ship with the crew were lost." This construction is incorrect, and should nof; be imitated. A mere adjunct of a suljstantive does not change its number or construction. Either, then, the verb should be singular, "The ship with the crew wax lost," or, if the second substautive is con- sidered as belonging to the subject, it should be connected by and; as, "The ship and the crew were lost." Bat, '782. When substantives connected by and, denote one person or thing, the verb if* KJngular; as, " Why i» dust and atthes proud t" — "The saint, the father, and the hiirihand, prays." — Burns. 783. Singular nouns, preceded by each, every, no, though con- nected by and, have the verb in the singular; as, "Each book and each paper was '.irangHd." — '' Every paper and every book was arranged." — "No book&ud no paper was arran<:t'd." '?34. When a verb, having several nominntives connected by and, is placed after the first, it agrees with that, and is uuderstood to the rest ; as, " Forth in the pleasing spring, Thy beauty- walks, thy tenderness, and love^ — Thomson. 785. When the 8ub?tantires connected are of different persons, the verb in the plural prefers the first to the second, and the second to the third. Tttis can be perceived only in the pronoun. 736 3rd. — Two or more substantives singular, taken separately, or one to the exclusion, of the rest, have a yerb in the singular ; as, " James or John attends " — *' Neither James nor John attends^*-" " John and not [but not] James attends " — " John as well as James attends" — "Not John but Junes attends.^* 737. Singular nouns connected by nor, sometimes have a plural verb. In that case, the verb ilt-nies equally of all, and nor is equivalent to and, connecting the vn separately, are of different numbers, the verb a<;ree8 with the one next it, and the plural Bubjeot is usually placed next the verb; as, *' Neither the captain nor the pallors were saved ; " rarely, " Neither the sailors nor the captain wa» saved." 739. 4th. — Wh6n substantives, taken separately, are of different persons, the verb agrees with the one next it; as, "James or I am in the wrong" — "Either you or he is mistaken" — *' I or thou art to blame." 740. Though sentences are often formed according fo this rule, yet they are generally harsh and inelegant. It is generally better to put the verb with the first substantive, and repeat it with the second; or to express the same idea by arranging the sentence differently ; a", "James is In the wrong or I am" or, "One of us is in the wrong" — " Either you ar« mistaken or he is" — "Tarn to blame or thou art.^^ This remark is sometimes applicable also, when the substantives are of the same person, but different in nuin- ber, and requiring each a different form of the verb ; as. " Either the captain or the sailors were to blame;" otherwise, "Either the captain was to blame, or the sailors were.''* 741. — 5. A collective noun, expressing many, as one WHOLE, has a verb in the singular j as, " The company was large.'* 742. — 2. But when a collective noun expresses many, as individuals, the verb must be plural ; as, " My peo- ple do not consider." 743. It is sometimes difficult to determine whether a collective noun expresses unity or plurality. It is now considered generally best to use the plural, where the singular is not manifestly required. 744. A nominative after " many a " has a verb in the singular ; as, " Full many a flower is born," ? "— ' A^o."— " Is he ut homo? "— " Veti:' These words, are each of them a substitute for a whole Hentence. Amen (an affirmative v(Mb, equivalent to '^ Ih it jo," or, "May it be so,") is also used independently. 708. No before a noun is an adjective ; as, " No many Before an adjective or adverb in the comparative degree, it is an adverb; as, "No taller.'' — "No sooner.'^ In all other cases the proper ne- gative h not ; ns," He will no^como" — "Whether ho cornea or not." rOSITION. 764. 3rd. — Adverbs are for tho most part placed before adjectives, after a verb in the simple form, and after the first auxiliary in the compound form ; as, ** He is very attentive, behaves ivell^ and is much esteemed." 766. Ihib rule applies generally to adverbial phrases, as well as to adverbs. 766. This is to be considered only as a general rule, to which there are many exceptions. Indeed, no rule for the position of the pdverb can be given, \yhich is not liable to exceptions. That order is the best which conveys the meaning with most precision. In order to this, the adverb is sometimes placed before the verb, or at some distance after it. 767. Never, often, altoaya, nometimet^ generally precede the verb. 768. Tho improper positicn of the adverb only often occasions ambiguity. This will generally be avoided, when it refers to a Bentencc or clause, by placing it at the beginning of that sentence or clause ; when it refers to a predleiitc, by placing it before the predicated term ; and when it refers to a subject, h^ placing it after its name or description ; as, "Only acknowledge thine iniquity." — *' The thoughts of his heart are only evil." — " Take nothing for your journey but a staff on/y." These observations will generally be applicable to the words merely, »olely, chiejly, first, at least, and perhaps to a few others. 769. In prose, to, the sign of the infinitive, or rather a part of it, should never be separated by placing an adverb immediately after it. Thus, " They are accustomed to carefully study their lea- RULES OF SYNTAX. 225 MDi," ihould be " to tludy ear^/uUy,^^ or " cartfully to ttudy," kc. 770. The adTerb enough i* oommonly plaQed after the adjeotire which it modifles ; aa, '* A large enough house " — " A house large enough for all." 771. Bver and never are iiometimes improperly oonfounded; thus, " Seldom or ever," should be " Seldom or never J' or " Seldom if ever." Ever eo, referring to quantity or degree, means in what- soever degree. Uenoe, *' Charming never eo wisely," should be " ever to wisely." So, ** JFw«i to much," " ever to wise," dto. 772. As adverbs are indeoliaable, mistakes are liable to be made chiefly in their position, or in using as adverbs, words that are not such, or in using adverbs where other words are required. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. ADVERB. 1. What is the rule for the construction of the adverb? 2. "What is said of adverbn modifyini; nouns and pronouns ? 8. Give nu ex* ample. 4. What is said of an adverb sometimes modifying? a preposition, an adjunct, or a clause of a i^nteiicu ? 6. Give examples. 6. What is tlie rule with reference to using adverbs for adjectives, and adjectives for adverbs ? 7. Give examples. 8. Give instances of usjige contrary to this rule. 9. Give examples of adverbs which tHko the same form as the adjectives from which they are derived. 10. Repeat the adverbs enumerated which have the adjective form as well as the adverbial. 11. Show by exam- ples that the adjective and adverbial forma should be used with discrimination. 12. On what principle is the poetic use of adjec- tives for adverbs explained? 13. What is said of using the preposition frdm, before — hence, thence, whence? 14. What is said of the adverbs hither, thither, whither ? T5. What principle condemns the use of •' where " in the following sentence ? — " They framed a protestation where they repeated their former claims. 16. What IS said of not^, then, when, where, used as nouns, in such phraees as, "till noWf^ " till then?'' 17. What is said of such expressions as, " at once," " far from hence,'^ Act 18. What is said of " there," an used in the sentence, " There came to the beaoh,*' Ac. I 1 9. What is said of two negatives in the same clause ? 20. Illustrate by an example. 21. What principle is the sentence, " There is none righteous, no not one,^' introduced to illustrate ? 22. How are two negatives sometimes used with advantage ? 28. Give an example. 24. What is said of the adverbs raj/, yea, yet, ay^ and the word amen^ 25. What is said of no and notf 26. What general rule is given for the position of the adverb ? 27. Give examples. 28. What is the remark introduced to modify the authority of this rule ? 29. What is the usual position of never. ■I 4 *f \ V If r;J 226 ENGLISH ORAMMAU. often, altoatfn, gometimex, in relation to (he verb ? 80. What cau- tion and directioriB are given respecting the position of the adverb *^oulyf SI. Illustrate by examples. 32. What principle is the following stintence introduced tf) illustrate ? " They are accustomed to carefully stu'ly 'Leir ledHoiis. " 33. What is said of the use of ever and never ? 34. Illustrate this remark by examples. 35. Of what kind are the errors in using adverbs most likely to be f 34th exercise. ADVEBB. In the following, say which are correct and which are incorrect ; state distinctly the principle violated in the false syntax. Give the construction of the words to which the rule or any remark ap- plies and repeat the principle. Do the written exercise as directed under Rule Ist. 1 . " Drink deep or taste not the Pierian Spring." 2. He departed thence into a desert place. 3. Where art thou gone ? 4. He drew up a petition in which he represented hia own merit. 5. I can not do more. 6. We should not be overcome totally by present events. 7. Theism can be opposed only to polytheism. 8. Opon your hand widely. 9. The then emperor was noted for hia cruelty. 10. I will send thee hence to the Gentiles. 11. And he said unto me, " Come up here." 12. ile went to London last year, since when, I have not seen him. 13. He will never be no taller. 14. We should always prefer our duty to our pleasure. 15. Having not known or having not considered the measures proposed, he failed of success. 16. By great- ness, I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the distinctness of a whole view. 17. To make this sentence perspicuous, it will be necessary to entirely remodel it. 18. He was befriended by the then reign- ing duke. 19. From hence ! away ! 20. Correct your heart and all will go rightly. 21 . This happened many days afterward. 22. Not only he found her employed, but pleased and tranquil also. 23. In promoting the public good, we discharge only our duty. 24. She walks graceful. 25. Where I am, there ye can not come. 26 . I have received no information on the sub- 9 RULES OF SYNTAX. 227 ject, neither from him nor from his friend- 27 . In the proper disposition of adverbs, the ear carefully requires to be consulted as well as the sense . 28 . He only read the book, but not the letter . 29 . He spoke eloquently. 30. Be so kind as ^o tell me whether he will do it or no. 31 . They seemed to be dressed nearly alike 32. He chiefly spoke of virtue, not of vice. 32. Our friends arrived safely. 34. His expressions sounded harsh. 35. And soft unlo himself he said. 30. They returned lately in the evening. 37. He spoke quite loudly. 38. He aimed too highly . 39. He came hither. 40. His manners are not inelegant. 41. Whether it is so or no. 42. A large enough house. Written Exkrcise. — Place the number attached to each note or remark in the margin of your paper, and wrile immediately op- posite a sentence violiiting the priiciple represented by the num* Ders, and under it a correct eeuience. 'i I A $\ • "1 TOE PREPOSITION. 773. EuLE XIV. — A Preposition ex- presses the relation between some noun or pronoun depending upon it, and some other word in tlie sentence ; as, He travelled b^ the cars Jram Hamilton to Montreal. '7*74 Under this rule the li.bilily to error arises chiefly from the use of inappropriate pi eijositions. 775. In determining what preposition would be most appropriate in any given case, an -acquaintance with the meaning of words and with the practice of good writers is the only safe guide. The following illus- tration and examples of good usage will serve to direct the attention of the pupil to this important subject. r It f.M 228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Into, from outside to inside. In, inside only. — At, indefinitely in or about. In enclosure, eurroundings. Between or betwixt, two only. Among, three or more. 5y, the agent, and with, the means or manner. A taste of what is enjoyed, a taste for what we wish to enjoy. Disappointed of what is not obtained, disap- pointed in what fails to answer our expectations after it is obtained. Die of disease by an instrument. Compare with, for ascertaining merit, — to, for illustration. Attended by persons, with consequences. Agree with a person, to something proposed, and upon some settlement of affairs. Change for by substitution, aud to or into by alteration. Concur with a person, in a measure, and to an effect. A thing consists of what it is composed of, and consists in what it is comprised in. Conversant with men, and in things. What corresponds with, is consistent with, — and what corresponds to, answers to. Defend and protect yourself against, and others /ro}». Disagree with a person, a« to what is proposed. Usually, expert or skilled in, before an ordinary noun, — and at, when immeidiately before a participle noun. We are famil'pT t027A things, and they are familiar /o us. Indulge u'i/A occas'c ■• ally, and indulge in habitually. We introduce a person to an- other, and a person or thing into a place. Intrude upon a person or thing, and into something enclosed. We usually look /or what is sought, and after what is entrusted to us. Prevail with, on or upon, by persuasion, — and over or against all opposition. Recon- cile one friend to another, and apparent inconsistencies with one another. Reduce under implies subjugation, and reduce to im- plies simply a thing of state. To h ive regard for, and to pay regard to. To unite to means to join to, and frequently as an appendage, — to unite with means to combine with, and generally as a colleague or an equal. To vest authority in a person, and to invest a person with authority. Abhorrence of; abhorrent to, from; access to; accord with; accuse of; adapted to; adequate to; agreeable to; aspire to; brag of; capacity for ; comply with] confide in; conformable to, with ; congenial to, with ; consonant with ; contiguous to ; cured of; deficient in; dependent on; independent o/"; derogate from; derogatory /o ; uestined to; differ /rom, seldom tozVA ; difficulty in; diminish from; diminution of; discourage from', discou* ragement to; disgusted at, with; disparagement to; dissent from; distinct from; eager in, for, after; embark in, for; enamored of, with; enter, entrance on, upon, into; exception from, to, against; exclude from; exclusive of; extracted from; followed by; fond of; fondness /or; foreign to, from; founded on, upon, sometimes in; iree from; glad of, sometimes at; guard against; hanker a//er; inaccessible to; incentive /o; incorp<»rate into, t0tM, sometimes in} indulgent to; influence over^ with, on; initiate into, sometimes in; inrcad into; intermediate between; J >, ri Jame, RULES OF SYNTAX. 239 intervene between; inured to; invested with, in; involved in; join with, to; lame of; land at; level with; long for, after ; made o/; marry ordination is of two sorts, real and nomi- nal ; for example, — " A King or a Queen always rules in England " Here King and Queen being different names for different persons, the disjunction ia real. In all real disjunction the inference is, that if one of two (or more) individuals (or classes) do not perform a certain action the other does. 782. " A Sovereign or Supreme Governor always rules in Eng- land." Here the disjunction is nomina.}, Sovereign and Supreme Governor being different names for the same person. In all nom- inal disjunction, the inference is, that if an agent (or agents) do not perform a certain action under one name, he does or they do it under another. 783. J^ is sometimes employed for whether ; as, He doubts if two and two make four. This usage should be avoided. 784. The conjunction is often omitted. 785. The adjective all is sometimes used with neatness in poetry to supply the place of a copulative conjunction; as. All heatt they live, all head, all eye, all ear, all intellect, all sense." — Para* dise Xoat. • ^86. When two or more verbs in the tenses, formed by auxiliaries, or in the progressive or emphatic form, or in the passive voice, are connected, the auxiliary expressed with the first, may be understood to the rest ; as, " He can neither read nor wrt^e."— " Diligence thould be commended and rewarded." Still, however, the repetition of the auxiliary is often more emphatic ; as, " They shall come, and they thall declare his truth." 787. Verbs of the same mood, tense or form, connected as a compound predicate, have the nominative expressed with the first, and understood to the rest ; as, " Caesar earner saw and conquered." But— 788. When verbs connected are not in the same mood, tense or form, and especially if contrast or opposition expressed by butt though, yet, is intended, the nominative is frequently repeated; as, " He came, but he would not stay." 789. This, however, is to be regarded only as a general direction, in accordance with, perhaps, the majority of cases, but to which, as a rule, there are many exceptions. The object aimed at is to se- cure euphony and perspicuity ; and whea these are preserved with- <>ut repeating the nominative, it maybe omitted; as, '* The two 4' ■II-' ■1 If 232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. charges had been^ and still are^ united in one person." — ^orth British Review, 790. After expressions implying doubt, fear, or denial, the con* junction that is properly used — not leet, but, but that ; as, *' I do not doubt that he t> honest." — " I am afraid that he will die." — Also, what should never be used for that. Thus, " He will not believe but what 1 am to blame," should be, *' but that I am to blame." 791. Certain words in the antecedent member of a sentence, require corresponding connectives in the sub- sequent one ; thus — 1. In clauses or words simply connected — Both requires and; as, " Both he and I came." Either ■ or ; as, ** Either he or I ■will come." Neither nor ; as, " Neither he nor I came." Whether or ; as, " Whether he or I came.'' Though yet ; as, " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. Not only — — but aho; as, ^'Not only he but also his brother goes." 2. In clauses connected so as to imply comparison — The comparative degree requires than ; as, " He is taller than I am." Other requires than ; as, " It is no other than he." Ehe As So So Such Such ' than ; as, " What else do you expect than this.' •as (expressing equality) ; as, " He is a» tall da I am. «o (expressing equality); as, " As thy day is, so shall thy strength be." — — a« (with a negative expressing inequality) ; as, " He is not so learned as his brotner.*' that (expressing consequence); as, ** He is so weak that he can not walk." 08 (expressing similarity) ; as, "Ha or such as he." — -4t teuse in the leadini;; clause. Thus, we can say, " I bclievod he Dad done it," but not, " I hoped he had done it ; " because belief may refer to what is past, but hope always refers to something future. 811. Whenthouldia used instead of ought, to express present duty, it maybe followed by the present or present-perfect; as, ** You ihould study, that you may become learned." The indicative present is frequently used after the words whcn^ tillj bejore, as toon at, after, to express the relative time of a future action; as, " When he com««,he will be welcome." When placed before the pretent-perfect indicative, these words denote the coropletioD of a future action or event; as, " He will never be better /t// he hat felt the pangs of poverty." 812. A verb in the infinitive mood must be in the pretent e, when it expresses what is contemporary in point of time, w; J governing verb, or subsequent to it ; ns, "He appeared to be a man of letters." — " The apostles were determined to preach the gospel." Hence, verbs denoting hope, detire, intention^ or command, must be followed by the pretent injinitive, and not by the perfect. 813. But the perfect infinitive must be used to express what is antecedent to the time of the governing verb; as, <* Romulua is •aid to have founded Rome." EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. OOMNEOTION OF TENSES. 1. What care must be taken in expressing the different relations of timet 2. Illustrate by examples. 8. What must determine the particular teuse [troper to be used in any case 't 4. By what tense must a general truth bo expressed ? 5. Give examples. 6. In connection with words denoting an extent of time ooutinned to the present, what tense should be used ? 7. Give an example. 8. What principle is violated in the sentence, — '* I have formerly mentioned his attachment to study." 9. When should the past tense be used ? 10. When should the past perfect be used? 11. Illustrate by an example. 12. What is essential in the relation of time, to make the use of the past perfect tense proper ? 18. What principle is the sentence, — " We arrived an hour before sunset," RULES OP SYNTAX. 239 iDtroduced to illustrate? 14. What principle are the following ■enteDces introduced to illustrate ? — " I can do it now, if I chooM. — " I shall do it, when I can." — *' I onco could do it, hot I would not."—" J had mentioned it to him that he might hav0 ttopped had h€ ehoten.'^ 16. In accordance with what principle it, '* I believed he had done it,"— correct, and, " I hoped he had done it," — in- correct t 16. What principle is the following venteuce introduced to illustrate ? — " You ihould study, that you may become learned V* 17. What principles are the following sentences introduced to il- lustrate t— '* When he comes he will be welcome.*' — " He will never be better till he ha$ fell the pangs of poverty." 18. What principle are the following sentences introduced to illustrate?— " He apneared to be a man of letterf<."— " The Apostles were de- termineu to preach the Oospel." 19. By what tense of the in- finitive must verbs denoting fwpe, detirey intention, command, be* followed? 20. Why? 21. What must the perfect iofiuitive be used to eipress ? 22. Illustrate by examples. 54th exercise. oonnkotion of tkn8es. In the following, say which are correct and which incorrect y state distinctly the principle violated iu the false syntax, and coirect it; give the construction of the words to which the rule or any remark applies, and repeat the rule. 1 . The doctor said that fever always produces thirst . 2. I knew 1 he family more than twenty years. 3. lie has lately lost an only son . 4 . After Columbus made liis preparations, he set out on his voyage of discovery. ,5 . I should be obliged to him if he would gratify me in that particular. 6. We had hoped that Lord Nugent would have been able to collect much new and interest- ing information. 7. He should study diligently, that he may become learned. 8. We shall welcome him when he arrives. 9. From the little conversation I had with him, he appeared to be a man of learning. 10. Kirstall abbey, now in ruins, appears to have been an extensive building. II. The philosopher said that heat always expanded metals. 12. I am now at school six months. 13. He has been formerly very disorderly. J 4. When we had finished our lessons we went out to play. 15. Ye will not come to me, that ye may have life. 16. Columbus hoped that he would render the natives tri- butary to the crown of Spain. 17. We should respect P 4 ih I 1 i 240 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. those persons, because they continued long attached to us. 18. As soon as he shall return we will recommence our studies. 19. Our friends intended to have met us. 20. Lycurgus, the Spartan law-giver, is said to be born in the nine hundred and twenty-sixth year before Christ. 21. He said that was immutable. 22. My brother was sick four weeks, and is no better. 23. 1 once or twice told the story to our friend before he went away. 24. He has" done it yesterday. 25. Some one has long ago told the same story. 26. He that had been dead sat up and began to speak. 27« Be wise and good that you might be happy. 28. We expected that they would have come. 29. A prisoner is not accounted guilty till he be convicted. 30. He was afraid he would have died. 31. He tells lies long enough. 32 When he had ar- rived at the place, we delivered the letters which we pre- viously procured. 33. He was told his danger, that he might shun it. 34. They have continued with m^ now three days. 35. It was a strange thing to me, for I had never seen such a thing before. 36. When I came, he was gone. INTERJECTIONS. 814. Rule XVIII. — Interjections have no grammatical connection with other words in a sentence. 815. After interjection?, pronouns of the first person are com- monly in the objective case ; those of the eecond in the nomina- tive ; as, " Ah me ! "— *' thou ! " 816. In neither of those, however, doefl the case depend on the interjection. The objective is commonly thought to be governed by a word understood; thus, "Ah [p%] me P* — "Ah [what will become of me ! " The nominative form is commonly the indepen* dent by address. ELLIPSIS. 817. As a general rule, the fewer the words are, by which we express our ideas, RULES OF SYNTAX. 241 the better, provided the meaning is clearly brought out. This may often be done without using all the words necessary to the full grammatical form of a sentence, and hence, as the tendency always is to abbreviate speech, such words *as can be spared, according to the usage of the lan- guage, are properly omitted. 818. 1. — An ellipsis, or omission of words, is admissible when they can be supplied by the mind with such certainty and readiness as not to obscure the sense . Accordingly — 819. When the different clauses of a Compound Sentence have either the same subject, or the same predicate, or the same object, or the same extensions, the element which is common to each cO' ordinate part is not necessarily repeated. For example — , EXTENDED FORM. ** Wheat grows well in this land, and barley grows well in this land."' " The hurricane tore down trees, and the hurricane overturned houses." ** He is a wise man, he is a good " He is a wise, good, and pair! • man, he is a patriotic man." otic man." "God sends rain on the evil, and "God sends rain on the evil and God sends rain on the good." on the good." "He is an honest, learned, and well-bred man." 820. A variety of contractions may be combined in one sentence. 821. The verb to he, with its subject, in dependent clauses, is often omitted after the connectives, if, though, yet, when, &c. ; as, "Study, if [it is] neglected, becomes irksome." — "Though [he was] poor, he was honest." 822. In poetry, verba which express address or answer, are often omitted; as, "To him the prince [replied]" Also, when the words connected readily indicate what the verb must be, if ex- pressed; as, "III hence to London"— "I'll in"—*^Auat/, old man!"— /S/iaA;«.—<* Up, up, Glenarkiu !"— TT. Scott. 823. Adverb. — When an adverb modifies more words thao one, ABRIDGED FORM. " Wheat and barley in this laud." grow well ' The hurricane tore down trees and overturned houses." t m •■il 1, ''I 242 ENGLISH 'GRAMMAR. it is placed only with th^" last ; as, " He spoke and acted grace- fully." 824. Conjunction. — When several words and clauses come to- gether in the same construction, the conjunction is sometimes omitted entirely, sometimes between each pair, and sometimes before all except the last ; as, " He caused the blind to see, the lame to walk, toe deat to hear, the lepers to be cleansed." — " We ran hither and thither, seeking novelty and change — sympathy and pastime— communion and love." — " Youth is the season of joy, of blise, of strength, and of pride." 826. Imtbrjeotion. — The interjections are never omitted, but, in the expresaion of sudden emotion, all but the most important words are commonly omitted ; as, " Well done t " for, •' That is Well done !'' Also, after interjections, there is often an ellipsis of the obvious word ; as, " for a lodge," Ac, that is, " how Hong for a lodge," &c. — " A horse 1 a horse I my kingdom for a horse ! " that is, " Bring me a horse. / would give my kiugdum for a horse." 826. 2. — An ellipsia is not allowable, when ifc would obscure the sentence, weaken its force, or be attended with an impropriety ; as, *' We speak that we do know,'* for that which, &c. 827. In general, no word should be omitted by ellipsis, that is necessary to the usual construction or harmony of a sentence, or to render the meaning peispicuous. 828. Articles, pronouns, and prepositions, should always be repeated when the words with which they stand conuected are used emphatically. Under such circurnstuiice-, even nouns, adjec- tives, and verbs, must often be repeated ; as, " Not only the year, but the day and the hour were appo'.nted." 829. It is generally improper, except in poetry, to omit the an- tecedent to a relative; aud it is always improper to omit a rela- tive, when it is in the nominative. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. ELLIPSIS. 1. Under the head of Ellipsis, what is the general principle laid down f 2. What is the first rule given on the subject of ellipsis? 3. To what geueral principle may most instances of ellipsis be reduced? 4. Illustrate by example. 5. "Study, if neglected, becomes irksome," — what principle of ellipsis does this sentence illustrate? 6. What omissions are very common iu poetry ? 7. Illustrate by an example. 8. What principle does th> following sentence illustrate f 9. " He spoke and acted grace- 9 RULES OF SYNTAX. 243 fully." 10. Under whnt circumstances is the connective either wholly or partinlly omitted ? 11. Give examples. 12. After in- terjections what omissions are common? 18. Qive example;). 14. When is an ellipsis not allowable, according to the second rule? 15. What words, as a (general principle, should not be omitted ? 16. Under what circumstances is it said that articles, pronouns, prepo- sitions, and even nouns, adjectives and verbs, should not bo emit- ted? 17. Illustrate by examples. 18. What is said of the omis- sion of the antecedent to a relative, and of tho relative itself? 19. Illustrate by examples. 55Te EXERCISE. ON ELLIPSIS. In the following sentences, omit such words as are not necessary to the sense, and refer the omission to its proper principle : — 1 . Cicero waa an eloquent man, an able man, a gener- ous man, and be waa a truly patriotic man. 2. 1 venerate him, I respect him, I love him, on account of his virtues. 3. Genuine virtue supposes our benevolence to be strengthened and to be confirmed by principle. 4. We often commend imprudently, as well as censure impru- dently. 5. He is temperate, he is disinterested, he is benevolent. 6. He regards the truth, but thou dost not regard it. 7. Who best can suffer best can do. 8. A beautiful garden and trees were sold. 9. His honor, interest, religion, were all embarkc d in this undertak- ing. 10. Many days and even weeks passed away un- improved. 11. His conduct is not scandalous, and that is the best can be said of it. 12. That is a property most men have, or at least may attain. 13. This property- has or will be sold. 14. You suppose him younger than I. 15. He may be said to have spared the life of a citizen, and consequently entitled to the reward 14. A noble spirit disdaineth the malice of fortune ; his greatness of soul is not to be cast down. PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. ON THE FOREGOING EULBS AND PB1NCIPLE8. la the following sentences some are correct and some are incor- rect. Say which are correct and which are incorrect. State dis- tinctly the principle violated in the incorrect sentences and correct "\ i 1 ■ ! f ! / ■ / \ ■if> ■j j* 1 4 ' ') 111 ■Mi' 244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. them. Give the construction of all incorrect words and of such others as may bo called for. 66th exercise. Too great a variety of studies perplex and weaken the judgment. — I called to see you, but you were not at home. — The crown of virtue is peace and honor. — In the human species, the influence of instinct and habit is generally assisted by the suggestions of reason . — They were both unfortunate, but neither of them were to blame. — We arrived safe at our joumey*s end. — That is a matter of no consequence between you and I. — They that seek knowledge will find it. — Our wel- fare and security consist in unity. — The love of virtue, and devotion to pleasure, is opposed to each other . — All the world are spectators of your conduct. — No- . thing is more lovely than virtue. — He is taller than me, but I am stronger than him. — Neither riches or beauty furnish solid peace and contentment. — The abuse of mercies ripen us for judgments. — A man's manners frequently influence his fortune. — Much de- pends on this rule's being observed. — Such will ever be the effect of youth associating with vicious com- panions. — It has been fully shown that neither of them are correct. — Three months' notice are required to be given previous to a pupil's leaving of the school . — He employed another friend of his father to assert his claim — [whose claim ?] — It is remarkable his con- tinual endeavours to serve us. — Whatever antiquities he could procure, he purchased at any price. — I am not so well as when you were here.— This mode of ex- pression has been formerly in use . 57th exercise. He stated long ago that he had attended to the matter — Twice three are six. — As two are to four, so are six to twelve. — Five is the half of ten. — One man and one boy are sufficient. — Two are better than one . — Two are an even number — three are not. — Two are twice one. — Five men are too many for such a piece rt re ce RULES OF SYNTAX. 245 of work — three are too few. — Molasses is thicker than water. — The measles are spreading through the country. — The news by the last arrival is better than was expected, — We hoped to have heard from you before this. — Do you not think he writes well ? — James is as tall if not taller than I am. — He puts down the mighty and exalteth the humble. — Piety towards God, as well as sobriety and virtue, is necessary to happiness. — Take care who you admit into your friendship. — If I was him, I would take more care for the future.- — We were in Havre when the revolution broke out at France. — That is the man and the horse which we met before. — George was the most enterprising young man whom I ever saw. — All that were present were pleased with the entertain- ment.— *This excellent person was fully resigned either to live or to die. — To enjoy health and to live in peace, are great blessings. — Which dictionary do you prefer, Webster or Walker ? 58th exercise. Though this event be strange, it certainly did-happen. — If he but consider the subject, he will no doubt change his opinion.— Ignorance is the mother of fear, as well as of admiration. — Among every class of people, self-interest prevails. — Many ridiculous customs have been brought into use during the last hundred years. — Is there no person who yoli can send on that business ? — That is a property most men have, or at least may attain. — The pyramids of Egypt have stood more than three thousand years. — When the nation complain, the rulers should listen to their voice. — Who say the people that I am? — They that honor me, I will honor. — He only got the money for a few days . — He was evidently mistaken in his calculations. — No man is fit for free con- versation, for the enquiry of truth, if he be exceedingly reserved ; if he be haughty and proud of his knowledge ; if he be positive and dogmatical in his opinions ; if he be one who always affects to outshine all the company ; if he be fretful and peevish ; if he affect wit, and is full Mi 'J m 246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. of puns, or quirks or quibbles. — A good end does not warrant using of bad means. — Humility neither seeks the last place or the last word. — Either wealth or power may ruin its possessor. — Avoid lightness and frivolity ; they are allied to folly. — Do you know to whom you are talk- ing? — O that the winter was gone ! — We can fully con- fide in none but the truly good. — He was accused of acting unfairly, or at least in a manner ill adapted to conciliating regard. 59th exercise. There is more business done in New York than in any city of the United States. — If there were better manage- ment, there would be greater security. — Every year, every day, and every hour, brings its changes. — Whom say ye that I am ? — Many a youth has ruined liis pros- pects for life by one imprudent step. — No power was ever yet entrusted to man without liability to abuse. — A conceited fool is more abominable than other fools. — A constant display of graces are fatiguing to a sober mind. — Expectation and reality make up the sum total of life. — Music, the love of it, and the practice of it, seems to pervade all creation. — The intellectual and the moral censor both have the same ends in view. — I was engaged formerly in that business, but I never shall be again concerned in it. — We frequently do those things which we afterwards repent of. — Shall you attain success with- out that preparation, and escape dangers without that precaution which is required of others ? — That picture of your mother is a very exact resemblance of her. — ^The winter has not been as severe as we expected it to have been. — In reference to that transaction, he deserved punishment as much or more than his companions. — ^ Every one of those pleasures that are pursued to excess convert themselves into poison. — Thou Lord, who hast permitted affliction to come upon us, shalt deliver us from it in due time. — The sea appeared to be more than usually agitated — By these attainments is the master honored and the scholar encouraged. — The temple con- sisted of one great and several smaller edifices. ENGLISH COMPOSITION, >' COMTAININtt A BRIEF EXPOSITION OP ITS GENEE,AL PRINCIPLES, ACCOMPANIED WITH PROGRESSIVE EXERCISES, DESIGNED TO BE TAKEN UP IN CONNECTION WITH PART III. Composition is the art of arranging our thoughts and expressing them in appropri- ate language. It is of two kinds, Prose and Poetry. Prose compositions are those in which the thoughts are ex* pressed in the natural order, in common and ordinary language. Poetic compositions are thoBe in which the thoughts and senti- ments are expressed in measured verse, in loftier and more inverted style, by words and figures selected and arranged so as to please the ear, and captivate the fancy. In both of these, speech or discourse is either direct or indirect. Direct discourse is that in which a writer or speaker delivers his own sentiments. Indirect or oblique discourse is that in which a person relates, in his own language, what another speaker or writer said. In the^r«^, when the speaker refers to himself, he uses i\iQ first person / or we. When he refers to the person or persons addressed, he uses the second person thou, you, &.q. In the second or indirect discourse, whether the cpeaker is re* ported to be referring to himself, or to those whom he addresses, the third person is used in either case; as, he, she, they, ^c. An example will best illustrate the distinction. Thus : DIREOT DISCOURSE. Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars hill and said : " Ye men of Athens, I perceive that in all things ye are too superstitious ; for as I passed by and beheld your devotions, I found an altar with ^1^ 1 1 i 1 ? ;,:, ■' ^m 1 ,,|||S 'r- ''^pS f ';f| m >i M ;L i.M^m 248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. this inscription : ' To tiik Unknown Gon.' "Whom, therefore, yc igoorantly worship, him declare I unto you." INDIRECT DISCOUnSE. The same, reported in indirect or oblique discourse, would run thus: Then Paul, standing on Mars hill, told the men of Athens, he perceived that in all thin«;8 they were too superstitious ; for as he passed by and beheld their devotioni, he found an altar with this inscription: "To the Unknown God." Whom, therefore, they jgnorantly worshipped, him declared he unto them. When the reporter, the speaker reported, and the person or persons addressed, are different in gender or number, there is no danger of ambiguity. But when in these respects they are the same, ambiguity is unavoidable, from the same pronoun being used in the progress of the discourse, to designate different per- sons. Hence, to prevent mistakes, it is often necessary to insert the name or designation of the person meant by the pronoun. An example will best illustrate this also : — " Then the son went to his father and said to hida, [direct^ * I have sinned against heaven and in thy sight." *' Then the son went to his father and said to him \indirect'\ that he (the son) had sinned against Heaven and in his (his father's) sight." It will at once be perceived, that, without the words enclosed in brackets, for explanation, it would be impossible to tell whether by the word Aa, the father or the Bon was intended ; so also with respect to the word his. Hence, when by the indirect discourse, ambiguity is unavoidable, it is generally better to have recourse to the direct form, and quote the writer's or speaker^s own words. The principal kinds oi prose composition are— -narratives, betters, memoirs, history^ biography, essays, philosophy^ sermons, novels, speeches, and orations. The principal kinds of poetical composition are — the epigram, the epitaph, the sonnet, pastoral poetry, didactic poetry, satires, descriptive poetry, elegy, lyric poetry, dramatic poetry, and epic poetry. THE USE OF GRAMMAR IN COMPOSITION. To speak and write with propriety, in every species of com- position, is an attainment of no small importance: and to lead to this attainment is the business of grammar. The grammar of a language is a just compilatien of rules and directions, agre-ably to which, that language is spoken or written. These rules, how- ever, are not the invention of the grammarian, nor dependent on his authority for their validity. As it is the business of the ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 249 philosopher, not to make a law of Nature, not to dictate how her operationn shoul d be performed, but, by close observation, to ascertain what those laws are, and to state them for the informa- tion of others ; so the busiocas of the i^ramraarian is, not to make the laws of language, for language ia before grammar, but to obeerve and note those princi pies, and forms and modes of speech, by which men are accustomed to express their sentiments, and to arrange the result of his observation into a system of rules for the guidance and aseistanoe'of others. It is obvious, then, that the ultimate principle or tett to which the rules laid down by the grammarian must conform, is the best usage. Hence, when the inquiry is whether a particular word or form of speech is right, is good Engliih, the only question to be decided is, " Is it according to the good usage F" On this subject, however, it has been made a question, " What is good usage ? " The following sentiments, abridged from Dr. Crombie's work on English Etymology and Syntax, seem to be just, and comprehensive of this wliole subject. THE LAW OF LANGUAGE. The USAGE which gives law to language, in order to establish its authority, or to entitle its suffrage to our assent, must be in the first place reputable, by which is meant, not the usage of the court, nor great men, nor merely scientific men ; but of those whose works are esteemed by the pu6/tc, and who may therefore be denominated reputable authors. In the second place this usage must be national. It must not be confined to this or that province or district. " Those," to use Campbell's apposite similitude, "who deviate from the beaten road may be incomparably more numerous than those who travel in it ; yet, in whatever number of by-paths the former may be divided, there may not be found in any one of these tracts so many OS travel in the king's highway." Thirdly, this usage must be present. It is difficult to fix with any precision what usage may in all cases be deemed present. It is perhaps in this respect different with different compositions. Ia general, words and forms of speech which have been long disused, should not be employed. And so, on the contrary, the usage of the present day ia not implicitly to be adopted. Mankind are fond of novelty, and there is a fashion in language as there is in dress. Whim, vanity, and affectation, delight in creating new words, and using new forms of phraseology. Now, to adopt every new-fangled upstart at its birth, would argue, not taste, nor judg- ment, but childish fondness for singularity and novelty. But should any of these maintain its ground, and receive the sanction of reputable usage, it must in that case be received. .14 1 n ¥^ 250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The usage, tlicn, which givea hiw to language, and which is generally denominated good usai^o, muHt bo re^mtable, national, and pre$etit. It happens, however, that "good usage" is not always uniform in her decisions, and (hat in unquestionable authorities are found far diiTcrent modcn of expression. In such cascH, the following canons, proposed by Dr. Campbell, will bo of service \n enabling to decide to wiiich phraseology tlio preferonoo ought to be given. They aro given nearly in the words of the author : — Canon 1. — When usage is divided as to any particular wt)rds or phrases, and when ono of the expressions is susceptible of a different meaning, while the olher admits of only ove signification,^ the expression which is strictly univocal should be preferred. Canon 2. — In doubtful ciises, analogy should be regarded. Canon 3. — When expressions are in other respects equal, that should be preferred which is mott agreeable to the ear. Canon 4. — When none of the preceding rules apply, regard should be had to iymplicity. But though no expression or mode of speech can bo justified which is not sanctioned by usage, yet the converse does not follow, that every phraseology sanctioned by usage should \>e retained. In many such cases, custom mxy properly be checked by oritioismf whose province it is, not only to remonstrate against the introduc- tion of any word or phraseology which may be either unnecessary or contrary to analogy, but also to exclude whatever is reprehen- sible, though in general use. It is by this, her prerogative, that languages are gradually refined and improved. In exercising this authority, she cannot pretend to degrade, instantly, any phrase- ology which she may deem objectionable ; but she may, by repeated remonstrances, gradually effect its dismission. Her de- cisions in such cases may be properly regulated by the following rules, laid down by the same author : — RuLK 1. — A.11 words and phrases, particularly harsh and not absolutely necessary, should be dismissed. RuLK 2. — When the etymology plainly points to a different signification from what the word bears, propriety and symplicity require its dismission. RuLB 8. — When words become obsolete, or are never used but in particular phrases, they should be repudiated, as they give the style an air of vulgarity and of cant, when this general disuse, renders them obscure. ENOM8H COMPOSITION. 251 RuLK 4. — All wonis aud phrases which, analyzed gram* niatically, iuclude a Boleciem, shuuld bo dismissed. RuLK 6. — All expressions which, according to the established rules of languages, either have no meaning, or inyolve a contradic- tion, or, according to the fair construction of the words, convey a meaning different from the intention uf the speaker, should be dismissed. HINTS FOR CORRECT AND ELEGANT WRITING. Correct and elegant writing depends partly upon the choice of wordfl, and partly upon the form and structure of sentences. In ovder to write any language with grammatical purity, three things are required : — 1. That the words be all of that language. The violation of this rule is called a barbarittn. 2. That they be construed and arranged according to the rules of syntax in that language. A violation of this rule is called a solecism. 8. That they be employed in that sense which U8a;3:e has annexed to them. A violation of this rule is called impropriety. A barbarism is an offence against lexicography. The solecism is an offence against the rules of syntax ; and the impropriety is an offence against lexicography, by mistaking the meaning of words and phrases, I. In so far as respects sing^le words, the chief things to be observed are purity, propriety, and precision, puEixy. Purity consists in the rejection of such words and phrases as are not strictly English, nor in accordance with the practice of good writers or speakers. 1. Avoid foreign words and modes of expression ; as, *' Fraicheur" — ^^ politesse"-'^' Me repents him of his folly." 2. Avoid obsolete and unauthorized words ; as, albeit, aforetime^ inspeetator, judgmatical, PROPRIBTY. Propriety consists in the use of such words as are best adapted to express our meaning. 1. Avoid low and provincial expredsions ; as, " To get into a scrape." 4 ■ 1 ' 1 r t ' *t '■*-■ ^ . '^^1 . t f : \mf :-■ '■- i' '; ;|:<1 lM £52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. lo writiog proso, reject words that are merely poetical ; at. " Thi« morn."— •• The cefeBtial orbi." 3. Aroid torhnical tcrnifl, uiilusi you write to those who per- fectly UDderstaod them. 4. Do out use the Hame word too frequently, or in different seDsefl ; as, Tlio king communioated his ir)teiition to the miuiiter, vho disclosed it to tlte secretary, who made it known to the pub- lic." — "ilis own reason might have suggested better reaiont." 6. Supply words that are wantinpf, and necessary to complete the sense. Thus, ioHtcad of " This action increased his former ser- ▼ices." say, " This action increased the merit of his former ser- vices." 6. Avoid equivocal or ambigious expressions, as, " His mmtorij shall be lost on the earth." 7. Avoid uniutelligihle and inconsistent expressions; as, "I have an opaque idea of what you mean." FRECISION. Prcc'sion rejects superfluous words. 1. Avoid tatttology ; as, " His /ai^/i/ttM««« and fidelity are un- equalled." 2. Observe the exact meaning of words aooounted synonymous. Thus, instead of " Though his actions and intentions were good, be lost his character" say, " He lost his repui^^ion" II. With respecii to sentences, elearneaa, unity^ strength, and a proper application of the figures of 'peech, are necessary. CLEARNlUiS. Olearness demands a proper arrangement of words. 1. Adverbs, relative pronouns, and explanatory phrases, must be placed as near as possible to the words which they affect and in such a situation as the sense requires. 2. In prose, a poetic collocation must be avoided. 8. Pronouns must be so used as clearly to indicate the word for which they stand. UNITT. Unity retains cue predominant object through a sentence, or a series of clauses. 1. Separate into distinct sentences such clauses as have no im- mediate connection. 2. The principal words must, throughout a sentence, be the most prominent, and the leading nominative should, if possible, be the Bubject of every clause. KirOLIBH COMPOSITION. 253 n. Avoid the introduotion of pnrentlieses, except when a Ilvelj remark may bo tliruwu in, without tuo long luipendiug the seuse of what goes before. STRENOTH. strength givea to every word, and every member, its due importance. 1. Avoid tautology, and reject all Buperfluous words and mem- bers. In the following sentence, the word printed in italics should be omitted : " Being conscious of his own integrity, he disdained submission." 2. Place the most importatit word« in (he situation in which they will make the strongest iuipressiun . 8. A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger; and, when the sentence cousists of two members, the longer should be the concluding one. 4. When two things are compared or contrasted with each other, where either resemblance or opposition is to be expressed, some resemblance in the language should be preserved. 6. A sentence should not be concluded with a preposition, or any inconsiderable word or phrase, unless it is emphatic. FIGURES or BFXEOH. 1. Figurative language must be used sparingly, and never, except when it serves to iUustrate or enforce what is said. 2. Figures of speech, when used, should be such as appear natural, not remote or foreign from the subject, and not pursued too far. 8. Literal and figurative language ought never to be blended together. 4* When figurative language is U3ed, the same figure should be preserved tliroughout, and differeut figures never jumbled together. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. GENERAL PRINCIPLES 09 COMPOSITION. 1. What is composition I 2. Explain the difference between prose and poetic composition. 8. Distinguish between direct and indirect discourse. 4. Illustrate by an example of each . 6. In indirect discourse, from what cause is there liability to ambiguity ? 6. What are the principal kinds of prose composition f 7. Select a specimen of each, to be submitted, or read in the class. 8. What are the principal kinds of poetical composition f 9. Select a speci- men of each, to be submitted, or read in the class. 10. What is the chief object to be kept in view in the study of English Gram* Ml s 'i 'A ■^ 254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. mart 11. Of what does the grammar of a language coDsist ? 12. Od what authority do the rules and principles laid down in grammar rest? 13. What, then, is the ultimate authority by which the correctness of these rules must be tested ? 14. What, then, is the precise meaning of the enquiry, — " Is any particular word or form of speech right?" 15. What three characteristics must the UHage, which gives law to language, possess ? 1 6. What 18 meant by saying, the usage must be reputable ? 17. To what is reputable use opposed \ 13. What is meant by saying the usage must be national? 19. To what is national use opposed? 20. What is meant by saying the usage must be pretent? 21. To yfhvii \6 prenent UM opposed? 22. Is good usage always uniform in her decisions ? 23. When writers of authority differ, and good usage is divided, how are we to decide which shall have the pre- ference? 24. How many canons are given to aid in deciding in such cases? 26. Repeat the ^r«< canon, and illustrate its ap* plication by an example ? ? 3. Repeat the second canon, and illus- trate its application by an example, 27. Repeat the third canon, and illustrate its application by an example. 28. Repeat the fourth cai^on, and illustrate its application by an example. 29. Does it follow that every expression sanctioned by good usage should be retuined ? 30. What, tli^n, is the province of criticism ? 31. How many rules are laid down to regulate criticism? 32. Repeat them, and give an illustration of the application of each. 33. In order to write or speak a language ^\i\\ grammatical purity what three things are required ? 34. What is the violation of the first cailed ? 85. Give an example. 86 What is a violation oi the second called ? 37. Give au example. 38. What is a viola- tion of the third called ? 39. Give an example. 40. Against what is each, respectively, an offence? 41. The correct and ele- gant use of language depends upon what ? 42. So hr as respects single words, what are the three chief things to be observed ? 43. In vhat does purity consist ? 44. What two classes of words does pur* ty require to be avoided? 45. Give examples. 46. In what does propriety consist ? 47. What six things does propriety re- quire to be avoided ? 48. Give an example of each. 49. What is required by precision ? 60. What does precision require to be avoided and to be observed? 61. Give an illustration of each, 62. With respect to sentences, what four things are mentioned as necessary I 63. What is demanded by clearness? 54. What three things are specified as essential to clearness? 55. What is required by unity? 56. What three things are specified as requi- Bita to secure unity? 57. What is demanded by «/r«7i^f A ^ 58. What five directions are given to aid in securing this quality in pentences? 69. What four directions are given with reference to the use of figures ? ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 255 IS li- ON THE COMPOSITION OF SENTENCES. SIMPLE SENTENCES. All thoughts are expressed by means of sentences. The forming of sentences is therefore the first step in composition. The simple sentence is the basis of com- position, and the foundation of all other sentences. It is called simple, because it is the expression of a single thought, and contains only one subject and one pre- dicate. All other sentences are merely combinations of simple sentences. They must, therefore, contain two or more subjects and two or more predicates. The subject is that of which something is affirmed ; the predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject. Subject. 1. Birds 2. Some birds 3. Some birds of prey 4. Some birds of prey, having Becured their prey EXAMPLES. Predicate. fly. fly swiftly, fly very swiftly. fly very swiftly with it to their nests. In the first example we have the simplest form of the subject and predicate ; in the other three we have ex- panded forms. (See example, page 135.) When the predicate contains a transitive verb, it must be completed by its object. Subject. 1. My cousin 2. My earnest cousin always prepares EXAMPLE. Predicate. prepares Object. his lessons, his most diflicult les- sons. 3. My earnest cousin, ) always prepares tho- ) his most diffioult William ) roughly on Saturday j Greek lessons . IsT EXERCISE. COMPOSITION OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 1. Simple Subject. Complete the sentences by supplying simple subjects. I 'k. ■;• mmm 256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Flows from the mountain. Are covered with scales. Re- volves round the sun. Moans through the trees. Fought bravely. Is conducive to health. Is attended with diflSculty. Was the father of Ale^nder the Great. Live by Carnage. Constitute the Canadian Parliament. Would here be out of place. Are the comforts of home. Agreed in our opinion. Is the soul of friendship. The teacher can extend these exercises, should it be thought necessary. 2nd EXERCISE. JExpanded Subjects. Complete the seutences in the last exercise, by sup- plying expanded subjects. Srd exercise. Simple Predicate. Complete the sentences by supplying appropriate simple predicates. The grateful mind. The sun. The dew. Quarrelsome persons. Some species. An unruly tongue. A dark- cloud. Most men. Each year. Nothing in nature. The veteran warrior. Some ants. The Nile. The soil of Canada. The City of Toronto. The river St. Lawrence. Toronto University. The confederation of the Provinces. The Grand Trunk Railway. The Victoria bridge. The for- tress at Quebec. The city of Montreal. The maple tree. The British soldier. Patriotism. 4th exercise. Expanded Predicate. Complete the sentences in the last exercise by sup- plying appropriate expanded predicates. 5th exercise. Compose four simple sentences on each of the follow- ing words. HPP^ ,i -^ ENGLISH COMPOSITION. Example— Maple Sugae. 257 Maple sugar is made from the sap of the maple tree. Maple sugar is made in the spring. A large propor- tion of the maple sugar is made by Indians. When the snow is deep the labour of making maple sugar is greatly increased. Night, day, animals, air, dog, horse, bird, fish, river, school, teaoiier, grammar, geography, plants, gold, wis- dom, silence, boys, ship, wind, earthquake, beggar, artist. COMPOUND SENTENCES. 6th exercise. Copulative Co-ordination. Complete the following compound sentences, by sup- plying copulative senteij.ces. Plants live and. Gold is hard and. The robbers were captured and. In spring the trees put forth their buds. He is of a different opinion, however. The captain was aware of it, moreover. Indians are said to be treacherous, they are also. Did the king not consent to that; did he not likewise*-— The time was lost at well as. The bill was reported to the houBe— furthermore f We have generally several cold days in succession, then — . I was influenced both by the wishes of his friends and — . JSapoleon as well as Hanibal — . Intemperance not only brings poverty, it ale — . I V- U y Ith EXERCISE. Pisjunctive Co-ordination.. Complete the following compound sentences by sup- plying disjunctive sentences. Neither time nor money — . The money must be paid, else — . The objects around us are either — . Never procrastinate, else — . The company for four days, neither advanced — . Circumstances were favourable, otherwise — . He was neither attentive to his own interests, — . Either retrace your steps, — . You must either attend to your duties more diligently, — . Such persona t ■ 111! IS. ,1 I - 258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. aeldom or never — . Either carelessness has caused the mistake, "Write ten compound sentences, using different dis- junctive connectives if possible . 8th exercise. Adversative Coordination. Complete the following compound sentences by sup- plying adversative sentences. He is indolent, nevertheless — . We are now in comfortable circumstances — . I can trust to what you promise, but — . Cir- cumstances look discouraging; however — . Things look pro- mising, yet — . Such conduct is not merely praiseworthy — . He looked at her sorrowfully, but — . The vine still clings to the mouldering wall, but — . The landlord has his rights ; on the other hand — . He is a good man, though — . War is attended with desolating effects, yet — . The life of the idle seems to be one of enjoyment, nevertheless — . Write ten compound sentences, using different ad- versative connectives if possible . 9th exercise. Complete the following compound sentences by sup- plying illative sentences. I have been most attentive to business ; therefore — . I cannot remain long, for — . I hope the day will be fine, for — . You ftdmit the principle, accordingly — . The facts more than counter- balance what has been advanced on the other side, consequently •— . iN'othing is more uncertain than life — . I knew well that these were not his sentiments — . "Write ten compound sentences, using different illa- tive connectives if possible. COMPLEX SENTENCES. When the simple sentences that are combined con> sist of one or more principal sentences with subordi- nate clauses, each principal sentence, with its subordi- nates, forms a complex sentence. 1. When the subordinate sentence forms the subject ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 259 or object of the verb in the principal sentence, or sna- tains to the principal sentence any of the relations of a noun, it is called & noun sentence; as, I see that you are in a hurry. 2. "When the subordinate is used to qualify a noun in the principal sentence, it is called an adjective sen- tence ; as, This is the person whom we met. 3. When the subordinate sentence performs the office of an adverb by modifying the verb or some secondary attribute in the principal sentence, it is called an adverbial sentence j as, ** I will call when I return.** 10th exercise. Noun Sentences. Complete the following complex sentences by sup- plying noun sentences or principal sentences, as may be required. I hear that — . — is unjust. — That the earth is round. — is uncertain. How you managed it — . You did not inform me — . — that he was engaged all the evening. My desire is — . Newton proved that — . When letters first came into use — . It is probable — . They told me — . The general opinion is. — — what you have stated. We cherish the hope — . I was anxious — . Why the purchase was not completed — . The cause of anxiety was — . "Write ten complex sentences having noun subordi- nates. llTH EXERCISE. Adjective Sentence. Complete the following complex sentences by sup- plying adjective sentences or principal sentences, as may be required. The gentlemen — approved of the proposal. The architect condemned the work — . The banner — is to be presented to- day. I called at a shop — . The place — is some distance off!. Rain fertilizes those fields — . — which affords so many re- f l? . f i I 'nl^ 260 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, sources in solitude bad no charms for him. — that stretches along Lake Ontario. The choice of a spot — did not cause much delay. There are many circumstances — . Write ten complex sentences having adjective sub- ordinates. 12th exercise. Complex Sentences. Complete the following complex sentences by supplying adverbial sentences, or principal sentences, as may be re- quired . Where'er we tread — . Thou shalt honour thy father and moth- er that — . When I was made aware of the fact — . The order you become — . Study so — . The building is much larger than — . When the sun rises — . As we sow — . Thef longer you continue — . — as could be expected. — because things are so unsettled. — if I can get there in time. — although business is dull. Labour that — . Write ten complex sentences having adverbial subor- dinates, using different connectives of time, place, man- ner, cause. 13th exercise. Combining Sentences, Combine the simple sentences in each of the following paragraphs into compound and complex sentences, as may be necessary to produce a correctly composed and continuous narrative. The hyena is a fierce animal. The hyena is a solitary animal. The hyena is found chiefly in the desolate parts of the Tori'id Zone. The oak upbraided the willow. The willow was weak. The willow was wavering. The willow gave way to every blast. Soon after it blew a hurricane. The willow yielded. The willow gave way. The oak stubbornly resisted. The oak was torn up by the roots. The Strait of Gibraltar leads into the Mediterranean. The Mediterranean is a series of inland seas. These seas wash the shores of Rome. These seas wash the shores of Carthage. These Beas wash the shores of Syria, These seas wash the shores of Egypt. y ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 261 Ootya was king of Thrace. Cotya got a preaent of earthen Teasels. The earthen vessels were exquisitely wrought. The earthen vessels were extremely brittle. Cotya broke them into pieces. Cotjs did not wish to have occasion of anger against his servants. Octavius, Lepidua, and Antonius, attained supreme power at Borne. They proscribed Piancus, Plancus had once been con- sul. Piancus therefore fled for his life. His slaves were seized. They were put to the torture. They refused to discover him. New torments were prepared. Piancus would no longer save him- self at the expnse of so faithful servants. Piancus came from his hiding place. He submitted to the swords of the messengers. The messengers sought his life. This was a noble example of mutual affection between a master and his slaves. It procured a pardon for Piancus. All the world exclaimed, that Piancus only was worthy of so good servants. All the world exclaimed that they only were worthy of so good a master. A bear was pained by the sting of a bee. The bear ran quite mad into the bee-garden. The bear overturned all the hives. This outrage brought upon him an army of bees. The bear was almost Biung to death. The bear then reflected. To pass over one injury would have been prudent. By rash passion he had provoked a thousand injuries. Alphonso was king of Sicily. Alphonso was king of Naples. Alphonso was remarkable for kindness to his subjects. Alphonso was remarkable fur condescension to bis subjects. At one time Alphonso was travelling privately through Campania. Alphonso came up to a muleteer. The muleteer's beast had stuck in the mud. The muleteer could not draw it out with all his strength. The poor man had implored the aid of every passenger in vain. He now sought assistance from the king. He did not know who the king was. Alphonso instantly dismounted form his horse. Alphonso helped the man. Alphonso soon freed the mule. Al< phonso soon brought it upon safe ground. The muleteer learned that it was the king. The muleteer fell on his knees. The mule- teer asked his pardon. Alphonso removed his fears. Alphonso told him that he had given no offence. This goodness of the king reconciled many to him. Many had formerly opposed him. 14th exercise. Resolving Compound into Simple Sentences. 4. Resolve the following narratives into simple sen* tences ; and punctuate properly. 1. Sir James Thornhill a disguised painter was employed in " '1 "■I '■w I ' 262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. dccoratinj? tho interior of tho dome of St. Paul's Cntliedral one day wishing to observe the effect of a certain part of his work ho moved backwards from it along the scaffolding until he had reached tho very edge another step would have dashed him to pieces on the pavement below his servant at this moment ob* served his danger and in an instant threw a pot of ])niut at the picture Sir James immediately rushed forward to chastise the man for his apparently unjustifiable conduct but when the reason was cxphained he could not give him sufficient thanks or suf- ficiently admire bie ready ingenuity had the servant called out to apprise him of his danger be would probably have lost his foot- ing and been killed. 2. One fine morning in summer two bees set out in quest of honey the one wise and temperate the other careless and extra v- agant they soon ar.ived at a garden enriched with aromatic herbs fragrant flowers and delicious fruits and they regaled themselves on these various dainties the one loaded his thighs with provisions for the hive against winter the other revelled in sweets without regard to anything but his present gratification at length they came to a phial that hung beneath the bough of a peach tree filled with honey and exposed to their taste in a most alluring manner the thoughtless epicure in spite of his friend's remonstrances plunged headlong into the vessel resolving to indulge himself his com- panion on the other hand sipped a little with caution but being suspicious of danger flew off to fruits and flowers where by the moderation of his meals, he improved hia relish for the true en* joyment of them in the evening however he called upon his friend to inquire whether he would return to the hive but he found him surfeited in sweets which he was as unable to leave as to enjoy clogged in hia wings enfeebled in his limbs and his whole frame totally enervated he was just able to bid his friend adieu and to lament with his latest breath that though a taste of pleasure may <}uicken the relish of life an unrestrained indulgence leads to in- evitable destruction. PUNCTUATION. Punctuation is the art of dividing written composi- tions by means of points. The rules to a certain extent are arbitrary, some writers employing more points than others. A great number should be avoided as tending to obscure the sense. The points in common use are : — Comma ( , ) Semicolon ( ; ) Colon ( : ) Period ( . ) The following marks are also used in writing : — Note 1 .' ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 263 of Interrogation (?) Note of Exclamation ( ! ) Curves ( ) Inverted Commas ( " ") Apostrophe (*) Hy- phen ( - ) Paragraph. COMMA. In compound and complex sentences, the co-ordinate and subordinate sentences are generally separated by commas. In simple sentences, the comma generally marks off: — (1) Nouns in apposition, when accompanied hj adjuncts. (2) Some adverbs, parenthetical, adver- bial and prepositional phrases. (3) Words of the same part of speech following each other without a conjunction singly or in pairs. (4) Participial phrases. (5) Words contracted or in opposition. (6) Words denoting the persons or objects in a direct address. (7) The place of a word or of words understood. (8) Some introductory conjunctions. (9) A direct quotation is indicated by using inverted commas before and after it. EXAMPLES. (1) Homer, the greatest poet of antiquity, is said to have been blind. (2) It soon became evident, however, that. My duty, said he, is to instruct you. My own opinion, at least, favours the proposal. The king, in the mean time, learns the disasters of his army. (3) She is a discreet, be«evolent, and pious woman. Truth is fair and artless, simple and sincere, uniform and con- sistent. (4) Labour, diving deep into the earth, brings up the hidden metals. (5) She was poor, but contented. (6) Remember, my son. — My lords, these enormities cry for vengeance. (7) To err is human ; to forgive, divine. (8) That is not, however, what I mean. (9) " Sir," says the dervise, " give me leave to ask your majesty a question or two. »» »> 16th exercise. COMMA. In the following compound and complex sentences, mark off the n t"^ i J I? 264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. co-ordiDftte and HubordiDate RCDlences, by commas where they arc required ; supply all other comraas omitted. Aurelian was invested with the consulrihip by Valerian who ityled him the deliverer of lilyricum. When the wise men came out of the east to Jerusalem thoy asked for the new-born kin^ of Judea. It was so cold in the year 1880 that Lake Constance was frozen. Civilization which brings man out of a savage state con* siets in multiplying the number of occupations. When the little chickens come out^of the egg, they are aule to run. Whto Herod heard of tlio new king of Judea he was frightened. A dervise was journeying alone in a de-ert when two merchants Rud(h;nly met him. Many of tlie talents we now possess and of which wo are too apt to be proud will cease entirely with the present Htate. They were the sweetest notes I ever heard and I instantly let down the glass to hear them more distinctly. On a spring evening on whichever side I turn my eyes myriads of happy oeings crowd upon my view. The amusement of letters which alfords so many resources in solitude, was incapable of lixirif; the attention of Diocletian. The choice of a spot which united all that could cou- tribute either to health or to luxury did not require the partiality of a native. There is sweet music hero that softer falls than petals from blown roses on the grass. 1 1 p smooth plats of fruitful ground where thou may est warble eat and dwell. How much less in them that dwell in houses of clay whose foundation is in the dust. There are many injuries which almost every man feels though he does not complain. When Columbus had finished speaking the sovereigns sank upon their knees. While he wad talking thus the place the old man's shape both troubled me. When you are tempted to resent an injury reflect with yourselves Has God no account against you f After the most violent shock had ceased the clouds of dust began to disperse. When the spray bad fallen agnin the glittering domes had vanished. Elder-berries are ripe at this season and an excellent domestic wine is made from them. I hope we shall have another govxi day to-morrow for the clouds are red in the west. Hazelnuts grow profusely in some parts of this country but they are in much greater demand than our produce will supply. . Walnut-trees arfi fine ornaments to farms and they are of great utility also. Just give me liberty to speak and I will come to an explanation with you. He looked at her sorrowfully but without manifesting either vexation or surprise. The clergy were much displeased at the fashion and one clergyman is suid to have preached a sermon against it. Much silver was coined in Henry the First's time but little gold and no copper was used. The castles were very large but there was little room for comfort. He was a bad man therefore he was not respected by his subjects. The dying king begged to be attended by his confessor but she denied him even this comfort. In pie ai The study attenti is freq of Fra Spain I Greek peror J of sulj: 8trengtl •icknesi omj ei com pre every c who rei motives I stand rise slo^ and ad( preservi are man place 1( the hea^ ne^s of ( as much the prov imagine s:enerouf wit hun chivalry, Power ri of men. learned, often be ENGLISH COMPOSmON. 265 Through fnith we understand that the .vorld was made by the word of God bo that tilings which are seen are not iiiudfl of things that do appear. War is atteoded with deHolating effec'a, for it is confessedly the scourge of our angry passions. The life of the queen bee seems to be all enjuymeut yet it is oidy an idle life. 16tu exercise. COM Mi. Insert commas where required in the following sim- ple sentences, and correct those that are wrong. The God of our faith, dwells in light ioaccesfiible. The frequent study of the great volume of nature is sufficiently wortn the attention of man. That men are afflicted with sorrow and misery is frequently the consequence of their own actionn. King, John of France was taken prisoner in battle. Charles V. King of Spain and Emperor of Germany died in a convent. Socrates the Greek philosopher, never gave way to anger. The Roman em- peror Severus died at York. The soil of Campania being full of sulphur the water contracts a disagreeable taste. Virtue strengthens in adversity moderates in prosperity supports in sickness and comforts in the hour of death. The study of astron* omy expands, and elevates the mind. The less we are able to comprehend the works of nature the more eagerly should we seiie every opportunity of inquiring into them. He is i go^ man, who readily forgives an injury. If the world were to see our real motives we should be ashamed of some of our best actions When I stand upon the summit of some lofty cliff and see the star of day rise slowly out of the ocean I feel a mingled sensation of sublimity aud adoration. Mountains then we find are essential to the due preservation of the earth. With respect to man no doubt there are many new things which take place in the earth. In the first place let us represent to ourselves the immense space, in ^hich the heavenly bodies are placed. In short the wisdom, and good* ne^s of God are conspicuous in all parts of the creation. Avoid as much as possible the company of the wicked. " Habit " says the proverb *' is a second nature." The soul can understand, will, imagine, see, bear, love, and discourse. A roan that is temperate generous valiant faithful and honest may at the same time have wit humour mirth aud good-breeding. The characteristics oi* chivalry, were valour humanity courtesy justice and honour. Power riches aud prosperity are sometimes conferred on the worst of men. The wis< , and the foolish the virtuous, and the evil the learned, and the ignorant the temperate, and the profligate must often be blended together. Absalom's beauty Jonathan's love "i P 266 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. David's Talour aud Solomon*! wiiidom though faintly amiable ia the creature are found in unspunkable perfection in the Creator. Manoers aud cuBtoms virtues aud viccH knowleilge and ignorance priuoipU'S and habit* are with little variation trauHmitt<>d from one generation to another. Mv non give me thy heart. Observe I beseech you men of Athens Low difTerent your conduct appears, from the practices of your ancestors. Humans countrymen and lovers ! Hear me for my cause. Oo then yo defenders of your country accompanied with every auspicious omen. Stop O mighty atrenm in thy course I Go to the ant thou slui^gard. Poverty is apt to betray a man into envy ; riches into arrogance. The vine- yards of France, may be called our gardens; the Spice Islands our hotbeds ; the Persians our silk weavers ; and the Chinese our potters. Meekness controls our angry passions ; caudour our severe judgments. The poet says that auger is a short madness. Ovid says that it is a sort of pleasure to weep. Swift observes that uo wise man, ever wished himself younger. It Ih written by Solomon that the wise shall inherit glory. It is remarked by Pope that fools have an itching to deride. It is an ancient saying that history is philosophy, teaching by example. Hnnnibal acted upun the maxim that the Romans could be conquered only at Home. Vanity of vanities saith the preacher all is vanity. The Emperor exclaimed to those around him : My frieuds I have loat a day I The preacher first broke silence with the fidlowing quotation: Socrates died like a philosopher ; Jesus Christ like a God. Descending from his throne and ascendiug the scaflfold he said : Lrte incomparable pair. The monutain before thee said he is the Hill of Scieuce. THE SEMICOLON. Co-ordinate sentences are often separated by a semi- colon. (1) When the statements are not necessarily connected. (2) Antithetical or adversative clauses. (3) When the connective is omitted. (4) When one clause is added to another to explain or illustrate its meaning. EXAMPLES. (1) A friend cannot be known in prosperity ; and an enemy cannot be hidden in adversity. (2) Learning is preferable to riches ; but virtue is preferable to both. (3) Let the busy and the active withdraw themselves for a time from the agitation of the world ; let them mark the desolation of summer ; let them listen to the winds of winter, that begin to murmur above their heads. (4) Blessed are the meek ; for they shall inherit the earth. 1 ^■' EffOLlSH COMPOSITIOir. 267 17th exercise. SEMICOLON. Mark the semicolons and other points required ia the following sentences : — The Duich have a unying that thefts never enrich, alms never impoveriih, prayem hiiuler no work. The moat remarkable pre- oious itoneM are the diamond which is colourless and transparent, the sapphire blue, the topnz yellow, the amethyst purple, and thtt garnet n deep rea for the safety of his people. He shall not fail of a blessed approbation from that Power who offered up his only Son for the f alvf-tion of mankind." He spoke ; but a aiUTersal silence ensued. Each man looked around for the example of that virtue and magnanimity which all wished to approve in themselves, though they wanted tba resolution. At length St. Pierre resumed : " I doubt not that there are many here more ijcalous of this martyrdom than I can be; though the station to which I am raised by the captivity of Lord Vienne invests me with the right to be the first in giving up r- j Ilk- '!n, as quoted and criticised by Johnson. "Let ob- servation, with extensive view, survey mankind from China to Peru." — Johnson himself. As much as to say, " Let 06 s*ruagether ; as, " I am well, and hope ^<»u have got my last letter." We should not be so flighty as lo say something on one topic, then pass to another topic, then come again to the first topic; nor should we, in a sub- sequent part of the discourse, tell, Jis it we had not U)ld, what we have alieady told; nor make any statement inconsistent with some other statemtnt at some distance before it. The transition from one topic to another should be natural and easy. Not so many different subjects should be introduced into one sentence as wdl make it confused. The most important part* should be placed where they will make the strongest impression. Modifying parts should be so placed or distiibuted as to encumber the discnur.-e as litile as pos^sible, and to show clearly and readily what I hey are intended to modify. The longer and mure impor- tant parts of a sentence should generally follow the shorter and *l 276 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. less important pnrts. To conclude a Bentenco with an insignifi- cant w(rd or phrase, in always inelegant. When a serial etracture has been adopted, it is generally dis- agreeable to discontinue or to change if, before the entire enumer- ation is made. Parts contrastcMl or emphatically distinguished, should generally be expressed with fuhiess. •' It is not by indo- lence, but by diligence, that you will succeed. " Spring borrowed a new charm from its undulating grounds, its luxuriant woodlands, its pportive streams, its vocal birds, and its blushing flowers." Parts connected by correlative words, and parts implying contrast or comparison, must generally be expressed as nearly alike as possible. Observe the elegance of arrangement and expression in the following sentence: " Homer hurries us with a commanding impetuosity; Virgil leads us with an attractive majisty: Homer scatters with a generous profusion ; Virgil bestows with a careful magnificence." — Pope. • Short sentences and long ones should be properly intermixed. Many short sentences, in succession, are apt to have a disagreeable hitching or jerking effect; and long-winded sentences also dis- please, by becoming tiresome or tedious. Most of the best modern writers rather prefer short sentences and simple structure, to long and complicated sentences. Long and involved sentences should generally be avoided, by expressing the same meaning in two or more shorter sentences. A. long parenthesis within a sentence is generally better expressed by taking it out, and putting it after or before the other part, as a distinct sentence. It is sometimes better to recast a disagreeable sentence altogether; or to dismiss it, and to express the meaning in some other way. Mr. Bancroft says, in his History, " Private interest, directed to the culture of a valuable staple, was more productive than the patronage of England ; and tobacco enriched Virginia." Here the tobacco clause is hitched on very abruptly and awkwardly; just as if the author did not know what to do with it. Perhaps Macaulay would have said; "Private interest, directed to the culture of a valuable staple, was more productive than the patronage of Eng- land. The Virginians turned their attention to tobacco ; and tobacco enriched them/" In selecting words, or modes of expression, the question is not whether they are perfectly adapted to express the meaning, but whether they are the best the language affords for the meaning ; if they are, then they are proper. The preference should, in general, be given to those words and expressions which are most popular, or understood by the greatest number of people ; and whose fundamental meaning, when they are analyzed, or traced to their etymology, accords best with the sense in which we mean to use them. Our little words of one or two syllables, and our pithy idioms, are generally the best. A great master of language says : " Sa»- ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 277 •n words cannot bo used tno freqiieully. They abri uf the mupolee which pull (ho lower jaw upward, downward, backward, forward and laterally, by aoting on the \>ono in which tljey ar" impluntod,' To defer '';e ranin subject in order to dofioo the meaning? of words, bordiTB frequently upon Billinesu; and »<> does most of the unbecomingly florid oi- rtj^urative lanj^uai^e. Theaci two faults may be termed the tnphornoric style^ ns hoing naturally and centrally found lu the half j^roon and Imlf ripe age of college sopnomore*. Similar! aillioess of expresnion is an< her fault, which T have often noticed, and which riometiuies atfoot-i whole communities aa well as individuals. It is the hackiic)cil use of some particular word, phrase, or sentenoo. S )me ppople are always ?««««'w 7 ; some, rtckonlnq ; some, ca/cu- laiing ; and some, 'fposinrj ; sumo liud evt-ry thin«» twe^t ; 8ome,y^>«^ rate; govern, mighty good ; »om6, miphnj bad ; and <^' hers have all things always in the F'lperlative degree ; some alwaya respond with a ''That's «o," '' JJid you ever!" " Yen r " Well, to be aiire '" or " Thai's a fact.'^ Certain politicians are never known to .ike a speech withoijt having ''our great andglorious Union*' in it. Some speeches are flooded with " my fellow cilizcr.s'* With some, what- ever pleases, is ''nice ;" or '\jine!' or 'Jlrst-rate.'* Poetsoften ex- hibit this fault in their use of rhyuius. In fact, the fault fieemi to be a natural infirmity of the human mind, whenever it. becomes morbid or indolent, or when it comes to a stand in the growth of its knowledge. We are often annoyed by remembered seraps buzzing io the head like gadflies, especially if th.^y find there something of a Pegasus. Low, vulgar, or provincial expressions sho d be avoided. Such are, — " To get into a scrape" " To play the 'possum^ *' To acknow ledge the corn'* " To cut shiuet," " To bark up the xi;r< ;u tree," " to get the hang 0'," " To have a fair shake at," *' To curry fa- vour" and many others, which we decline to quote for fear the learner should catch them. Some of these low yet current expres- sions are so well founded and so energetic that they should rather be regarded as gold in bullion, that has not yet received the stamp. A departure from grammatical .'iccuracy, or from elegance, is sometimes allowed, in orde- to represent more faithfully the lan- guage or character of another. "Child. Once, when I sat upon her lap, I felt a beating at her side; and she told me 'twas her heart that beat, and bade me feel for mine, and they both beat alike, only mine beat the quickest. And I feel my heart beating yet — but hers I cannot feel ! " Had the author here said " m,ore quickly," he would have shown at once, not the pathetic prattle of ^be child over its dead mother, but his own counterfeiting, and thus spoiled the dramatic eflFect. Hence, too, Cowper makes Mrs. C4ilpin say: "So you must ride on horseback after we." To this head may also be referred the imitations of brines and dialeets. n it 1. i"l :5f I V" .>^^. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) .^.^ A '^kO 1.0 I.I 11.25 ■^ i^ 12.2 ^ U£ 12.0 /] V ^;. 9. /A '/ fl'oliographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTEK.N.V. 14580 (716)873-4503 iV ^<. [v 6^ •4 W^ A 1 280 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. AU ancouth, harsh, antiquated, obsolete, unauthorized, or new- fangled terms, should generally be avoided, unless they are meant to be imitative, or are peculiarly appropriate and expressive. Ignorant people often pervert words, or confound words that resemble in sound, or imagine that words belong to tho language that are not in it, or not authorised ; as, critter for creature ; dit- graeioue for ungracioue ; prehapa for perhaps ; contagious for eon- tiguoua. " He was much effected by the operation." " They got a hc^ua eorpua. A certain man " meant to ran a revenue up to his house, build a pizarro in front, a portorico behind, a eon- aervatcry on top, and treat his friends in the most hoapital manher." The same word w the same mode of expression should not be so often us«d as to indicate poverty of language ; nor in so many diflPerent senses as to render the meaning doubtful, or disappoint disagreeably the expectation of the reader. When there are several synonymous words or expressions, great care should be taken to select the most appropriate one. " An idle boy is unwilling to be employed ;" say rather, " A lazy boy, a young of rank, the circumstance in terma to his colonel. The colonel immediately it to the general in ; and when the returned to his ^otel, he an aid-d'e-camp waiting to hie to dinner at head- quarters. In the evening he was to court, at that tne most brilliant in Europe, and was with particular . During his subsequent at , he was invited to th9 of all persons of ; and at his he received letters of to the different states of Thus a private of moderate , by a act of was enabled to with more real distinction and advantage from the mere of birth and fortune. through a foreign can be derived yi I •' :i 25tb exercise. * Sapplj appropriate words in the following elliptical passalges : — I. THB BLIND BKGOAB AKD THK DOO. When % poor old is obliged to by begging, he •ometimes a dog to him about. He holdi the by a string, and to its sense and fidelity for hein^ in the path and not into deep or preeipioes, where his would be in danger. la the of Rome there once a blind who was by a dog. It was a dog of sagacity, and very kind, and also just in all its with its master. The old man went twice a week eertain streets, at partieulsr houses, he expected to alms. The dog all the proper streets through his master was to be > and also door in those streets where it was that anything would be . While the old man was at the door, and asking for , the dog down to rest ; but as soon as the alms had been either given or , the animal , and to the next house where its master applied. When a halfpenny was from a win-r dow, tbe beggar, blind, could not for it; but the a mi 884 KNOLISH GRAMMAR. dog neyer to search it out ; be' always up the eoin ia hit , and it into the blind man's . Sometimes bread was thrown from , and it might be that tb« poor animal, being probaly ill at home, would be inolined to the moritel to himself. But hungry he might be, be never the least bit of food, it was given to by his . conduct in a human being, from the right motives, would be highly 26th exercise, kimq john ov vranox. by John, King of France, taken ia Edward the Black Prince, and to England. After thdre in captivity four , he was to return to his own , that he might to prevail upon his subjects to to a peace proposed by the of ifng- land. The of the English king, which, among other , stipulated for four millions of gold crowns as a for the French monarch, were not favourably in France, and peace was not into effect. When King John that nis would not pay the money for his liberty, he did not, as would have done, to stay in France. He immediately to return to , and hit person once more into the of King Edward. Some of his councillors him against this , but he was not by their councils. " If faith and loyality," said be, *' were from the rest of the world, they ought still to enshrined in the of kings." He accordmgly to England — became again a — and soon after in London. 2*7^ EXERCISE. THK ABMADA. Hie i-rmada from the Tagus, 20th May 1681, but on Cape Finisterre, was delayed by a , which much damage. The fleet had, , to put back to Comnna. Having been , it arain set , and on the 19th July it was seen the English Channel in the of a crescent. The English admiral the great size of the enemy's , resolved to mainly upon the more manage- able of his own smaller and more trim vessels, and to become the pA^ty, instead of merely on the defensive. The result his calculation ; the English ships, to the rudder, took of every shift of the KNOLISH COMPOSITION. 285 wind, blew capriciously at the time, and six days' hard fighting, so the unwieldy Spanish , that it was with great they contriTed to talse . in the port of Calais (27th July). Meantime the Spanish armj. *inder Parma, was to form a junction with the It was necessary to this. On the night of the 29th, which tempestous, eight fire-ships oy the English were coming down on the vessels at anchor in the of Calais. A seiied the Spaniards, the were cut, and the put out to sea : when at sea a storm wliich them along the coast from Ostend to Calais. The rigilant Eag- lish , meanwhile, them vigorously in every quarter, serious . Crippled and , the Spaniards now to return home with the remains of the Armada by the north of Scotland and Ireland, the English fleet still In their wake. The of Philip's attempt was the of thirty ^ ships of war and 10,000 men. That was a day for Elizabeth on which she her victorious at Tilbury Fort. She welcomed her sailors and army, who the air with , while the of the hostile fleet was struggling baclc to , which of the ships ever reached. ':| H ORNAMENTS OF STYLE. Figures of Speech are uncommon Forms of Expression, serving either to ornament the styley or to place the thought in a clearer light. They consist of two classes •.—Figuru of Arrangement and Trope* (Greek trepoy I turn.) But it ia to the latter that the term Figurative language is generally applied. Ohief Figures of Arrangement. Chief Tropes. 1. Exclamation. ' 1. Simile. 2. Interrogation. 2. Metaphor. 3. Inversion. 3. Allegory. 4. Pleonasm. 4. Personification. 6. Antithesis. 5. Hyperbole. 6. Climax. 6. Apostrophe. 7. Metonymy. 8. Synecdoche. 9. Irony. .i« Mm • tfi'-- i'ii ■ 286 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. FIGURES OF ARRANGEMENT. 1. Exclamation gives life to style by expressing a fact in the form of a cry of wonder ; as, Hovo tall she has grown ! What a dazzling light! 2. Interrogation gives life and emphasis to style by expressing a fact or an opinion in the form of a question ; as, Can there be the least doubt of his guilt ? 3. Inversion places words in an unusual order for the sake of emphasis ; as, War at that time there was none. 4. Pleonasm makes language emphatic by using words that are unnecessary to the simple meaning ; as, I saw him with these very eyes. 5. Antithesis (Greok, a placing against) consists in bringing thoughts that are opposed into strong contrast ; as, A living death. Not that 1 loved CoesarJets, but that I loved Home more. 6. Cl*max (Greek, a slant or ladder) places words in such a manner as '^o express thoughts that rise, each above the last, in an ascending scale of force ; as, The cannibal savage-— tortur- ing — murdering— devouring — drinking the blood of his mangled victims. TROPES OR FIGURES OF THOUGHT. 1. Simile is the cixpressibn in full of a reaemblance between two thin^'A I as, Tbtn, like a wild eat mad with wounds^ sprang right at Astur's face. Note. — The simile is known by its sign, which is generally like or at ; but the sign is sometimes involved in the meaning of another ; as. Swift in his decay reteipbled a giant tree withered in its topmoit boughs. 2. Metaphor— a. bolder figure — expresses a resemblance, with- out using any sign of comparison ; as, Palmerston was long a pillar of the throne. 3. Allegory is a metaphor expanded to considerable length. The PUgrim^e Progress is our finest allegory : the metaphor on which it is founded is — The life of « Ghristian is a periloui journey. Note. — In the Allegory one half of the comparison is expressed ; the original object of thought being implied. 4. Personification speaks of lifeless things as if they were .persons. There are three degrees of the figure : — 1. Ascribing queUitiee; as, A crttel disease. 2. Ascribing aetione ; as, The sea taw it and/fdl Z* Ascribing speech and hearing ; as, Ye crags and peak* ! ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 287 6. Hvperboh exaggerates for tlie sake of emphasis ; as, Xerxes' army drank the riven, as they marched through Greece. The waves struck the dripping $tcw8. 6. Apostrophe addresses a person, absent or dead, as if present, as, Departed spirits of the mighty dead ! Note. — Personification in the third degree is a form of Apos- trophe. 7. Metonymy exchanges one name for another, which expresses- a kindred idea. It puts : — 1. The cause for the effect ; as, The foaming pra/)« of eastern France ; I am reading Shak»pere. 2. The effect for the cause ; as, Orey hairs for old age. 3. The sign for the thing signified; as, The Cro#« will yet conquer the whole world — 1.0., the Gospel of Christ, He mustered more bayonets than sabres — 1.0., more infantry than cavalry. 4. The container for the thing contained ; as. He drank the brimming eup. Streets and squares broke into weeping. The House sat for six hours. 8. Synecdoche expresses a whole by naming a part, or vice versd ; as. Ten sail of the line. All Europe watched his rise. Belgium's capital had gathered then her beauty and her chtvalry, 9. Irony expresses a meaning more emphatically by using words denoting exactly its reverse; as. He is a perfect Solomon (meaning he is very foolish.) All this resulted from the tender eare and fostering protection of the Government (to express evila- producftd by misrule.) •! ik 'k-! DISTINCTION OF FIGUEES. 28th exercise, fiqubeb of abaangsment. Writo from the following paragraph the two exam- ples of Interrogation ; the two of Exclamation ; of Hyperbaton or Transposition ; of Pleonasm ; of Anti- thesis ; and the example of Climax. Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth. The prodigal robs his heir ; the raiser robs himself. Who shall sep- arate us from the love of God t It is highly crimiLal to bind a Roman citizen ; to scourge him is euoruious guilt ; to kill him is almost parricide ; but by what name shall I de-'iguate the cruci- fying of him I Then shook the hills, with thunder riven. Shall a man be more pure than his Miiker f He heareih it with his ears, and understaudeth it with his heart. How majestic are the starry iwp 288 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. heavens ! The wise man considers what he waota ; and the fool what he abounds in. I saw it with these eyes. O the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of Qod! 29Tn EXERCISE. FIQURSS OF THOUanx OB TROPIP. Write from the foliowiDg paragraph the two exam- ples of Siu'.ile ; tho two of Metaphor ; of Allegory ; of Metonomy ; of Synecdoche ; of Hyperbole ; of Person- ification ; of Apostrophe ; of Irony. The sword has laid wasti^ many a fertile tract of country. Moist, bright, and green, the landscape laughs around. Love swells like (he Solway, but ebbs like its tide. Saul hath slain his thousands, and Dayid his ten thousands. I am the true vine. Thou art sounding on, thou mighty sea, for ever and the same ! Mine eyes run down rivers of water. Thou that destroyest the temple, and buildest it up in three days, save thyself. The gro?es poured forth their music. Jonathan \ thou wast slain in thine ni^h places 1 No useless coffin enclosed his breast. The rooun- tams and the hills shall break forth oefote you into singing, and all the trees of the field shall clap their handa The clouds were tinged with gold. The cotton manufacture employs a great number of handst The righteous shall flourish as the palm tree. No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die with you. And now also the axe is laid unto the root of the trees : therefore every tree which bringeth not forth good fruit is hewn dowa and east into the fire. »Oth exercise. VIGUaES OF AaEAMOKMENT. "Write from Scripture three examples of Interroga- tion ; three of Exclamation ; of Transposition ; of Ple- onasm ; of Antithesis ; of Climax. 8lBT EXERCISE. FIGtJBKS or TnOUQHT OR TROPES. Write from Scripture, or select from any source three examples of Simile ; three of Metaphor ; of Allegory ; of Metonomy ; of Synecdoche ; of Hyperbole ; of Per- sonification ; of Apostrophe ; of Irony. ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 289 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES ON FIGURES. S2ND EXERCISE. Write a figurative expression for each of the follow- ing words. Sun. Moon. Stars. Example: Youth — the mornlDg of life. Thunder. Lightning. Clouds. Sea. Night. Sliy. Sleep. Death. Qrave. 33rd EXERCISE. Write sentences with a metaphorical application of each of the following words. BXAMFLI. Path— The paths of glory lead but to the grave. Fruit. Pain. Pillar. Dark. Deep^ Strodg. Climb. Build. Burn. QuickoeiB. Sweetneis. Ooolneti. 84th EXERCISE. 1. Write the first twelve 2Similes in the first book of Milton. 2. Write the first twelve examples of Personification in Thomson's Season of Summer. 86th EXERCISE. Distinguish the Figures in any passages of Poetry that may be selected, thus : SXAMPLK. Sun of the sleepless ! melaneholy star 1 ' Whose tearful beam shines tremulously far ; That show'st the darkness thou canst not dispel ; How like thou art to joy remembered well ! So memory gleams, the light of other days, That shines, but warms not with its powerless rays : A night beam Sorrow watches to behold, Distinct, but distant; clear, but oh I how cold I FIOUEKS. The first four lines — apostrophe. " Sun " — metaphor. " Mel* ancbolj star "--personification. "Tearful beam" — parsort)fiea< tioB. "How like thou art to joy remembered well! *— ■iinU«. 4 t; U ^.A jli^i. •if lit' f ]*^ 29C ENGLISH GRAMMAR. " So memory glcami, the light of other days, that shiueB, bub warms nut with its powerless rays" — compaiisoD. "Gleams"— metaphor. "The lij^ht of other days" — metaphor. ''Shines"— metaphor. "Shines, but warms not" — antithesis. "Hays" — metaphor. ** Night beam " — metaphor. '• Sorrow " — person'fi* cation. "Distinct, but distant ; clear, but oh I how cold!''— antithi'sis. 36th exercise. Convert the following figurative expressions into plain language : Example— He bore away the palm. Changed — He obtained the prize . How beautiful is night 1 The clouds of adversity soon pass away. Who is like unto thee, O God, in Heaven above, or in the earth beneath ? He was one of the brightest luminaries of the age. Vaio is the tree of knowledge without fruit. The waves rose to Heaven. She shed e, flood of tears. The Emperor Oali- gula assumed the purple on the death of Tiberius. Have you read Pope? Nature in spring is covered with a robe of light ^reen. Night spreads her sable mantle over the earth. The vessel ploughs tbo deep. Alfred was a shining light in the midst of darkness. The Gross will at last triumph over the OrcFcent 37th exercise, simple nabbative. Write a short account of the following objects, de> scribing their construction, materials, form, and use. A Scythe. I A Cart. I A Carriage. I A Railroad. A Plough. I A Penknife. | A Balloon. | A Watch. Write a short account of the following operations. Sowing. I Hay*making. I Brewing. I Book binding. Ploughing. I Thrashing. | Baking. | Engraving. Write a short account of the process of making the following substances. Butter. Cheese. Soap. Glass. Ink. Gae. Earthenware. Glue. 88th exercise. pa&aphbaeb op poetical passages into pb03b nabbativk. Paraphrase selected poetical passages into prose nar- ratiye. ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 291 ON ILLUSTRATIONS. 89TII EXERCISE. IMBLIMR. "Write a short illustpation of the following emblems "Winter— 01(1 age. River — Human life. Sleep — Death. Flower— Miin. Light — Knowledge. Evening — Autumn. 40th EXERCISE. Wrrf a short illustration of the following Scripture emblems : 1. The Righteous shall flourish as the Palm Tree. 2. The Harvest is the End nf the World. 3. The Kingdom of Heaven is like unto a grain of Mustard Seed. 4. I (Christ) am the light of the World. 6. Ye (Christians) are the Salt of the Earth. 6. Wlckod men are like the trouhled Sea. r < ( f^ 41sT EXERCISE. Write a short illustiation of the following proyerbs : 1. Better late than never. 2. Look before you leap. S. A friend ID Dted is a friend indeed. 4. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 6. Many a slip between the oup and the lip. 6. Empty vessels make the most noise. 7. No rose without a thorn. 8. Strike ^hile tho iron is hot. 9. Prevention Is better than cure. 10. A small spark makes a great fire. 1 1. Where there is a will tliere is a way. 12. The burnt child dreads tb^ fire. 42ifD EXERCISE. Write a short illustration of the following precepts : 1. Let not the sun go down upon your wrath. 1. Honor yourself^ and you will be honored. 8. Do as you would be done by. 4. Avoid extremes. 6. Deliberate slowly, exeonte promptly. 6. Never put off till to-morrow what oan be done to-day. *I, B« just before yon are generous. 4SaD EXERCISE. Write A short illustration cf the analogies between the following subjects : I -' -^ — or s. s. 1, ; as, on on trie. 2. Dactyl, (Greek dactulos, a finger ; one long joint, and two short,) — ^-^ >-' or 1. s. s. ; as, beaHrti-ful. 3. Amphibrach, (Greek amphiy on both sides, hrachugy Bhfxi ; along syllable between two short ones,) >^ — s^i^ or s. 1. B. ; as, do-mis-tic. Note' — To these may be added the Pyrrhic *-* v-^ and the 2Vt- braeh ^-^ *-^ -w ; but these may always be taken as forming parts of some of the six given above. CHIEF KINDS OP METRE. A row of feet is called a Verse or Idne. Note. — The word verse is otherwise, but less correctly, used to mean a certain arrangement of lines. Tteo lines rhyming together make a couplet. Three lines rhyming together make a triplet. A stanza is a group of rhy- ming lines, generally ranging in number from four to nine. M ri PROSODY. 297 Rhyme is the agreement in eound of accented sjllables at the end, or sometimes in the middle, of poetic lines ; thus, Gloom rhymes with bloom. Glory " " elory. Note. — The needful points in a perfect rhyme are : 1. That the vowel-sound be the same in both. 2. That the letters after the vowel be the same. 3. That the letters be/ore the vowel be dijfferent. Verse without Rhyme is called Blank Verte. 1. The principal English metre is Iambic Pentameter ; t.f., a line consisting of fivefeet^ of the kind called Iamhu4. Is thi's I the re' | gion, thi's | the soil, | the cli'me ? This metre, otherwise called our Heroic Measure^ was first used in English verse by the £ irl of Surrey, who was beheaded in 1647 ; and has been adopted by Shakspere, Milton, Gowper, Wordsworth, Tennyson — in fact, by nearly all our great poets. Dryden and Pope wrote the Heroic Measure chiefly in rhyming couplets. 2. The Spenserian Stanza consists of eight Iambic Pentameters, followed by an Alexandrine, or Iambic Hexameter ; as, A lovely ladie rode him faire beside, Upon a lowly asse more white than snow ; Yet she much whiter ; but the same did hide Under a vele that wimpled was full low ; And over all a black stole she did throw ; As one that inly mourned, so was she sad. And heavie sate upon her palfrey slow ; Seemed in heart some hidden care she had ; And by her in a line a milke-white lambe she lad. Spbmsbr. Thomson in the Castle of Indolence, and Byron in Childe Harold's Pilgrimage are chief among the more modern writers of he Spenserian stanza. 3. The Iambic Tetrameter {four feet,) in eopplets was Scott's faTOurite metre :-» Woe wo'rth | the cha'se ! | woe wo'rth | the da'y ! That cost thy life, my gallant grey ! — Scott. 7his measure is often used in alternate rhymes : — A moment, while the trumplets blow. He sees his brood about thy knee ; The next, like fire, he meets the foe, And strikes him dead for thine and thee. Tennyson. • 298 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Or thus (a couplet between two rhyming linea) :— I hold it true whatever befal : I feel it when I sorrow most. 'Tis better to have loved and lost, Than nevbr to have loved at all. Tennyson. 4. Common Metre consists of Iambic Tetrameters and Iambic Trimeters, arranged in alternate rhjmes : — Let old I Timo' | theus yield | the pri'ze, | Or bo'th I divi'de | the cro'wn : | He raised a mortal to the skies ; She drew an angel down. — Drydbn. This metre, which is also call<^d Service Metre, owing to its use in the English metrical version of the Psalms, is often writlen thus, in two long lines : — Night sunk upon the dusky beach, and on the purple sea ; Such night in England ne'er had been, nor ne'er again shall be. Maoaulat. 5. The use of the Anapaest, instead of the lambuH, produces a beaatiful undulating music, much used in Lyric poetry. For the mo'on | never be'ams, | without brin'g | ing me dre'ams, | Of the beau' | tiful An'n | abel Le'e : | And the sta'rs | never ri'se, | but I fe'el | the bright ey'es, I Of the beau tiful Ann | abel Lee. | — Poe. 6. The Daetylie Hexameter^ the Heroic Measure of Greek and Latin, does not suit the genius of the English language. Long' fellow's Evangtline affords perhaps the most favourable example of its use in English : — This IS the | forest prim | eval The | murmuring | pines and the | hemlocks, Bearded with I moss and with | garments | green, indis | - tinct in the {twilight^ Stand, like | Druids of | eld, with | voices | sad and pro I photic. THE STRUCTURE OF WORDS. 299 THE STRUCTURE OF WORDS. The following seotion on the structure of words is taken from Moreirs Grammar. 1. ROOTS AND DBRIVATIVKS. We propose under this heading to show the sources from which the words in the English language are derived, and to follow the processes by which they are formed. 1. A simple word of whose origin we can give no further account is termed a root. English, roots consist of such words as father^ ton, 2ove, ttrong, eome, go, tree^ and most other moBoajllubles which convey a simple notion or idea. 2. A simple word or root sometimes undergoes an alteration of form, either by changing the vowel sound, or by modifying the con- ■onant. Thus, ttrong becomes atrength ; thake becomes thoch \ glass becomes glaze, &c. These we term primary derivatives or stems. 8. From the primary derivatives, or stems of the language, other words are formed by adding prefixes and afSxes. Thus, strength becomes strengthen ; shock becomes shocking ; glaze becomes glazier. These we term secondary derivatives. 4. Two or more words are sometimes joined together to expreeg o;?9 complete idea ; as, windmill, coppersmith^ handicraftsman, lowing as instances of Oeltie words which have been assimilated to the Anglo-Saxon dialect, and thus come down into the modem English :— Bran. Bump. Smoeth. Brat, Tarry. Dun. Bill. Dainty. Glen. Cabin. Darn. Crag. Cobble. Pail. Lad. Quay. Pitcher. Lass. 2. The conquest of England by the Normans introduced the Nor- maii'French into this country. As the Norman-French was one of the languages which had sprung out of the prevalence of the Latin idiom (Roman languages), its introduction prepared the way for ^rafUug a large number of originally Latin words upon our primi- tive English stoolc. Many came indirectly througn the French, and retain to this day the marks of the French origin ; but as Latin was the learned 1 mguage of Europe all through^ and even beyond the Middle Ages, a still greater number of words were gradually introuuced directly frem the Latin by English writers who flourished from the reviral of letters down to the time of Mil- ton. From this time the language may be considered as havhig become virtually formed. Latin rooU have, in scarcely any instance, been brought over in their simple form into the English language, b«t only in the form of secondary derivatives. Thus we never say to por^, or to mit; but we say export, import, porttr, deportment ; and remit, omit, €ommit, commiseion, &o. 3. As science and philosophy were first cultivated in Europe among the Greeks, end all other people have studied them more or less under Greek masters, the terms and phrases of the Greek language became naturally iotroduoed into the scientific language of Europe. Hence most technical terms in mathematics, physics, medicine, botany, as well as art and philosophy, have been bor- rowed from Greek sources. These technical terms, with a few other words which have gradually come into more common use, form the present Greek element in the English language. 4. A few words in addition have found their way into our lan- guage- from the Italian, the Spanish, and even the Hebrew and Arabic, but these have rarely Rucceeded in becoming thorongly oataraUied as a part of our modem English. .!.|«: THE STRUCTURE ^F WORDS. 30 1 8. raKrizu. 466. Most of the secondary derivatives in our language are formed by putting a syl* lable either before or after the root. A syl- lable put before the root is termed a prefix, a syllable put after the root is called an affix. As the prefixes play a yery importaot part in the struoture of words, it will be useful here to give a list of them, classified ac- cording to the language from which they are derived. SAXON PRsrixis. u4, signifying in or on ; as, abed, ashore. f«, forming transitive verbs out of instrausitive, ) as, bespeak, or adding intensity to the meaning, f besmear FoTt signifying the contrary ; as, forbid, forbear. Fw^ before ; as, foretell, foreb«de. Mid^ middle ; as, midway, midshipman. jj/ts, failure ; as, mishap, mistalte. J^, not ; as, never, nor. OvWy above ; as, overlay, overdone. Ouf, ...... excelling ; as, outdo, outrun. Un^ not ; as undo, unskilled. To, ...... this; as, to-day, to night. With, against or away ; as, witlistand, with> hold. l/ndfr, beneath ; as, underlay. Upi upwards ; as, upheave, upstart. LATIN PREFIXES. A, ah, abs, signifying from ; as, avert, abstract. Ad, {or, of, ag, al, an^ ap, ar, as, at)^ to ; as, adhere, attract. Ante, {anti) signifying before ; as, nntedate, anticipate. Bent, ^ well ; as. benefit. Bi, bU, ' two, twice ; as, biped. Circitm, round ; as, circumvent. Co, coHf com, col, with ; as, cooperate, connect Contra, against ; as, contradict. D«, down ; as, descend. Di^t dif apart ; as dislodge, diverge.. JS, ex^ef, out ; as, elect, export. Equi, equally ; as, equidistant Extra, beyond ; as, extraordinary. * Jn, (with verb), in or into ; as, induct In, (do. adjective) not : as, inelegant. 10 i i )\ I ■il;:|i ilH n 302 ENOLI^ GRAMMAR. Jntir^ between ; as interlude. JntrOf withiD . aa introduce. | Hon, not ; as, noodescript. Ob, {of, op, oe) againit, or, in the way of ; as, obatruot, ooeur. Pir, ..... through ; ai, perspire. Pott, after ; as, postpone. Pra,pr*f before ; as, preordain. Prater, beside, past ; as, pretermit. Pro, forth ; as, project. Ht, back ; as, remit. JUtro, backwards ; as, retrospection. 84, apart ; as, separate. Su5,{au/, tue, sur), under ; as, subject. Subter, Hnderneatb ; as, subterfuge. Suptr, over ; as, superfluous. Tram, across ; as, transport. Ultra, beyond ; as, ultramontane. OBSEK PRBriXEB. A or an (a, av)^ not ; as, anarchy . Amphi {anFrench words. Give examples of Norman French words. Account fur the prtsence of Latin words in the language. Give examples of words of Latin origin. In what form, generally, have Latin words been brought into the language ? Give exam- ples to illustrate this. How are the words introduced from the Gree)c generally employed ? Give the reason for this. Give ^x- aroples to illustrate it. From what other sources have a few words been introduced? How are the secondary derivatires generally formed ? Give examples. How mp»ny Saxon prefixes are there ? Repeat them. Give the signification of eaoh of the Saxon prefixes, accompanied with an example to illustrate it How many Latin prefixes are there ? Repeat tnem. Give the signifi* cation of each of the Latin prefixes, accompanied with an example to illustrate it. How man^ Greek prefixes are there ? Repeat them. Give the significaMon of each, accompanied with an ex- ample to illustrate it. EXERCISE ON THE PREFIXES. 1. Point out the prefixes in the following words, and give their exact meaning ; and state from what language they are derived. Forewarn, incursion, paradox, oblation, reproye, ex- tract, introduce, automaton, eclipse, disintegrate, illicit, misuse, abstract, accede, amphibious, withstand, cir- cumlocution, episcopacy, retrieve, protrude, retrograde, epitaph, midway, election, oppose, anarchy, archetype, euphony, hemisphere, outdo, retain, supersede, subse- quent, anabaptist, heterogeneous, biped, subterfuge, co- incidence, ascend, insatiable. 4. STRUCTURE OF THE NOUN. 466. English nouns are either, — 1. Ori- ginal Roots; 2. Primary Derivatives or Stems ; 3.. Secondary Derivatives or Bran- ches ; or, 4. Compound words. 1 'I I I 304 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1' The original uovn rcott of the Eogliih language conaitt of liie namea of all the oommoD objeota of uature and humaa life around ua ; auch aa, 8un^ moon, ttar, ««a, ttoni, rock, Mil, fathtr, tnether, sitter, brother, hope^fear, lovif tharM^ eye, ear, hand^ arm, foot, lip, row, theep, dog, cat, d'e. These worda, and otbera of the lanie kind, have deaceuded to ua through our Saxon forefathers from a period lying beyond all reach of historical research, having undergone only partial changea in spelling and prouunoiation, without at all losing tbe»<.« 5 ^">in I*tin words in antia; or ence,ance, as, penitence. ^ ^^^.^. „,^«,„7^<,.a. .. :«.»;<.« 5 ^"^o* ^**'> words in itia; m, ice, ag, justice. | .^^^.^.^ .•on,<,-ois*.-o»is.actlon,p«s8ion| ^'^^i^,^^^"" ''^'^' *° *"' "' From Latin words in mtntum; tatornamentum. From Latin words in er, through the French ; as, ardor, ardeur. From Latin words in tat ; as dignUat, From Latin Words in tttdo; as, mtUtitudo, Manj nouns of the aboye description are formed direcUj from mtntt as, ornament. our, as, ardour. iy, %, as, dignity. tudt, as, multitude. m ;; » 306 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. virBs, bj simply changing the accent, e. ff., To affix^ an affix ; lo expcrtf an export, it€;J(vf, Jifth. 3. English adjectives which come under the title of ttcondary dirivatives, are formed by a considerable variety ef 3^x<8 :— A. Saxon derivatives aite formed by the following: — «d, asialeft handed, as, wooden. em, a9, southern. ) erlt/, as, southerly. ) fold, as, fourfold. fid, as, truthful. iih, as, whitish, boyish. le*t, as, houB«le88. like, as, lifelike. ) ly, as, lovely. J some, as, winsome ward, as, windward, y, as, mighty. Participle form of adjective. Meaning material. { . . . direction (used with the 1 points of the compass.) repetition. . full of. . rather (diminutive) and sometimes likeness. . without, resemblance or fitness. . possession of some quality . direction to a plate. The adjectival form of a noun. Meaning not. •un (prefix) as, ungodly. B. Latin derivatives are formed by the following :— ^; -» * 1 S From Latin adjectives in alis ; ^'' as, equal. «s, «jtia/i«. ^_ . ( From Latin adjectives in anus ; an, as, human. | aB,humanJ. t .^t 1 . '4, ( From Latin adjectives in an», ant, ent. as, elegant, eminent. | ^^ , ^^ ^,^^^^^, "m STRUCTURE OF ADJECTIVES. 809 CODIOD- ant), marine. *, (preced-"] *^ **y * > as, ion- j ' as, horrific. il, ilt. olent, 0»€, 0U8. iFrom Latin adjectives in nun (preceded by a consonant) ; as, marinut. j From Latin adjectives in /ieui; I as, horrifietu. From Latin adjectives in f«r and fwu»: as, putiftr or p€»tif«ru». From Latin adjectives in bilit ; »s, vitibilis. I From Latin adjectives in idu$ ; as, timidut. From Latin adjectives in ilU ; aa^ftrtilit. From Latin adjectives in olem ; as, violent. From Latin adjectives in otut ; asi, verboiut eopiotut. From Latin adjectives in pleM ; as, triplex. From Latin adjectives in toritu, toriut; m^ tnigratoriiu. From Latin adjectives in Hvum ; as, eaptivw. ' From Latin adjectives in u\u ; as, arduut. From Lfttin adjectives in quue ; as, obliqvus, G. Greek derivatives are formed simply by- te, as, hieroglyphic. ( From Greek adjectives in ikos : iealf M, arithmetical. ( as, apiOfntriKos. 4. Compound adjectives exist to a large extent in the English language, particularly in the purticipial form; as, left-handed, right-minded, blue-eyed, &o, EXAMINATION QUESTIONS ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE ADJECTIVE. Into how many classes »re English adjectives divided according to their strncture ? Give examples of ^axon adjectives which are original roots. From what source do the adjectives that are pri' mary derivatives come ! From what are they formed t How are they formed t Give examples of adjectives formed in each war. How are adjectiyes of the class of secondary derivatives formed? Give the affixes employed in forming the Saxon secondary deriva* tives. Illustrate the signification of each by an example. Give the afiixes employed in forming the Latin secondary deriyatives. ferous, as, carboniferous. ible, able, as, visible. as, timid. as, fertile. as, violent. as, yerbose, copious. as, triple, double. tori/f iory, as, migratory. tive as, captive. iK)us, as, arduous. que (French) as, oblique. ^;!l h 310 ENGLISH ORAMMAB. Illustrate each by an example, stating from yfhai Latia adiectire it is derived. How are the Greek adjectives of the class of secondary derivatives formed! Illustrate each by an example. What is said of compound atdjectives ? EXERCISE ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE ADJECTIVE. 1. Write or give a list of ten original roots. 2. Write primary derivatives from the following words : Stfingt die, heal, heat, trow, wring, pride, save. Point out the affixes and give their meaning in the following secondary derivatives : — Jhtit^f mountaifume, verbose, fruitful, homeward, carboniferous, intelligent, imaginative, friendly, hopeless, handsome, tsitty, south- ern, sevenfold, edible, eatable, earthen, blackish, ifc. 4. Write out a list of twenty Saxon derivatives, and twenty Latin derivatives, and state what the affix of each implies. 6. STRUCTURE OF THE PRONOUN. 468. Pronouns are either. — 1. Original Eoots; 2. Derivatives; or, 3, Compoun(i Words. All of them are of Saxon origin, except *^one,'" 1. The pronouns which may be regarded as original roots in the English language, are, I, me, wf, us, thou, ye, you, he, she, it, they, who, self. Obskrvation. — Of the above, he, she, it, and they, were not ori- ginally personal pronouns, but demonstrative adjectives (like the Latin Ate and tile) ; but they are, nevertheless, original roots, which have come to be vsed pronominally. 2. The following pronominal forms are derivatives : — Thee, Him, Her, Them, My, Thy, Our, Your, Their, Mine, Objective form from Mom. Originally a dative from the masc. he and neut. hit of the Saxon he, heo, hit, (he, she, it) ; now an objective masc. Originally a feminine dative and possessive form from the Saxon heo. Originally a dative form from the Saxon that. Possessive form from me. thou, we. you. . . they. . • my, ' STRUCTURE OP PRONOUN. 311 Thinty Fofise&siye form from thy. ' Hert, . . . , her. Hi; . . . . hii. Ours, . . . . our. yowrt, . . your. Thein, . . . . their. It», . . .. it (moderD). Whom, Objective forri] from loAo ; originallj datife. Whatj Neuter form from who. On«, DeriTed from the French on, -which is an abhre- yiatioQ of homme. One^i, PoBsesuye form of one. Which, A compound form originallj from who and like (in the Scottish diialect tchilk). 3. The compound/ pronouns are those formed by the union of the words self and own, with various of the personal and possessive pronouns ; as, myself, my own, themeelves, one*$'8elf, » Oreditum. Debit, >» De'^itum. Affect, M Affectum iDvestigate, » iDvestigatum. Expedite, Ac. l> Expeditum. C. Greeic derivatives are formed by the termination iae ov ite r as, haptite (from /Sairrf^w). This termination, xm or u«, has been adopted to form many modern Engliab verbs ; as, to Germanize ; to Italici$e, dc. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE VERB. Into what classes are English verbs divided according to their origin and structure ?— Which verba are original roots f — What is Iheir origin ? — What is the origin of the primary derivatives! — How are they formed ? — Give examples of primary derivatives formed in each way ? — How are the secondary derivatives formed 'i — Give the affixes used in forming the Saxon secondary deriva* tives ?— Illustrate the signification of eich by an example?— Give examples of Saxon nouns and adjectivf^s turned into verbs, without any change whatever ? — How are the Latin secondary derivatives formed? — Give examples ?— How are Greek derivatives formed? Il EXERCISE ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE VERB. I 1. Give a list of EngKsh root verbs and their principal parts. 2. Give primary derivatives from the following roots : — Fall, rise, will, ttrew, hounds rwh,Jly, drop, draw, breathe, sit, lie, blood, melt, wa^hf shake, dry. 3. Point out the affixes, if any, of the following words, and de- termine their meaning: — Scatter, whiten, harden, imitate, clamber, prattle, exist, assist, linger,' shuffle, bully, baptize, suspect, terminate, expedite, inhabit. 4. Give a list of twenty Saxon, twenty Latin, and five Greek de- rivatives ; explain the force of the affix in each, or show ^here an affix is wanting. \ : 314 ENGLISH GRAMMAm. 8. STRUCTURE OF THE ADVERB. 470. English Adverbs are either — 1. Ori- ginal Roots ; 2. Primary Derivatives ; 3. Secondary Deriratives ; or, 4. Compound Words. 1. The original adverbs of the English language consist of a few monosyllables derived from the Saxon ; such as, now, then, then, here, oft, well, ill, not, to, thin. Oh». — Then, there, thus, and here, have now been traced pretty clearly to genitive, accusative, and dative forms of the Saxon de* moostrative pronouns. 2. Primary derivatives are formed — (1.) From numerals ; as, Onee, twice, thrice ; from one, two, three. These were originally the ordinary genitive forms of the numerals. (2.) From nouns ; as, Keeds, Genitive of need* Whilom Dative of while. So also we say — Mornings, for Evenings^ " Mondays, " Of a morning (Ger. morgens,) or an evening (Ger. emends,) Of a Monday. (3.) From other adverbs ; af, Thence, thither, Hence, hither, from There, »' Here, Observations. — (a) a few cases also occur in which adverbs are formed out of adjectives and prepositions by adding the genitive faermiuation <; as, Uhawates, Besides, from Unaware. Beside. (b) A large number of the prepositions are joined to verbs, and used adverbially, without any change in their form. Thus, we say, To^o down, up, in, about, through, across, &c. (c) The participle form of the verb is sometimes used adverbial* ly ; as man came walking; The ehurch stood gleaming among the Irees. All the primary derivatives amongst the English adverbs are of Saxon origin, and nearly all have been primary inflexions of n9uns, pronouns, or adjectives. 1 STRUCTURE OV PREPOSITIOIir. 515 8. English ndverhfl which conic under tho title of secondjry d«- rivativei, are formed in the following ways : — (1.) By the affixes— ly, as, wisely, cuDningly. This may be termed the general form of the adverb, when de- rired regularly from tlie correapondiag adjective. ti>arj or warcfs; as backward /rom back. ( Signifying sidewards toayi or wUe \ as always, likewise, om back. ( " side, "i direction. all. like. The terminations wife and ward are only used with Saxon deri< ▼fttires ; ly is a universal advwhial Jorm for all derivatives. (2.) By the prefixes — a ; as, ashore, abroad, adrift, aground. he ; as, behind, betime. These two prefixes are the remains of the prepositions on and by. 4. There are a great number of compound? adverbs in the English language, formed by combining together various other parts of speech ; as, forthwith, peradventure, pell-mell, see-taw, $ometime$t somewhere, thereabout, straightway^ yesterday^ to-morrow, hence- forward, headlonfff dec. We may add also those derived from compound adjectives ; as, left-handedly, good-naturedly, ill-manneredly, Give the Latin ▼erb roots, and words derived from each. — Give the Latin adjec- tive roots, and words derived from each. — Give the Greek noun roots, and words derived from each. — Give the Greek verb roots, and words derived from each. — Give the Greek adjective roots, and words derived from each, Ac. 11 VOCABULARY OF HOOTS. I. SAXON ROOTS. Obttrvation. — A groat number of English worJa are derired from precisely corresponding Saxon words. Where the doriratioa is obvious, (as, smith, brother, tooth, &c., from- smith, brothor, toth, kc.,) the Saxon words are not given in the vocabulary. The roots printed below are those which give origin to a number of English words, the derivation of which is more disguised. Saxom Nouns. yEcer, m field ; (Ger. Aker,) acie, God's-acre. Bana, death ; bane, baneful, hen- bane. Bot, tatUf action ; to boot, boot- less. Cyn, race ; kin, kindred, kind. Deor, animal; (Ger. Their,) deer, Durham. Doel, part; (Ger. Theil,) dole, deal, to deal. Dun, a hill ; downs ; most pro- per names ending in d(m, Ea, eas, water; island, many names of places in ey. Ouu. Feond, enemy; (Gqt. Feind,) fiend, fiendish. FagaljMrd; (Ger. Vogel,) fowl, fowler, fowling-piece. Geard, enchiure : yard, g.'jrden. Gorst,/«r«« ; gorse, gooseberry. Ham, dwelling; home (Ger. Hein,) hamlet; names of places ending in ham. Holm, islaad; Holms, Azholm, &c. Hund,tfo^; ((kr. Hand,) hound, Hunt. Hythe, port; Hythe, Rother- hythe. Ing, meadow ; the Ings, names of places in itig . Leaf, field; Lea, names of places in ley. Maga, Ktomach ; )Gcr. Magen,) maw. Mere, lake; (Ger. Mere,) Mere, names of places in mere. Noesse, promotitory ; Naze,name9 of places in neti. Rice, kingdom; (Ger. Reich,) bishopric. Sped, tuceeti ; speed, Godspeed. Stede, itation ; names of places in st')ad. Stoc. \ place; names of places Stow^ > in ttock and $tow. Suiui, ttrait; sound, Bomarsund. Thoip, village; (Ger. Dorf,) names of places in thorp. Tid, time; (Ger. Zeit,) tide, Shrovetide, (Hme and tide.) Wald, wood ; (Ger. Wald,) weald wold, Walt-ham. Weard, guard; ward, warden. Wic, dwelling; Wick, and names of places ending in same. Wirt, root ; (Ger. Wurzel,) wort. Wise, manner; (Ger. Weise,) in nowise, leastways. Wylen,»/oi;c; villain. VOCABULARY OF ROOTS. 319 Saxon Vibds. Beordan, to ordir ; (Qer. beitcn,) bid, beadle. iJeorgan. to protect ; (Ocr. Bor- gen,) burgh, borough. Uidan, to wait ; bide, abide, abode. Bloosan, lu blow ; (Oer. blaaer.,) blast, bluster, blossom. BructtD, to use ; broker, to brook. Biian, to cultivate ; (Ger. bauen.) boor, neighbour. Bugan, to bow; (Ger. Bicgen,) boMf, bough, bay, elbow. Ceapian, to buy; (Ger. kau- fon,) cheap, chapman, chaffer, OheapsidOj Chipping. Cearcian, to creak ; cank, chatter chirp. (Old Eng. chirk.) Olypian, to call ; old Eng yclept. Gunnian, to search ; to con, cun- ning, (Ger. kennen.) Cwellan, to tlayj quell, kill. Deman,eac«; pacify. Pectus, breast ; expectorate. Pes, foot ; biped. Pilus (capillua), hair ; pile, capil- lary. Pisci8,^«A, piscatory. Planta, plant ; plantation. Plumbum, lead ; plumber. Poena, punishment ; penal. Fondua, weight ; pound. Populus, people ; popular. Prseda, 6oo/y ; preduceous. Pretium, price ; precious. Puer, boy ; puerile. Quies, rest ; quiet. Radius, spoke of wheel ; ray. Radix, root ; radical. Rivus, stream ; river. Robur, strength ; robust. Rota, wheel ; rotary. Rus, cmmtry ; rustic. Sal, salt ; saline. Salus, safety ; salvation. Sanguis, blood; sanguine. Sapor, savour ; insipid. Seculum, the age ; secular. Semen, seed; seminary. Signum, «^ ; signify. Sol, sun ; solar. Somnus, sleep ; somnambulist. Sors, lot ; assort. Spatium, space ; expatiate. Tabula, table ; tabulate. Tempns, time; temporary. Terminus, boundary ; extermi- nate. Terra, the earth; terrestrial. Testis, witness; attest. JJmhTa, shadow ; umbrageous. Unda, a wave ; inundate. Urbs, city ; urbanity. Vacca, cow ; vaccinate. Vapor, steam ; evaporate. Vas, a vessel ; vascalar. Velum, veil ; revelation. Vena, vein; venous. - Verbum, word ; verb. Vestis, garment ; invest. Via, way ; obvious. Vindex, avenger; vindicate. 322 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Vinum, wine ; vintage. Vir, a man; virile. Virtus, valour: virtue. Vita, life ; vitality. Vitium,/«u//; vice. Yoluipt&s, pleasure ; voluptuous. Votum, vow ; votary. Vulgus, common people ; vulgar. Vulnus, wound ; vulnerable. Latin Verbs. - j^stimare, vaZue; estimate. Ago (actus) act ; transact. Amo, love ; amatory. Aperio, open ; aperture. Appello, call ; appellation. Apto,^/; aptitude. Audio, hear ; audible. Augeo, increase; augment. Cado (casum)/aW; accident. Gaedo (ctesum) tut ; incision. Oano, sing ; chant. Capio (captum) take ; reception. Oedo (cessum) go ; accede. ^ Oerno (cretum) perceive ; dis- cern. Olamo, call out ; exclaim. Glaudo (clausum)sAu^; include. Colo (cultus) till; cultivate. Credo, believt; credit. Creo, create ; creation. Cresco, to grow ; increase. Criminor, jtM^ge, accuse; discri- minate. Cumbo, lie ; succumb. Ourro(c»rsum), run; occur. Dice (dictum), say ; predict. Boceo (doctus), teach ; doctor. Doleo, grieve ; condole. Bono, give; donation. Bormio, sleep; dormouse. Dttco, lead; conduct. Smo (emptus), buy ; redeem. Eo (itum), go ; exit. Bxperior (expertus), )ytii)^leader ; dema- gogue. Agon {ayoiv), contest; antagonist. Ang^los {a.yyf\os\ messenger; angel. Anthos (avBoi), flower ; polyan- thus. Anthropos {avdp(i}iros\ man ; phi- lanthrophy. Arctos (opicToy), hear ; arctic. Arithmos [apiOfios), number; ar- ithmetic. ABtron(ourTpoi/) star; astronomy. Biblion (iS(/3A(oi/), 600A: ; bible. Bios {fiios), life ; biography. Cholt (xof^v), bile ; melancholy. Chronos (xpoyos) time; chro- nology. Cosmos {Kofffxos), world; cos- mogony. Oratos (Kparos), rule ; democrat. Daimon (Sat/uoi/), spirit ; demon. Demos (^viJ^os), people; democrat. Doxa {So^a), opinion ; orthodox. Dogma (5o7/ia), opinion ; dog- matic. Dunamis (Suva/its) strength; dyn- amics. Ethos (c0o$), manner; ethics. VOCABULARY OF ROOTS. 325 Gamos (yafios), marriage; poly- }f QS09{ini'os), A;tnd; heterogen- Onoma(o»'0)ua),7ui»ie; synonyme. eous. Oplithalmos {o aft: technical. thematics. Theos (0€os), God; theology. Metron {fifrpoy), measure ; sym- Thesis (fleo-ts), placing ; paren- metry. thesis. Meter (fi-nrrtp) mother ; metro- Topos (roiros), place; topography. polls. Tupos (ruTToy), ftamp : type. Muthos (/it;eos),7ny /A; mythology. Zoon {(juov), animal : zoology. Naus [yavs\ ship i nautical. Ghbee Yirbs. Archo (apxu), to command; mon- Gignosco (yiyvuiTKw), ^know ; arch. prognostic. Ballo (/8a\Aw), to throw; sym- Grapho (ypa^w), write ;'* auto- bol. graph. Galupto (koAwittw), cover; Ap- Miseo (/uiavTa(o), appear; Stello {arrtWw), send; apostle. phantom. Tasso {raai)'(u), show, phenom- Tbeaomai (deao/iat), «e« ; theatre. enou. Temno (re/ii/w), cut ; atom. Poieo (TTotew), make ; poetry. Trepo (rpeirw), turn .- tropics. / Greek AoJiiiCTivES. Autos (ouToy), ielf; autobiogra- Neero3(v«Kpos),rff a J; necropolis. phy. Neos (veos), new; neology. Calos (koXos), beautiful; call- Olif^oa (o\iyos), few ; oligarchy. graphy. w OrihaiopOos), right ; orthodox. Gumnos {yvuvos), naked; gym- OxjB (o^vs), tharp ; oxygen. nasties. Fhilot (i\os)f friendly : philan- Heteros {irepos), anot her ; heter- thropist. ogeneous. Polus (iro\uy), ma-f^y ; polygon. Hieros [Upos)^ sacred; hierarchy. Protos {irporo^),firit ; prototype, Isos (tcoy), iqual ; isosceles. Thermos (dfpfxos), warm : ther- Monos {fiovos)f alone; monoton- mometer. ous. The following are a few specimens of the French words, which have been the medium of introducing the original Latin roots in English. Cheval (Lat. caballus), Iiorse; fealty. chevalier, chivalry, cavalry. Mcrveillle (Lat.Mirabile) toonder ; Oharte (Lat. carta) pa/>«r ; chart, marvel, marvellous. charter, cartoon, cartouch. Parler, to apeak; parley, Parlia- Oampagne (Lat. campus), ^eld; ment. camp, campaign, champaign. Souverain (Lat. superus), aover- Chanter (Lat. cano), sing; chant, eign ; sovereignty. enchant, enchanting. Yue (Lat. video), see ; view. F6odalit6 (Lat. fidelitas), feudal; ERRATA. The exercise, page 48, shoidd be numbered 6 not 5. - In 547, page 154 — for relation — read relations; and for casual read causal. The exercise on same case page 181,- should be numbered 98th not 2l8t. The exercise on the syntax of the adverb, page 226, should be numbered 60th not 34th. '