'iu ^-^ »o^ 9u \^>^\k% IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 1^ ilio 2.2 1.4 1.8 1.6 Hiotographic Sciences Corporation i\ ^^ ^^ ■^ -n\ 6^ % n? "- ;^: ^1 /^ A NEW SYSTEM ot MODERN GEOGRAPHY, \i¥ 7. OR j4 general description OF THE MOST REMARKABLE COUNTRIES T] THE KNOWN WORLD, veoae THEIR RESPECTIVE SITUATIONS, EXTENTS, , Hlfll^IO RIVERS, MOUNTAINS, SOILS, AND PRODUnilO COMMERCE, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, LAWS, ANf( RE\lGION .ifiiovX TOGETHER WITH >^ ^ THEIR PRINCIPAL HISTORICAL Evl ?JVj^ AND POLITICAL IMPORTANCE IN THE GREAT COMMONlflfALTH OF NATIONS: COMPILED yg* .^ FROM THE MCj MODERN SySTEM^I?i5EOGRAPHY, AND THE LATEST VOYAGES AND t^AVELS, AND O "^ ir- - CON-GAINING MANY IMPORTANT ADg^I^S^ ■jg| GEOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES THA-QIAvfe NiyElT^PPEARED IN ANY OTHER WOR»T3f5hEjKINIJ7 ILLUSTRATED W^JlSk'FifAPS, 'ccond Edition — In two Folumet. ' ■ '^*^' ^-^ ^ j Cempriiitti the latest discoveries. BY VO 'kJ PHILADELPHIA: PUBLISHED BY JACOB JOHNSON & Co. NO. 147, MARKET-STREET. 1805. wmm District of Pennsylvania^ to wit : BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the fourth day of September in the Twenty-ninth year of the Independence of the United States of Ame- rica, A. D. 1804. Jacob Johnson of the said District has deposited in this OfSce the Title of a Book the right whereof he claims as Pro- prietor in the words following to wit : " K New System of Modern Geography, or a General Description of " the most remarkable countries throughout the known world. Their " respective situations, extents, divisions, cities, rivets, mountains, «« soils, and productions ; their commerce, manners, customs, laws, and •' religion ; together with iheir principal historical events, and political *« importance in the great commonwealth of nations. Compiled from the " most modern systems of Geography, and the latest Voyages and Tra- " vels, and containing many important additions to the Geography ot " the United States that have never appeared in any other work of the " kind. Illustrated with eight Maps, comprising tl;e latest discoveries, " and engraved by the first American Artists. By Bepjamin Davies." In conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, intitu- led "An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copjes of Mans. Charts, and Books to the authors and proprietors of such copies durinK the times therein mentioned." And also to the Act entitled " An Act supplementary to an Act entitled "An Act for the encourage- ment of learning by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books t» the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein men- tloned " and extending the benefits thereof to the Arts of designing, en- gravin'g, and etching, historical and other 1^''^-^" ^^^^^^^^^ Clerk of the District iff PennsjiJvania. * >. iNiiii li^Mi PREFACE. i. O recommend the study of Geography, or a knowledge of the terraqueous globe, to the inquisi- tive and enlightened citizens of the United States would be trite and useless. What has been sanctioned by the approval of literary men in every other coun- try, has in thif;. deservedly become the subjeft of general cultivation. All that seems to be required of the Editor, is briefly to premise a few remarks on the treatise now ofl^ered to the public, with the reasons that induced him to undertake the compilation. Observing a frequent demand in the book-shops for a system of Geography, more instructive and enter- taining than the dry epitomes used in the schools, as elementary books, and yet less voluminous and expen- sive than Pinkerton's, Guthrie's, or Walker's Geogra- phical Grammars, the Editor thought that such a trea- tise might be compiled by judicious extracts from these, with the help of Modern Travels and Voyages. Something more too might be introduced, in describ- ing our own country, its moral and physical state, than is to be found in those volumes, without en- croaching on the right, or swelling the treatise to the size, of Morse's American Geography. To accomplish this intention Pinkerton's abridge- ment has been recurred to, principally, in detailing the Geography of foreign countries ; with the introduction of a few interesting articles which more recent publica- RP IV PREFACE. tions have furnished. This seemed necessary to ac- commodate the work to the existing state of Europe and Asia, thofe leading parts of the system with which we now entertain fuch frequent commercial inter- course. In arranging the materials before us, the per- spicuous order of Pinkerton has been adhered to, as closely as the nature of our task would permit. The freedom that has been indulged, in discri- minating the various constitutions of the American states, and the characters of their inhabitants, will perhaps be esteemed rather assuming by some readers ; but as truth and justice has been uni/ormly our rule, as well as independence of judgment, we presume the number will be but fmall, and that thofe few will perhaps see caufe to change their opinions. But should any material errors be discovered by readers which they will be so obliging as to communicate, in the topography or constitutions of any of the states, or the character of the people, they shall be rectified in the next impression of the work, and the commu- nication will be accepted with grateful sensibility. In compliance with our engagements to the sub- scribers, the volume will be preceded by an Alphabeti- cal Catalogue of the most common names of Ancient Geography, explained by the modern appellations of the same places — which can hardly fail to be accepta- ble to the readers of ancient history, as it is not to be met with in any modern system that we have feen. Those of our subscribers who have been displeased with the delay that has o.^curred in this publication, will, we hope, be disposed to pardon us, when they are informed that it has been occasioned, in a great measure, by the increased size of the work ; which contains at least one hundred and fifty pages more than was promised or expected when our Prospectus was published. iiMjiiti-r I' - II. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Introduction, />. i. — The figure and relative position of the Earth — of the Terrestrial Globe. — Problems performed on the Globe. — Divisions on the surface of the Earth.— Of Maps. — Lengths of Miles in different fountries. Europe, general view of p. 26. — England and Wales, 30 — Scotland, 57 — Ireland, 70 — France ^ 79 — Ne- therlands, 93 — Russia in Europf^, 98 — Russian isles, 108 — Austrian dominions, 109 — Prussia, 123 — Spain, 131 — Spanish isles, 144 Turkey in Europe, 145 — Turkish isles, 155 — Holland, 1^6 — Denmark, 164 — Danish isles, 174 — Sweden, 176 — Swedis/j ifles, 185 — Portugal, 186 — Swisserland, 192 — German States, 201 — German States on th north of the Mayn, 205 — Ditto on the sotith of the Mayn, 210 — Italy, general description of, 213 — Southern part of Italy, 2 1 •]— Central part of Italy, 2 1 9 — Northern part of Italy y 221. Asia, general view of, 224— Linnaan table of primeval nations and languages, 225 — Turkey in Asia, 228 — Islands belonging to Asiatic Turkey, 236 — Russian empire in Asia, 239 — Islands belonging to Asiatic Russia, 249 — Chinese empire, 250 — China proper, 251 — Chinese islands, 261 — Chinese Tatary, 262 — . Island of Sagalian or Tchoka, 265 — Tibet, 267 — 7a- /^«> 2^2— 'Sirman empire, comprising Ava and Pe^- gu, 2Z2— -Malaya or Malacca, 291 — 5w/w, 293— Other states of exterior India, 297 — Hindostan, 300 rrr-British possessions and allies, 30? — Maratta states ^ mmmm mmmm «Mi|HBii« \ VI CONTENTS. 303-5.;^.. il>,-^Ga»getic Hindcstan, or the couufnes on the Garages, 3 1 n—Zindetic Hindostan, or the coufu Zirj^ '^""^'''^ '^'^'—^'"^'-IBindostan.or the #3 \ THE Common Names of Ancient Geography^ Explained by the synonymous modern names, and arranged in alphabetical order. A. Acheron, a river in Albania, now called Velechi. Aetiym, capital of I.ivadia, now called Figala. Acroceraunesy mountains in Albania, now mount Chimera' Adriatic Sea, now gulf of Venice. AliioMf now England. AUemania, now Franconia and Suabia. Allotroga, now Savoy and Dauphin^. Ammen, now Barca in Africa. Angles, ancient inhabitants of Holstein, the progenitors of the En/jf>us, an arm of the sea, between Negropont and Livadia. F. Falerna, a mountain in the kingdom of Naples, now Monte Massico, once famous for its grapes. % G. Galatia, Tiovi Chiangara, a province of Natolia. GaUiay now France and Lombardy, divided into Cisalpine and Transal- pine, as it was more or less distant from Rome. Gallia Cisalpina, now Lombardy, was divided intoTranspadana and Cispa- dana, as it was on one or the other side of the river Po, in respect of Rome. Cispadana was called also Togata, on account of the toga, or long gown worn by the inhabitants. Gallia Trarnalpina, was hkewise divided into two parts, one called Comaia, on account of the long hair of the inhabitants, comprising the Lionese, part of Normandy, the lsl« of France, the Orleannois, Touraine, Maine, Bretagne, Franche Compte and all its dependen- cies, Guienne, Gascoigne, Roussilkon, Triers, Spire, Worms, Stras- burg, Mentz, Toul, Verdun, and all the country between the Sein, the Maese, and the Rhine, from Coblentz down to the sea; the other called Braccata, on account of the Bracca, a sort of breeches worn in that country, comprehending Languedoc, Provence, Daq- phine and Savoy. GaJes, now Cadiz, a city of Spain Garamanteiy now Zara, or Nigritia, in Africa. Gennabiutn, now Orleans, a city of France. Getes, people of Moldavia and Vallachia. Gnosse, now Candia. Getulia, now Bildulgerid in Africa. Cranicus, now Lazzara, a river of Natolia, famous for a victory obtained by Alexander over Darius, near its banks. Gracia Magna, now the south part of Italy. H. Halicarnassus, now Tobia, a city of Caramania. Hannonia, now Hainauh in Flanders. Helicon, now Zagara, a mountain of Livadia. Hellespcntus, now the Straits of Dardanelles. Heheiii, the inhabitants of Switzerland. Hcnihs, a peopie in the north of Germany. Hcsperides, a name given by the Greeks to Italy, and by the Italians to Spam. ' Hircama, now Tarabistan, a province of Persia. Htrpini, a people settled in u part of the kingdom of Naples Ht spalls, now Seville, a town of Spain. • 'IP X '^^e Common Names of Ancient Geograpljy, L Ihtria^ now Spain. 'nZT: now ^ r"" •'■'' S.'T"'? J"^"' ^eyp*' ""'i Arabar ■j/zyr/a, now bclavonia, Dalmatia, and Croatia. insubrta, now part of Lombardy, towards Como. /««««,,«, washes the western shore of Greece up to the gulf of Venice. IZ^: a small country, along the river Jordan, oppositfryrus: C'- "T^A ?7^«?"*^' »«a port of France, the rendcalw gun- boats intended for invasion of England. # Xc-;rfs«M, or %r/a, now Misitra, a city of Morea. l^aconia, the country of which Sparta was the capital. A^liX ^'''''' *"■ ^''^'^' '" ''^"' "^""' '=^*« ^^''g"" fro«» Xa//«»,, now Campania di Roma. Laurentum, now San Lorenzo, in Campania di Roma. I^emnes, now Stalimene.l . , , , , Lesbos^ now Mitilene, C "^^""^ «» the Archipelago. ^j'&'a, now Nigritia and Parca. Liburnia, a part of Dalmatia and Croatia. J^tcaoHia, now the district of Cogni in Natolia. I^tgurtu, now the RepubPc of Genoa. rJiHL *^^ ^''J^ ""} Avemo, in the kingdom of Naples. i^otbarhgia^ the duchy of Lorrain. Zwa«a, now the BasiUcate, in the kingdom of Naples. L-usttaniay now Portugal. Lutetia^ now Paris, the capital of France. M. Mara^on,m^ a viUagc of Livadia, where the Greeks routed the rersians. Massagetes, now Turquestan, in Asia. Mano^a,>„i, peopled the country which lies in the south-west of Bohemia. Mauritama, now Algiers, Tunis, Fez and Morocco. Media, now part of Persia, towards Aderbeitzan. Meander, now Mandre, a river of Natolia. Melita, now Malta, an island in the Mediterranean. MempbU, now Grand Cairo, the capital of Egypt. ^Mesopotamia, now Diarbeck, in Asia. MiUtus, novf Palatcha, in Anatolia, a town of ancient Ionia famous for Its fine wool. ^^"a, now Servia and Bulgaria, in Europe. Mhscnisy now St. Adrian, a town of Morea, near Corinth. Moguntia, now the city of Mentz, in Germany. ^ ^^^' The Common Names of Ancient Geography, xi a famous for Monahia nowthe Isle of Man. Monttf now Anglesea, iu Wa'es> N. Nicomedia, a city of NatoIla,formerIy the capi by an earthquake in 356. NiitiveB, now a heap of ruins, near the Tigris. Norieum^ now part of Austria, Styria, Carint.. Numantiat now Garrai, upon the Duro, a city Numidiay now Biiedulgerid, in Africa. o. Olympus, a mount in Thessaly, near the gulf of Thessalonica. 0/y«/M, nowLonganico, in Morea, where the Olympic jrames were celebrated. Orcbadety now the Isles of Orkney. Orontesy now Oronz, or Tarfar, a river of Natolia in Asia. P. Padusy now Po, a river of Italy. Fannmiay now part of Styria, Carniola, Carinthia, Hungary and Botnia. rartbenopey now Naples, in Italy. Partbia, now Arac, in Asia. Peloponnesusy now Morea, part of Turkey in Europe. Pelusiumy near the ruins of which stands Damietta, in Ejrypt. Pbanicia, now a part of Suria, or Syria, in Asia. Pieenium, now Ancona, in Italy. ^ PoHtujy now part of Aladulia, in Natolia. Propcnthy nowthe sea of Marmora. Ptolemais, now St. John D'Aire, in Syria, famous for the defeat of Buonaparte and lus eastern army by a handful of English saUori, under Sir Sidney Smith. • ^ «moi», R. Rbetlay now the Orisons, as far a? Trent. Pbodoput, now BasiUssa, a mountain in Romania. tTsicS^ ^'^^°* '''°''" *" ^^^ promontory of Italy that is nearest ^lr'-n"i?Tr"'''^h^ "^*^' ^'^^ ^'''^^ ^'^y fro"* Cisalpine Qwl. -»«/«//, mhabitants qf the country now Campania di Roma. S. ■' ^aw, now Zibit, the metropoUs of Arabia Falix. baguntumy now ^orvedro, a city of Valencia, inSpjiin. !?• XU The Comnon Names of Ancient Geograph^u Samnttesy inhabifants of the country now called Capltanate in Italy. Sarmatia, now Poland, Muscovy and part of Tatary. 5;/»«x ^ \a *v.^ o.^.,»^^. or equinoctial line ; because the sun, when moving in it, INTRODUCTION. xvit ihakes the days and nights of equal length, all over the world. It passes through the east and west points of the globe, and divides it into northern and southern hemis- pheres, and is itself divided into 360 degrees. Horizon. This great circle is represented on the globe, by a broad circular piece of wood encompass- ing the globe, and dividing it into ufifier and lonver hemis- pheres. It is distinguished also into acrmble and rational. The firsyi^t which bounds the utmost prospect of our 8*&ht, ^^Hp view the heavens around us, and deter- mines tl^lphg or setting of the sun and stars, in any particular place. The second encompasses tht globe ex- actly in the middle, and its poles are called the zemth and nadir; the former exactly over our heads, and the latter under our feet — The broad woodert circle on the terres- I trial globe that represents the horizon has several circles drawn upon it, exhibiting the signs of the zodiac, the num- ber of degrees in each, and the days of the month, &c. Meridian. This circle is represented by the brass ring on which the globe hangs and turns: it cuts the equator at right angles, is divided into 360 degrees, and serves to divide the earth into eastern and western Ehemispheres. It is called the meHdian^ because when the sim comes to the south part of it, he has reached his me- ridian altitude, and it is then meridiesy or mid-day.—' There are commonly marked on the globe 24 meridians, one through every fifteen degrees of the equator. Zo^'Ac. The Zodiac is a broad circle^ which cuts the equator obliquely ; in which the twelve signs are re- presented. In the middle of this circle, is supposed ano- ther called tne eclifitic, in which the sun never deviates in ihis annual course, advancing 30 degrees in every month. I — 1 he twelve signs are, 7. Libra =a= ....September 8. Scorpio »*L.... October 9. Sagittarius / ....November 10. Capricorn >5 ....December H. Aquarius ^^....January 12. Pisces K ....February I.Aries V... .March 2, Taurus Q.... April 3. Gemini n...,May [4. Cancer 25.... June [5. Leo SI ....July 6. Virgo ^....August h% xvKi INTRODUCTION. CoLURES, If we imagine two great circles, both passing through the poles of the world; one of them through the equinoctial points aries and librae and the other through the solstitial points cancer and capricom, we have an idea of the colures....the one is called the equi- noctial) the other the solstitial colure. — These are all the great circles. Tropics. These are two circles drawn parallel to the equinoctial, distant from it 23^ ^^9MMt ^"^ ^°' wards the north, called the tropic of can^^Bhe other towards the south, called the tropic of capn||ni. Polar Circles. If two other circles are sup- posed to be drawn at the same distance of 23| degrees from the polar points, these are called the polar circles. The northern is called the arctic^ and the southern the an/-arcrfc....These are the four lesser circles. ZoBTE. The Zones are 5 in number: the torrid zone, or that portion of the earth lying between the tro- pics, which by the ancients was erroneously supposed to be uninhabitable, on account of its heat....two temperate, or that portion comprised between the tropics and the polar circles — and two frigid, that are inclosed within the polar circles and the poles, and are the most unfit for human habitation of any pan of the earth. Climates. These are certain divisions of the earth, determined by the various lengths of the day ; and there are 30 of them between the equator and either pole. In the first 24, the days increase by half hours: and in the remaining six, which lie between the polar c ' rcle and the pole, the days increase by months Georgia, and the Carolinas are comprised within the 5th climate, and the longest day about 14h. 30m.; the nuddle states with- in the 6th, longest day about 1 5h. New York and the eastern states within the 7th, the longest day about i 5h. 30m. Latitude. The latitude of any place is its dis- tance fmm the equator, either north or south, but can never exceed 90 degrees either way, as such is the dis- tance from the equator to either pole. Parallels of Latitude. These are imaginary circles, parailei witli the equator which are drawni.o iii- INTRODUCTION. XIX tcrsect the meridian of any place, and to designate its Irue situation. Longitude. The longitude of any place is its situation with regard to tlie first meridian, reckoned to- ward the east or west. Modem globes and maps fix the f*rst meridian in the capital city where they are made. In England, the first meridian is fixed at London or Greenwich ; in France, at Paris ; and in the United States, at Philadelphia. No place can have more than 1 80 de- grees of longitude. The degrees of longitude are not equal like those of latitude, but diminish as the meri- dians approach the poles. Hence, in sixty degrees of la- titude, a degree of longitude is but half the quantity of a degree at the equator, and so of the rest. PROBLEMS PERFORMED ON THE GLOBE. 1. To find the Latitude qf a filace. Bring the place under that semicircle of the brazen meridian where the divisions begin at the equator, and observe what degree the place is under, and it is the la- titude required. 2. To rectijy^the Globt to the Latitude of a place. Elevate the p^ above the horizon till its altitude, ob- served on the brazen meridian, be equal to the latitude of the place, and it is then said to be rectified to the la- titude, and it so far stands right for the solution of all problems for that latitude. 3. To find the Longitude of a place from Philadelphia. Bring the place to the graduated edge of the brazen meridian, and observe the point of the equator which lies under it, and the distance of that point from the point where the meridian of Philadelphia cuts the equator, is the longitude required. XX INTRODUCTION. 4. Given the Latitude and Longitude qfa/ilacey tojind where the filace it. % luring the giveti degree of longitude to the brazen me- ridiari) and then under the given degree of latitude upon that meridian) you have the place required. 5. When it is noon at any filace A, tojind the hour at any other place D. Bring A to the meridian, and set the index to XII ; then turn the globe till B comes under the meridian, ".x\\ the index will shew the hour at B. If it be not noon at A, set the index to the hour, and proceed as before, and ybu get the corresponding hour at B. '"' 6. Tojind the distance of A Jrom B. \ V. Bring A to the meridian, and screw the quadrant of altitude over it, and carry it to B, and you get the num- ber of degrees between A and B, which multiply by 59,2, the miles in one degree, and you get the distance required. 7. Tojind the bearing of B from A. Rectify the globe for the latitude of A, and bring A to the meridian, and fix the quadrant of altitude to A ; then direct the quadrant to B, and the point where it cuts the horizon shews the bearing required. 8. At an hour of the day at B^ tofinri the place Ay to which the Sun is verticaL Find the sun*s place in the ecliptic, and bring it to the brazen meridian, and you find its declination on the me- ridian; then bring B to the meridian, and set the index to the given hour, and turn the globe till the index comes to XII at noon, and the place under the sun's declination ?ipoii the meridian is that required. lacct to find i brazen me* atitude upon ? /lOur at any dex to XII ; icridian, ".wi i not noon at i before, and 8. \ quadrant of et the num- iply by 69,2, ice required. d bring A to e to A ; then [•e it cuts the e A'i to which ring it to the I on the me- et the index index comes s declination introduction: xxi 9. To know the length of the day and night at any filace at any time qf the year. Elevate the pole according to the latitude of the place; find the sun's place in the ecliptic -at that time ; which being brought to the east side of the horizon, set the in- dex of the horary circle at noon, or the upper figure XII ; and turning the globe about till the aforesaid place of di^ ecliptic touch the western side of the horizon, look upon the horary circle; and where the index points, reckon the number of hours to the upper figure of XII, for that is the length of the day ; the complement of which I to 24 hours is the length of the night. 10. 3ro exfikUny in general^ the alteration of the length* of the days, and the difference qfthe secsom. Put patches upon the ecliptic from aries both ways to ■the tropics, and let them represent so many different Isituations of the sun ; and then, the globe being rectified Ho the latitude of the place (by art. 3), turn it about and you will see, for north latitude, that as the patches ap- proach the tropic of cancer, the corresponding diurnal ires will increase; and as the patches approach the tro- pic of Capricorn, the diurnal arcs will decrease; also, the rormer arcs are greater than a semicircle, and the latter less; and the patch in the equator will describe a semi- fcircle above the horizon. When therefore the sun is in khe equator, the days and nights are equal; as he ad- vances towards the tropic of cancer, the days increase, \m the nights decrease, till he comes to the tropic, where the days are found to be longest, and the nights shortest; then as he approaches the equator, the length of the days Himinishes, and that of the nights increases, and when the sun comes to the equator, the length of the days and nights is equal. Then as he advances towards capiicom, Ihe days continue to diminish and the nights incr^till tie comes to that tropic, where the days are shortest and ^he nights are longest; and then as he approaches the .quatoi, tnc uays mcicasc and the nights diminish; and ft'hen he comes to the equator, the days and nights are xxn INTRODUCTION. equal. And whatever be the latitude, when the sun is in the equator, days and nights are equal. To an inha- bitant at the pole, the sun will appear to be half a year above the horizon, and half a year below. To an inha- bitant at the equator, the days and nights will appear to be always equal ; also, all the heavenly bodies will be found to be as long above the horizon as below. At the arctic circle, the longest day will be found to be 24 hours, and the longest night 24 hours; this appears by rectify- 1 ing the globe to that lat'.tude, and observing the patches at the tropics of cancer and of Capricorn. I.astly, it will be found that all places enjoy equally the sun in respect to time, and are equally deprived of it ; the length of the days at one time of the year being found exactly equal to | the length of the nights at the opposite season. This ap- pears by putting patches upon the ecliptic, at opposite points of it. ,11. To find at any Day andHour^ the Places where the Sun\ is risings set tin tf^ or on the Meridian j also, those Places \ which are enlighteneu, and where the Twilight is begin- ning and ending. Find (by art. 8) the place to which the sun is vertical at the given hour, and bring the same to the meridian, and rectify the globe to a latitude equal to the sun's de- clination. Then to all those places under the western se- tnicircle of the horizon, the sun is rising; to those under] the eastern semicircle, the sun is setti7ig; and to those un- der the meridian it is noon. Also, all places above the horizon are enlightened, andj all those below are in the dark hemisphere. Lastly, in all those places 18® below the western hori* 2on, the twilight is just beginning in the morning, and inl those IB* below the eastern horizon, is just ending in the] evening^. To find all the Places to which a Lunar Eclifise is visible at any Instant. Find the place to which the sun is vertical at any time, a I — :_~ d.u.^4- ■.^^n,>^ ♦« *-Ua. r,ani^V% Q*»rl fl-»«» ^a/'lmef -will he INTRODUCTION. xxiu n the suii is To an inha- half a year To an inha- ill appear to ►dies will be low. At the be 24 hours, 's by rectify- 1 the patches .astly, it will in in respect length of the ctly equal to | >n. This ap- I at opposite ')here the Sun those Placesl 'ight is begin- m is vertical I le meridian,! the sun's de- e western se* \ those under | . to those un« ghtened, and vestem horl- rning, and in| inding in the! ' Edifise is [ at any timC) clipse will be |visible tp all the hemisphere under the horizon, because the moon is then opposite to the sun. )N THE DIVISIONS OF THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH. 1 . The surface of the earth contains land and water. "he great collection of water is called the »«x, or the Hean; and this is divided into three principal parts; the Atlantic Ocean, which divides Eurofie and AJHca from imerica; the Facile Ocean, or great South Sea, which di- odes Asia from America; and the Indian Sea, which lies ^etween Africa and Malacca^ Sumatra^ Jarva, Mw Holland^ cc. Besides these, there are others which take their lames from the countries against which they are situ- ated: as the Irish Sea, th« Ger;nan Sea. There is also le Mediterranean Sea, dividing Eurofie from Africa; the ^lack Sea; the Caspian Sea, which is not connected with le other Seas; the Red Sea, &c. &'c. 2. A day, or gulf is a part of the sea running iiito the md, so as to have a considerable proportion of it, more jr less according to circumstances, bounded by shores; the bay of Biscay^ the bay of Bengali Hudsor^a bay, \:ardigan bay; the gulf of Venire, the gulf of Mexico^ Se gulf of Jaftan, Sec. &c. If the extent into the land^ but small, it is called a creek, a haven, or a road. 3. A strait, or straight, is a narrow part of the sea mning between two countries, and connecting two --• as the straits of Dover, the straits of Gibraltar, sas e straits of Sunda, the straits oi Magellan, &c. &c. "- 4. A considerable body of inland fresh water is called' lake; as the lake of Geneva, lake Ontario, lake of Der- tene, &c. &c. 5. A considerable stream of inland water which runs to the sea, is called a river; and smaller streams jhich run into a river, are called brooks. 6. A current is a stream of water upon the sea. Un- fer the equator there are some very violent ones, against Which a ship cannot make any way. There is one which --.rries a ship very swiftly from Ajrica to Atnerira, but cannot return the same wav. Governor Pmvnai oK- XXIV INTRODUCTION. serves that this current performs a continual circulationj setting out from the coast of Guinea^ crossing over the Mlantic, setting into the gulf of Mexico by the south, and sweeping round by the bottom of the gulf, it issues on the north side, and goes along the coast o^ Morth America till it arrives at Nieitfoundland^ where it is turn- ed back across the Atlantic to the coast of Europe, and thence southward to the point from which it sets out.— In St. Gcorge*s Channel there is a current which usually sets in eastward. From the Haltic a current sets into the British Channel. It is generally allowed, that there is always a current setting round the Capes of Finisterre and Ortegal into the bay of ^Biscay ; and Mr. Rennell has discovered that this current is continued, and passes about N. W. by W. from the coast of France, to the westward of Scilly and Ireland. In crossing the Atlan- tic therefore for the English Channel, he advises the na- vigator to keep in the parallel of 48®. 45', at the highest, lest the current should carry him upon the rocks of Scil- ly. From an ignorance of this current, many ships have been lost on those rocks. 7. A very great extent of land is called a continent^ of which there are two; one contains Murofie^ Asia^ and Africa; and the other contains America; and these are called the four quarters of the world ; the former is called the Eastern^ and the latter the Western continent. 8. A small extent of land surrounded by the sea, is called an Island. 9. If land run out from the main and be joined to it by a narrow slip— -the first is called a fieninaula^ and the latter an isthmus. . 10. If land jut out into the sea, without an isthmus, it is called a iiromontory^ and the point of it is called a cafie. Maps. A map is a representation of the Earth, or a part of it, on a plane surface. It differs from a globe in the same manner as a picture does from a statue. The globe truly represents the earth, whereas a map, being a plane surface, cannot represent a spherical body. The cardinal fioints are the north, south, -east and west. The north is considered as the upper part of the map, and the south the bottom ; the east is on the right hand, and the INTRODUCTION. XX v west on the left. From the top to the bottom are drawn meridians, or lines of longitude; and from side to side, pa- rallels of latitude. The outermost of the meridians, and parallels, are marked with degrees of latitude and longi- tude, by means of which, and the scale of miles commonly- placed in the corner of the map, the situation, distance, &c. of places may be found, as on the artificial globe. Length of miles in different Countries. Agreeably to Dr. Halley's calculations. The English statute mile consists of 5280 feet, 1760 yards, or 8 furlongs. The Russian Verst is little more than | of an En- glish mile. The Turkish, Italian, and old Roman lesser mile, is nearly one English mile. The Arabian, ancient and modern, is about 11 English. The Scotch, and Irish mile is about 1| English. The Indian is almost 3 English. The Dutch, Spanish, and Polish, is about 3| English. The German is more than 4 English. The Swedish, Danish, and Hungarian, is from 5 to 6 English. The French common league is near 3 English ; and The English marine league is 3 English miles. GEOGRAPHY. EUROPE. AS Europe h the seat of letters and arts, and the great- est exertions of mentalenergy in every department; and is besides the native region of the chief modern geogra- phers, it is generally the region first treated. But before ■we proceed to consider the several kingdoms and states comprised in this division of the globe, it may be proper to offer a brief and general description of the whole. Extent. This part of the globe is smallest in extent, yielding considerably to Africa. From the Portu- guese cape, called by our mariners the Rock of Lisbon, in the west, to the Uralian mountains in the east, the length may be about 3,300 British miles ; and the breadth from the North Cape in Danish Lapland, to Cape Mata- pan, the southern extremity of Greece, may be about 2,350. The contents in square miles have been calculated f . at two millions and a half: the inhabitants 1 5 0,000,000. Limits. On the south, the continental part, is limited by the Mediterranean sea, on the west by the At- lantic, which contains the furthest European isle that of Iceland, Greenland being regarded as a part of North America. In the opinion of several geographers, the Azores or Western Isles are clearly European, being nearer to Portugal than to any other continental land, while the Madeiras, for the same reason, belong to Af- rica. On the north, the boundary is the Arctic Ocean, embracing the remote isles of Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlia, or the New Land. -On the east, it is bounded by Asia. Ancient Population. The ancient population of Europe consisted of the Celts in the west and south : the Fins in the north-east, and the Laps or Laplanders, in the furthest north. Those ancient inhabitants, who seem to have been thinly scattered, were driven towards the west and north by the Scythians or Goths from Asia, whose descendants occupy the greater part of Europe; by the Sarmatians or Slavonic tribes, also from Asia, the ancestors of the Russians, roles, oic. and who were .lent and modern Europe. The columns of H.vr„i.c piimked its western boundary; being the mountain' or ffi^fjLoTunhiuf^^ r by \nc cmrnijniaiis' or cnairtjnic rrrocsj aiso irom iisia) the ancestors of the Russians) Poles, &c. and who were [he vig EUROPE. 27 accompanied by the Heruli; using what is now called the Leltic speech, to be found in Prussia, Lithuania, Samogitia, Courland, and Livonia, being a-kin to the Slavonic language, yet uith many shades of distinction. From Afnou the colony of Iberi, and northern Maui^ani, passed mto Spain at a very early period. The later ac- cession of Hungarians, and Turks from Asia may like- wise be commemorated. Rkligion. The Christian Religion prevails hroughout Europe except in Turkey, where however at least one half of the inha'oitants are attached to the Greek church. Wherever the Christian faith has penetrated, knowledge, mdustry, and civillaation have followed I among the barbarous tribes in the north the progress was unhappily slow, Scandinavia remaining Pajjan till the eleventh century ; and some Slavonic tribes on the south of the Baltic till the thirteenth ; nay, it is not above a century ago since the Laplanders were converted by mis- r.T^"' ^J.^^^'-k. The two grand distinctions are/ Catholics and Protestants: the former in the south, where? : the passions are more warm and the imagination morel iddighted with splendour; the latter in the north^^T el the operations of the judgment predominate. Climate. This fair portion of the globe is chiefly norv:ni'h'^V'"^P''''*' '°"^= 'f ^«^h distinctions have |not vanished from geography since modern discoveries .es ; that the Alps in a southern latitude present moun- of ice unknown m Lapland; that the torrid zone mos with water and habitations, and may perham pontain mountains covered with snow Yet freedom fom Inland Sk as. In a general view of Europe one r^ndTxten of'th' 'f interesting features is The'nr aei and extent of the inland seas; justly regarded as chief auses of the extensive industry and civilizSotan^^^^^^^^^^ cquent superiority to the other grand divisions ofX klobe. Among inland seas the Medite„" ists v f re-eminent, having been the centre of ciWhza on to a^ f'tl^X'^i^^'r ^""P" T*- columns of- He^^r; .^^^a,..d u. western boundary; being the mountain~or 28 EUROPE. rock of Ahyla, now called Ceiita, and Kalpe in Spain, the Gibrallar of modern fame. The length of the Medi- terranean is about 2000 miles to its farthest extremity in Syria; but in ancient maps the length has been extended to about 2500 miles. On its northern side open two large gulfs, that of Venice and the Archipelago; the former being the Adriatic, the latter the Egean sea of the an- cients. From this last a strait called the Hellespont con- ducts to the sea of Marmora, the classical Propontis : and another now styled the st ait of Constantinople, the an- cient Thracian Bosphorus, leads to the Euxine or Black sea; which to the north presents the shallow Palus Mxotis, or sea of Azof, the utmost maritime limit of Europe in that quarter. The second grand inland sea of Europe is the Baltic, by the Germans called tne Eastern sea. This extensive inlet opens from the German sea by a gulf pointing N. E. called the Skager Rack; and afterwards passes south in what is called the Cattegat, to the S. E. of which is the Sound of Elsinore, a strait where vessels pay a tribute of courtesy to Denmark. The Baltic afterwards spreads widely to the N. E. and is divided into two extensive branches called the gulls of Bothnia and Finland, both covered or impeded with ice for four or five months of the northern winter. The third and last inland sea of Europe is that called the White Sea in the north of Russia. To the north of Europe is the Arctic ocean, the dis- mal and solitary reservoir of myriads of miles of ice; yet this enormous waste is in the hand of Providence a fertile field of provisions for the human race. Here the vast battalions of herrings seem to seek a refuge from nu- merous foes, and to breed their millions in security. About the middle of winter emerging fiom their retreat they spread in three divisions; one towards the west, which covers the shores of America as far as the Chesa- peake and Carolina, while another more minute squadron passes the strait between Asia and America, and visits the coasts of Ramtschatka. The most memorable, the cen- tral, division reaches Iceland about the beginning of March, in a close phalanx of surprising depth and such EUROPE. St . that called extent that the surface is supposed to equal the dimen- sions of Great Britain and Ireland. Rivers AND Mountains. The chief rivers and mountains will be described under the heads of the par- ticular countries to which they belong. Governments. The kingdoms and states of Eu- rope may be considered, 1. u\s despotic monarchies, as those of Russia and 'J'urkey : 2. Absolute monarchies, as Spain, Denmark, 8cc. or, 3. Limited monarchies, as the empire of Germany, kingdom of Great Britain, &c. Since the fall of Venice, and the subversion of Svvisser- land and Holland, scarcely an example occurs of perma- nent and fixed aristocracy, or the hereditary government of nobles. Of democracy, or more strictly speaking, elective aristocracy, a few cities and some Swiss cantons may pre- serve a semblance ; while France at the present hour is a military despotism, under the assumed name oHheFrencA Em/lire, and the ferocious tyranny of a daring usurper. 1 At the beginning of the nineteenth century the Euro- pean states comprised in the first order are: 1. The uni- [ted kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland: 2. France: 13. Russia: 4. The Austrian dominions: 5. Those of ?»russia: 6. Spain: 7. Turkey: which last cannot be so justly reduced to the second order ; for though perhaps lapproaching its fall, still it boasts the name and weight of |an empire. Under the second order have been arranged: 1. Hol- riand or the United Provinces now called the Batavian Re- Ipublic: 2. Denmark: S.Sweden: 4. Portugal: 5. Swis- jserlund. In the third are considered the chief states of [Germany, that labyrinth of geography, and those of [Italy. The kmgdoms of Sicily and Sardinia might per- Ihaps, if entire and unshaken, aspire to the second order- land an equal station might be claimed by the junctive ILIectorate Palatine and Bavarian, and by that of Saxony But as such states only form rather superior divisions of Germany and Italy, it appeared more advisable to con- Isider them m their natural intimate connexion with these icountries. This explanation being premised, the first description shall be that of the British dominions. c2 / ENGLAND. CHAP. I. NAMES, SITUATIONS, EXTENT, 8cC. Names. THE Phenicians are generally supposed to have discovered Great Britain and Ireland at a period of very early antiquity ; and some suppose that the name of Britain originates from a Phenician word, wliile others with more probability infer it to have been an indigenal term derived from the Brets, tribes of which appellation may be traced in Gaul and Scythia. Among the first objects of the Phenician intercourse was tin, whence the Greek name of Cassiterides or the islands of tin. The name of Anglia or England is well known to have originated from the Angles, a nation of the Cimbric Cher- sonese or modern Jutland, who settled in the northern parts in the fifth century. Extent. The island of Great Britain extends from fifty to fifty-eight and a half degrees of north lati- tude, being of course about 500 geographical miles in length. Its greatest breadth, from the Land's End to the North Foreland in Kent, 320 geographical miles. England is bounded on the east by the German Ocean; on the south by the English Channel ; on the west by St. George's Channel ; on the north by the Cheviot Hills, by the pastoral river Tweed, and an ideal line falling south- west down to the Firth of Sohvay. The extent of Eng- land and Wales in square miles is computed at 49,450; and the population being estimated at 8,400,000, the num- ber of inhabitants to a square mile will of course be 169. Original Population. The earliest inhabitants of England are supposed to have been the Gael or South- ern Celts, called Guidels by the Welch, who regard them ly supposed at a period It the name ^liile others n indigenal appellation ng the first whence the tin. )wn to have ibric Cher- le northern lin extends north lati- :al miles in End to the iles. nan Ocean ; west by St. ot Hills, by lling- south- :nt of Eng- at 49,450; 0, thenum- irse be 169. inhabitants il or South- egard them drawn to the tarn* Scale ^, i 5K P " r,^^- Wnttl. YotthMaven V • -. « ^■ JtusayStvrr ^^^ ''^ff PHeder^oyl. id^^ Sufibxtryll^ M£Ui\isicL. ^IMt-'" ENGLAND. 31 as their predecessors. Those tribes seem to have arrived from the nearest shores of France and Flanders, and were followed by the Cimri, or Cimbri from the same regions whence the Angles afterwards proceeded. But the Cim- bri were northern Celts, the ancestors of the modern Welch. The Scythians or Goths from Asia having seized on Germany and a great part of Gaul, gradually repel- ling the Celts towards the west, appear to have sent co- lonies into England three or four centuries before the Christian era ; for Caisar found many tribes of the Bel- gae, a German or Gothic nation, established on the south and east of Britain. Those Belgae may be justly regard- ed as the chief ancestors ot the English nation ; for the Saxons, Angles, and other northern invaders, though of distinguished courage were inconsiderable in numbers, and the ^English language bears more affinity to the Frisic and Dutch than to the Jutlandic or Danish. Under the dominion of the Romans even the Belgic j colonies, unaccustomed to the use of arms, had forgotten [their former valour in the course of four centuries of sub- jection. Pressed by ferocious invaders, they seem to have invited to their assistance dangerous allies from the con- tinent. ' The Jutes arrived in the year 449, and founded Jie kingdom of Kent about the year 460; they also took possession of the Isle of Wight. In 477 the Saxons first ippear, and the kingdom of the South Saxons commences W that epoch. The West Saxons arrived in the year 495. ■The sixth century was considerably advanced when those' arbaric colonies were increased by the East Saxons in le year 527; but the first appearance of the great branch r the Angles, who were to perpetuate their name in the luntry at large, did not occur till the year 547, when the Miant Ida led his troops to Bernicia. The East Angles Ikmg possession of Norfolk in the year 575, the southern Hd eastern coasts were almost wholly in the power of the Ivaders, who soon extending their conquests into the in- frior of the country founded in the year 585 the king- jm of Mercia, the last of the Heptarchy. [England proper is divided into forty counties, and the fincipahty of Wales into twelve, thus making the whole imber of counties in South Britain fifty-two. < ^, I flannel ff^arra^f \ C tVraih Old Shore ij,'^ Ciirr^f'us^ A 'iitiila' VcyJ. I S minis r/% \S^Kxidci I *A-r- ZnaHi>naclfi\ r >' KjtmbecuJai 7? Ikrml ^ \ CfyltmsaJ. ^nisti-qhufll. Jforthl. VaUiey ' Wi-lcfii Xundy-I'tk MurtlanciP.\ ■I— ll| l | u. OldSh Carr.fyus^ Mofifiin Ut^^ ^* Oh Kirs y ^ V"^ S 1" (K;wy.^^V^ Is iie s 'iytrtairds'H^ 'Marni Vafvey ffiur/. ^\yn:i ubloi Antfles-i a ^^\ Arklo 'V ^B^ardL ey 5S Bet ifiiC^' A^*" ^Vfr^Stwtthi ■Bartlandf.^ H.' fcmt/et Menl'i-f: i " ^ /-..t/. A.J Al o / '^ -»<;a<:* v/ 'fled, according to the precise precepts of the law. The I Jourt of Exchequer, so termed from the ancient mode of I iccounting upon a chequered board, decides all causes re- gating to the royal treasury or revenue. The judges perform their circuits in the spring and i iutumn, and in the mean while more minute cases are determined by the justices of the peace, who may be traced to the fourth year of Edward III. Every three tnonths the justices of the county meet at what is calleio *>Vi-p*>fl 200 in num- ber. There are three noble bridges across the Thames within the limits of the Bills of mortality. There are 4050 ENGLAND. .43 seminaries of education ; between 13 and 14 thousand vessels (besides river craft) arriving and departing; which carry between 60 and 70 millions sterling, annually, to and from this great metropolis. York. Next to the capital in dignity, though not in extent nor opulence is York: which is not only the chief of a large and fertile province, bul may be regarded as the metropolis of the North of England. The name has been gradually corrupted from the ancient Eboracum ; by which denomination it was remarkable even in the Ro- man times, for the temporary residence and death of the Roman Emperor Severus. This venerable city is divided by the river Ouse; and the Gothic cathedral is of cele- brated beauty, the western front being peculiarly rich, the chief tower very lofty, and the windows of the finest painted glass. York divides with Edinburgh the winter visits of the northern gentry. Its inhabitants, according to the late enumeration, amount to 16,145. Liverpool. But Liverpool, in Lancashire, is now much nearer to London in wealth and population. In 1699, Liverpool was admitted to the honour of being con- stituted a parish. In 1710, the first dock was construct- ied; and the chief merchants came originally from Ireland. iThenceforth the progress -^as rapid, and in 1760 the po- [pulation was computed at 25,787 souls. In 1773, they [amounted to 34,407; in 1787, to 56,670; and by the enu- [meration in 1801, they were found to have encreased to 77,653. Its increase has been equal to that of Philadel- [phia in the United States. The number of ships which paid duty at Liverpool in 1757, was 1371 ; in 1794, they amounted to 4265. In the ■African trade, a distinguishing feature of Liverpool, there was only one ship employed in 1709; in 1792, they amounted to 132. In the recent act for the contribution of seamen to the royal navy, according to the ships regis- tered in each, the Estimate is as ibllows : London, 5725 Hull, 731 Bristol, 666 Liverpool, 1711 Whitthavcn, 700 Whitby. 573 Newcastle, 1240 Sunderland, 669 Ywmo'uth, 506 44 ENGLAND. Bristol is still a large and flourishing city, though much of its commerce with the West Indies and America have passed t'^ Liverpool: The trade with Ireland has centered chiehy in this city. It is pleasantly situated at the confluence of the Froome with the Avon. The hot- wells in the neiphbourhood appear to have been known in 1480 : but the water was chiefly used externally, till about the year 1670; when a baker dreaming that his diabetes was relieved by drinking the water, he tried the experi- ment and recovered. 8ince that period its reputation has increased, and many commodious and elegant erections have contributed to recommend these wells to invalids. In 1787", Bristol employed about 1600 coastii\g vessels, and 4 1 6 ships engaged in foreign commerce. Its population in 1801 was 63,645. Manchester, celebrated for its extensive cotton ma- nufacture, and the machinery of Arkwright, in 1708 con- tained but 8000 inhabitants. At the present time they amounted to 84,020. Birmingham was originally a village belonging to a family of the same name. It is now famous for its va- rious and extensive manufactures of hardware, and fancy articles of every kind. Between 1741 and 1790, Bir- mingham has experienced an augmentation of 72 streets, 4172 houses, and 23,320 inhabitants: the population in 1801, amounted to 73,670. Sheffield, though distinguished as early as the thir- teenth century for its manufacture of cutlery, had not risen to any degree of celebrity till about the middle of last century. At that period, all its manufactures were conveyed weekly to the metropolis, on pack horses. In 1615, the population did not exceed 2152 persons, at pre- sent it is equal to 31,314. — There are many other towns in England of considerable fame, but those already men- tioned are the most distinguished for their extensive trade and manufactures, and the bounds of this epitome will not permit us to enlarge. Wales, which is a part of South Britain, and gives a title to the Heir apparent, is a country that abounds with the sublime and beautiful features of nature, but does not contain many towns of considerable note or magnitude. Yet it may not be impror)er to take notice of Caernarvon, ENGLAND. 45 esteemed tlie chief town of North Wales, and famous for the grandeur of its castle, one of the most magnificent in Europe. Here was born Edward II. surnamed of Caernarvon, who was immediately created Prince of Wales; his fether having promised to the vanquished Welsh a prince born in their own country, and who could not speak a word of English. Edifices. In a brief enumeration of the principal edifices m England, the royal palaces demand of course the first attention. Windsor castle, situated on an emi- nence near the Thames, has an appearance truly grand, and worthy of the days of chivalry. The view extends as far as the cathedral of St. Paul's ; and the whole scene strongly impresses the circumstances so vividly delineated In Gray's pathetic Ode on Eaton College. This palace contains many noble paintings, particularly the cartoons of Raphael. Hamfiton-Court is in a low situation, orna- mented with aqueducts from the river Colne. This palace is also replete with interesting pictures. The royal (gardens of Kenv are truly worthy of a great and sci- entific prince; the ground, though level, is diversified with much art; and the collection of plants from all the : regions of the known world, fills the admirer of nature [with delight and surprise. They are so disposed, that every plant finds, as it were, its native soil and climate; even those that grow on rocks and lava having artificial substitutes. The royal palace at Greenwich has been long abandon- ed, but U^e observatory still does credit to science. It is a plain vill be better ac- 46 ENGLAND. comp'ifehed by a brief enumeration of some of the most celebrated country seats. Hagley, the seat of Lord Littleton : the Leasowes of the late Mr. Shenstone; Penshurst, near Tunbridge, a fa* mous seat of the Sidneys; Wanstead, of the Earl of Til- ney; Blenheim of the Duke of Marlborough; the seat of the Earl Spenser, at Wimbleton ; Wooburn Abbey, of the Duke of Bedford ; Louthcir-hall of Lord Lonsdale ; Chatsworth, of the Duke of Devonshire, and many other splendid edifices, equally honourable to the country, as to their opulent proprietors. / Bridges. The bridges are worthy the superiority ■ of the English roads ; and a surprising exertion in this ; department, is the recent construction of bridges in cast iron, an invention unknown to all other nations. The '< first example was that of Colebrook-dale, in Shropshire, ; erected over the Severn, in 1779. Another stupendous iron bridge was thrown over the harbour at Sunderland, about six years ago; the height of which is 100 feet, and the span of the arch 236. It is composed of detached pieces, any of which, if damaged, may be withdrawn, and replaced by others. When viewed from beneath, the elegance, lightness, and surprising height of the arch, excite admiration, and the carriages appear as if passing among the clouds. Inland Navigation. The earliest inland naviga- tion that can be authenticated, is the Sankey canal, began in 1755, leading from the coal-pits at St. Helens in Lm- cashire, to the river Mersey, and constructed in order to convey coals to Liverpool. The length of t||( canal is twelve miles, with a fall of ninety feet. But the Duke of Bridgewater is justly venerated as the grand founder of inland navigation ; his spirit and opu- lence were happily seconded by Brindley, than whom a greater natural genius in mechanics never existed. It was l:i the year 1758 that the first act was obtained for these great designs. The first canal extends from Wors- ley mill, about seven computed miles from Manchester, and reaches that town by a course of nine miles. In this short space almost every difficulty occurred that can arise in slnular schemes. There are subterraneous passages to the coal in the mountain, of near a mile in length, with ENGLAND. 47 the most ^es of the ]ge, a fa-' irl of Til- the seat Abbey, of Lonsdale ; my other itry, as to iperiority m in this ;s in cast ns. The iropshire, upendous inderland, I feet, and detached rawn, and leath, the the arch, if passing id naviga- lal, began IS in Lan- 1 order to 1 canal is ted as the and opu- 1 whom a isted. It ained for m Wors- inchester, . In this can arise patiisages igth, air-funnels to the top of the hill, some of them Jhirty- seven yards perpendicular. This beautiful canal is brought over the river Irwell, by an arch of thirty-nine feet in height, and under which barges pass without lowering their masts. The Duke of Bridgewater soon afterwards ex- tended a canal of twenty-nine miles in length, from Long- ford-bridge, in Lancashire, to Hempstones, in Cheshire. After this deserved tribute to the father of inland navi- gation in England, it will be eligible to review the other canals in a geographical manner, proceeding from the north to the south. First in order is the Lancaster canal, from Kendal to West Houghton, a space of about seventy-four miles. The canal from Leeds to Liverpool, winds through an extent of 1 1 7 miles ; and frqm this canal a branch also extends to Manchester. From Halifax to Manchester is another considerable canal; length thirty-one miles and a half, begun in 1794. Another from Manchester towards Wakefield; and another which stretches from the fonner, south-east, about fifteen miles. Another joins the river Dun, several miles above Don- icaster, to the river Chalder, near Wakefield. To pass several of smaller note, the Chesterfield ca- lal extends from Chesterfield to the Trent, at Stockwith, course of forty-four miles and three quarters. In Lincolnshire, one canal extends from Lincoln to the Trent, and another from Horncastle to Sleaford. Gran- tJiam canal reaches from that town to the river Trent, a course of thirty miles. Liverpool is connected with Hull by a canal from that long navigable river the Trent, and proceeding north to the Mersey. The canal which joins these two rivers is styled the Grand Trunk; the length is 99 miles. It was attended with great difficulties, particularly in passing the river Dove, in Derbyshire, where there is an aqueduct of twenty-three arches, the tunnel through the hill of Hare- castle, in Staffordshire, is in length 2880 yards, and ir.ore than 70 yards below the surface of the ground. From the Grand Trunk five or six branches extend in "o"" ^m among wjiii;n must not be omitted that with ■ *» ^^^ "ver Severn, near Bewdley, which connects the 49 ENGLAND. •port of Bri>itol with those of Liverpool and Hull ; the ^ngth is 46 miles. '' From the city of Chester one canal extends to the Mer- sey, and another to Naniptwich : another proceeds south to Shrewsbury, uniting the Mersey and the Severn ; with north* west, and south-east branches of considerable lengtji. From Coventry, in the centre of the kingdom, canals extend to the Grand Trunk; to Ashby-dc-la-Zouch, and to the Braunston, or Grand Junction canal. What is called the Staflbrdshire canal, extends from the Grand Trunk to the river Severn ; and is met by the King- ton canal, which reaches from Kington in Herefordshire, so as almost to join the rivers Trent and Wye. vSeveral inland navigations pass by Birmingham. The Union canal completes a course of forty-three miles and three-quarters, from Leicester to Northampton, whence the river Nen is navigable to the sea. Another canal extends from Gloucester to Hereford: and the south of Wales presents several navigations of considerable length, particularly that from Brecon, in Brecknockshire, to Newport, in Monmouthshire. The Severn is not only joined with the Trent and the Humber, by various courses of navigation, but is united with the Thames, by a canal extending by Stroud to Lechlade, a course of near forty miles. Other canals from the Thames branch in various direc- tions; that of Oxford joins the Coventry canal, after a course of 92 tniles. The Grand .junction canal reaches from Brentford, on the Thames, and joins the Oxford canal at Braunston, after a course of 90 miles. On the south of the Thames, a canal proceeds from Reading to Bath ; an- other from Weybridge to Basingstoke ; and a third from ^Veybridge to Ciodalming. There are some other smaller canals which we have not room to detail. Manufactures and Commerce. The earliest staple commodity of England was tin, a metal rarely found in other countries. The Phoenicians first introduced it into commerce, at least five or six hundred years before the Christiaji aera; and their extensive trade soon diffused it among the Oriental nations. The Romans upon their conquest of these regions did not neglect this source of wealth. Yet even in the reign of John, the product was ENGLAND. 49 Hull i the to the Mer- ;ecds south ;vcni ; with uble length, lom, canals Zouch, and Is from the Y the Kihg- efordshire, lam. The ; miles and J ►n, whence I Hereford : igations of Brecon, ir. X e. T ;nt and the t is united Stroud to •ious direc- er a course Lches from •rd canal at lie south of Bath ; an- third from ler smaller he earliest irely found need it into before the diffused it upon their s source of •oduct was 'w inconsiderable, that the mines were farmed to Jews for 100 marks; but in that of Henry HI. they began again to yield a large profit, which has since gradually increased to a great amo\mt. Wool had been regarded as a grand staple of ICngland, as early as the twelfth century, but was chiefly exported in a crude state, till Edward IH. encouraged settlements of Flemish manufacturers. Wool soon became the stand- ard of private property, and the prime article of com- merce. Taxes and foreign subsidies were estimated by sacks of this commodity. Great quantities of raw wool continued to be exported to the Netherlands and Hanse Towns ; but in the reign of Elizabeth it began to be chiefly manufactured at home, and the exportation of woollen cloths was then valued at a million and a half annually The exportation of raw wool was at length prohibited; and the woollen manufactures preserve great importance, though they no longer attract such particular regard, amidst the exuberance of English manufactures. In recent times the manufactures of iron and copper, native minerals, have become great sources of national wealth ; nor must the new and extensive exportation of elegant earthen-ware be forgotten. The cotton itianu- liicture is diffused far and wide, forming a grand source of industry and prosperity. That of linen, except of sail-cloth, IS not much cultivated in England. The ma- nufactures of glass and fine steel, clocks, watches, he. are deservedly eminent and extensive. As the nation is mdebted to Wedgewood for converting clay into gold, so to Boydell for another elegant branch of exportation, that of beautiful prints. The English manufactures have been recently estimated at the annual value of 63,600,000/. and supposed to em- ploy 1,585,000 persons. Of these, the woollen manufac- ture IS supposed to yield in round sums, 15,000,000/. the leather 10,000,000/. the iron, tin, and lead 10,000,000/. the cotton 9,000,000/. The other chief manufactures, which yield from 1 to 4,000,000/. may be thus arranged, according to their consequence; steel, plating; &c. copper, and brass, silk, potteries, linen and flax, hemp, glasul papei". Vol. r. E )0 ENGLAND. The commerce of England is, at the present period* enormous, and may be said to extend to every region of the globe. The trade with the West Indies is one of the most important, and that with the East Indies alone, would have astonished any of the celebrated trading cities of antiquity. From the states of North America, are chiefly import- ed tobacco, rice, indigo, timber, hemp, flax, iron, pitch, tar, and lumber : From the West Indies, sugar, rum, cot- ton, coffee, ginger, pepper, guaiacum, sarsaparilla, man- cineal, mahogany, gums, &:c. From Africa, gold dust, ivory, gums. Sec. From the East Indies and China, tea, rice, spices, drugs, colours, silk, cotton, salt-petre, shawls, and other products of the loom. From the British settle- ments in North America, are imported furs, timber, pot- ash, iron ; and from the various states of Europe, numer- ous articles of utility and luxury. The annual income of Great Britain was estimated in 1799, by Mr. Pitt, at 102,000,000/.; and including the money, of which the estimate is far from certain, the whole capital of Great Britain may perhaps be calculated at more than one thousand two hundred millions. In the year 1797, the amount of the exports, according to Custom-house accounts, was 28,917,000/., and of the imports, 2 1 ,0 1 3,000/., yielding, as is supposed, clear profits on foreign trade, to the amount of at least 10,000,000/. The number of merchant vessels amounts probably to 16,000; it is calculated that 140,000 men and boys are employed in the navigation. CuMATE AND SEASONS. The climate of Great Britain is very variable, the vapours of the Atlantic Ocean being opposed to the drying winds from the eastern continent. The western coasts in particular are subject to frequent rains ; and the eastern part of Scotland is of a clearer and dryer temperature than that of England. In consequence of the mutability of the climate, the seasons themselves are of uncertain tenour, and the year might properly be divided into eight months of winter, and four of summer. What is called the spring dawns in April ; but the eastern winds prevalent in May, seem commissioned to ruin the eflbrts of revivino* nature^ and des<:roy the promise of the year. June; July, August, and I ENGLAND. 41 IS. , according and of the ;lear profits 0,000,000/. )robably to id boys are of Great le Atlantic the eastern are subject otland is of ngland. limate, the id the year winter, and J daM'ns in Slay, seem nature, and LUgust, and September, are usually warm summer months ; but a night of frost is not unknown, even in August, and some- times a cold east wind will blow for three days together ; nor of late years are summers unknown of almost con- stant rain. The winter may be said to commence with { the beginning of October, at which time domestic fires become necessary ; but there is seldom any severe frost till Christmas, and January is the most stern moith of the vear. Yet as the summers often produce speciniens of wmter, so now and then gleams of warm sunshine illu- minate the darker months. March is generally the most unsettled month of the year, interspersed with dry frost, cold rains, and strong winds, with storms of hail and sleet. Soil and Agriculture. The soil is greatly diversified, but in general fertile ; and in no country is agriculture more thoroughly understood, or pursued in a ; frander style, except, perhaps in Flanders and Lombardy, i mean before these countries were visited with the scourge ' of French fraternity. The nobility and gentry, mostly re- siding upon their estates in summer, often retain consider- able farms in their own hands, and practise and encourage every agricultural improvement. '^ The cultivated acres of England and Wales are com- ( puted at upwards of 39,000,000 ; the uncultivated about 8,000,000. Of the latter about half a million is supposed to be uniraproveable.— .Gardening is also pursued in Eng- land with great assiduity and success. From the high prices given in the capital for early produce, each acre thus employed, in , its vicinity, is supposed to yield about 120/. annually. England is deservedly considered as the standard of ornamental gardening, just to the beauties of nature, and free from the uncouth affectations of art. Rivers. England is intersected by four important rivers, the Severn, the Thames, the Humber, and the Mersey ; besides a considerable number of minor streams. None of the largest extend much above 150 miles into the country. — In general it may be observed of the British rivers, that the length of their course is inconsiderable, when compared with that of the Continental streams. The length of the Thames compared with that of the Da- nube, is only as 1 to 7, and with that of the Nile, as 1 to 's i !( 53 ENGLAND. The Kian Ku of China, and the river of Amazons, in South America, extend through a progress of more than fifteen times the length of that of the Thames. The rivers «f the southern and middle parts of England, present a striking contrast to those of the north ; the former pur- suing a slow and inert course over mud, between level banks, amid rich and extensive meadows ; while the lattci" roll their clear torrents over heds of gravel, between ele- vated banks, and rocky precipices ; and even trhen ver- dant levels occur, the stream still retains its banks and beds of gravel. Mountains. While Bennevis, the highest moun- tain in Scotland, is not much above one quarte- of the hf^ight of Mont Blanc, the sovereign of the Alps, the English and Welsh summits aspire to heights still less considerable ; Snowdon being only 3568 English feet above the sea, while Bennevis is 4387, or, by other accounts, 4350. Wharn, or Wharnside, in Yorkshire, was estimat- ed at 4050. Ingleborough at 5280 feet. A late accurate measurement has, however reduced this latter to 2380 feet, and probably Wharnside ought also to be diminished in the same proportion. In the northern and western mountains and hills, chalk is unknown, while it forms a chief material of those in the south and east. The northern are mostly composed of limestone, free-stone, and slate, with mines ol lead or coal. Those 'of Derbyshire present vast masses of lime-stoqe. Those on the west, or Mendip hills, in Somersetshire, are wholly calcareous. The Granite begins at Dartmoor, in Devonshire, and runs through Cornwall, where it presents a variety of colours — The mountains in Wales abound in slate, horn-stone, and porphyry, with large masses of quartz. Metals and Minerals. Among the British minerals are the tin mines of Cornwall already men- tioned. They are said to employ 100,000 persons. Gold has been discovered in various parts of England, but the metal has never re-paid the labour and expence . The mines of rock salt must not be omitted : those of NoI^vich are the most remarkable, the annual produce of which has been estimated at 65,000 tons. But the most vdhiable mines of England are those of coal, found in the central, ENGLAND. SS northern, and western parts, but particularly in the north- ern, around New-Castle : 600,000 chaldrons are sent annu- ally to Loudon, and 1500 vessels are employed in carrying them to that harbour along the eastern coast of England. —Cornwall also produces copper, so does Yorkshire and Staffordshire, but this metal is found in the greatest abun- dance in the north-western parts of Angl«sea. Lead is found in Derbyshire, Somersetshire, and on the verge of Cumberland. The mines at the latter place alone employ about 1100 men. Vegetable and Animal Productions. Al- though among the numerous species of vegetables wh.ch are the natives of Britain, there are scarcely any that are adequate to the sustenance and clothing of man ; yet the quantities of wheat, barley, rye, peas, beans, vetches, and oats produced are so great, that in some years large quan- tities are exported. In nothing, however, have the Eng- lish been so successful in cultivating, and meliorating, as the various grasses. Their climate is peculiarly adapted to grasses of every kind. They reckon no fewer than 27 genera, and 1 10 species of grass, that are natives of the island. They have a plenty of excellent fruits : apples, peare, plumbs, cherries, peaches, apricots, nqptarines, cur- rants, gooseberries, rjisberries, and other hortulan produc- tions grow here. The cyder of Devon and Herefordshire has been preferred to French wine. Their kitchen gar- dens abound with all sorts of greens, roots, and salads in perfection. — Mr. Pennant, in his British Zoology, has treated that subject at due extent, and with his usual ability. Of ani- mals, that celebrated author enumerates twenty genera, from the horse down to the seal and bat. The birds extend to forty-eii^ht, the reptiles to four, and the fish to forty genera, besides the crustaceous and shell fish. That noble and useful animal, the horse, is found in England of many mingled breeds, while most other king- doms produce only one kind. Their race-horses descend from Arabian stallions, and the genealogy faintly extends to their hunters, The great strength and size of the Eng- lish draught-horses are derivttl from those of Germany, ; "^ ; " ""•-* iiu!=i=iri -, uwu umcr urecas nave Dccii so mtermingled, that native horses may be found adapted to E2 S4 ENGLAND. erery purpose of pomp, pleasure, or utility. Those of Yorkshire are particularly celebrated for their spirit and beauty ; and the grooms of that country are equally noted for tlicir skill in the mana'>;ement of this valuable animal. The indij^enous horned cattle are now only known to exist in Neidwood-forest, in Staffordshire, and at Chilling- ham-castle, in Northumberland. They are long-legged and wild like deer, of a pure white colour, with black muzzles, ears, and tails, and a stripe of the same hue along the back. The domesticated breeds of their cattle are alnwst as various as those of their horses ; those of Wales and Cornwall are small, while the Lincolnshire kind de- rive their great size from those of Holstein. In the North of England we find kylies, so called from the dis- trict of Kyle, in Scotland ; in the South we find the ele- gant breed of Guernsey, generally of a light brown colour, ^nd small size, but remarkable for the richness of theiv tnilk. The number and value of sheep in England may be judged from the ancient staple commodity of wool. Of this most useful animal several breeds appear, generally denominated from their particular counties or districts : those of Herefordshire, Devonshire, and Cotswold-downs, are noted for fine fleeces, while the Lincolnshire and War- wickshire kind are remarkable for the quantity. The Teesdale breed of the county of Durham, though lately neglected, continue to deserve their fame. The wool is beautiful, but the length of their legs lessens their value in the eyes of the butcher. The mutton of Wales, on the contrary, is esteemed, while the wool is coarse, yet em- ployed in many useful and salutary manufactures. The goat, an inhabitant of the rocks, has, even in Wales, for the most part yielded to the more useful sheep ; that country being, like Scotland, more adapted to the woollen manufacture. The breeds of swine are various and useful. England also abounds in breeds of dogs, some of which were celebrated even in Roman times ; nor have their mo- dern descendants, the mastiff and bull-dog, degenerated from the spirit and courage of their ancestors. Of their savage animals the most fierce and destructive :„ .u„ ,.,x\A ^n.* wi->;/^K ;c 1-hi'pp nr fniir times as larce as the domestic, with a fiat broad Hice, colour yellowish white, ENGLAND. M$ mixed with deep grey, in streaks running from a black list on the back ; hips always black, tail alternate bars of black and white ; only found in the most mountainous and woody parts. The wolf has been long extinct, but thq fox abounds. The chief of their birds of prey are, the golden eagle, sometimes found on Silowdon : the black eagle has appear- ed in Derbyshire ; the osprey, or sea eagle, seems extinct in England. The peregrine falcon breeds in Wales ; and many kinds of hawks in England. An enumeration of the other birds would be superfluous. The nightingale, one of the most celebrated, is not found in North Wales, nor any where to the North, except about Doncaster, where it abounds ; nor does it travel so far west as Devonshire and Cornwall. Their poultry seem to originate from Asia ; peacocks from India, pheasants from Colchis ; the guinea-fowl are from Africa. Their smallest bird is the golden-crested wren, which sports on the highest pine-trees; and largest the bustard, some of which weigh twenty-five pounds, and are found in tlie open countries of the south and east. The reptiles are frogs, toads, sereral kinds of lizards : of their serpents the vii)er alone is venomous ; othef kinds are the snake, sometimes found four feet in length ; and the blind worm, seldom exceeding eleven inches. Of fish, the whale but seldom appears near the English coasts, the porpess, and others of the same genus are not uncommon. The basking shark appears off the shores of W^ales. Numerous are the edible sea-fish. Some of the most celebrated are the turbot, dorce, soal, cod, plaice, smelt, and mullet. The consumption of herrings and mackerel extends to most parts of the kingdom : but pil- chards are corfined to the Cornish coasts. The chief river fish are the salmon and the trout, which are brought from the northern parts in prodigious mimbers, generally packed in ice. It is said that not less than 30,000 salmon are brought from one river, the Tweed, to London, in the course of a season. The lamprey is chiefly found in the Severn, the chan- in -the lakes of Westmoreland. The lobster is found on most of the rocky coasts, particularly off Scarborough ; and the English oysters preserve their Roman reputation. 56 ENGLAND. English Isles. In the southern or English chan- nel first appears the Isle of Wight, by the Komuns called Vectia ; about 20 miles in length and 12 in breadth. 'I'he principal town is Newport — and one of the most remarka- ble buildings is Carisljrook-castle, where Charles I. was imprisoned by his rebellious subjects. At the distance of about 70 miles from Wight arises the little island of Alderney, off Cape la Hogue ; which is followed by the more important islands of Guernsey and Jersey, Sark being a small island interposed between the two latter. Guernsey, the largest of these isles, is about 36 miles in circuit. Returning to the English shore, we first descry Eddis- tone light house, beat by all the fury of the western waves. This edifice has repeatedly been overthrown, but tlie pre- sent erection by Air. Smeaton, composed of vast masses of stone, grooved into the rock, and joined with iron, pro mises alike to defy accidental hre, and the violence of the ocean, though the waves sometimes wash over the very summit in one sheet of foam. About 30 miles west of the land's end appears a cluster of small islands, 145 in number, called the islands of Scilly. The largest (St. Mary's) is about five miles in circuit, and has about 600 inhabitants. — On the coast of Wales i^ the island of Anglesea, being the Muia of Tacitus ; about 25 miles in length and 18 in breadth ; is fertile and populous, and enjoys a considerable trade with Ireland. 'i'he last i nglish island worth mentioning is that of Man, «— it is about 30 miles in length, and 15 in breadth. U he sovereignty formerly belonged to tiie Earls of Derby, but is now annexed to the English crown. i ish chan- ns called h. The •emarka- s I. was ht arises which is isejr and b'een the is about y Eddis- •n waves, tlie pre- t masses ron, pro :e ol the the very a cluster af Scilly. cuit, and es i$ the about 25 lopulous, of Man, h. Ihe rby, but SCOTLAND. SCOTLAND was first discovered to the Romans by Agricola, and was distinguished from South-Britain by the special appellation of Caledonia. This name continued to be used till the Roman power expired. Bede, the father of English history, calls the inhabitants of the country by the name of Picti, which had also been used by the later Roman writers as synony- mous with that of Caledonii. These distinctions continued till the eleventh century, when the new name of Scotia was taken from Ireland, its former object, and applied to modern Scotland. Extent. That part of Great Britain called Scot- land, is about 260 miles in length, by about 160 at its greatest. breadth ; it ext-inds from the 55th degree of la» titude, to more than 584. The superficial contents have been computed at 27,793 square miles, a little exceeding that of Ireland, and considerably more than half that of England. The population being estimated at 1,600,000, there will, of course, be only 57 inhabitants for every square mile, a proportion of about one-third of that of Ireland. This defect of population arises solely from the mountainous nature of the country, amounting, perhaps, to one-half, little susceptible of cultivation. Divisions. The territory of Scotland is unequal- ly divided into thirty-three counties : six of which may be called the Northern ; fourteen, the Midland j and thirteen, the Southern division. 58 SCOTLAND. Original Population. So far as historical re- searches can discover, the original population of Scot- land, consisted of Cimbri, from the Cimbric Chersonese. About two centuries before the Christian aera, the Cimbri seem to have been driven to the south of Scotland by the Caledonians, or Picti, a Gothic colony from Norway. On the west, the Cumraig kingdom of Strath Clyde continued till the tenth century, when it became subject to the kings of North-Britain ; who, at the time, extend- ed their authority, by the permission of the English monarchs, over the counties of Cumoerland and West- moreland. From the Picti originates the population of the Lowlands of Scotland, the Lowlanders liaving been, in all ages, a distinct people from those of the western Highlands, though the Irish clergy endeavoured to render their language, which was the most smooth and cultivat- ed of the two, the polite dialect of the court and supe- rior classes. About the year of Christ 258, the Dalraids of Bede, the Attacotti of the Roman writers, passed from Jrelftnd to Argyleshire, and became the germ of the Scottish Highlanders, who speak the Irish, or Celtic lan- guage, while the Lowlanders iiftve always used the Scan- dinavian, or Gothic. Historical Epochs. 1. The original population of Scotland by the Cimbri, and by the Picti, forms the first historical epoch. 2. The entrance of Agricola into Scotland, and the subsequent conflicts with the Romans, till the latter aban- doned Britain. 3. The settlement of the Dalraius, or Attacotti, in Argyleshire, about the year 238, and their repulsion to Ireland about the middle of the fifth century. 4. 1 he Commencement of what may be called a regu- lar history of Scotland, from the reign of Drust, A. D. 414. 5. The return of the Dalraids, A. D. 503. and the subsequent events of Dalraidic story. 6. The introduction of Christianity among the C?iledo- nians, in the reign of Brudi II. A. D. 565. The union of th« Picti and Attacotti, under Kenneth, 7. SCOTLAND. S$ storical re- n of Scot- Ihersonese. the Cimbri md by the •way. fath Clyde Tie subject le, extend- le English ind West- 5ulation of ving been, le western 1 to render id cultivat- and supe- e Dalraids isaed from *m of the Celtic lan- the Scan- population forms the i, and the ttter aban- ttacotti, in pulsion to led a regu- ust, A. D. . and the lie Cjiledo- r Kenneth, W 8. The reign of Malcolm III. A. D. 1056 : from which period greater civilization began to take place, and the history becomes more authentic. 9. The extinction of the ancient line of kings, in the person of Margaret, of Norway, grand-daughter of Alexander III. A. D. 1290. This event occasioned the interposition of Edward I. king of England, which was the source of the enmity which afterwards unhappily pre- vailed between the kingdoms. 10. The accession of the house of Stuart to the Scot- tish throne. 11. The establishment of the Protestant religion, A, D. 1560. 12. The union of the two crowns, by the accession of James VI. to the English sceptre, A. D. 1603. 13. The civil wars, and the subsequent disputes be- tween the Presbyterians and Independants ; causes that extinguished all sound literature in Scotland, for the space of twenty years, A. D. 1640-1660. 14. The revolution 'of 1688, and the firm establish- ment of the Presbyterian system. 15. The union of the two kingdoms in 1707, which laid the first foundation of the subsequent prosperity in Scotland. Antiquities. There are no monuments of an- tiquity, worth mentioning, of an earlier daie than the ar- rival of the Romans, The remains of these conquerors appear in the celebrated wall, built in the reign of Anto- ninus Pius, between the Firths of Forth and Clyde, in the ruins of which many curious inscriptions have been found. Another striking object, is a small edifice, called Arthur's Oven, suppoye'd to be a temple of the god Ter- minus. The most northerly Roman camp yet discovered is in Aberdeenshire, the periphery of which is about two English miles. Roman roads have been traced a con- siderable way, in the east of Scotland. The smaller re- mains of Roman antiquities, such as coins, utensils, Ecc. are numerous. The places of judgment, or what are called Druidic temples, are to be traced in many places. ^' ' round piles of stone, constructed without Those rude any cement, called Pika Houses, deserve to be iioticed. They seem to have consisted of a vast hall, open to the 60 SCOTLAND. sky in the centre, while the cavities in the wall^jresent in. commodious recesses for beds, &c. These buildings are remarkable, as displaying the first elements of the Gothic castle. Religion. Since the revolution, 1688, the Ec- clesiastical government of Scotland is of the Presbyterian form. The number of parishes in Scotland is 941; contiguous parishes unite in what is called a Presbytery, of which denomination there are 69. The provincial sy- nods amounting to fifteen, are compos'-i of several ad- jacent Presbyteries; but the granrl Ecclesiastical court is the general assembly, which ;ueets every year, in the spring ; the king appointing a commissioner to represent his person, while the members nominate their modera- tor, or president. To this Ecclesiastical council laymen are also admitted, under the name of Ruling Elders, and constitute about one-third of this venerable body. This court discusses and judges all clerical affairs, and admits of no appeal, except to the parliament of Great Britain. As whatever establishment is effected in a free coun- try, opposition will always arise, the establishment of the Presbyterian system, was, in the space of one gene- ration, followed by the secession, which took place in 1732. The seceders being the most rigid in their senti- ments, and animated by persecution, soon formed a nu- merous party. About the year 1747, they were themselves divided into two denominations, called the Burghers, and the Anti- burghers, because the division arose concerning the le- gality of the oaths taken by the burgesses of some of the royal boroughs; the former allowing that the oath is proper, while the latter object ; the former are the more numerous, the number of their ministers being comput- ed at about 100, and at a medium each has a congrega- tion of about 1000. Many respectable families in Scotland embrace the Episcopal form of the Church of England. The other descriptions of religious professions are not numerous. There are but few Roman Catholics, even in the remote xiigiiianus, the scheme of education being excellent, and generally supported with liberality. '4 SCOTLAND. 61 li)resent in- uildings are ' the Gothic 88, the Ec- 'resbyterian ind is 941 ; Presbytery, rbvincial sy- several ad- stical court year, in the represent iir modera- io admitted, titute about 't discusses no appeal, 1 free coun- lishment of " one gene- )k place in their senti- rmed a nu- iivided into I the Anti- ing the le- iome of the :he oath is i the more g comput- congrega- nbrace the The other numerous, the remote ;eilent, and GovERNidENT. The government of Scotland, since the union, has been bKnded with that of England. The most splendid remaining feature of government in Scotland, is the general assembly, already mentioned. Next to which may be classed the high courts of jus- tice, especially that styled the session, consisting of a president, and fourteen senators. The lords of session, as they are styled in Scotland, upon their promotion to office, assume a title, generally from the name of an estate, by which they are known and addressed, as if peers by creation, while they are only constituted lords by superior interest, or talents. This court is the last resort in several causes, and the only appeal is to the parliament of Great Britain. The justiciary court consists of five judges, who are like- wise lords of session ; but, with a president, styled lord justice clerk. This is the supreme court in criminal causes, which are determii^ed by the majority of a jury, and not by the unanimity, as in England. There is also a court of exchequer, consisting of a Lord Chief Baron, and four Barons ; and a high court of admiralty, in which there is only one judge. Laws. The law of Scotland diifers essentially from that of England, being founded, in a great measure, upon the civil law. Of common law, there is hardly a trace, while the civil and canon laws may be said to form the two pillars of Scottish judicature. The modes of pro- cedure have, ho»vever, the advantage of being free from many of those legal fictions which disgrace the laws of some other countries. The inferior courts are those of the sheriffs, magistrates, and justices of the peace Population. The population of Scotland, in 1755, was computed at 1,265,000 ; according to the docu- ments furnished by Sir J. Sinclair's statistical account, thl numbers m 1798, were, 1,526,492; and by the govern- ment enumeration in 1801, the inhabitants appeared to amount to 1,599,068. ^^ Manners and Customs. The manners and cus- toms of^the Scots begin to be much assimilated with those L^:t.^"5i"'Li?.i^^^^./^^'S>'^"« ceremonies, attending B banti$im f\nA n-iat^niofvoo «^k„ ^_ ,. ..Mj^vo, vncxc UXC V ^'aritttions arising frorn the Presbyteriam form, which does not admit of god n:?. 63 SCOTLAND. fathers or god-mothers, but renders the parents alone an- swerable for the education of the child. The clergyman does not attend at funerals, nor is there any religious ser* vice, but generally great decency. In the luxuries of the table, the superior classes rival the English; several national dishes, originating from the French cooking, in the reign of Mary, being now vulgar or neglected. The diet of the lower classes passes in a gradual transition from the north of England. The chief food is fiarich^ or thick pottage, formed with oat-meal and water, and eaten with milk, ale or butter; in a hard lumpy form it is called brose. With this the labourer is generally contented twice or thrice in a day, with a little bit of meat for Sunday ; nor does he repine at the bacon of the English poor, there being a theological antipathy to swine, which also extends to eels, on account of their serpent j?ke form. The sobriety of the lower classes is in general exempla- ry ; the Scottish manufacturer or labourer is ambitious to appear with his family in decent clothes on Sundays, and other holidays. This may be regarded as a striking cha- racteristic of the Scottish peasantry, who prefer the last- ing decencies of life to momentary gratifications. To this praise may be added the diffusion of education, which is such, that even the miners in the south possess a circu- lating library. The houses of the opulent have been long erected upon the English plan, which can hardly be exceeded for interior elegance and convenience. Even the habitations of the poor have been greatly improved within these few years ; instead of the thatched mud hovel, there often appears the neat cottage of stone, covered with tile or slate. The dresses of the superior classes is the same with that of the English. The gentlemen in the Highlands, especially in the time of war, use the peculiar dress of that country. Among the other classes, the Scottish bonnet is now rarely perceived, except in the Highlands. Language. The Scottish larsguage falls under two divisions; that of the Lowlands, consisting of the ancient Scandinavian dialect, blended with the Anglo- Saxon ; 'Ayft. tiiat of the Highland^,;, iVuich is Irish. The SCOTLAND. G3 Orkney Islands being seized by the Norwegians, in the ninth century, the inhabitants retained the Norse' lan- guage till recent times. They now speak remarkably pure English. Schools. ■ The mode of education pursued in Scot- land, is highly laudable, and, to judge from its effects, is perhaps, the best practical system pursued in any country m Europe. The plan which is fellowed in the cities is nearly similar to that of England, either by private teachers, or at large public Schools, of which that of Edinburgh is the most eminent. But the superior advantage of the Scottish education consists in every country parish pos- sessing a schoolmaster, as uniformly as a clergyman ; at least the rule is general, and the exceptions rare. The schoolmaster has a small salary, or rather pittance, which enables him to educate the children at a rate easy and con- venient, even to indigent parents. In the Highlands the poor children will attend to the fiocks in the summer, and the school in the winter. The universities of Scotland, or rather colleges, (for an English university includes many colleges and founda- tions,) amount to no less than four, three on the ea5t?m coast, St. Andrew's, Aberdeen and Edinburgh : and one on the western, that of Glasgow. Cities and Towns. Edinburgh, the capital is comparatively of modern name and note, the earliest 1 it that can be applied to it, occurring in the Chronkon Pkto. rum, about the year 955, where mention is made of a town ca led i^den, as resigned by the English to the Scots, then ruled by Indulf. Holyrood-house was the foundation of the first David. The population of Edinburgh including the port of Leith, was m 1678, computed at 35,500; in 1755, at InStot2,i"o.'''' "" '°""' '^ ^^^"^^ ^— ^^- ^- The arrivals and clearances at Leith harbour, exceed her,"A< K ?^ 1700 vessels of various descriptions. Of statedlth^lf "^ir "^^ '°^?; ^^^ commerce has been stated at half a million annually. The houses in the old town of Edinb"^-"-!, o«^ „ tiTn'floLT''!''''^ ""^'"'^ "°^ ^"^ t"han th?;i;e;;rTur: teen floors, a smgularity ascribed to the wish of the an- fA SCOTLAND. cieiU inhabitants, of being under the protection of the castle. The new. town of Edinburgh is deservedly celebrated for r«gulaiity and elegitnce, the houses being all of free- stone, and some of them ornamented with pillars and pi- lasters, and it contains several public edifices which would do honour to any capital. The second city in Scotland is Glasgow, of ancient note in ecclesiastic story, but of small account in the annals of commerce, till the time of Cromwell's usurpation. The population of Glasgow, in 1755, was computed at 23,546, including the suburbs; the number in 1791, was esti- mated at 61,945 ; and the amount of the enumeration in 1801, was 77,385. The ancient city was rather venerable than beautiful, but recent improvements have rendered it one of the neatest cities in the empire. Its commerce has arisen to great extent since, the year 1718, when the first ship that belonged to Glasgow crossed the Atlantic. The number of ships belonging to the Clyde, in 1790, was 476, the tonnage 46,581 ; but before the American war it was supposed to have amounted to 60,000 tons. Though the manufactures scarcely exceed half a century in antiquity, they are now numerous and important. That of cotton ki 1791, was computed to employ 15,000 looms; and the goods produced were supposed to amount to the yearly value of 1,500,000/. Next in eminence are the cities of Perth ..nd Aberdeen, and the town of Dundee. Perth is an ancient town, sup- posed to have been the Victoria of the Romans. Linen forms the staple manufacture, to the annual amount of about 60,000/. There are also manufactures of leather and paper. Inhabitants i4,8ir8. About eighteen miles nearer the mouth of the Tay, stands Dundee, in the county of Angus, a neat modern town. The Firth of Tay is here between two and three miles broad ; and there is a good road for shipping to the east of the town, as far as Broughty-castle. On the 1st of September, 1651, Dundee was taken by storm by Ge- neral Monk; and Lumisden, the governor, perished amidst a torrent of bloodshed. The population is how- ever, now equal to 26,084; the public edifices are neat and commodious. In 1792, the vessels belonging to the port SCOTLAND. 65 amounted to 116, tonnage 8,5 50. The staple manufacture is linen, to the annual value of about 80,000/. canvass, &c. about 40,000/. Coloured thread also forms a considerable article, cemputed at 33,000/. and tanned leather at 14,000/. Aberdeen first rose to notice in the eleventh century, and continued to be chiefly memorable in ecclesiastical story. The population in 1795, was computed at 24,493, but the enumeration in 1801, reduced it to 17,597. Though the harbour be not remarkably commodious, it can boast a considerable trade, the chief exports being salmon and vkrooUen goods. In 1795, the British ships entered at the port, v^ere sixty-one, the foreign five ; and the British ships cleared outwards, amounted to twenty-eight. The thief manufactures are woollen goods, particularly stock- ings, the annual export of which is computed at 123,000/. Greenock, by sharing in the trade with Glasgow, has risen to considerable celebrity; it contains 17,458 inha- bitants. Paisley, in the same county is famous for its manufacture of muslins, lawns, and gauzes to the annual amount of 660,000/. Population 31,000. Scotland has many other considerable towns, but it would exceed our limits to be more particular. Edifices. Scotland abounds with remarkable edifices, ancient and modern ; we shall only mention a few in the vicinity of the capital, viz. Hopeton-house, the splendid residence of the Earl of Hopeton ; Dalkeith, palace, a seat of the Duke of Buc- cleugh; Newbbttel, the seat of the Marquis of Lothian ; Melville-castle, the elegant villa of the Rt. Hon. Henry Dundas, and the splendid mansion of the Marquis of Abercorn. Inland Navigation. The most remarkable in- land navigation in Scotland, is the excellent and extensive canal from the Forth to the Clyde, commenced in 1768, from a survey by Smeaton four years before. " The dimensions of this canal, though greatly con- tracted from the original design, are much superior to any work of the same nature in South-Britain. The English canals are generally from three to five feet deep and from twenty to forty feet wide, and the lock Pates from ten tn tw*»1v*» f/p*»t TLa Aon4^u ^c 4.1 1 1 . — — ,. i j.^ ij^-iJiii \jt. liic ^.aiiui oeiweeu the Forth and Clyde is seven feet; its brevlth at the sur F2 66 SCOTLAND. fl\ce fifty-six feet: the locks are seventy-five feet long, and theii- gates twenty feet wide. It is raised from the Carron b; i -;af> locks, in a tract of ten miles, to the amaziug height of 155 feet above the medium full sea- mark. At the twentieth lock beginr the canal of parti- tion on the summit between the east and west seas ; which canal of partition continues eighteen miles, on a level, ter- minating at Hamilton-hili, a mile N. W. of the Clyde, at Glasgow. In the fourth niie of the canal there are ten locks, and a fine aqueduct bridge, which crosses the great road leading from Edinburgh to Glasgow. At Kirkintul- lock, the cana' is carried over the water of Logic, on an aqueduct brlage, the arch of which is ninety feet broad. There are in the whole eighteen draw bridges, and fifteen aqueduct bridges, of considerable size, besides small ones and tunnels." The supplying the canal with water, was of itself a very great work. One reservoir is above twenty -four feet (leep, and covers a surface of fifty acres, near Kilsyth. Another, about seven miles north of Cilasgow, consists of seventy acres, and is banked up at the sluice, twenty-two feet. The distance between the Firths of Clyde, and Forth, by the nearest passage, that of the Pentland Firth, is 600 miles, by this canal scarcely 100. On the 28th of July^ 1790, the canal was comjiletely open from sea to sea, when n hogshead of the water of Forth was po .red into the Clyde, as a symbol of their junction. Commerce. The commerce of Scotland, though on a sniaHer scale, is similar to that of England, and i^ar- takes of the national prosperity. The chief exports are linen, grain, iron, glass, lead, woollens, Sec. The imports are wines, brandy, rum, sugar, rice, indigo, cotton, tobacco. The fisheries are a growin*^ part of the national wealth. The principal manufactares are linen of various kinds, to the value, it is said, of 750,000/. annually. Of woollens, Scotch carpets seem to form the most conspicuous branch. The iron manufactures of Carron are deservedly famous. Climate and Seasons. The climate of Scotland is such as might be expected ii'om its insular situation, ami high latitude, In the east there is not so much hu- ifudity as in England, as the mountains oil the west irfrest SCOTLAND. •f the vapours from the Atlantic. On the other hand, the western counties are deluged with rain. Even the winter is more di3tinortance, upposed md mar- not less lly killed January. /. and in ity-eight r almost It haven, .n. The formerly ges over is. The >00. The ies on an t is com- hich can number Londonderry is more remarkable for its ancient and military fame than for its present commerce, though not unimportant. It stands on the river Foyle, over which a wooden bridge of singular construction, one thousand and sixty -eight feet in length, was thrown in 1791. Belfast on the north-east is in the centre of the linen manufactures, and may almost be regarded as a Scottish colony. The inhabitants are computed at 18,000. The chief manufactures, cotton, cambric, sail-cloth, linen, with glass, sugar, and earthen-ware. It maintains cf>nsiderable intercourse with the commercial city of Glasgow ; and the grand exports are to the West Indies and America. Waterford is a city of considerable importance, situat- ed on the river S» ir, and is supposed to have been founded by the Danes. It suffered greatly in the late disorders ; and the inhabitants cannot now be supposed to exceed 30,000. The chief exports are beef, pork, &c. and linen. Packet-boats sail regularly betwixt Waterford ai d Milford Haven. Edifices. The chief edifices of Ireland are con- fined to the capital. The cathedrals seldom aspire to great praise of architecture ; and the illas oT the nobility generally yield in splendour to those of England, and even of Scotland. Inland Navigation. The advantages derived by England from inland navigation soon attracted the at- tention of Ireland ; and not many years after the example set by the Duke of Bridgewater, a grand canal was begun Irom the city of Dublin to the river Shannon, and w^s ac^ frnL?'''^^ °\ ^"^ ^^ ^^^ °f ^"^"' ^t the expence of 77,000/. But the engineer's want of ability occasioned great errors in the ori-hial plfin and survey ; and the work was interrupted in 1770, A canal is completed from the town of Newry to the sea, which was, however, intended to have passed that town towards th, ..lUeries of Drumglass and Dungannon. 1 his attempt ao.v^ver, to supply r Mm with Irish coals, has hitherto ^>pe'., only successful in part, though the beds ot coals are said to be very abundant. Manufactures and Commerce. Thourh we find that Ireland was distinguished at an early peHod for her manuflicture of woollen-stuifs, yet the spiriLf industry 76 IRELAND. hi made little progress, and the chief Irish manufactures are of recent institution. But the linen manufacture was hot un- i(.nown in Ireland in more early times, as appears from the acts of parliament in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Eliza- beth. The annual produce of the linen manufacture is com- puted at about 2,000,000/. sterling : and the average of all the exports of Ireland is between four and five millions. Climatk. Ireland lying nearly in the same pa- rallel with England, the difference of climate cannot be supposed to be very important. The mean temperature of the north is obout 48 ; of the middle 50 ; of the south 55? of Fahrenlie't. Soil and Agriculture. Mr. Young observes, that the quantity of the cultivated land exceeds, in propor- tion, that of England. The most striking feature is the rocky nature of the soil, stones generally appearing on the surface, yet without any injury to the fertility ; even in the most ilat and fertile parts, as Limerick, Tipperary, and Meath. The climate being more moist than that of England, the verdure never appears parched with heat. Tillage is little understood, even in the best corn coun- ties; turnips and clover being almost unknown. The farfners are oppressed by a class of middle men^ who rent farms from the landlords, and let them to the real occu- piers. Lime-stone gravel is a manure peculiar to Ireland ; having, on uncultivated land, the same wonderful effects as lime, and on all soils it is beneficial. Rivers. Among the chief rivers of Ireland must be mentioned the Shannon, which rises from the lake of Allen ; and passing through two other large lakes, extends below Limerick, into a vast estuary or firth, about sixty miles in length, and from three to ten in breadth. This noble r'ver is, almost through its whole course, so wide and deep, as to afford easy navigation. The other princi- pal rivers are the Barrow, Nour, Suir, Banna, Lee, Liffy and Boyne. The lakeft of Ireland are numerous, and some of them extensive. The chief lake of fresh water is that of Earn, which exceeds thirty British miles in length, and twelve in its greatest breadth ; it is divided by a narrow outlet from the southern part into the northern, of about four miles in 'ength. IRELAND. n bserves, I propor- ■e is the aring on y ; even pperary, n that of ith heat. *n coun- n. The r^ho rent 2al occti- Ireland ; iffects as nd must I lake of extends 3ut sixty 1. This so wide r princi- se, Lifiy of them of Earn, id twelve )w outlet lOut four t- Next in magnitude is Neagh, abeut twenty-two miles in length, and twelve in breadth. Both these lakes are stud- ded with small islands ; and the latter is said to possess a petrifying quality. The lake of Corrib, in the county of Galway, is about twenty miles in length, and from two to five wide. Among the lakes of the second magnitude we will only mention the beautiful and interesting Lough of Killarney in the S. W. abounding with romantic views, and fringed with the arbutus, no where else a native of the British dominions. MouNTAiKs. Among the highest mountains in Ireland are the mountains of Carlingford, the Curlieus, which separate the counties of Sligo and Roscommon; those in the county of Donegal ; the Manguton mountains in the county of Kerry ; Croah Patrick in the county of Mayo; and the Galtee mountains, inthe county of Tip- perary. Bogs. These are numerous in Ireland, and are of different kinds. Some are grassy, in which the water being concealed by the herbage, they are extremely peril- ous to travellers ; others are pools of water and mire ; and others are hassocky bo.i^s, or shallow lakes studded with tufts of rushes — and lastly the peat moors. Ornaments of gold, and other relics of antiquity have been found, from time to time, in the bogs at great depths. Vegetable and Animal Ptioductions. There is little under this head that is perv.'Jar to Ireland, her productions being mostly similar to those of England and Scotland. Minerals. The mineralor?;y of Ireland has been recently celebrated for the discovery of considerable masses of native gold, in the county of vVicklow, to the south of Dublin. It is reported that a jeweller who lately died in Dublin, often declared that gold taken from that spot, had passed through his hands to the value of 30,000/. It IS now worked for government, and it is said that a very massy vein has been recently discovered. 'I'he silver found in the Irish mines mingled with lead deserve more atten- tion. One of these mines in the county of Antrim, yielded a pound of pure silver to thirty pounds of lea4. Ireland G^ I 78 IRELAND. likewise possesses some mines of copper, and some of coal, the latter perhaps as pure as any in the world. Natural Curiosities. What is called the Giant's Causeway, must be distinguished as the most re- markable curiosity in Ireland. This surprising collection of basaltic pillars is about eight miles N. E. from Cole- raine ; and projects into the sea to an unknown extent. The part explored is about 600 feet in length ; the breadth from 240 to 120 feet ; and the height from 16 to 36 feet above the level of the strand. It consists of many thou- sand pillars, mostly of a pentagonal form, in a vertical po- sition, all of them separate, though close together, so as to form a pavement, of gradual ascent. In the days of ignorance, this was considered as a stupendous work of art, but it is now more justly viewed as a rare natural phenomenon. FRANCE. FRANCE is deservedly considered amongst the most eminent European states. — In the year 600 before Christ the Phocaeans, sailing from Ionia, founded Massilia, now called Marseilles. The more ancient inhabitants were Celts, the aborigines of great part of western ICurope. The southern parts of Gaul (the original name of the country) became known at an early period to the Komans, who entered that region about 120 years before the Chris- tian aera, and soon afterwards founded the province termed Gallia Bracata, from bracca, a sort of breeches worn by the inhabitants ; but the remainder of this extensive and fertile country was reserved for the conquerint'^ arms of Julius Caesar. On the decline of the Roman empire it was over-run by the Franks, an assemblage of tribes from lower Germany, and from them it received its present de- nomination. Extent. The extent of France before the re- cent acquisitions, was computed at 148,840 square miles • and supposing the then population to be 26,000 000* would render 174 inhabitants to each mile square The boundaries were, on the west, the Atlantic ocean ; on the south, the Mediterranean and Pyrenees ; on the east, bavoy, Swisserland, and Germany ; on the north, the Aus- trian Netherlands, the German sea, and linglish Channel It extends from about the 42d to near the 51st decree of N. ktitude; from about the 7th degree of longitude west .rozM X ans, tu about the 5th on ihc east j being m length 80 FRANCE. N. to S. about 600 British miles, and in breadth, W. to E. about 560 Original Population. The primitive inhabi- tants were the Celts, to whom no anterior people can be traced in the vrestern regions of Europe ; but on the S. W. the Aquitani, of African descent, had passed from Spain ; and on the N. K. the warlike German tribes, known by the name of Helgae, had seized on a third part of the country, where they introduced the Gothic lan- guage and manners. On the S. also the German Gauls had diffused themselves into what was called Gallia I3ra- cata : Tior must the Greek colonies be forgotten. The solidity and duration of the Roman conquests difl'used the Latin language through all ranks, together with their laws and government. Divisions. Before the revolution this kingdom was divided into provinces. The national assembly, intent on destroying every ancient vestige, thought prefer to parcel it out into eighty-three departments. The recent conquests have been moulded to a similar form, under the name of re-united departments, making an addition of eighteen, besides the latter annexation of Piedmont and the isle of Elba. Historical Epochs. 1. The primitive popu- lation of the Celts, and the conquests of the Aquitani, and BelgJB. 2. The complete conquest of the country by Julius CsBsar. 3. Its reduction by the Franks under Clovis, about the year 490, and the conversion of the Franks to the Chris- tian faith, five years after that period. 4. The obscure and distracted history of the Merovin- gian race, till its final extinction in the middle of the eighth century. 5. The Carlovingian race, which ascended the throne in the year 752, and was followed, twenty years after- wards, by the celebrated reign of Charlemai;ne, who car- ried the power of France to the utmost extent "and splen- dour, having in particular, subdued the greatest part of Germany, where he became the founder and first sove- reign of what has since becB styled the German Em- FRANCIL 81 V. to E. inhabi- ; can be 1 the S. id from 1 tribes, ird part Lhic lan- n Gauls Ilia I3ra- 1. The used the leir laws kingdom y, intent reaper to e recent nder the dition of lont and re popu- :ani, and Y Julius ibout the ,e Chris- Merovin- le eighth e throne irs after- who car- rid splen- : part of irst sove- lap Em- pire, A. D. 800, and which remained with his descendantvi for near a century. The accession of the house of Capet in the year 987. The crusades in which the French bore the chief sway. 8. The wars with England. The acquisition of France by Henry V. and its deliverance by the Maid of Orleans, or rather by Charles Vll. styled the victorious. 9. The rei) of Lewis XL who, crushing such power- ful princes as were left after the English shock, may b^ regarded as the father of absolute monarchy. 10. The reign of Francis L called the father of the arts and letters, during which the I rench, who had been re- garded as barbarians by the more civilized people of Italy, beji;an, on the contrary, to be distinguished by superior refinement. This is also tlie first epoch of a standing army in Europe. 1 1. The intestine commotions with the Protestants, and massacre of St. Bartholomew. 12. The reign of Henry IV. 13. That of Louis XIV. loo much extolled by the French, and too much degraded by other nations. 14. The recent revolution, or revolutions which have followed one another with a rapidity tliat has astonished Europe, and which in the singularity and importance of the events, rival the pages of ancient history. Antiquities. Several ancient monuments exist in France which are ascribed to the first epoch. The Creek colony at Marseilles seems to have imparted some degree of civilization to the country, and the rude Gallic coins are evidently an imitation of tHe Grecian model. The Roman antiquities in I ranee are numerous, and some of them in excellent preservation. 1 host at Nismes are particularly celebrated, consisting chiefly of an amphi- theatre, and the temple called La Iviaison Cane. The disclosure of the grave of Childeric, near Tournay, in the last century presented sonte of the most curious fragments. In an old tower of St. Germain du Fr6 are representations of several of the first monarchs of the Franks, and many of their efiigies were preserved on their tombs at St. Dennis and other places, till the late revolu- tion. IMAGE [EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ^ ^ ^^^ // M/. 1.0 I.I !f:i^ IIIIIM 2.2 40 2.0 ^ 1118 1.25 1.4 1.6 ^ : 6" — ► V] <^ ^m w /a C^^/'t- o»i ^ '**■ ^ -s^ 'SW m "W Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ^o ;i? i/.A vy. ' 82 FRANCE. The monuments of the Carlovingian race are yet more numerous, and Roman mosaics have illustrated the fame of Charlemagne, Of the later periods one of the most singular is the suit of tapestry, preserved in the Cathedral church of Bayeux, representing the beginning and ter- mination of the grand contest between William and Harold, which led to the conquest of England by the Normans. It is said to have been the work of Matilda, wife of William ; and bears every mark of that remote antiquity. Religion. The religion of France is the Roman Catholic, but the Gallican church, since its re-establish- ment by Bonaparte, has been considerably modified and rendered almost wholly independent on Roman influence. Government. To attempt to describe the present government of France would be as vague as writing on the sands of a troubled ocean. Equally futile would be the at- tempt to describe laws, v/here there is no code ; and which fluctuate according to the despotism or clemency of the rulers. At present the government, both in form and spirit, is a mere military despotism, the two senates being the passive instruments of the commander in chief, who has styled himsfelf Emi*eror of the French. Population. The population of France was for- merly computed at 26,000,000, but the recent acquisitions, if durable, would swell it to the formidable extent of 34,000,000. At all events France is a country teeming with population, and quickly resumes her vigour after stu- pendous losses, as Europe has repeatedly experienced. Colonies. The French colonies are at present unimportant, and it is probable will be lost for ever, if the war which now rages, should continue a few years ; and of course the maritime importance of the nation will be almost annihilated. Army. The political convulsions which have agi- tated this unhappy country, and yet more the despotism of its rulers have occasionally, within these few years, swelled the French armies to the amazing computation of upwards of a million. By a statement lately published, in the Etat Militaire^ they now consist of 1 10 demi-brigades of .S,200 each ; of 30 light demi-brigades of the same compliment } eight regiments of foot artillery, each of FRANCE. 88 30 companies ; eight of horse artillery, each of 466 men ; 26 regiments of cavalry ; and 20 rej^iments of dragoons! each of 800 men ; 25 regiments of chasseurs, and 12 re- giments of hussars, of the like number. Tlie whole ex- clusive of engineers, miners, &c. forming a force of 413,728. ^ Navy. The maritime power of France was for- midable even to England, till the battle of La Kogue, smce which the British flag has reigned triumphant on the ocean, and the struggles of France, though often ener- getic, have encountered the fixed destiny of inevitable de- feat. Revenue. The revenue of France was formerly computed at about 30,000,000/. sterling ; from which, after deducting the expence of collection, and the payment of the mterest on the national debt, there remained clear about 18,000,000 ; but any attempt to calculate the present state of the revenue must be vague and inconclusive : One half of It, perhaps, is wrung from allies and neutrals, the United States hot excepted. The common current money of France has been com- puted at 90,000,000/. sterling, while that of Great Britain has been estimated at 40,000,000/. The late conquests have enriched France, and especially Paris, with the ra- pine of many provinces ; and the generals vie with the Ro- mans ID wealth and luxury : in a coarse imitation of their worst vices. Political Importance and Relations. The political importance and relations of France continue to be vast ; nor was the prodigious power of this state ever so completely felt and acknowledged, as after a revolution and a w-r which threatened her very existence. When expected to fall an easy prey, she suddenly arose the ag- gressor, and has astonished Europe by the rapidity and extent of her victories. The rivalry of many centuries between France and England sunk into a petty dispute when compared with this mighty contest, which will be telt and deplored by distant posterity. Yet, by the pro- tection of all-ruling providence, the British empire has risen superior to the struggles, and remained free from those scenes of carnage and devastation, which attended the French progress into other countries ; and the French 14 FRANCE. navy being; reduced to so insisjnificant a force, Great Bri- tain has kss to apprehend from iVance, than at any former period. The other powers of Kurope, except Russia and the northern states, are either victims or associates of the ambitious projects of their common enemy. Manners and Customs. The manners and cus- toms of the French have been often delineated, but with great deviation from the true likeness. Tlie most pleasing parts of the portrait are vivacity, gaiety, politeness, and a singular disposition towards social enjoyments. On the other hand ancient and recent events conspire to affix a sanguinary stain and a rapacity on the national character, which are hardly reconcileable to so much gaiety, and seeming benevolence. The ancient and rooted enmity between England and France nourished many prejudices against the French character, which have since disappeared in the reports of more candid authors. Yet, witli travellers rccustomed to the elegance of English life, many of the French manners and customs cannot be reconciled to ideas of physical pu- rity ; and the looseness of morals, in regard to the sex, has become proverbial. The republican form of government has only spread the contagion wider, nor has the liberty of divorce proved any bond of chastity. Language, The French language is the most universally diffused of any in the courts of Europe ; and the consequence is felt in the variety and extent of their in- trigues. In variety, clearness, and precision, and idioms adapted to life, business, and pleasure, it yields to no mo- dern speech : but it wants force and dignity, and yet more, sublimity. The French language is a well known cor- ruption of the Roman, mingled with Celtic and Gothic words and idioms. But while the Italian remains the same from the days of Dant^ and Pctrarca, through a lapse of 500 years, the epoch of classical purity of the French language commences with the reign of Louis XIV. The recent revolution has introduced such exuberance of new words and phrases, that a neological dictionary is required to explain them. Public Schools. The state of education in all the Catholic countries was very defective till the Jesuits gave great attention to this important department ; to ment ; to FRANCE. 4, wi'!,M' J^ '*'^"' *^'*:^''^'0"» ^^^ l^een solely directed they would have proved a most useful body of men ^ At the time when this relij^ious order was 'suppressed France boasted of twenty-one universities ; in the north Douay,Caen, Pans, Rheims, Nanci, Strasburg; in the middle provinces, Nantes, Angers, Poitiers, Orle^ins Bom ges, Dijon, Besancon ; and in the south, Bour S mx Pai' Perpignan Poulouse, Montpellier, Aix, Oran^^ V Ince' Of these the Sorbonne ef Paris was th^ most^debruted but It shewed an irremediable tendency to proloi r. H ' re.^not scholastic theology. The academies and mtrav societies were computed at thirty-nine. Those of plrL n particular, have been long known to the learned woHd by elegant and profound volumes of dissertations TS sciences, and on the Belles Lettres. Nor have nuWk: hi thn-d smaller than London: and thi inhabitants nrobablJ run in"vaH:rr;c.t? u\Tr.;e\^.rs°™o';h:i'''^' earthquake woul.1 be peculiarly destroctWe and m? t *" pletely bury the city. TmJu^Ts:C^,':^^^^°!^i: quays, and the public buildings are not onFy SaM^^ themselves, but are placed in ot«n and commindini skua Sodei.'-L^i^rrd^^Thr^^^^^^^^^^^ now the Pantheon, is also deserveSrv o i • '^^ Pas.n|ers .o„|y ^^'p^Sl^^ ^J.^. ^P"^ 86 FRANCE. I I ment to the middle and lower classes of men. The revo- lution and its consequent rapine have enlarged and adorned the public collections ; and, by enriching numerous indivi- duals, has enabled them to increase their favourite city with new and beautiful streets and squares. Next to Paris in extent and population was the noble city of Lyons, which was supposed to contain about 100,000 souls. As the chief manufactures were articles of luxury, silk, cloths of gold, and silver, &c. it was natural that this venerable town should be firmly attached to the ancient aristocracy, though with consequences incalculably fatal to its prosperity. During the infatuated reign of the jacobins it was Uc^sieged, captured, and, after the wildest and basest massacres, was doomed to final demolition. But as there are boun is even to rage and folly, this decree was only executed in nart. Though Lyons will probably never re- cover its ancient extent and opulence. The third and fourth cities of France are Marseilles and Bourdeaux; each peopled by about 80,000 souls. The foundation of Marseilles has been already mentioned, and the city remains worthy of its ancient fame, the port being at the same time one of the best and most frequented in the whole Mediterranean. The exchang* is a noble build- ing, and the new parts of the city are beautiful. Bourdeaux was a prosperous city, but the trade must have suffered great injury. The port is ample and com- modious, with extensive quays. The chief exports are wine and brandy, particularly the vinde Bourdeaux, which we term claret, because it is of a clear and transparent red, while tent and some other wines are opake. Edifices. Several of the most noble edifices of France are in Paris, and its vicinity. To those already mentioned must be added, the palace of Versailles, rather remarkable, htowever, for the profusion of expence, than for the skill of the architect; the parts being small and unharmonious, and the general effect rather idle pomp than true erandeur. The bridge of Neuille is esteemed the most beautiful in Europe, consisting of five wide arches of equal size. The ancient cathedrals and castles are nume- rous, but the latter are by no means conspicuous tor their elecance or taste. ,,,, • i j • *• « «f Inland Navigation. The inland navigation of France has been promoted by several capital exertions. FRANCE. sr The canal of Briare, otherwise styled that of Burgundy, opens a communication between the Loire and the Seine, or in other words bet.vcen Paris and the western provinces. Passing by Montargis it joins the canal of Orleans, and falls into the Seine near Fontainbleau. The canal of Picardy extends from the Somme to the pise, beginning at St. Quintin, and forming a convenient mtercourse to the provinces in the N. E. But the chief work of this description is the celebrated canal of I^anguedoc, commenced and completed in the reign of Louis XIV. under the auspices of that able mi- nister Colbert. Fifteen years of labour were employed, from 1 666 to 1 68 1 . This noble canal begins in the bay of Languedoc ; and at St. Ferriol is a reservoir of 595 acres of water ; it enters the Garonne about a quarter of a mile below the city of Toulouse. The breadth, including the towmg paths, is 144 feet; the depth six feet; the lenclh 64 French leagues, or about 1 80 miles. The expence was about half a million sterling. Manufactures and Commerce. The articles of commerce in France, are its wines, brandy, vinegar, truits, as prunes, prunellos, dried grapes, pears, apples, oranges, and olives; drugs, oils, and chymical prepara- tions ; silks, embroidery, tapestry, cambrics, lawns, laces, brocades, and woollens, in imitation of the English ; paper, parchment, and toys. ^ » F F^i, From this detail some idea may be formed of the com- merce of France. By the account of 1 784, which did not include Lorain or Alsace, nor the West India trade. Total Exports were 307,151,700 livres. Imports 271,365,000 Balance 35,786,700, or 1,565,668/. sterling. agaTns't Frate''^''' '''" ^''' ^"^^" ^"'^ " ^^^^^ ^^'^"^^ In the year 1 788, the average > , _ Imports of France were about J '2,500,000/. sterling Exports, nearly, 15,000,000 In the same year } Imports of Great Britain were k ^^'°^^'0<^0 Exports, ditto. 17,500,000 88 FRANCE. Since the beginning of the French revolution the coni^ merce of England has been constantly increasing— .while that of her envious rival has been almost annihilated. Climate and Seasons. The climate of so ex- tensive a country as France, may be expected to be various. In general it is far more clear ahd serine than that of England ; but the northern provinces are exposed to heavy rains, which however produce beautiful verdure and rich pastures. France may be divided into three climates, the northern, the central, and the southern. The first yields no wines ; the second no maize ; the third produces wines, muize and olives. These divisions proceed in an oblique line from the S. W. to the N. E. so as to demonstrate " that the eastern part of the kingdom is two and a half de- grees of latitude hotter than the western, or' if not hotter move favourable to vegetation." Soil and Agriculture. The variations of the soil are very considerable. The N. E. part from Flanders to Orleans is a rich loam. Further to the W. the land is poor and stony ; Brittany gravel, or gravelly sand, with low ridges of granite. The chalk runs through the centre of the kingdom, from (jermany by Champagne to Sain- tonge; and on the N. of the mountainous tract is a large extent of gravel, but even the mountainous region of the south is generally fertile, though the large province for- merly called Gascony presents many level heaths. The defects of French agriculture, consist in frequent fallows, while the English farmer obtains even superior crops of corn, by substituting turnips and other green crops to the fallows ; besides the clear profit from his clover, tur- nips or tares. In some of the provinces, however, the plans of agricul- ture correspond with the natural fertility of the soil ; and others display a most laudable industry. There is a re- markable instance exhibited in the barren mountains of the Cevenncs. As the waters which run down the sides carry considerable quantities of earth into the ravines, walls of loose stones are erected which permit the waters to pass when they are clear ; but when turbid their load of earth is gradually deposited against the wall, and affords a space of fertile soil. Successive ramparts are thus erected to the very top of the mountain ; and the water, having no longer a violent fall, only serves to nourish the crops, which are FRANCE. 89 moreover protected by planting fruit trees at certain inter- vals, so as to lend security and consistence to the new acquisition. Rivers. Among the rivers of France four are most eminent; the Seine* the Loire, the Rhone, and the Ga- ronne. The first is one of the most beautiful streams of 1' ranee : rismg m the department of C6te D'Or, it pursues Its course to the N. W. till it enters the English channel at Havre de Grace, after a course of about 250 English miles. 1 he Loire derives its source from Mont Gerbier in the JV. ot ancient Languedoc; and after a northern course turns to the west,entenng the ocean a considerable way beyond JNantes, after a course of about 500 miles. The Rhone springs from the Glacier of Furca, near the mountain of Grimsel in Swisserland ; and after passing the beautiful vales of the Vallais, and the lake of Geneva, bends Its course towards the south, and enters the Mediterranean. 1 ne comparative course 400 miles. The Garonne rises in the vale of Arau in the Pyrenees. K .?".'^^ .?^ ^^'^ T^** '^ generally N. W. It extends to about 250 miles. After its junction with the Dordogne, it assumes the name of the Gironde, which gave its distinc- tive appellation to a faction that fell under the axe of Ro- bespierre. The principal mountains of France are in its southern departments. hPtw^l"V"''^' ^ ^^"?"^»•^ of the Alps, forms a boundary between France and Swisserland. If Mont Blanc be ad- mitted among the French mountains, the other Alps can- nlu^llVT^"^^ elevation. The ancient province of tlnS^K ^?^^^^^ '^'^'''"^^ ^^P^"^ branches, which also ex- tend through great part of Provence. The grand chain of the Cevennes seems to run from N to b. and to send out branches towards the E. and W The northern part of the chain is styled the Puy de Dome! w^e the southern is called that of Cantal. The Moms Frlnc^^it' rT; ""^. "''^ '""^ ^'^»^^^^ ™«""tains n .1^^ : -P^ ch'ef elevation is that of the Puy de Sanfi village on the slope of one of the^ ^m^l^Z^^^^ 90 FRANCE. overwhelmed, the whole mountain with its basaltic columns, rolling into the valley. The inliabitants were fortunately en;ia.;yed in the celebration of midsummer eve, around a bonfire at some distance from the mountain. The FyrenersVemain to be described. I'o the surprise of naturalists, they have been found to present calcareous appearances, and even shells and skeletons of animals, near or upon their highest summits, which are in the centre of the chain. Mont Perdu is considered as the highest ele- vation of the Pyrenees, ascending above the sea 1751 French toises, or about 11,000 feet English. The Py- renean chain appears at a distance like a shaggy ridge, presenting the segment of a circle fronting France, and descending at each extremity till it disappears in the ocean and Mediterranean. Perdu is of very difficult access, as the calcareous rock often assumes the form of perpendicular walls, from 1 00 to 600 feet in height ; and the snows, ice, and glaciers, en- crease the difficulty. Near the summit is a considerable lake, more than 9000 feet above the level of the sea, which throws its waters to the east into the Spanish valley of Beoussa. Vegetable and Animal Productions. So great indeed is the extent and so various the climate of I'rance that probably more than iialf the European species of plants may be found within its boundaries. That coun- try which produces in full and equal perfection wheat and apples, maize, and grapes, oranges and olives, the oak and the myrtle, must doubtless exceed all other European countries of equal extent in the variety and richness of its vegetable treasures ; but a bare enumeration of them would occupy more room than can be allotted to them in a work like the present. The horses of France do not appear to have been cele- brated at any period ; and it is well known that the ancient monarchs were drawn to the national assemblies by oxen. Many English horses are in times of peace imported for the coach and the saddle. The best native horses for draught, are those of Normandy ; for the saddle, those of the Ljimo5in, which have been recently improved by cross- ing the breetl with the Arabian, Turkish, and English. But the greater number of horses in France consists of Bi- dets, small animals of little show, but great utility. The FRANCE. 91 cattle of Limoges, and some other provinces, are of a beaii- titul cream colour. The sheep are ill managed, havine in winter only straw, instead of green food as in England. The consequences are poor fleeces, and rarity of sheep, so that the poor are forced to eat bread only, and Jarge quantities ot wool are imported. Oi ferocious animals the most re- niarkable are the wild boar and the wolf; the ibex and chamois, are found on the Pyrenees and the Alps Minerals. Gold mines anciently existed in the S. of France, and some of the rivulets still roll down par- ticles of that metal. France can also^boast of the silver mines at St. Marie-aux-Mines in Alsace, and elsewhere. 1 he same as well as other districts contain mines of cop- per. The Duchy of Deux I'onts, one of the fraternized acquisitions of Trance on the west of the Khine, is cele- brated for mmes of quicksilver. The annual product of these mines may be estimated at 67,200 pounds of mercu- ry. 1 wo-thirds of the lead of France are from Bretagne, particularly the mines of Poullaouen and Huelgoet Iron, that most important and universal of metals, is found m abundance, particularly in some of the northern departments. In 1798 it was computed that there were 2000 furnaces, forges, &c. for the working of iron and steel 1 he coal mmes ot France were at the same time esti- mated at 400, constantly wrought ; and 200 more capable . ol being wrought. Nearly allied to coal is jet, an article formerly of great consumption, chiefly in Spain, where it was made into rosaries, crosses, buttons for black dresses, Natural Curiosities. Among the'natural curi- osities of France the most worthy of notice is the plain of oltheHhone. This is the most sin R:ular stony desert that IS to be found m France, or perhaps in Europe. The da meter IS about five leagues, ind the contents from 20 to 25 square leagues, or about 1 50,000 English acres French Isles. The isles around France are so small, and unimportant, that they would scarcely be de^ serving of notice, were it not for events that have taken place during the late war. The isle of Corsica must how ever be excepted, as it gave birth to Napoleon rnapa^e' a mihtary adventurer, and now emperor of France ' 93 I'RANCE. The IslcR called Myercs, near Toulon, have at present a buiTcn and nuked uppcurunce, and only present nomc mclunchuiy plncu. Tiicy however contain some hotunic riches, and may claim the fame of being Homer's isle of Calypso. On the western coast first occurs the isle of Oleron, fcbout fourteen miles lonjy, by two broad, celebrated lor a code of maritime lawH issued by Kichurd I. kin^; of Eng- land. To the N. is the isle of H6, opposite Kochelle, noted for nn expedition of the English in the seventeenth century. Ik'Uisle has been repeatedly attacked by the English: it is ulmut nine miles long and three broad, sur- rounded by steep rocks, which, with the fortifications, render the contiuest diflicult. The isle of Ushant, or Ouessant, is remarkable as the furthest headland of France, towaixis the wist, licing about twelve miles from the conti- nent, and about nine in circumference, with several ham- lets, and about 600 inhabitants. And St. Maixou, held by the Dritish during the lafr t war, in defiance of all the power of the great nation, alJ.hough it is only seven miles from their ilioixs. NETHERLANDS. THOSE provinces of the Netherlands which were for merly subject to the house of Austria, have bten recently annexed to the French dominions ; and this fertile territory may probably continue to be united to France, as to acquire It was one reason why the French murdered their king and queen, and established a republic. Names. The Netherlands in genera! were anci- ently known by the name of BelM^ic Gaul, and therefore the French, in their new-fangled vocabulary, call them re-united departments. ExTKNT. The length of the Austrian Netherlands, computed from the eastern limit of Luxembourg to Os- tcnd on the ocean, may be about 1 80 British miles ; and about 120 in breadth, from the northern boundary of Aus- tiian Brabant to the most southern limit x>f 1 [ainaut. The extent is computed at 7,520 square miles, with a population of 1,900,000. OiuGiNAi, Population. The original population was Celtic succeeded by the Belgse, and afterwards van- quished by the Franks. Historical Epochs. 1. The events while the Romans held Gaul. 2. Under the Merovingian race of French kings. 3. The ancient earls of Flanders, and Hainaut, and other potentates who shared these territories. ^\?'\^ ^"^^^ ^^ Burgundy. During these two epochs the Netherlands became the great mart of commerce in 94 KETHERLANDS. the west of Europe, and were distinguished by opulence and the arts. 5. The Austrian domination, accompanied with repeated unsuccessful struggles for freedom. The seven United Provinces having, however, established their liberty, the commerce, aid prosperity of the southern regions passed qiiickly to their northern neighbours. 6. Their conquest by the French and annexation to the territory of the republic. Religion, &c. The religion of the Netherlands is the Roman Catholic ; and till the French revolution, the inhabitants were noted for their bigotry. The metropoli- tan see was the archbishopric of Mechlin, or Malines. The bishoprics were those of Bruges, Aptwerp, Ghent, &c. in number nine or ten. The government and laws had many features of freedom. The Joyeuae Entree was the magna chartaof the Netherlands, a constitutional bond of national privileges, which the inhabitants foolishly exchanged for French fraternity. Population, &c. The population being computed at 1,900,000, and the square extent at 7,520 ir/les,' there will be 252 inhabitakits to .the square mile, while France yields only 174. Under the Austrian power, the revenue of the Netherlands scar'iely defrayed the expences of go- vernment, and the various ex tor ions of the French rulers cannot afford any sufficient dat& to compute an equitable and last'ng revenue. Manners and Customs. The manners and cus- toms of the Netherlands partake of those of theirneighbours, the Dutch and French, but principally of the latter, which, together with the common use of the French language, paved the way for their subjugation. P. Schools. The education was neglected as in most Catholic countrLis. The universitief>, which in no country are of equal importance with the schools, were, however, numerous, considering the extent of the country. Exclusive of Tournay,(Dornick) which has been long sub- ject to the French, there were others at Douay, and St. Omer, much frequented by the English Catholics ; and one of still greater celebrity at Louvain, founded in 1425. what were called the Austrian Netherlands, are Firussels, Chent, and Antwerp. The capital city of Brussels still NETHERLANDS. 95 contains about 80,000 inhabitants, and is beautified by a noble square, one side of which is occupied with a vast guildhall ; and by numerous churches and fountains. The imperial palace, the wonted residence of the governor of the iSletherlands, displays considerable taste and maenifij C£nce. * J Ghent contains about 60,000 souls, end the circumfer- ence of the walls is computed at 15 miles, as it is built on a number of little islands formed by four rivers, and many canals, and includes gardens, and even fields. The inhabitants f>f Antwerp are computed at 50,000, the sad remains of great population and prosperity. The streets, houses, and churches, are worthy of the ancient fame of the city. The -exchange is said to have afforded the pattern tor that of London. In 1 568 the trade is supposed to have been at its greatest heip:ht; and the number of inhabitants was computed at 200,000. EDiricEs. In general it may be observed, that even at the present day, every traveller is impressed with surprise, not only at the number, but the ureat extent of the l"lemish cities, towns, and even villages ; in which re- spect the Netherlands exceed every country in Europe, only excepting the United Provinces. The chief edifices are the cathedrals, churches and monasteries ; together with a few castles belonging to ancient families, or rich merchants. Inland Navigation. • Idle would be the attemot even to riumerate the canals which intersect these provin- ces m a)i directions. Some of them date even from the tenth century, and the canal from Brussels to the Scheld is ot the sixteenih. Other important canals extend from Ghent, Antwerp, Ostend, and other cities and towns, es- pecially m the western districts. Manufactures and Commerce. The manu- factures and commerce of the Netherlands, for a lonP ne- riod superior to any in the west of Europe, have suffered a ra<1ical decline, owing partly to the other powers enter- ing into competition ; and partly to the establishment of arose upon the ruins of Antwerp. V/hat little commerce remams is chieflv inland to (l.vLu^ .xlJl.^L?'^'^^^''^ inn. .r^n., r !• ^ /5 '^"»- vAtciiiui ciiipiov- ofln. ?n ""T.^ '^"'"^'' ^^^ ^^i^*' manufactures are offineimen, and laces, at Mechlin, Brussels, Ghent, iC! 96 NETHERLANDS. werp, Louvain) which still enrich the country around, and induce tlie farmers to cultivate flax,, even on the poorest soils. Climatk and Seasons, &c. The -climate of the Netherlands considerably resembles that of the south of England, and is more remarkable for moisture than for warmth; yet the duchy of Luxembourg produces some wine. The soil is in general rich sandy loam, sometimes interspersed with fields of clay, but more often with hrge spaces of sand. Such has been, even in distant ages, the state of agriculture that the Netherlands were long esteem- ed the very garden of Europe, a praise which they still share with Lombardy and England. The r-^peatcd crops of excellent clover, the cole, the tisrnips, the clean crops of flax, barley, and oats, deservedly attract attention. Rivers. The Netherlands are watered by so many rivers and canals, that it will be sufficient to mention only a few of the chief streams. The chief river is the Scheld, which receives two other streams, the Lys, and the Scalpe, the latter near Mortagne, the former near Ghent. All these rivers arise in the county of Artois, from no consi- derable elevation ; and the whole course of the Scheld, or French Escaut, cannot be comparatively estimated at above 120 miles. Most of the other rivers yield in importance to the canals, and it would indeed be difficult in many instances to determine whether their course be the work of nature or art. Mountains, &c. Though there be little ridges of hills in the counties of Namur and Luxembourg, the tra- veller must proceed to the distant banks of the Rhine before he meets with any elevation that can deserve the name even of a small mountain. Vegetable and Animal Productions. The vegetable ^reductions of the Catholic Netherlands differ in no respect from those of Holland, and almost all the plants that are natives of this country may be met w?.th in the sandy and marshy districts of the south-east coast of England. The breed of horses and cattle is esteemed for size and strength. Minerals. So plain a country cannot be supposed to supply many minerals : yet coal, perhaps the most pre- cious of them all, is found in several districts, and the NETHERLANDS. ^f IHfn?" f ^.K ^ ^^^ ^'^""^^ ^^* ^^^" ^^«^ted ih an improve- ZZ ^Lh ' T'*''°"'' '" '^^ ^°""ty °f ^«^«r are also found lead and copper; and Hainaut affords iron and slate From Its iron works Luxembourg derives its chief wedth * and the forest of Ardennes is still renowned for thrmetai Vol. L RUSSIA IN EUROPE. Extent. By the ifinal partition of Poland, European Russia now extends from the river Dniester to the Ura- lian mountains, that grand chain which naturally divides Europe from Asia ; a length of about 1 600 miles, and in breadth above 1000 English miles, being from 47® to 72® north latitude, and 23° to 65° east longitude. The extent is computed at about 1,200,000 square miles, with 17 inhabitants to each. Even the European part of the Russian empire embraces many ancient kingdoms and states ; but the chief name, that of Russia, shall only be considered. Origikal Population, The grand population of the European part of the Russian empire is well known to be Slavonic. The Slavons, form an extensive original race of mankind, radically distinct from the Goths on the one hand, who, as possessing the countries more to the west, must have preceded the Slavons in their passage flPom Asia into Europe ; and equally distinguishable in language, person, and manners, from the Tatars, and other nations on the east. They are the SamtiataB of the ancients, and were ever remarkable for personal elegance and strength. Civil Divisions. The principal sub-divisions of European Russia are into military governments ; which, though they are often changing, and are seldom mentioned by any except native geographers, it has not been thought right entirely to omit. RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 99 cf..I°?^ ^^""^^ 'I ^^^ extensive government of Archangel, stretching from the borders of Sweden to the confines of Asia/ South of this, along the Asiatic frontier are the governments of Vologda, Perm, Viatka Kazan, Simbirsk! mg the other m a regular progress to the sea of Azof The government of Ecaterinoslav, 5ith the kingdom of Taur da^ 18 the southernmost province, and contains Little Tatary Tx end th'f '"' •^"•^""'V' ^^^"^ '^^ Turks. On the wes extend the acquisitions by the division of Poland The governments of Riga, R^vel, Petersburg, and Vibort are situated along the Gulfs of Riga and Finland? aifd ^e government of Olonetz on the Swedish frontier com fn^Nov'^rd^T ^^^'^'^^^^ provinces are the fonow- mg Novgorod, Tver, Kostroma, and Yaroslavl, for tho Pskov^SmJj '"t ""r' '''''r'''' '"^^ Volga; pSotsk! Mo^hJl. ^^"^^* ^^'^"^' Vladimir, Nizney-Novgorod S Or;i^'°"^*'/**"i?» ^^""^"' Tambov, Penza,^Sim. birsk,Orel, Sieverskov, Tchernigov, Koursk, Kiev, Char kov, Voronetz, principally to the west of thTvoiga be th. H^f^'-^'f '' Epochs. The following appear to be the chief historical epochs of this mighty empire : aboTe roo yi^s ^'" descendants held the sceptre ^t^^Jirll^St^tS:^;^^ ^-^-^ ^^'-- ^on- anH'ti"/^"; "^""^ ''^"^'''y *^^ »^^Ptism of Olga the queen tianity '"'"'^""^' '°"^'"'^^«" ^^ ^^^ «"-^ns toSTs.' o«i; J^^,^"^^^^°" ^^^^^ Tatars under Batu Khan in 12-?^ and the subsequent vassalage of Russia ^^'' who dTed'if S" ''''' ^'"'^ "^^'^ '^^^^^^ ^y I^-n "I- rauraered brother ol this sovereign"; "' """""'"'> "'« a. ^ be accession of the dvna.tu^ «f o the person of Michael vL7 ^ ""^ Romanow, 1613, in 01 Michael I eodorowitz, sprung in the female 100 RUSSIA IN EUROPE. line from Ivan IV. He was followed by his son Alexi5> father of Peter the Great. 9. The reign of Peter I. has been justly considered as a most important epoch in Russian history ; but on reading the annals of iht preceding reigns from that of Ivan IV. it will be perceived that a part of our admiration for Peter arises from our inattention to his predecessors, and that the Ught which he diffused was far from being so suddeft and grand as is commonly imagined. 10. The late reign of Catharine II. deserves to be com- memorated among the most brilliant epochs in the Russian annals; nor must her personal crimes exclude her from the list of great and able sovereigns. AKTiquiTiEs. Of ancient monuments Russia can- not be supposed to afford great variety. Sometimes the tombs of their pagan ancestors are discovered, containing weapons and ornankcnts. The catacombs at Kiow were perhaps formed in the Pagan period, though they be now replete with marks of Christianity. They are labyrinths of considerable extent, dug through a mass of hardened clay, but they do not seem to contain the bodies of the monarchs. Religion. The religion of Russia is that of the Greek church, of which, since the fall of the Byzantine empire, this state may be considered as the chief source and power. Government. The government of Russia ap- pears to have been always despotic, there being no legisla- tive power distinct from that of the sovereign. What is called the senate is only the supreme court of judicature. The whole frame of the government may be pronounced to be military ; and nobility itself is only virtually estimated by rank in the army. The first Russian code dates from the reign of Ivan IV. and the late empress had the merit of drawing up a new code with her own hands. Population. The population of Russia is so dif- fuse, and spread over so wide an extent of territory, that very opposite opinions have been entertained concerning it. The following account, according to Mr. Tooke, presents the whole population of the empire in 1 799 : By the revision of 1783 there were in the "j governments, computing the female sex as V 25,677,000 equal to the male, of registered persons, J M I* RUSSIA IN EUROPE. loi The amount of the Kozaks of the Don and > «„^ ^_ the Luxine, f 220,000 For the numbered tribes and classes, at the ? . timeofthe fourth revision, f 1,500,000 Consequently the Russian empire, in theT ahr>-e\her'™'^^' ^^^^ inhabitants amounting [.27,397,000 Natural increase since 1783, ^ 3,000,000 1 he new acquisitions since the year 1783, > contain, according to a legitimated statement C ^,755,000 Consequently we may admit, by* the mostl moderate estimate, the population of the 136,755,000 Russian empire at present to be f Of this population Mr, Tooke assigns only about three millions and a half to Siberia, or Asiatic Russia, so that tTo^of&p^t'L^^^^^^ '"" ''''''^''' ^°'' ^^^ p^p"^- ofth^R^/;;.«*^''''^'''°''^ estimates the whole amount Se'ete^^^^^^^^ '' ^"^'^^ 500,000 may tached flll;« Ju^ ?"?i^" "^''J' '^^''^'^'^ o^ several de- tdched fleets. The chief fleet is that of the Baltic, which ^uxme, or Black sea, at the harbours of Sevastopol and ^f a h?l''^"^""P"J'^."' '^^'^^ ^^»P« <>f the line,^but not of a high rate, as the Euxine affords no great denth of gutEoa s"' tT rrr li"^^^^^' galliesfcreUcCan^J to ^ nfn!^nf r'^l . ^^'^ revenues of Russia are supposed tL^nT 1%''''°"*. 50 000,000 of rubles ; which, valuing s erUn^ ^,^o^\^^^^^in.p. will be equal to 10,000,00of or nmSng °"'* '^'^' '' '""^^'"'^ ^° ^"^°""' t«^i«le Political Importance, &c. With all thesp aH reTS of Xr'^^' ^'^^ ^'^^ politiclTimVor^^^^^^^^^^ Asil In V ^ ^'^ '*" preponderant in Europe and ^utei to renderTer''' ''''"f acquisitions have contri- has he.n H r 'J^°''^ ^"^ "^"^'e formidable. Poland has been devoured ; Denmark and SweH.p «,.„ »>— r 1 « 102 RUSSIA IN EUROPE. would be more usefully employed agjainst the ambitious strides of France. Her friendship is of peculiar import- ance to the British empire, in peace, as well as war. Manners and Customs. As the Russian empire comprises so many distinct races of men, the manners of course must be very various. The Slavonic Russians, who constitute the chief mass and soul of this empire, are generally middle sized and vigorous : thetallness and grace of the Polish Slavons seem to arise from superior climate and soil. The general phy- siognomy consists of a" small mouth, thin lips, white teeth, small eyes, a low forehead, the nose commonly small, and turned upwards, beard very bushy, hair generally reddish. The expression of the countenance is gravity, with good nature, or sagacity ; the gait and gestures lively and im- passioned. The Russian is extremely patient of hunger and thirst ; and his cure for all diseases is the warm bath, or rather vapour bath, in which the heat is above 100' of Farenheit's thermometer. When a ma-riage is pro- posed, the lover, accompanied by a friend, goes to the house of the bride, and says to her mother, " shew us your merchandize, we have got money," an expression which is thought to refer to the ancient custom of buying a wife. The Russians shew great attention to their nurses, and are so hospitable that they offer to every stranger the Khkh da sol, or bread and salt, the symbol of food, lodging, and protection. In several instances the Russians form a curious junction of European and Asiatic manners ; many of their ceremonies partake of Asiatic splendour ; the great are fond of dwarfs ; and some opulent ladies maintain fe- male tellers of tales, whose occupation is to lull their mis- tresses asleep, by stories resembling those of the Arabian Nights. , Language. The Russian lanc^uage is extremely difficult to pronounce, and not less difficult to acquire, as it abounds with extraordinary sounds, and anomalies of every kind. The characters amount to no less than thirty- six ; and the common sounds are sometimes expressed m the Greek characters, sometimes in characters quite unlike those of any other language. Among other singularities there is one letter to express the sch, and another the .«c7;, the latter a sound hardly pronounceable by any human mouth. 1^^ ibitious mport- empire nera of f mass ;ed and 13 seem ral phy- e teeth, tall, and reddish. Lh good and im- hunger m bath, 100® of is pro- i to the jhew us pression F buying : nurses, iger the lodging, s form a 3 ; many :he great ntain fe- leir mis- Arabian ^tremely quire, as iialies of in thirty- ressed in ite unlike ;ularities the .«c/t, y human RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 103 ,.«. ^^^^'*^ Schools. Education is little known or diffused m Russm, though the court have instituted acade- mies for the instruction of officers and artists. The university of Petersburg, founded by the late em- press Cathanne JI. is a noble instance of munificence, and It IS hoped will escape the fate of the colleges, founded at Moscow, by Peter the Great, v/hich do not seem to have met with the deserved success. Cities and Towns. In considering the chief cities and touns of Russia, Moscow, the ancient capital, attracts the first attention. This city dates from the yc^r 1300, and prior to the pestilence. of 1771, the houses in Moscow were computed at 12,538, and the population at not less than 200,000. Moscow is built in the Asiatic man- ner, m which cities cover a vast space of ground Peters- burg, the imperial residence, is said to contain 170,000 mhubitants ; and is the well known, but surprising erection ot the last century. It stands in a marshy situation on the river Neva, the houses bein,- chiefly of wood, ihe stone buildniRs are few ; and Petersburg is more distinguished by Its fame, than by its appearance or opulence, 'i he noblest public works are the quays builtof perpetual }> ranite Astracan is supposed to stand next to Petersburgh in po- pulation. This city, near the mouth of the vast river \'ol- ga, vyas the capital of the Tatar kingdom of Capshak: but the churches are chiefly of brick, and the houses of wood I he population is computed at 70,000. Cronstadt, and Kol- Iqnna, are supposed each to contain about 60,000 inhabitants Cherson, and Caffa, are said each to contain 20,000 • while 50,000 are ascribed to Tula, and 27,000 to Riga, a city of considerable trade and consequence. Inland Navigation. The inland navigation of Kussia deserves more attention. Among other laudable im- provements. Teeter the Great formed the design of esta- blishing an intei-course by water between Petersburph and Persia, by the Caspian sea, the Volj^a, the Mesta, and the lake of Novgorod, &c. but this scheme failed by the ignor- ance of tke engineers. During the long reign of the late empress many canals were accomplished, or at least rl! TSltr' l'^^'''7^r^9'l'' '}'^' th« <^hief honour must be ...v...v.d «, ucr uuministration. 1 he celebrated canal of Vishnei Voloshok was in some shap. completed byTe e/ so as to form a communication betwee- Jtracan and Pe-' 104 RUSSIA IN EUROPE. tersburg. The navigation is performed according to the season of the year, in from a fortnight to a month, and it is supposed that near 4000 vessels pass annually. The canal of Ladoga, extends from the river Volk to the Neva, a space of 674 miles, and communicates v^ith the former canal. By these two important canals constant in- tercouise is maintained between the northern and southern extremities of the empire. Another canal leads from Mos- cow to the river Don, forming a communication with the Euxine ; and the canal of Cronstradt forms a fourth. Manufactures and Commerce. By these means the inland trade of Jtussia has attained considerable prospe- rity : and the value of her exports and imports have been long upon the increase. Several manufactures are conducted with considerable spirit. Thatof isinglass^andkaviarare in a flourislung state. The manufactories of oil and soap are also considerable ; and Petersburg exports great quantities of candles, besides tallow, which abounds in an empire so well replenished with pasturage. Salt-petre is an imperial traffic, and some suj^ar is refined at Petersburg. There are several manufactures of paper and tobacco, linen, cot- ton, and silk : leather has long been a staple commodity. Russia produces vast quantities of wax. Iron founderies abound ; and in the northern government of Olonetz is a grand foundery of cannon. Russia is supposed to export by the Baltic grain annually to the value of 170,000/. and hemp and flax, raw, and ma- nufactured to the amount of a million and a half sterling. The Commerce of the Caspian sea is computed at 1,000,000 of rubles, or 200,000/. That of the Euxine is not above one-third of this value. That with Cbina about 2,000,000 of rubles. Russia exchanges her precious Si- berian furs for tea, silk, and porcelain ; and her internal commerce is very considerable. Climate and jea^sons. The climate of Russia in Europe, as may be expected in such a diversity of lati- tudes, presents almost every variety from that of Lapland, to that of Italy : for the newly acquired province of Taurida may be compared with Italy in climate and soil. Soil and Agriculture. The soil is of course also CXircnieiy Uivciac 2. i\\. \\iKta\. xviiiic ij ij.ai W'wvA'>-"u— the Don and the Vol, -a, from V oroneiz to Simbirsk, con- sisting of a black mould, strongly impregnated with salt- RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 105 petre ; that is, a soil formed from successive layers of vee*- table remains. In Livonia and Esthonia the medial returns ot harvest are eight or ten fold ; and the latter is generally the produce of the rich plains near the Don, where the fields are never manured, but on the contrary are apt to swell the corn into too much luxuriance. Pasturage is so abundant that the meadows are little regarded, and the ar- tihcial production of grasses is scarcely known. In general however agricuhure is treated with great negligence, yet the harvests are abundant. In the north rye is most generally cultivated ; but in the middle and the southern regions wheat ; in the government of Eka- tarinoslav the Arnautan wheat is beautiful, the flour yel- lowish, the return commonly fifteen fold; nor is Turkish wheat or maize, unknown in Taurida. Barley is a gene- ral produce, and is converted into meal, as well as oats, A^'^^J^ *"^^ °*^ porridge is composed. Millet is also widely diffused. Rice succeeds well in the vicinity of Kis- lear. Hemp and flax form great objects of agriculture, lobacco also has been produced since theyear 1763,chiefly from 1 urkish and Persian seed. » / Rivers. In enumerating the chief rivers of Euro- pean Russia the first attention is due to the majestic Volea, which forms through a long space, the boundary between Asia and hurope. Its comparative course may be comput- ed at about 1 700 miles. This noble river having no cata- racts, and few shoals, is navigable even to Twer Next to the Volga, on the west, is the Don, or Tanais, which rises from a lake in the government of Tulan m"kl '"^^ '"^ °^ ^'°*"' ^^^'' ^ "^^"''^ °f ^bo^t 800 ^'^^f^^P^*;' ^^^cient Borysthenes, rises in the govem- s^urce of ^rv"f ''' ^^Tu'"" '""^^ ^« '^' ««"^h «f the source of the \olga, and about loo to the S. E. of that of the Duna, or Duma, which flows into the Baltic, by Ric^a- and after a course of about 1000 miles through ribband ferl tile provinces, falls into the Euxine. " 600 miles." " "" *' ^^Kcrman, alter a course of about U6 RUSSIA IN EUROPE. The Dwina falls into the gulph of Archangel, after • considerable eourse of al)Out 500 miles. The Onega closes the list of the chief rivers that flow into the Arctic ocean ; for those of Olonetz, and of Russian Lapland, are of little consequence. Lakes. The chief lakes of European Russia arc situated in tl^e N. W. division of the empire. There is a considerable lake in Russian Lapland, that of Imandra ; to the south of which is the large lake of Onejjja, which is about 50 miles in lengtli, by a medial breadth of about 30. To the west is the Ladoga, about 130 miles in length, by 70 in breadth, being one ofthe largest lakes in Europe. As it has many shoals, and is liable to sudden and violent tempests, Peter the Great opened a canal along its shores, from the Volk to the Neva. On the S. W. we find the lake of Peypus, about 60 miles in length by 30 in breadth : and to the east is the lake Ilmen, on which stands the ancient city of Novgorod. The Beiio, or White lake, is so called from its bottom of white cJay. Mountains. European Russia is rather a plain country, though some parts of it be greatly elevated, such as that which sends forth the three rivers of Duna, Volga, and Nieper. This region which is passed in travelling from Petersburg to Moscow, is by some called the mountains of Valday ; but it seems to be rather a high table land, sur- mounted with large sand hills, and interspersed with masses jof redand grey granite. The most important chains of mountains in European Russia are those of Olonetz in the furthest N. and tliose of Ural which separate Europe from Asia. The chain of Olonetz runs in a direction almost due N. for the ^j u e of .5° or about 900 G. miles. The most arctic part nJ^u'is perpetual snow from the altitude of the climate. The immense Uralian chain extends from about the 50th to near the 67th degree of N. latitude, or about 1000 G. miles in length, and has by the Russians been called Sefnenoi Pnias, or the girdle of the world, an extravagant appellate :H\ when we consider that the chain of the Andes extent, i^*, v 5v? miles. Pauda, one of the highest moun- 45 12 feet above the level ofthe sea, an inconsiderable height when compared with Mont Blanc or Mont Rosa. RUSSIA IN EUROPE. ,or VEGETAnL« AND AnimAL pRODUCXTm.a Tu vegetable kingdom of Ru„i. ha, .i^'bl^.^r^rfec, Jex! plorcd. The Russian provinces N nFth^ PoiT- ^ ^ cipally supplied with' ma ,s d X pUch an?Sr" "^.T- chief part of their honev the h.Vrh Vu V^ . ' *^^« the greater n,aple, and ^y'calr" 'of h: jfb, tdT"' either eaten fresh "I is SeJvedt ''-'"?"*'•' """ '» winter. The Tau'rida aboSnds rthe oak UikT« ""^ mon kind and the snecies wi.V ^.V!l. ' "* ""* '=°™- and the white DODlara of 1.. "^V^ '' '"P' ' *''« ""^k margins of S^e sS^a^- 12. hi r* ,"''" """"S the tree, occupy the upland' pStu"; and o.e eT' '^'r"^ crowns the summifsof the lime-st'ontridies nfT ^^'^ bear ng shrabs and trw. i,«.J .u ^ Of the fruit- the white, Im black currant whlh'^'^?*'''"'^'' *"« «* dance thr^ugrthe woSrtherr^i^ ,lf",''''PT«' '" "'»'»- the apricot aL crab^^ ^^ ;X ^J^ "lb" "^f ^'' ' Tatarian, the black, and 'tL w^Uetulbe^^^tf V '*"' s^^nJruXo:r„^^^rlSltS^£ "^^- — o-j -jiruwg, ana Deautiful. "*- ^-IapIrc js t08 RUSSIA IN EUROPE. In Taurida it is said that common Tatars may possess about 1000 sheep, while an opulent flock 1& computed at 50,000 ; those of the whole peninsula were supposed to amount to 7,000,000 : nor is the rein-deer unknown in the furthest N. so that the empire may be said to extend from the latitude of the rein-deer to that of the camel. MiNERALOoy. The chief mines belongmg to Russia ai'e in the Asiatic part of the empire, but a few are situated in the European, in the mountains of Olonetz ; and there was formerly a gold mine in that region near the river Vyg. .RUSSIAN ISLES. The small isle of Cronstadt, in the gulph of Finlard, was formerly called Retusavi, and is only remarkable for an ex- cellent haven, strongly fortified, the chief station of the Russian fleet. In the Baltic, Russia vlso possesses the islands of Oesel and Dago. . , l. ^ . ., Novaya Zemlia, or the New Land, u.jmhabited, is said to consist of five isles, but the channels between them are always filled with ice. Seals, walruses, arctic foxes, white bears, and a few rein-deer, constitute the zoology of this desert. The remote and dreary islands of Spitzbergen having been taken possession of by the Russians, they may be here briefly described. The main land of Spitzbergen ex- tends about 300 miles from the south cape, lat. 76° 30' to Verlegan Hook, lat. SO" 7'. It is supposed to have been first discovered by the Dutch navigator Barentz in 1596. About the first of November the sun sets, and appears no more till the beginning of February ; and after ihe beginning it never sets till August. The only shrubby plant that is seen is the Lapland willow, which rises to the height of two inches. Here are found polar bears, foxes, rein-deer, with walruses and seals. AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. THE dominions subject to the house of Austria embrace many ancient kingdoms and states, which, for the X of perspicuity are here brought under one po nt of vfew The hereditary domains alone cf this powerful house eTt'itle it to rank anjong the chief European powers, beTng of wkie extent, and great importance, and boasting a popuIaT^n of not less than 20,000,000. ^ population In describmg a sovereignty, thus composed of manv ancient states, it may seem proper to pay the first and hS attention to that part which was the Lrl est fmpoi tit in ha ^rh*"^'^" ruhngfamily. On this plan the^minces tha. will here require particular observation are the arch duchy of Austria; the kingdoms of Hungary, and «o" hemia ; the grand^duchy of Transvlvani^-th Jli- • towards the Adriatic, wifh the' riSs'of VenTeS i.„.°! "?'*r'*' ?F. 'he eastern kmKdom,irose after Ch... »\-iixai:tic iiiia p.srHr.Jiuii*./! »u^ , a. . .' "" •- nant i__ 1 ..... ""'^^•^'-'»«»vt»4u^c aicer I .nar- Buc i,aa cstapiisi.ed the western empire, beiiiea'rem' 110 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. li l'> ill I- ) In feudatory to the dukes of Bavaria, till the emperor Frederic Barbarosa, in 11 56, constituted it a duchy held immediately of the empire. Hungary, a part of which belonged to ancient Dacia, derives its modern appellation from the Ugurs, a nation of Turkomanic or Tataric origin : their language approaches to the !• innic dialect. Bohemia, or the habitation of the Boii, was a central province of Bar- baric Germany, aft^erwards seized by a Slavonic tribe, whose chiefs were originally styled dukes of Bohemia. Transylvania, and the Buckovina are parts of the province of Dacia, founded by Trajan. Venice, as is well known, derives its appellation from the ancient Veneti of the op- posite shore. Extent. From the frontiers of Swisserland, to the utmost limits of Transylvania, the length of the Aus- trian dominions may be about 760 British miles; the breadth about 520. The acquisition of Venetian Dalmatia may probably soon be followed by the junction of those Turkish provinces, which divide that province from the Austrian domain. The square contents may be about 184,000 miles# Boetticher estimates the inhabitants at 108 to a square mile. The principal sub-divisions of the Austrian dominions /. The Circle of Austria. 2. The kingdom of Bohemia. 3. Moravia. 4. Part of Silesia. 5. Part of Bavaria. 6. PartofSwabia. 7. Hungary. S.Transylvania. 9. Dal- matia. 10. Part of Poland. U. The Venetian territo- ries E. of the Adige, and the city of Venice. Towards the E. the Austrian dominions border on those of Russia and Turkey, and to the N. on those of Prussia, Upper Saxony, Bavaria, and Swabia. On the utmost W. are Swisserland and the Italian states. Original Population. The original population of these extensive regions is various, but chiefly Gothic and Slavonic. The Venetians, and adjacent Italians, may be considered as genuine descendants of the Cisalpine Gauls, and of the Roman colonies established among them. In ancient descent no genealogy can vie with that of several Venetian families, which can be traced by history and re- cord to the eighth century. Historical Epochs. 1. The house of Austria is well known to have sprung from the humble counts of \i AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 1 1 1 Hapsburg. On a lofty eminence, crowned with beech, in the (anton of Berne, stands an ancient tower, the first seat of the house of Austria. In 1273, Rodolph of Haps- burg was called to the imperial throne, being at this time ord of the greater part of Swisserland ; by the extinction of the powerful houses of Zaermgen, and Kyburg 2 Another emperor of the house of Austria appeared in Albert, A. D. 1298 ; from whom the Swiss made their signa revolt m 1307. His son Frederic was obliged to yield the empire to Louis of Bavaria. 3. Albert II. duke of Austria, A. D. 1438, succeeded to three crowns, on the death of his father-in-law the emperor am/ f^^r f '/k ""'^ ""^ " u"S^''y ^"^ ^°^^"»^ by inheritance, and that of the empire by unanimous election. fh ^•^^'^'"^^J'an having married the heiress of Burgundy, the Netherlands became subject to the house of Aus^trTa in 5. The noted bigotry of the house of Austria was not confined to the Spanish branch ; for though MaxTiUan II. about 1570, had granted liberty of conscience eTen to the Protestants of Austria, yet those of Bohemia, and other parts, were afterwards so rtuch oppressed, that the Pro- testant princes of Germany called in Gustaff Ado!f, the celebrated Swedish monarch, to their assistance, and the war continued till 1648, when the famous treaty if West! phaha was signed, which has served as a basis for other diplomatic transactions. ^* 6. The war with France was often re-kindled durine- the long reign of Leopold I. 1658, to 1705 ; and inTegf the lurks were so successful as to lay siege to Vienna 7. His son Joseph I. joined the allies against France Tni r^f ^" '}V' '"i''^''' H^ »"^>^ried th^e daughter of John B rederic duke of Hanover. "^uj^nier oi 8. By the death of the emperor Charles VI on the 9nfU dom of Rnl»i- ^''^/'^"o'- »f Bavaria seiml the kinR- tdin .745 T ''"''^''' elected emperor in 1742, b^t continued to be held'by todiscrndaM,' ''°"""°"'' ""'''■ 112 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 10. The reign of the emperor Joseph II. a beneficent but impolitic prince. 1 1 . The obdurate and sanguinary contest with P'rance, fhe events of which have broken the connection between Great Britain and the empire, and destroyed the ancient balance of Europe. Having thus briefly marked the chief epochs of the Aus- trian power, the events of the subject kingdoms and states being of less importance, must be omiited. Of the provinces towards the Adriatic the history is little memorable, except that of Venice, a recent acquisition. This ancient and remarkable city was founded in the fifth' century by the Veneti of the opposite shore, who fled from the incursions of the barbarians. At first each isle was governed by a tribune, till the ^ear 697, when the first doge was elected. In the ninth and tenth centuries the govern- ment of the doges became nearly hereditary ; but in the eleventh the election again became open. Towards the dose of the twelfth century the democratic form was sue-- ceeded by an election, and administration severely aris- tocratic, and Well kno^n by its singularity and stability. The Venetians having gradually extended their power along the Adriatic, irt the year 1204, became masters of several Grecian provinces and islands; and after their contests with the Pisans, and Genoese, became the first commercial and maritime power in Europe, till the end of the fifteenth century, when the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope transferred the oriental traffic to the Portu- guese. The authority of Venice declined with its com- merce ; and the republic, at length fell by trusting to French faith, which was never pledged but to deceive. ^ ANTiquiTiEs. Vindobona, (Vienna) and the adja- cent parts of Noricum and Pannonia, occasionally display Roman remains ; but the ruins of the celebrated bridge of Trajan, over the Danube, belong to Turkey in Europe ; it is supposed to have consisted of twenty arches, or rather vast piers of stone, originally supporting a wooden fabric of the length of more than 3,300 English feet. In Hun- gary, and other parts of the ancient province of Dacia, ap- pear many relics of Roman power, as military roads, ruins, &c. Several castles, churches, and monasteries still re- maining, attest the magnificence of the founders. The AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. secuar* found inS.m Sora^a Vi^^^T °^ 7""^' and Hungary. Vienna did nn. h !f ' *' ' ransylvania, orders, dergy;pee™llth,fh """' '""'''''"S ""o"-' numerous army Poweriul monarch, supported by a ™:":;^;\raL\r;^^r;:c:i?^fj» laws may be regarded Is mnrf-n^ i^*' ^" general the trians in' partS Ir? a " rreSlateT ' T '''' ^'''■ mated at 7,880,ooo Wuckovma, being esti^ >..owlt\to[;Srr'ri':ri56"ot'"',".^^ ^r^^" '" sitions in Poland contain ^ 707 mn ?u ' t ^-^ ""'^"^^ ^^^u'- computed at 1,820,000. ^"^.^^^hduchy of Austria is 365,41' n^en, in U6^Sents o'f :Jr^l'> ^«^«-^-' ^^ and o^nly eleven HungaH^ ' '"'^ '' "^''^ ^^''^^^»«' 10,000,ooorsrerling'^^?: 'Xch '1' '^P"'^^ ^^"^^^'^^ ^J^^" 3,000,000/. and Hungary Tnttle mn h ^^^^^^butes about half. Th;o " ^^^^ * "^^^e "iore than a millinn a«^ „ ^ - ... , ..,.,^^ „3^^ i« exceed the expences."" ^" " IMPORTANCE AND RELiriONS S.. -.deration o^f his influence:::'e„.p;';^; ting LU AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. over the German states, the monarch may be regarded as an ecjual rival of France, and only inferior to the prepon- derance of Russia ; and this power has occasioned a deter- mined rivalry between him and France. 'Uiere are also causes of confirmed jealousy between Austria and Prussia; and it is doubtful if even an invasion from Russia would compel them to unite in a defensive alliance. Amidst so many enmities, and the necessary jealousy of Russian power, it would be difficult to point out any state on the continent with which Austria could enter into a strict 5nd lasting*; alliance. The most natural and constant may be that with Fngland, whose maritime power might inflict deep wounds upon their common enemy. By cultivating a steady friendship with Great Britain the emperor may more easily extend his commerce and shipping in the Adriatic and Mediterranean which would be a considerable step to becoming a maritime power, long the object of his ambition ; and in case of a partition of European Turkey, which may not be very distant, with her aid he may possess himself of the Morea, and the isle of Candy, both of which were formerly under the dominion of Venice. This ac- quisition would not only operate as a check on the en- croachments of Russia, in the Black Sea, but frustrate the designs of France on i.gypt and the Levant. Manners and Customs. Various are the man- ners and customs of the n.fmerous kingdoms and provinces subject to the house of Austria. In Austria proper the people are much at tifcir ease ; and the farmers, and even pt:asantry, little inferior to those of England. Travellers have remarked the abundance of provisions at Vienna, and the consequent daily luxury of food, accompanied with great variety of wines. The Austrian manners are cold, but civil ; the women elegant, but devoid of mental accom- plishments. The youth of rank are commonly ignorant, and of course haughty. An Austrian nobleman or gentle- man is never seen to read, and hence polite literature is almost unknown and uncultivated. In consequence of this iffnorance the lanijuage remains unpolished ; and the Aus- trian speech is one of the meanest dialects of the German, so that polite people are constrained to use French. The lo.tv'^-'' ovfifM'si ore. however, little addicted to crimes or vices, and punishments are rare ; robberies are seldom com- mitted, and murder little known. When capital punish- AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 115 ment becomes unavoidable, it is administered M^ith ^ve^t solemnity, and accompanied with public prayers an e^Il pie wortliy of universal imitation P^ayefs. an exam- pecu.iL,\:!:n: r^sty tL^r;rcaKttr - ?b^ ?/™ceri -"Slf V'i"' -«^ -"«- -d Xed 'cat nion/a*re varies : th7r '""^^"1?'^ sP°ken in these domi- Slal^by r ^01 s p' VTofThey'" ™""S r'™' "« prevails in the sv^t^T Tu i ^u ^ '^'^ ^^""'^^^ ^^ course and the Tvmlei L? n! ^'^^^.'^^^ ^^^ ^ub ect to Austria: ed schools for he education i^^^^.^.P''^^^ J^eresa institut- educationofteachas H^ncetferh-n^ ^"' """' ?^ ^^^^ taphysics before they knovvratinanHfK?" ?'" ''"^^' "^^■ was^bunded infssr/and^&pr"^^'' T^'''''''' '' Inspruck only dates ^rnr^T^f. ^'rague ,n 1347; that of tuted academies at Paab, and Cascl^n^ nn /^r «V'^^" the Germans rall^^ri T^w ^^schau. 1 hat of Buda,by salaries of t^ rp'rof JsL, s Tl''^^''' "'^ "PP'^^^ ^« P^^ ^^^ university at Orbrtz'T^^nd ^bl^hon ^ ^" ''""V^:!:^ -plendS^l^^^^l 1^ ^- - Austrian donfi^L^^ Danube, in Tfc^dk plain waoln .''' "f^""' "'"'• ^^^^ ^^^he The Danube is 1 ere vei" ^^rl^^^ of that river, isles: it is foundedontL fte 7.'°"''"'^^^^^^^ but was of litile nnT^u\u!'ty^.i\'^ ^""^"t Vindobona : came the residenceTf th^dukerorin'';-"'^' ^^^" " ^^'' manner of that a^ Th. "'' '?^ ''^' ^^'- ^n«»tage. The manufactures are tified lid AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. Kttle remarkable, though some inland commerce be trans- actecf on the noble stream of the Danube. The number of inhabitants is computed at 254,000. The suburbs are far more extensive than the city, standing at a considerable distance from the walls. The houses are generally of brick covered with stucco, in a more durable manner than commonly practised in England; the finest sand being chosen, and the lime, after having been slacked, remaining for a twelvemonth, cover'^d with sand and boards, before it be applied to the intended use. The chief edifices are the metropolitan church of St. vStephen, the imperial palace, library, and arsenal, the house of assembly for the states of lower Austria, the council-house, the university, and some monasteries. Provisions of all kinds abound in Vien- na, particularly wild boars, venison, and game ; many small birds rejected by us being included among the latter. Livers of geese are esteemed a peculiar delicacy ; nor are tor- toises, frogs, and snails rejected. Next in importance to Vienna was Milan, the inhabitants of which were computed at more than 1 30,000. The loss of Milan will be rirhly recompensed by the acquisition of Venice, supposed to contain 200,000 souls. The latter celebrated city, singularly situated in the lagunes, or shal- lows of the Adriatic sea, and secured in a great measure from the fury of the waves by exterior shoals, which form a natural fortification on that side, has been frequently de- scribed. ... . J - • The honour of the third city m the Austrian dominions must be claimed by Prague, the population being estimated at 80,000. This metropolis of Bohemia stands on both sides of the river Mulda, over which there is a noble bridge of stone, founded in 1337. The houses are of stone, and commonly three stories in height ; and about a sixth part of the population consists of Jews. Next, though at a great distance, stands Gratz, the ca- pital of Stiria, supposed to hold 35,000 souls. This city stands on the west side of the river Muehr, joined by a bridge to an extensive suburb on the opposite bank. Presburg, the capital of Hungary, only contains about 27,000 inhabitants ; it is beautifully situated on the Danube, towards the western extremity of Hungary, being on.y about 35 British mUes to the east of Vienna. About one 1? ; bridge \JHXJ AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. n7 quarter of the inhabitants are Lutherans, who are so oDulent as to pay about one half the taxes. Buda, by the Germans called Offen, the ancient metro- pohs of Hungary, with the city of Pesth, which stands on the opposite side of the Danube, over which there is a bridge ot boats, may be computed at 34,000. The chief pubHc and private buildings are in Pesth, and within the fortress : the royal palace m particular is a large and stately edifice. l.astly Trieste, which is reckoned at 18,000 deserves more particular attention, having been for a long time the only sea-port belonging to Austrk It is situated on a gulph of the Adriatic, and rises on an ascent which is crowned fl^ T / ^^ shipping is secured by a wall, extending from the Lazaretto to the isle of Zuka ; and the harbouD was declared free by the empress Theresa. The neigh, bourhood produces excellent wines. Edifices The chief public edifices arc at Vienna, Buda, and Pesth, to which may now be added Venice ; but there are many splendid churches and monasteries in the several regions of the Austrian domination. Many of the Hungarian nobihty, who have vast estates, possess castlea ' of corresponding magnificence. Manufactures and Commerce. Vienna per- haps equals any other of the Austrian cities in manufae- tures, which are chiefly of silk, gold and silver ^0^^, Dlf'^fl'^'^"'^^'', '•"'"; "^"'•'°''^' P'^^^^»^'"= ^ith silver plat' ".nd several articles in brass. Bohemia is celebrated T,Jir. "^'' '''",'*. P^P'^''- ^"^ ^^'^ commerce of the w! " """""^ ''^'''^y ^eP^^n^^s "Pon their native opu- abunrl'.^r. i^ '""P^" ^"? ^^'"^ southern provinces produc ng abundance .. horses and cattle, corn, flax, safiVon, and va- nous wines, with several metals, particularly f-uiciJlver LTin o.^^'",'V'^^" J^-l--iaand Moravia"; so ich in oxen and sheep, corn, flax, and hemp ; in which land ^Hunr""^ ^^ '''' dismembered proviL'es of Po- und. Hungary presents numerous herds of cattle • and Z ^h" Srofl r ^ ^'.^'^f ^^""^"-^ P-duce cot' r?c"et with Selt and L^°K^^^ ^^^"'"^'^^ «^^°"»' nerals TUWif '^'^ 'A"^»"" of various i^etala and mi ^iro^^:^^^^:^^ ^--^'. tl- chief exports and other meteu'''^^tr t'*^^^^' consfstin.^ of quicksilver la otner metals, with wines and various native products : 118 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. It the various produce of the rich kingdom of Hungai^', being chiefly conveyed to the other Austrian provinces. Climate and Seasons. The climate of Austria proper is commonly mild and salubrious, though some- times exposed to violent winds, and the southern provinces in general enjoy a delightful temperature, if the mountain- ous parts be excepted. The more northern regions of Bo- hemia and Moravia, with the late acquisitions in Poland, can likewise boast the maturity of the grape, and of gentle and favourable weather. The numerous lakes and mo- rasses of Hungary, and the prodigious plains, are supposed to render the air damp and unwholesome, the cold of the night rivalling the heat of the day ; but the blasts from the Carpathian mountains seem in some measure to remedy these evils, the inhabitants being rather remarkable for health and vigour. Soil and Agriculture. The soil is upon the whole extremely fertile and productive, in spite of the ne- glect of industry, which has permitted many parts of Hun- gary, and of the Polish provinces, to pass into wide forests and marshes. The state of agriculture in Moravia is supe- rior to the rest, being improved by Flemish farmers. Rivers. In enumerating the chief rivers which pervade the Austrian dominions, the Danube commands the first attention. This magnificent stream rises in Swabia. Though the course be occasionally impeded by small falls and whirlpools, yet it is navigable through a prodigious extent, and after watering Swabia, Bavaria, Austria proper, Hungary, and Turkey in Europe, it joins the Euxine, or Black sea, after a circuit of about 1 300 British miles, about one half of its progress being through the territories of Austria. Next in consequence is the Tiess, which arising from the Carpathian mountains, and bending towards the west, receives many tributary streams from that Alpine chain ; and afterwards turning to the S. falls into the Danube, after a course of about 420 miles. At Belgrade the Danube receives the Sau, or Save, which forms a boundary between Austria and Turkey. That of the Drau or Drave extends to about 350 miles, from its source in the eastern moun- tains of Tyrol, till it joins the Danube below Esseg. The Inii rises in the E. of Swisscrland, Irom the moun- tain of Maloggia in the Grisons, being a point of partition J AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 119 dividing the waters which run towards the Black sea, from tliose which flow ;nto the Adriatic. This powerful river IS more gentle near its source, than the other Alpine streams, but soon becomes more precipitous ; and joins the Danube at Passau with a weight of water nearly equal to that stream, after a course ot about 2,50 miles. Lakes. The lakes in the Austrian dominions are numerous, and some of them of considerable size Ca- rinthia contams a large central lake not far from Clatren- lurt ; and Carmola another, the Cirknitz See. Hunrarv contams many morasses, and lakes ; the most important pt the latter bemg that of I latte, or the Flatten See, extend- in- about forty.five British miles in length, by eiRht in breadth, and abounding nith fish. The Neufidler lake, about thirty miles S. E. of Vienna, is about thirteen miles m length by four in breadth. Mountains. Beginning at the western extremi- ties, the Rhaetianor Tyrolese Alps claim our first atten- u l^^ ^^^^^^y proceed in a direction from the S W to the N. E. or from the Valteline to the archbishopric of Salzburg. The Banner mountains, for such is the mo- dern name of the Rhaetian Alps, rival the grand Alps of Swisserland in numerous glaciers ; and like other grand chains present exterior barriers, that on the N. bein^ dis- tinguished by the name of Spitz, while that on the S is termed \ edretta. On leaving Italy there is almost a gradual ascent, from Trent to the highest summit. The greatest elevations arise to the N. of Sterzing, whence ftreams proceed towards the river Inn on the N. and the Adige on mLt^ f ^^"^ ^•''''' ^^^^^fl^s, a precipitous torrent, amidst masses of granite, petrosilex, and marble. The irlacier t^hTleveFr ?lr''' '' T °^ •^'"'^^" ' '' ''' ^'^^2 f^^t^»>ove tne level of the sea, and presents the usual phenomena of such scenes, with beautifal pyramids of azure, which in sunshine reflect a blaze of light. mounZf '^' W and N. of Inspruckare several detached mountains, covered with constant snow. Near the glaciers langesofthelyrolese mountains contain mines of silver copper, lead, mercury, iron, alum, and sulphur ' ta.V/^';:^"!!"^-,' ^-^^'^^ ''''''''} P^rt of this province, con- ^a...., „,a..;, v-uiisidcraole mountains, the highest of which IS m the maps caUed Pi iel. There are man^y other gToupt 120 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. I! of mountains in the Austrian territories wortliy oi notice, which it w'oxM exceed our limits to describe. However we must not omit the Carpathian mountains, that Rrand and extensive chain which bounds Hungary on the N. and E. havin^^ been celebrated from all antiquity. By the (iermans they are styled the mountains of Krapak, probably the orit,'inal name, which was softened by the Roman enunciation. This enormous ridge extends in ft semicircular form from the mountain of Javornik S. of Si- lesia towards the N . W . But at the mountain of Trojaska, the most northern summit, it bends to the S. E. to the con- fines of the Buckovina, where it sends forth two branches, one to the E. another to the W. of Transylvania; which is also divided from Walachia by a branch running t?. W. and N. E. The whole circuit may be about 500 miles. The highest summits of these mountains, according to Dr. Townson, do. not exceed 8 or 9000 feet, and they are for the most part composed of granite and primitive lime- stone. Vegetable and Animal Productions. The forests of Germany have been famous from the earliest antiquity. The Sylva Ilercynia which extended from the Rhine to Sarmatia, from Cologne to Poland, are known o every boy who has read the ancient classics. Though by the progress of civilization and improvement many of these forests have been removed, there are still considerable re- mains in the Black forest of Swabia,and other uncultivated tracts. The principal native trees are the elm ; tlie wych elm ; lime tree ; birch, and alder ; common and prickly- cupped oak ; sumach ; walnut ; chesnut and beech ; horn- beam ; black and white poplar and aspen ; sycamore and maple ; the ash ; the pine, the fir, the yew-leaved fir, and the larch. All the common fruit trees of Europe are cul- tivated in an extensive manner. The domestic animals in the Austrian dominions are commonly excellent, particularly the cattle. Many of the native horses run wild, and are sold in great numbers at the fairs, before they have suffered any subjection. The breed of cattle is mostly of a singular colour, a slaty blue ; and the Hungarian sheep resemble the Walachian in their long erect spiral horns, and pendant hairy fleece. In the western parts of the Austrian sovereignty, the animals do .*.. ^- .^-.i. •- AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 131 not seem to be distinguished from those of other parts of Germany. *^ The large breed of wild cattle called Urus or Bison. IS said to be found in the Carpathian forests, as well as in those of Lithuania and Caucasus. Amon^- the wild ciua- clrupeds, may also be named the bear, the boar, the wolf the chamois, the marmot, and the beaver. The Danube* boasts of some fishes seldom found in other rivers, amontr which is a small and delicate sort of salmon. «,;n:i!?'^''u\"".u '^''^ mincraK^y of the Austrian do- mmions is by far the most various and interesting of anv in Lurope. 1 here is scarcely a province of this extensive •territory, which cannot boast of advantaj>es in the mineral kingdom ; even the acquisitions in Poland contain one of the most remarkable mines in F.urope, the saline excava- tions of Wiclitska. The mines of Uohemia have been ce- lebrated from ancient times. Silver is found at Kuttenber^, and at Joachmsthal, on the western frontiers towards Saxony ; and gold has been discovered at Keonstock. One otthe most smgular products of this province is tin, which IS found at Zinwald (that is the tin forest), and other west- crn districts of Bohemia; where is also found, at Drey. stadt, m the same quarter. The garnets of Bohemia are among the most beautiful of the kind. The women wash the clay ,n which the garnets are found ; after which they are sifted and arranged according to size ; and sold by the pound weight from about three to ten shillings. The iron of Stiria supplies the finest steel, and grL quan- it.es are imported into Kngland: there are considerate lead mines near Pegau on the river Mohr, yieldinrabout 5000^tons yearly. Stiria also affords c^afat diffeS The quicksilver mines of Idra are celebrated in natural history, poetry, and romance, they were discovered Tn the year 1499; and the hill bf Vogelberg h^!s annual v yielded more than 300,000 pounds wc?ight o^mercu y."'"^ But the principal mines in the Austrian dominions are situated in the eastern provinces of Hungary ai^ TransvT ^^-arisensolelyf^hSlb^^SlilS^f Vol. I. : called min. 132 AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. ing towns. Chemnitz is esteemed the principal. "Hie academy here instituted for the study of mineralogy is highly respectable, and only rivalled by that of Freyberg in Saxony. Hungary contains mines of copper at Schmel- nitz and Herrengrund ; of very rich antimony at Rosenau ; and in different parts of coal, salt, and alum. But a mine> ral peculiar to Hungary, and as yet discovered in no other region of the globe, is the opal, a gem preferred to all others by the oriental nations. Natural Curiosities. Among the natural cu- riosities may be named tht^ grand Alpine scenes of Tyrol, the glaciers and peaks of the Brenner. In Carniola near Adlesburg, is said to be a grotto of prodigious extent dis- playing spaces sufficient for the erection of villages, and containing natural amphitheatres, bridges, &c. B,ut the chief natural curiosity of Carniola is the lake of Cirknitz, called by Dr. Brown the Zirchnitzer See. That traveller informs us that it is about two German, or more than eight English miles in length, by four of the latter in breadth. In the month of June the water descends under ground, through many apertures in the bottom ; and in September it reascends with considerable force ; thus yielding rich pasture ia summer,, while in winter it abounds with fish. m .J -A' PRUSSIA. THIS kingdom which only co-imenced with the eio-h teenth century, has by gradual accessions, noV the mSt western connected district,To4e rher M*' el'^^ £f'J 600 miles. The breadth, from the JmhernS'-^V?""' to Dantziclc, exceeds 300 miles On tl^, „« f '"1* Prussia now borders on the domWon^of RS'^i^At' SeTm "«i,:r'T '™it» "djoin to the Sr;ric of Hi ." numb^-ofVrsil'' s'':bre"c,sT""'"r' '" ^"""■''^'^ 5,62,,500, in aZre«t^roV%r44™Lr\°S^^ provinces """">"'' *"<• ">e kmgdom is divided into 22 trace the progress of £ power. ^ ^ ' '" '^"' P^^^^ *« 1- Ihe emperor Charles TV. in Mr'? no.: j« denburg to his second son Sigi m^ ^tTn f4 f. f'""- then emperor of Germanv «J7m fk . **'^' ''^^ng torate tol^ve^JrCllT^Il^li 't^ margraviate and elec- ducats. This prince warrhe^r '^,"^^*"^"^g' for 400,000 ing race. ^ ^^' ^^^ ^"^^"^^^^ °f the present reign- 124 PRUSSIA. 1 1 I 2 Joachin II. elector of Brandenburg, embraced the Lutheran religion in 1539, which has since been the ruling system of the state. 3. John Sigismond becomes duke of Prussia in 1 6 1 8. 4. Frederic William, surnamed the great elector, suc- ceeded his father in 1640 ; and in 1656 compelled the king •f Poland to declare Prussia an independent state, it having formerly been held of the Polish sovereigns. He was suc- ceeded in 1688, by his son. 5. Frederic III. who, supporting the emperor in the contest for the Spanish succession, was by him declared kini^ of Prussia : under which title he was proclaimed at Konigsberg, on the 18th day of January, 1701, he himself placing the crown upon his head. 6. Frederic William II. ascended the throne in 1713. But he was chiefly remarkable as the father of that great 'prince Frederic, II. who ascended the throne in 1740, and died in 1786, after a long and glorious reign ; the most me- morable and lasting event of which was the acquisition of Silesia from the house of Austria in 1 742. 7. The short reign of his nephew is known to every reader. The reign of his son, the present monarch, has hitherto been distinguished by a mysterious coalition with the French republic. Antiquities. Some Slavonic idols, cast in bronze, constitute almost the only pagan antiquities ; and the castles, and churches erected after the introduction of the Chris- tian religion, have few singularities to attract particular at- tention. The Polish coinage begins about the twelfth cen- tury, and is upon the German model. Religion. The ruling reUgion of Prussia is the Protestant, under its two chief divisions of Lutheran and Calvinistic. But after the recent acquisitions in Poland it would seem that the greater number of the inhabitants must be Roman Catholic. The universal toleration which has been wisely embraced by the Prussian monarchs, has had its usual effect of abating theological enmity, and the different sects seem to live in perfect concord. Government, Sec. As no vestioe of any senate or delegates from the people is known in this kingdom, it '.,„«. u^ .^..^r>Aiin/>Ar1 on nh«n1iiti^ o-nvprnment : but the spi- 1 it and f^ood sense of the nation unite with the wisdom and mildness of successive monarchs, to render the sovereignty PRUSSIA. 125 as conciliatory, and perhaps more beneficent, than if cloe- ged with a popular senate. The late great monarch re- formed many abuses in the laws ; but it cannot be disguised that the tenor of his government was too military and despotic. ' 9'?r (t^^-^' , r '^^ u ^^^^ ^^ supposed to amount to about 237,000, including about 40,000 cavalry. The tactics of the ate able sovereign conferred distinguished reputation on Revenues. Before the addition of Polish territory the revenue was estimated at 3,880,000/. sterling : and thi expence of the army at 2,275,000/.' Frederic II. 'laudably prrvem:„t'^^^^^ '•"'""" ^"^^ y^^^^' '^ '^^^' piovement of his dominions. The entire revenue of Po- land was not computed to exceed 439,546/. sterling If we even suppose half of this added to the Prussian rev^enue ncVarard^ "" '' '"^'^''^'^"^ P-sia, howev^rXs n^ijf^'^r-'^''''^'' Importance and Relations. The political importance and relations of this kingdom have impressed the European history of this century w^?^ new and distinct features. An alliance with PrussL wouW be ian i't h. th'° w i"^P?^"<=e to the Turkish emp^e ; nor h^r Z^.IC::!':''^''''''' ^°P^^"^^^ Hussia^toe^tend^ In regard to the other chief powers of Eurooe Fno-ioT,^ Franee, Russia and Austria, i? cannot be dis^^^^^^^^ there IS a natura^ connexion between Prussia a^nd France and both'''' ^; "^"'V^ ^^ J^^^°"« °f the AustrLn powe? and both are disposed to dismember Europe. But it w3 and" weZ^'; '''"^'''^ '^ ""^^^"'^ -^^^ AS^irrDenma ^ and bweden, to raise a power sufficient at once, to check the cdossal strides of France and Russia. ' ^ Li 2 I 126 PRUSSIA. i ^ i! men and women, is commonly elegant. That of the gen- tlemen is a waistcoat with sleeves, over which they wear an upper robe of a different colour, which reaches down below the knee, and is fastened rsund the waist with a sash or girdle ; the sleeves of this upper garment are, in warm weather tied behind their shoulders ; a sabre is a necessary part of their dress as a mark of nobility. In summer the robe, &c. is of silk, in winter of cloth, velvet, or stuff edged with fur. They wear fur caps or bonnets, and buskins of yellow leather, the heels of which are platecl with iron op steel. The dress of the ladies is a simple polonaise or long robe, edged with fur." Language. The ruling language of Prussia is the German, which it is probable may in time supplant the Polish, in those parts which are subject to Prussia and Austria. Public Schools. The state of education in this country seems to be equally neglected as in the far greater part of Europe. There are however several universities, such as that of Frankfort on the Oder, founded by Joachim elector of jtirandenburg in the year 1516. Konigsberg, in Prussia was founded in 1544. Cities and Towns. Among the cities of Prussia we can mention only a few of the chief. Berlin, situated on the banks of the river Sprey, is a regularly fortified city. It was founded in the twelfth century, by a colony from the Netherlands, and contains 142,000 inhabitants, being about four miles and a half long and Jliree wide ; but within this inclosure are many gardens, and sometimes even fields ; the number of houses is 6950. The city is more remark- able for the elegance of the buildings than for its wealth or industry, many beautiful houses being let in stories to mechanics. Next to Berhn may be mentioned Konigs- berg, of which the population is computed at about 52,000. This city was founded in the thirteenth century, and is well fortified. It maintains a considerable trade by the river Pregel, which flows into the gulph of Dantzick. lireslaw, the capital of Silesia, has been long celebrated as one of the most beautiful cities in Germany. It is of uncertain antiquity, but was destroyed by tlic Tatars in the thirteenth century. The population is at least equal to that of Konigsjjerg ; and it has several manufactures, the PRUSSIA. 127 linens of Silesia being particularly celebrated. The rulino- religion is that of Luther. S Among chief cities of Prussia must not be forgotten W arsaw, the former capital of Poland ; and Dantzick, an md«pendent city of ancient fame. Warsaw stands partlv m a plain, partly on a gentle ascent rising from the Vistu- la, but the appearance is melancholy, from the general no- velty of Poland under its former unhappy government. The population was computed at 70,000, including the unfortu^ ^nate suburb of Praga. Dantzick contains about 36,000 inhabitants, and was known as a commercial town even from the tenth century It was considered as the chief city of tiie Hanseatic leap ue! and was enlarged and adorned by the knights of the Teu tonick order. It must still be considered as the chief staple for the exportation ot the corn and the other products of decline' "' ^on^merce has been for some time on the , Magdeburg is supposed to hold about 26,000 souls, anrt IS strongly fortified with a citadel on an isle in the Elb" This city dates its origin from the time of Charlemagne * and can boast of elegant streets and flourishing manu* factures The Imperialists taking it by storm in 1631, a dreadful slaughter ensued, the inhabitants who perished being computed at about 1 0,000. ^ Edifices. Some of the most splendid edifices of this country adorn Berlin the capital, such as the paTace and the theatre. The city itself is almost entirely buUt with brick, though the fronts of the houses are disLised with stucco^ The palace at Potsdam deserves superior an^ pause ; and on an eminence near the city stands the myal villa of Sans Souci, which however can claim no grandeur of external architecture. In general this kingdom yields even to Russia in respect to public edifices. ^ ^ ^^ Manufactures and Commerce. If we excent the Imens of Silesia, the manufactures of the PrussLn do minions are of small importance. Yet they afforS for home consumption glass, iron, brass, paper, and wooSen cloth andBredericII. introduced a small manufacture of s Ik Jrlll^^^L!!!?"/^,^ «f I^-t--.k consist almost entrrelv of ■-=.«^-vi, Will, luiiovv, ana similar articles. If we except the ancient staple of grain so abundant in the level plains of Poland, the commer^ce of Prussia is cc^" 138 PRUSSIA. paratively of little consequence. Amber is by nature con- stituted a monopoly of the country, but fashion has I'ender- ed this branch of commerce insit^nificant. Yet amonj^ the considerable exports may be named excellent timber of all kinds, skins, leather, flax, and hemp ; nor must the linens of Silesia be passed in silence, many of which are sent into Holland, and sold under the name ot .>jtch n.anufacture. In return Prussia receives wine, i ; ^ ' r products of more southern and favoured countries. Climatk AND Seasons. 'tne climate of the Prus- sian dominions is, upon the whole, cold and moist. Bran- denburui; and Pomerania may be regarded as more free from humidity than Prussia proper, which has about eight months of winter, the autumns being often deluged with rain. The northern part of }*oland abounds with forests and marshes, •which cannot be supposed to render the air salubrious The lower parts of Silesia arc regarded as the most healthy and fertile iprovinces of the monarchy : but the southern and western parts of the duchy, bordering on elevated mountains, long covered with snow, are exposed even in summer to severe freezing t^ales. Soil and Agriculture. The soil of Branden- burg is meagre, and even the space between Berlin and Potsdam resembles a wilderness ; but that of Prussian Po- land is loamy and fertile. The northern extremity of Silesia resembles Brandenburir, yet this province is in [ge- neral extremely productive, and abounds in fruits and cu- linary ve:^etables. A'^ricultural improvements are little known, and Bran- denburg chiefly produces buck wheat and turnips, with scanty crops of rye ; but Prussia proper, and the Polish provinces display every kind of '^rain, and esculent plant, that can flourish under such a latitude ; and among the pro- ductions of Silesia must be classed maize, and even vines, but the wine is of inferior quality. Rivers Amon^ the chief rivers of the Prussian dominions may be flrst mentioned the Kibe, which rises in the S. of Bohemia, and pervades the duchy of Magde- burg. The Spree which passes by Berlin, falls into the Havel, a tributary of the Elbe The Oder may be regarded Moravia, and after watering -Silesia, Brandenburg, and Po- merania, joins the Baltic, after a course of about 350 miles lE^M PRUSSIA. 122 Next appears another noble stream, the Vistula, which rising in the Carpathian mountains, passes Warsaw, and joins the sea near Dantzick, after a circuit of about 450 miles. Lakis. The lakes in the Prussian dominions arc numerous, especially in the feastern part, where among others may be mentioned the Spelding See, which, with its creeks, extends more than twenty British miles in every direction. That region contains many other lakes, which supply the sources of the river Pregel. And at their estu- aries the rivers Oder, Vistula, and Memel, present singu- lar inland sheets of water, in the German language called Haffs. Mountains. The only mountains in the Prussian dommions are those of Silesia, which may be regarded as a northern branch of the Carpathian chain. This branch extends from Jablunka S. E. to Friedberg in upper Lusatia, N. W. near 200 British miles in length, and is called Sude- tische Gebirge, or the Sudetic mountains. In the north- western parts of Silesia are also detached mountains of considerable height, as the Spitzberg and Gratzberg. Vegetable and Animal Productions. Among the mdigenous vegetables of the Prussian dominions there do not seem to be any which have not already been suffi- ciently noticed in the preceding accounts of Britain and Austria. Tobacco, originally a native of America, and probably also of the east, having been long cultivated in Prussia, has at length established itself in the soil, and is found m the ploughed fields ad hedges, as a common weed. The breeds of horses and cattle seem not to have im- pressed travellers with any distinction from those of the ad- jacent countries ; and few parts are calculated for excellent breeds of sheep. The urus, or large and ferocious wild cattle of Lithuania, have also appeared in Prussia proper, but the race seems nearly extinct. One of its chief haunts was the forest of Masavia not far from Warsaw. Minerals. The sand and plains of Prussia con- tain but few hidden treasures. There are some mines of copper and lead as well as considerable founderies of iron m Silesia. Aeates. iasners. anrl rnrt oiMTcfol ^««. «i„^ r J m the bilesian mountains. Coal, a more useful mineral, 1 3d PRUSSIA. occurs in various parts of Silesia, and the level district* sometimes offer good peat moors. But the most distinguished and peculiar mineral produc- tion of Prussia is amber, which is chiefly found on the Sam- land shore of the Baltic. It is found at the depth of about 100 feet, reposing on wood coal, in lumps of various size^i some five pounds in weight, and is often washed on shore, by tempests. It adds about 5000/. )^early to the royal re- v«nue. SPAIN. SPAIN appears to have been known to the Phoenicians, who imported from it large quantities of silver, near lOC^ years before the birth of Christ. From the noble river Ibe-us, or Ebro, the country was called Iberia; and from its ex- treme situation in the west it was also about 40 feet square, and 60 in height, with eight wiuuows and two doors, all in deep recesses. Between this and the oblong court is a gallery of 90 feet by 1 6. All these lower apartments have fountains, and are paved either with tiles or marble in checkers. The idea of the ceilings is evidently taken from stalactites^ or drop- stones, found in the roofs of natural caverns. The orna- ments of the friezes are arabesque, and perfectly accord with Arabic inscriptions, which are here suited to the purpose for which each apartment was designed." Above is a suit of elegant apartments for the winter. This edifice ^vas finished A. D. 1336. Religion. The religion of Spain is the Roman Catholic, which in this country and Portugal has been car- ried to a pitch of fanaticism unknown to the Italian states, or even to the papal territory ; though the evil has been re- cently subdued in a considerable degree. The clergy and religious in Spain, including the various orders of monks and nuns, are very numerous, amounting to 118,625. The archbishoprics are eight : bishoprics forty -six. The most opulent see is that of Toledo, which is supposed to yield annually about 90,000/. The Mozarabic Missal, composed by St. Isidore for the Cothic church, after the conversion from Arianism to the Catholic faith, continued to be used in Spain till the Moors were subdued, when the Roman form was introduced. , Government. The government of Spain is well known to be despotic, the states or cortes having hardly been assembled since the time of Charles V. But the des- potism of the monarchy is here balanced by the power of the church, to which the nobles are submissive devotees. It is also tempered by many councils, who are responsible for any unwise or unsuccessful measures, and the subject !_ 1 I U«r *\-.^ -ry.ry.tfj d^vt r\f i'Xyx^ t^ffwvm tVlon ITI SfJITie iS iC33 UjjpiCSOCU VJJ vuv pT.ATT_I \ji. iiii^ ^' • j ©ther states where there is a greater appearance of liberty. i various in snrne SPAIN. ,35 The hwa of Spain are contained in several ancient codes ; and recourse is also had to the civil and canon law. 1 he Af,crivano.H are numerous, and instead of ex- plaining the codes, often impede the administration of justice. Mistaken mercy frequently retains criminals in long durance, so that when they are executed their offence IS torKotten, and the example of punishment becomes in- eflicacious. Population. The population of this kingdom is computed at 1,000,000, or 74 to a square mile ; while the kingdom of Naples is computed at 20 1 . This striking de- icct of population has been attributed to the expulsion of hv Ph-r iif^}^^ conquest of Granada ; that of the Moors nLv:n '^ .V -^ contagious fevers frequent in the southern f^TJ^r"" ' ^''^.'""ss^nt intestine wars, for seven centuries earned on against the Moors ; the emigrations to America, and the vast numbers of unmarried clergy and monks, ranged r ^*'^'' ' ^^^ P°P"^^*^°» ^^ ^P^in was thus ar- Males unmarried, ...... 2,926,229 Females ditto, 2,753 224 Married Men, .... i 947 ifi-; Married Women, ...;;; j^'L's,' 9 ^^'^^^^^ 462:258 10,032,372 ,.f . ^^^'"^ J''''' ^''''^' '^^^ Spanish armies, instead of carrying terror even into the bravest countries of Eu- rope, as hey did two centuries ago, are now neither distin- guished by number, nor by discipline. They are crmWed tendon to h''"'- ""^ ^^^^ Spain has paid ^0!^^ tention to her navy, which has however been crippled in the recent warfare with England. The ships of the line can scarcely now be computed at less than fifty lated aTrr?- A 1't^^ revenue of Spain may be calcu- monev' othir'^^"' ^"" '"'"^^"^ ^"'^ ^ ^^If sterling money so that each person pays ten shillings to govern- inent for protection. In France, under the^ld foverS- inent,each person paid near twenty shillings ; in E^nXnd at present sixtv shiIi;nn.o -vu^ L^l.'"^ ' ^" J^ngiand orexceeflB th«';nTZ''^u ""= ^^pc""«ure now equals, tri4 '"'^'*'"^ ' •""* ^^^ "^^ional debt is a mere 13& SPAIN. Political Importance and Relations. The political importance and relations of Spain were formerly deeply impressed on most rei^ions of the globe. But this fertile kingdom has be .ome almost a cypher in European policy. Setting aside ir'ortugaU the position of Spain se- cures her from any invasion, except on the side of France ; and it becomes therefore the insuperable interest of this ex- hausted state to cultivate amity with her powerful neigh- bour, which must maintain an unavoidable and supreme as- cendant, from geographical position and relative force. What a spirited and popular monarch might do to shake off this servile dependance, can only be guessed at. Manners and Customs. In speaking of the re- ligion of Spain, one of the most striking of the national customs and manners is the common practice of adultery under the mask of religion. Exclusive of this vice, the Spanish character is highly respectable for integrity and a long train of virtues. Con- scious of an upright and noble mind, the respect which a Spaniard would pay to those qualities in others, is often centered in himself, as he is intimately sensible that he possesses them. This self-respect is nearly allied to pride ; but it is the pride of virtue, which certainly ought not to humble itself before vice and folly. Temperance is a vir- tue which the Spaniard shares in common with other southern nations. In these countries the body is so much exhausted by the influence of heat, that the siesta, or short sleep in the middle of the day, becomes a necessary re- source of nature, and is by habit continued even in the winter. The chief defect in the character of the Spanish nobi- lity and gentry is, their aversion to agriculture and com- merce. Instead of those beautiful villas, and opulent farms which enrich the whole extent of England, the Spanish ar- chitecture is almost confined to the capital, and a few other cities and towns. Since the accession of the house of Bourbon, a slight shade of French manners has been blended with the Spa- nish gravity. But fashions have here little sway; and the prohibition of slouched hats and long cloaks led to a seri- ous insurrection. The houses of the great are large and capacious ; but the cottages and inns are, on the contrary, miserable. The m brmerly 1 But this 1 uropean 1 tpain se- 1 France ; 1 'this ex- 1 1 neigh- J reme as- i e force. 1 ihake off J f the re- 1 national • 1 adultery i highly J. Con- which a [ | is often l. that he H o pride ; H bt not to H is a vir- H th other H so much H or short H isary re- H n in the H ish nobi- H nd com- S nt farms S mish ar- fl iW othel* S a slight ,M the Spa- S and the ,9 o a seri- ^g arge and ™ :ontrary, 1 f SPAIN. 137" • The amusements of people of rank chiefly consist in dancing and cards ; but the combats with bulls in the am- phitheatres have justly been regarded as the most striking feature of Spanish and Portuguese manners. That such spectacles tend to familiarise the people with bloodshed, seems an idle theory, unwarranted by tacts. Modern Italy has no gladiators, but numerous assassins ; ancient Rome had scarcely one assassin, but whole armies of gladiators. Language. The Spanish language is one of the three great southern dialects which spring from the Ro- man ; but many of the words become difficult to the French or Italian student, because they are derived from the Arabic, used by the Moors, who for seven centuries held dominion in this country. The speech is grave, sonorous, and ot exquisite melody, containing much of the slow and lormal manner of the Orientals, who seem sensible that the power of speech js a privilege. Public Schools.. The universities, or rather aca- aemies, m fc)pain, are computed at upwards of twenty ; of which the most noted is that of Salamanca, founded in the regulated by Alphonso the Wise. The students have, at lormer periods, been computed at 16,000 ; and even nW the reign of Aristotle m logic and natural philosophy, and fL TT ^"^T?^ '" theology, continues unviolaledi so that a student of the year 1800 may aspire to as much 1^- norance as one of the year 1 300. In 1 785 the number of students was computed at 1909. The same antiquated teachers are received with implicit faith in the other un^ TerStrrated.' """ ''""^ ^'"^^^^^» '' ^^^^^ --^«^« whil.^sliwf • '''' '^°'^'!.'- ^^^"d' ^^^ royal residence, while Seville is esteemed the capital of Spain, is of receS 'rnobimv Tn"- '"' "^^'^^^^^^' ^'^ ^°-' -^ MadridS the nobility, in consequence, erecting numerous palaces leur Th'i^ °^f "'^ town began to Lume an air of gran, fo, th. n • ^^"^"^^1 position seems the chief advantage, ior the environs can boast of little beauty or variety Th J nver Man^enares is in winter a torrent^ butTryn sim! mer: over it is an eleirant hHrl... »,u,^u ' _. _:_^ , ^""^ ^iT^t^'V^ briSg^ shouM ^^^tt deur and utility, have been permitted to languish through the want of resources, and the slow measures of the court, rather than by any indolence of the superintendants and labourers. The great canal of Arragon seems to remain in a state of imperfection, though we are told that two branches are completed from the Ebro towards Navarre, and have been attended with the most beneficial consequen- ces. Another canal was to begin at Segovia, or about 40 miles N. of Madrid, thence to extend to the bay of Biscay. This is termed the canal of Castile. The canal of Guada- rama was conducted with more spirit, and is probably com- pleted. It was to open near the Escurial and proceed south to the TaJQ or Tagus. Manufactures and Commerce. The manufac- tures of Spain are considerably checked by the royal mo- nopolies. Many manufactures are however conducted in Spain with great spirit and assiduity ; and any failure must not be imputed so much to the indolence of the people, as to the prejudices of the great, and the inquisitorial power of the ecclesiastics, which cramps genius and invention of all kinds, and constrains the mind to the same perpetual circle. Spain supplies wines, oil, fruits, silk, leather, broad cloth, and other articles to many European countries ; but her chief trade is with her own colonies in America. The soil of Spain is exuberant in the production of saltpetre ; and the barilla, used in making glass, has been long cele- brated. In the year 1784, the exports from Spain to America were thus computed in pounds sterling : . . Spanish produce 1,958,849/. Foreign produce 2,389,229/, Total 4,348,078/. The duties were cdW^uted at 1 70,800/. The imports from America to Spain were, at the same time, thus estimated in the same money : Money and jewels 9,291,237/. Merchandize 3,343,936/. The duty amounted to more than half a million. Climate and Seasons. The climate of Spain has been deservedly praised, as equal if not superior to that of any country in Kurope ; in the south the Seabreeze, beginning about nine in the morning and continuing till five in the evening, agreeably diversifies the warmth of the summer ; and in the northern provinces the severity of SPAIN. 141 m mnter is allayed by the proximity of the ocean, which ge- nerally supplies gales rather humid than frosty. Soil and Agriculture. The soil is generally light, and reposes on beds of gypsum or plaister of Paris, itself an excellent manure. " 'Ihe common course of hus- bandry about Barcelona begins with wheat ; which being ripe in June, is immediately succeeded by Indian corn, hemp, millet, cabbage, kidney-beans, or lettuce. The se- cond year these same crops succeed each other as before, The next year they take barley, beans, or vetches ; which, coming off the ground before midsummer, are followed as m the former years, by other crops, only changing them according to the season, so as to have on the same spot the greatest possible variety." The Iluerta, or rich vale of Ahcant, yields a perpetual succession of crops. Barley IS sown in September, reaped in April, succeeded by maize, reaped m September ; and a mixed crop of esculents follow. Wheat IS sown in November, and reaped in June ; flax in September, pulled in May. In the vale of Valencia wheat yields from twenty to forty ; barley from eighteen to twenty- four; oats from twenty to thirty; maize one hundred ; rice forty. In the more southern provinces the land is almost equally fertile ; and the sugar-cane is cultivated with suc- cess near Granada. Agriculture is greatly impeded in Spam by the superior attention paid to the large flocks of sheep, which are authorized by a special code, the mesta, to travel from one province to another, as the season pre- sents pasturage in the vales, or on the mountains. Ihe Merino sheep, or flocks, thus privileged, are computed at 5,000,000 ; and one nobleman has sometimes 40,000. 'i'he fleece is esteemed double in value to that of other sheep • but the checks given to agriculture by such privileges, un- known to all other countries, are incalculable. Rivers. Among the chief rivers of Spain may be named the Lbro, which anciently conferred an appellation on the country. This noble stream rises in the mountains ot Astunas, and enters the Mediterranean sea, after havJns: run about 380 G. miles. The other rivers running to the east are of less importance, as the Guadalavir, the Xucar, and the Segura, which enlivens the fertile vales of Murcia xowards the west occurs the Guadalquivir, the ancient iiaetisi which gave name to the province. This river ori- ginates m the Sierra Morena, and flows into the gulph of 143 SPAIN. Cadiz, after a course of near 300 G. miles. But the chief river of Spain and Portugal is the Tajo, or Tagus, which rises in the west of Arragon, near Albarracin, in a spring called Abrega, and holds a course of about 450 G. miles. The Douro springs near the ruins of ancient Numantia ; and Its course may be computed at 350 G. miles. Mountains. The Spanish mountains are arranged by nature in several distinct chains. The most northern is regarded as a continuation of the Pyrenees, passing on the S. of Biscay and the Asturias in Galicia. The second chain of Spanish mountains extends from near Soria on the N. E. and pursues a S. W. direction to- wards Portugal. The* third is that of Toledo, running near- ly parallel with the last. These two central chains seem to contain great quantities of granite. Next towards the S. is the Sierra Morena, or Brown Mountains, which are followed by the most southern ridge, that of the Sierra Nevada. On the east there is a considerable chain, which connects the two central ridges, and advances towai*ds the Mediter- ranean in the north of Valencia. A remarkable solitary mountain, not far from Barcelona, must not be omitted. At a distance Montserrat appears like a sugar-loaf ; but on a nearer approach seems jagged like a saw, with pyramidical rocks ; it is composed of lime- stone and gravel, united by calcareous cement ; and is of such a height that from its summit may be discerned the islandsof Majorca and Minorca, at the distance of 50 leagues. Not far froni Montserrat, near the village of Cardona, is a hill three miles in circumference, which is one mass of rock salt, used in the dry climate of Spain for vases, snuff- boxes, and trinkets, like our Derbyshire spar. The Spanish side of the Pyrenees has not been accurate- ly examined ; and as the French mineralogists have amply illustrated the part belonging to France, an account of these mountains has been given in the description of that country. Vegetable and Animal Productions. The soil of Spain was anciently very fruitful in corn ; but there has lately been some scarcity, by the neglect of tillage, through indolence. It produces in many places, almost spontaneously, the richest and most dciicious fruits that are to be found in France and Italy ; oranges, lemon8> SPAIN. 14S prunes, citrons, almonds, raisins, and figs. The wines of Spam, especially sack and sherry, are in high credit amonir foreigners. In the district of Malaga, alone there are 14,000 wnie presses. 1 he sii^ar canes thrive in Spain, and It yn-lds saffron, honey, and silk in abundance. The sheep-walks arc for the most part open downs with little shelter, except here and there a grove of chesnut trees, or evergreen oaks; the turf differs essentially from that of the English sheep-walks in containing very few spe- cies of grass,, being chiefly composed of the smaller DaDili- onaceous plants. ^ ^ The glory of the Spanish zoology is the horse, which has Deen tamous in ^11 ages, probably originating from the barb, or beautiful and spirited steed from the north of Africa, the immediate offspring of the Arabian. The Spanish mules are also excellent, and the ass is here no ignoble animal, hough not equal to that of Arabia. The breed of sheen woHH*'^? ?v? celebrated as perhaps superior to any in the world, for the delicacy of the mutton, and the beauty of the fleece. The purity of the air, and aromatic pasture, no doubt contribute to both qualities, which it is to be suspected would degenerate on transportation. Minerals. The mineralogy of Spain was ancient- ly ot more importance than in modern times. Plinv, after observmg that silver was generally found with galena or lead ore, proceeds to state that the fairest of all silver, was tound in Spain, where the pits begun by Hannibal, lasted to his time, being known by the names of their original dis- coverers. 1 hat called Babelo had yielded to HanSibal 300 weight a day , a mountain being pierced for a mile and a half, hrough which the workmen directed large streams of wa- It so that the plan pursued seems to have been that call- ed hushmg by modern writers. Strabo informs us that the provmce of the Turditani, modern Andalusia, was the most Tr'n'Tr: n ^^'^l^^^f^ ^ -^ gold, sihir, bra's, and iron, were no where found more abundant, nor of better quality ; gold was found in the sands of the rivers and tor- rents, a known attribute of the Tagus. I olybius informs us concermngthe mines of silver near Carthagena, vvhiTh Ts7ot:^:z^Znl:'''''''^'''' ^"' '''''^' '^ '^^ «-- At present almost the only silver mines in Spain are Oiose of Guadalcanal, m the Sierra Morena. At Almaden 144 SPAIN. in La Mancha are valuable mines of quicksilver, which are chiefly remitted to Spanish America, and employed in re- fining the more precious metals. Calamine appears near Alcavas ; cobalt in the Pyrenees ; antimony in i.a Mancha ; copper on the frontiers of Portugal ; tin in Galicia ; and lead is common in many districts. The iron of Spain is abundant, and stiil maintains its high character ; and coals are found in the district of Villa Iranca, in Catalonia, where also occur gold, silver, copper, and lead. Amber and jet (in Spanish Azabache) are found together in the territory of Beloncia in the Asturias. SPANISH ISLES. The chief circumjacent islands belonging to Spain are Majorca, Minorca, and Eviza. Majorca is about 55 Eng- lish miles in length, by 45 in breadth. The N. W. part is hilly : the rest abounds with cultivated land, vineyards, orchards, and meadow ; the air is temperate, and the honey highly esteemed : there is generally a considerable milita- ry force in the isle. The capital, seated on a fair bay, is an elegant city, and is supposed to contain 10,000 inhabi- tants. Majorca was reconquered from the Moors by James I. king of Arragon in 1229. Majorca is generally in too strong a state of defence to admit of an easy conquest, but-A^Unorca has been repeated- ly seized by the En<,>lish, to whom it presents an advan- tageous station for the Mediterranean trade. It is about 30 miles in length, by about 12 of medial breadth. The air is moist, and the soil rather barren, being chiefly calca- reous with lead, and fine marble. The wine is praised ; and the inhabitants retain a share of their ancient reputa- tion as excellent slingers. Cittadella the capital, has a to- lerable haven, but the population and fortifications are of little consequence. Port-Mahon on the S. E. has an ex- cellent harbour and received its name from Mago the Car- thaginian general. Eviza is the nearest to Spain, about 15 miles long and 12 broad. It is remarkable for its fruits, and abundance of excellent salt. TURKEY IN- EUROPE. hn. 1?. 1 ^''k ?""P*?' ^^^'^ '° formidable to Europe, has lately sunk before the power of Russia. TurkeV in Europe is computed to contain 182,560 square miles • an extent wh.ch exceeds that of Spain, or even France under the ancient monarchy. ^ Civil Divisions. As European Turkey forms a We and of th/R'"'^ .• '"'"'^'- ^^'^' '^^ *"«" <>f Constenti- tiop.e and of the Byzantme empire, there is no ancient an- pella ,on for is whole extent. It embraces many ancient kmgdoms and republics, which now only afford a mS choly remembrance of classical names and events 1 M^ davia, part of ancient Dacia. 2. Budzac, or Bessarabia « country of the Get« and Peucini. 3. Wa achfa a p^^^^^^^^ also of the ancient Dacians. 4. Bulgaria which emhr^r^, SJifprnirr^r™^ inraciajt'aBonia, Macedonia, and the northern part of th.- classical country of Greece. 6. The Morea, ^equivalent tends' T'An anfi°^T"r " , 7" '''' ^- ^^ RoriL ex- tends, 7. Albania ; which includes the kingdom of Eoirus Chaonia, and a part of Illyricum. 8. DalLatb retoiK ancieat appellation : while, 9. Servia, and irBosnirren,^ sent ancient Pannonia. U. Turkish CroaHn ?i ^ I western province of the empire, ^^t^l^or^:,^^^^ ExTr"' "^^i;. .Pr^^P^ V-" district^of Norrcum. iLXTENT. lurkey m Europe extends ahnnf «j7a m. es m lehgth, from the northern boundary of MoUavL to cape Matapan in the Morea. The breart?h TJTII'} '•CI ..nna to Constantinople, is about 680 BritishmilT.' vhe.«tern and south.™ boundaries are formed ?; the 11 ! 146 TURKEY IN EUROPE. l!i Euxine or Black Sea, the sea of Marmora, the Archipelago, and the Mediterranean. The utmost ncrthem limit is now the river Dniester ; but the western often consists ot an aibitrary line, and is sometimes supplied by rivers or mountains. Original Population. The original population of this empire chiefly sprang from the ancient Scythians on the Euxine, the progenitors of the Dacians, Thracians, 8cc. and even of the Greeks. These were originally blend- ed, towards the north, with many Sarmatic or Slavonic tribes ; and on the fall of the Roman empire the latter spread more and more towards the south, so that nearly one half of the population may now be regarded as Slavo- nic ; but Walachia is supposed to contain many descendants of the ancient Roman settlers in Daciu. The extent of the Turkish empire has contributed to mingle this original population with various Asiatic races, among whom the Turks themselves deserve particular mention. That branch called the Ottomans, which has proved so destruc- tive to Europe, derived their name from the calif Othman, ■who reigned in the beginning of the fourteenth century, and extended his sway into the plains of Bithynia, in which he conquered Nicomedia and Prusa, and thus approached even to the gates of Constantinople, and at length over- threw the Greek empire, Historical Epochs. It would be difficult and unsatisfactory minutely to state the historical epochs of this extensive dominion, containing so many ancient kingdoms and states. It shall therefore be only premised, that after the Roman arms had subdued these countries and cities, many of which are celebrated in the most ancient pages of history, they became in the fifth century an important part of the Byzantine empire : and the historical epochs most appropriated to the present design will delineate their gradual subjugation by the Turks. 1. The nrst dawn of Turkish history preceding the reign of Othman, A. D. 1299. 2. In the reign of his successor, Orkan, the Turks take Gallipoli, and penetrate into Thrace; which province wa*: soon after conquered, and Adrianople was taken A. D. 1360. Two years afterwards the sultan Amurath established the tian slaves educated in Mahometanism from their infancy. TT i'l TURKEY IN EUROPE. 147 3. The reign of Bajazet, who defeats the Hungarians at Nicopoli, in Bulgaria, A. D. 1396. In 1402 the famous battle was fought near Ancyra, between Bajazet and Timur, which for a period checked the Turltish power : yet in 1412 the emperor Sigismund was defeated by the sultan Mousa, with great slaughter. 4. The Turks continue to increase their dominion in Europe, though they received severe checks from the Hun- garians under Hunniades, and even from the Albanians commanded by the celebrated George Castriota, called by the Turks Scanderberg. 5. Constantinople taken by the Turks on the 29th of May 1453. In 1456 happened the siege of Belgrade by- Mahomet II. Corinth and the Morea became subject t6 the Crescent A. D. 14.58. In 1480 Otranto in Italy was taken by the Turks, an event which diflused great terror throughout Europe. J>. A considerable accession to the Turkish power took place m the conquest of Egypt, A. D. 1517. In 1522 Rhodes submits to the Turks: the knights were afterwards transferred to Malta. In 1526 the noted battle of Mohatz, m which Lewis king of Hungary perished ; and the sultan liohmansoon after took Buda. In i529 he besieges Vienna f t|>e head of 250,000 men, but the city being bravely cle. fended by Frederic, prince palatine, the Turks withdrew with great loss. In 1552 the Turks seized the Bannat of 1 emeswar ; and took Cyprus from the Venetians in 1571. 7. In the same year was the famous naval battle of Le- panto, which delivered Europe from any apprehension of the 1 urks by sea. They continued however to invade Hun- gary with various success. But their wars with Persia gradually diverted their arms from Europe. In 1 642 the sultan Ibrahim took from the Cossacs the town of Azof at the mouth of the Don. Towards the middle of this century, they seized some Grecian isles, which the naval power of the Venetians had enai)led them to retain 8. Mahomet IV. renews the war^against the emperor ot Germany ; and m 1663 the Austrians were defeated in Hungary. The isIeofCandia is taken in 1669 after a lone blockade and siege. Wars with Poland. The siege of Wnna, 1683, was raised by John Sobieski king- of Poland xiungary became the scene of repeated Turkish and Aus- trian conquests, ull 1699, the peace of Curlovitz, by which fM TURKEY IN EUROPE. ^1! Mi i\ the Turks yielded Transylvania to the Austrians, the Morea to the Venetians, and Azof to the Russians. 9. In 1736 a successful war was bejjun with the Russians and Austrians; the Turks by the peace of 1739 resumed Belgrade and Orsova, with some parts of Servia and Wala- chia, formerly ceded to Austria ; and Russia is constrained to abandon Azof. 10. The more recent wars of the Russians against the Turks, and the subsequent decHne of the Ottoman empire. Antiquities. The ancient monuments of Eu- ropean Turkey are well known to exceed in number and importance those of any other country. The remains of ancient Athens, in particular, formerly the chosen seat of the arts, have attracted the attention of many travellers, and have been repeatedly described. A venerable monu- ment of antiquity, the church dedicated to the divine wis- dom, or vulgarly Sancta Sophia, by the emperor Justinitin in the sixth century, has been fortunately preserved, by being converted into a mosque. The interior is adorned with a profusion of marble columns, of various beautiful descriptions, the purple Phrygian, the Spartan green, the red and white Carian, the African of a saffron colour, and many other kinds. Religion. The religion of the Turks is the Ma- hometan ; but of their subjects, in this division of the em- pire, it is probable that two-thirds are Greek Christians. The religion of Mahomet has been recently cleared from many erroneous representations ; but its pernicious effects are sufficiently visible in the destruction of art and indus- try, wherever it has made its appearance. The mufti, or Mahometan pontifF, presides at Constan- tinople : but his ppwer has seldom interfered with the civil government. Next to him in rank are the moulahs, who, though esteemed dignitaries of the church, are in fact ra- ther doctors of the law, while the Koran is also a code of civil observance. From the moulahs, are selected the inferior muftis or judges through the empire, and the cadilesquiers, or chief justices. The next class of divines are the imaums, or parish priests, who perform the service of the mosques, v. » ile the cadis are judges annually appointed to administer justice «U< *i TURKEY IN EUROPE. 149 i<» rptrarr as churchmen, who, like the moulahs, have directed their chief attention to the juridical part of the Koran. The Turks have also their monks, styled dervishes, of four various orders and institutions, dedicated by solemn vows to religious offices, public prayer, and preaching. The Greeks, along with their faith, retain their priests, bishops, archbishops, and patriarchs j but their church is in the last state of degradation, and i^s die nlties openly sold by the Turks. Government. The sultan is a despotic sovereign ; but he IS himself strictly subject to the laws of the Koran which, including also the national religion, raise such ob- structions to his absolute will, that an Tntefligent traveller pronounced many Christian sovereignties ihore despotic. Hence it appears that the power of the monarch is balanced by a religious aristocracy, which together with the mu- nities of the Janizaries and the insurrections of the provin- ^^'n^P'^Jj'^','?^.^ greatly weakened the sovereign authority. 1 he 1 urkish laws, as has been already mentioned, are contained m the Koran and its commentacies. Population. Turkey in Kurope has been com- puted to contain 8,000,000 of inhabitants ; and the extent bemg supposed 182,560 square miles, the allotment will be 4o to the mile square. It is probable that this number ra- ther exceeds the truth, when it Is considered that these regions are intersected by many mountainous and barren tracts, and that the population even of the best provinces impresses travellers with a striking defect. Army and Navy. The Turkish army and navy may deserve more particular consideration under the head ot Asiatic Turkey, as the chief sources fall under that divi- ?n":h- ""'? ^u'^}^ ^''^"y remarked that there are about reed Tooon'^n i-"'-' ,"^^!J' ^^ ^f"^^' ^^" '^^'^'^y ^x' disasters ' ^^^^P^'n^d* and dispirited by successive Revenues. The revenues of the whole Turkish empire are computed at about 7,000,000 sterling, while the usiml expence does not exceed five. This revenue is fvl'Irr^, 'T ''^ ^'^P'^^^^^" '^^ - unbelievers, and fiom the zecchaf or customs ; but principally from the tax on land, amounting to about six shilliL, ' ^"^ Winch is called the'jizie. °" N2. ifys an 1 aim 150 TURKEY IN EUROPE. I I V 1: li tt' II i.: I Political Importance and Relations. The palpable and rapid decline of the Turkish empire has of course greatly impaired its political importance. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, France, being alarmed by the growing power of the house of Austria, entered into an alliance with Turkey, the just subject of murmur among the Christian powers. This along alliance has been recent- ly violated by the ptfrfidious rulers of the French republic, who invaded Egypt in the time of profound peace, and without any offence given by the Porte. Since the peace the French have regained their usuul ascenxlancy, and by their potent interposition, may no doubt, if they choose, ccnsiderably n^odify, and perhaps render null, any future conspiracy of Austria and Russia against the European dominions of Turkey. The Turks are sensible that a strict aUiance with Prussia would be of singular advantage to them ; that power can have little interest in such a treaty, but must, on the contrary, rather exult to see the power of Russia exerted against Turkey and Asia. Meanwhile the Turks have spared no endeavour to secure the friendship of several European powers, and have appointed resident ambassadors at several courts, who may be regarded as heralds of their fall: for in their prosperity they disdained to send any envoys, and regarded the ambassadors at the Porte as tributary slaves, sent to solicit the protection of the sultan. Amidst the defection of several pachas, in the east as well as in Europe, it is fortunate for the Ottoman empire that the power of Persia is dormant. Manners and Customs. Themanners and cus- toms of the Turks are distinj);uished by the peculiarity of their religion from those of other European nations. On the birth of a child the father himself gives the name, put- ting at the same time a grain of salt into his mouth. In diet the Turks are extremely moderate, and their meals are dispatched with great haste. Rice is the favourite food, and is chiefly dressed in three ways ; the pilau, boiled withmut-* ton or fowl ; the lappa, or mere boiled rice ; and the tchor- ba, a kind of broth of the same vegetable. The meal is usually spread on alow wooden table, and the master of the house pronounces a short prayer. The frugal repast is fol- lowed by fruits and cold water, which are succeeded by hot coffee and pipes with tobacco. The dress of their women differs little from that of the men, the chief distinction TURKEY IN EUROPE. 151 bein^ the head-dress ; that of the fair sex consistinjj of « bonnet, (instead of a turban) like an inverted basket, formed of pasteboard covered with cloth of gold, or other elegant materials, with a veil extending to the eyebrows, while a fine handkerchief conceals the under part of the face. The amusements of the Turks partake of their indolent apathy, if we except hunting and those of a military description. To recline on un elegant carpet, or in the hot season by the side of a stream, and smoke the delicate tobacco of Syria, may be regarded as their chief amusement. With opiiim they procure what they call a kief, or placid intoxication, dunng which the fancy forms a thousand agreeable images, but when the dose is too potent these are succeeded by irri- tation and ferocity. Language AND Schools. The Turkish language IS of fur inferior reputation to the Persian or Arabic, being a mixture of several dialects, and possessing neither the torce, elegance, nor purity of those two celebrated oriental tongues. The design of establisl-ingf a printing press at Con- stantinople, has been opposed by the copyists, who inferred that this art would deprive them of their bread. There are in this capital several public libraries, but none are soeleeant as that founded by the i^rand vizir Raghid, which is wholly bui t of marble m the midst of a square court, and is filled with books chiefly theological. A librarian constantly at- tends, and there are convenient seats with carpets and cushions. In the neighbourhood is a school founded by the same vizir, in which about 100 boys are taught to read and write. The market for books is extensive, containing many shops well supplied with oriental manuscripts. rhe state of education among the Turks may be con- ceived to be very low, and ignorance is indeed a chief oait of the national character. The only profession which re- quires a shadow of learning is that of the law, which, as be- iore explained, is intimately connected with their theoloey The celebrated doctors have disciples, who are trained up to that department : but there seems nothing that can de- serve the name of college or university. Cities and Towns. The chief city of Eurooean Tui-key, and of the Turkish empire, is ConKtrnS,? ouiit oa the site of the ancient Byzantium. The"ad"van' tages of the situation can hardly be exceeded, and the as- pect from the sea is peculiarly grand j but on a nearer a^ II 152 TURKEY IN EUROPE. proach, the wooden hovels and narrow streets disappoint the splendid expectations of the spectator. This capital forms an unequal triangle, being about twelve or fourteen English miles in circumference, inclosed by walls, and on two sides by the sea and the harbour called the Golden Horn. The inhabitants are computed at 400,000, including the four suburbs, Galata, Pera, Tophana, and Scutari. Of these 200,000 are Turks, 100,000 Greeks, and the re- mainder Jews, Armenians, and Franks. The most cele- brated edifices are the Seraglio, which comprises a large space crowded with various buildings of mean architecture; and the mosque of Sancta Sophia. The principal entrance of the Seraglio is styled Capi, or the Porte, an appellation which has passed to the Turkish court. Next in dignity and extent is the city of Adrianople, for- merly the European seat of the Turkish dominion. This city, which stands about 140 British miles to the N. W. of Constantinople was founded by the emperor Hadrian on the site of the ancient Orestias. This second city -of European Turkey is of a circular form, and at present un- fortified. Many of the houses are respectable, but the streets are narrow and indirect. The Seraglio is in a plea- sant situation, separated from the city by the river Arda, and commanding an extensive view of the country, which is fertile, and remarkable hr excellent vines. Several of the mosques are of celebrated splendour, and the commerce of the city, by the river, is not inconsiderable. The city of Sofia, situated in a low co'intry N. W. from Adrianople, is of considerable trade, but meanly built : the inhabitants are computed at 70,000. Silistria in Bulgaria, on the river Danube, is computed to contain 60,000 souls ; and Bucharest, the chief city of Walachia, is estimated at the same number. Belgrade, the capital of Servia, repeatedly disputed be- tween the Austrians and Turks, is now destitute of fortifi- cations) but is supposed to retain about 25,000 inhabi- tants. In the more southern provinces the chief city worth no- tice is Salonica, computed at 60,000, a city of considerable commerce, seated on a noble gulph of the Archipelago. Edifices. All that deserve a place in this work have been already noticed. TURKEY IN EUROPE. 153 ;ommerce Manufactures and Commerce. The native manufactures exported from European Turkey are uicon- siderable) being chiefly carpets, and a few other articles ; but the rude products are far more numerous, as currants, figs, saffron, statuary marble from Paros, silk, and drugs ; engrossed chiefly by foreigners. Climate and Seasons. The extensive regions comprised within the limits of European Turkey enjoy, in general, a delicious climate, pure air, and regular seasons. In Walachialhe air is so temperate that vines ah4 melons prosper. In the mountainous parts of the more southern districts the temperature must partake of the cold, univer- sal in such elevated regions ; but the products of Macedo- nia and Greece, rice, vines, and , olives, shew that the cli- mate retains its ancient praise. Soil and Agriculture. The soil is generally fertile, the northern parts producing wheat and rich pas- ture, the middle and southern abundance of rice. But agriculture, like every other art and science, is neglected by the Turks ; and that soil must be truly fertile, whicli, under their sway, can support its inhabitants. Rivers. Among the rivers of European Turkey must first be named the Danube, which from Belgrade to Orsova divides Servia from the Bannat, a space of near 100 miles : and afterwards becomes a Turkish stream for more than 400, being in some places a mile in breadth, and pre- senting, if possessed by an industrious people, all the ad- vantages of a Mediterranean sea. Next perhaps in importance, though very inferior, is the Maritz, or ancient Hebrus, which rising in a chain of moun- tains anciently called Hsemus, and running towards the E. and S. falls into the -;uished by the name of Wala- chian, have spiral horns of singidar elegance ; but the fine- ness of the fleece would be a more useful distinction. Minerals. The mineralogy of these provinces is also a baiTen field ; for the indolence and ignorance of the Turks have generally ne<;lected this branch of opulence ; though from the mines in the adjacent regions of Hungary and Transylvania, and from the ancient accounts, there would be room to expect great mineral treasures. The gold mines of Philippi, about 80 miles to the east of Saio- iiica, in the time of ihiiip of Macedon, produced yearly about 10,000 talents, 2,880,000i'. sterling; and silver mines were found in Attica, and other quarters. TURKEY IN EUROPE. 153 * ISLANDS BELONGING TO TURKEY IN EUROPE. THE classical islands of ancient Greece have been so re- peatedly described, that little more than an enumeration may suffice. The largest is that of Crete or Candia, which is about 1 80 British miles in length, by 40 as its greatest breadth. A chain of high mountains, called the White Mountains, from the snow, pervades a great part of its length. The inhabitants are vigorous and robust, and fond of archery. This isle abounds with cattle, sheep, swine, poultry, and game, all excellent; and the wine is balmy and luscious. The siege of Candia by the Turks in the middle of the seventeenth century is remarkable in modern histo- ry, as having continued for 24 years, 1646 — 1670. This island had before flourished under the Venetians. Next is Negropont, anciently called Eubcea, about 100 British miles in length by 20 in breadth, a large and im- portant island, which also belonged to the Venetians to a late period. The other isles are generally of a diminutive size, and were divided by the ancients into separate groups, of which the Cyclades were the most memorable j while the Spo- rades approached the Asiatic shore. HOLLAND. THE Seven United Provinces were, in ancient times, chiefly possessed by the Batavi, a people highly celebrated by Tacitusi reviving an ancient name, the French have recently styled them the Batavian Republic. They were formerly called the republic of Holland, from the name of the chief province ; so called from the German word Hohlj corresponding with the English word hollow, and implying a concave or very low country. Extent. These provinces extend, from the N. of Groningen to Austrian Flanders and Brabant, about 150 British miles ; and in breadth, from what is called the North Sea to the circle of Westphalia, about 100 British miles. The number of square miles is computed at 10,000. Divisions. The ancient division of Holland was into seven provinces, Holland, Zealand, Friesland, Utrecht, Groningen, Guelderland, Overyssel, These have recently been divided into fifteen departments. Original Population. The original population appears to have been Celtic : but when the Romans con- quered this country, the chief inhabitants were the Batavi, the most northern people of Belgic Gatil, and incontesti- bly a German or Gothic progeny ; who appear to have been secure in their marshes and islands, till the Frisians, the next adjacent people in the north, in tlie seventh cen- tury, extended themselves down to the Scheld. In the eighth cenlury the Frisians were subdued by the Franks under Charles Martel , but the Frisians and Franks may be regarded as mingled in the populati< x; with the ancient Batavians. HOLLANO. i5r In 1421 the estuary of the Meuse, or Maese, suddenly formed a vast lake to the S. E. of Dort, overwhelming 72 large villages, with 100,000 inhabitants, who perished in the deluge. Historical Epochs. Among the chief historical epochs may be numbered ; 1 . The actions of the Batavi in the Roman period, from the first mention of that nation by Julius Caesar. 2. The conquest by the Frisians, and afterwards by the Danes, and by the Franks. 3. The countries watered by the Meuse and the Rhine were for a long time divided into small earldoms ; but in the year 923 Theodoric or Diedric, brother of Herman duke of Saxony, and of Wickman earl of Ghent, was ap- pointed count of Holland by Charles the Simple, king of France, and the title became hereditary. Zealand and Friesland were included in the donation. The county of Gelderland in the east, was erected by the emperor Henry IV. in 1079, and became a duchy in 1339. Utrecht was subject to its powerful prelates, who had frequent contests with the earls of Holland. 4. Frequent contests appear between the earls of Hol- land and those of i' landers, concerning the possession of the islands of Zealand. Philipina, daughter of William III. earl of Holland, was married to the prince of Wales afterwards Edward III. of England, a princess worthy of an heroic husband. This king afterwards contested the earldom of Holland with Margaret his sister-in-law. Jac- quelin the heiress of Holland in 1417 wedded John IV. duke of Brubant ; but her uncle John of Bavaria, who had resigned the bishopric of Liege in the hopes of espousing her, contested the succession. A kind of anarchy following, Jacquehn went to England, where she, married, in 1423, Humphry duke of Gloucester ; and this marriage being annulled by the pope, shQ wedded in 1432 Borselen stadt- holder of Holland ; and next year was forced to resign her states to PhiHp the Good, duke of burgundy. 5. Holland, and other large possessions of the house of Burgundy, fell by marriage to the house of Austria. 6. Holland and some inferior provinces revolt from tb.e tyranny of Philip li. in 1566; and in 1579 formed the fa^ mous union of Utrecht. Vol. I. O 158 HOLLAND. i m 7. By the end of that century the Dutch had established colonies at the Cape of Good Hope, and in the East Indies ; and settlements were afterwards gained in S. America. Durmg the seventeenth century they .rivalled the English m the empire of the sea ; and greatly exceeded them in commercial advantages. Their power began somewhat to decline after the obstinate naval conflicts in the time of Charles IL In 1673 Louis XIV. invades Holland ; and Amsterdam is only saved by opening the sluices. 8. William stadtholder of Holland ascends the throne of England 1688 ; and a stricter intercourse prevails between the countries, Holland becoming the grand channel of the commerce of England with the continent. 9. The stadtholderate declared hereditary 1747. The war in 1756 opening great connections between Holland and France, a French party began to form in the country, which opposed the stadtholder, who was supported by the English. In 1780 a war arose between Great Britain and Holland, which closed in 1784, after exposing to Europe the decline and weakness of the United Provinces, still farther displayed by the entrance of the duke of Brunswick in 1788, who may be said to have subdued them without a blow. ^ 10. The Dutch having joined the coalition against the French, their country fell a prey to the invaders, during the hard frost of the winter of 1794-5 ; and the stadtholder took refuge in England in 1795, • Though a ^:eparate go- vernment continue, yet the United Provinces must be con- sidered as subject to France, which intends to incorporate the parts S. of the Rhine. The Dutch fleet has since been Tiearly annihilated by the English, a fate justly merited by ingratitude and cowardice ANTiquiTiEs. The chief remain of the Roman period is the ruined tower near Catwick, about six miles N. W. from Leyden, at the ancient mouth of the Rhine. In the middle of Leyden, upon an artificial hill, stands a round tower, fabled to have been built by Hengist who first led the Saxons to England. Religion. The Protestant religion, in the Calvin- istic form, prevails through the United Provinces. The states of Holland, in i J83, proposed that no other form of worship should be tolerated ; but this resolution was wisely i; HOLLAND. 159 rejected ; and every religion is permitted, on condhion that do not oppose the fundamental laws, or teach any doc trmes subversive of the state : yet employments of any consequence can only be filled by Protestants. fnur Ln'if '''''^' f ""^^ P^""""' ^'^ considered as divided into lour ranks, professors at universities, preachers, elders* and deacons: and the government of the church s admi nistered by consistories, classes, and synods. server? h^'Tm ^^•^^?"" ^'f «VPP°«^^ to have 350 churches, terHtorv^ Vu^'Tl' 'l'^"'^"" °^^"^« ^" '^^ conquered TJ^Z^: .^^ "^''^'^ "**'"' '*^^^^ ^e the Lutherans, the a feTquS: " '''"''"^'"'' Anabaptists and Jews.' and H,.n ^Sl'^'' u'^^f'^ ^'"'^ ^'^^s. On the conquest of Holland by the French in 1795, a convention wafca I^ to frame a constitution. The plan that was first project^ nron^ ^^^PP^f ^d by the people, another was afterwards proposed which was accepted. According to this fmme rEsladrJ^H^' °' ^.'^^"^^' V'^ governm^Us vLtrS a legislative body, consisting of two chambers, and a direc- tory. The presidents of the two chambers kre changed ro7utte"f vear"' tT'' ""''''' ^^^^^'^^"^ and dire^o^y go out eveiy year 1 he emperor of France, who does as Justice is administered according to the local ciiatom, and statutes of eacl, province and city, tl>e ordinances of tte States-general, and in defect of all these the Roman code PoPuiATioK. The population of the United Pro' IxTem o?th:"'te'rT"^-''""P""'' " ^'^^^.''s" and^he' ^^z, l'rtv;uTe%T;"f„s ^i^ rr"' Co" " "'"'^"''' ''^ -^---f p'o"t:r;:icui.^e7:t- time^ht'^v '; T^^ """■•■'' ^^'"S, for a considerable a-t%-wm-mw - ■VT Army and Navy. The auout o5,ooo, but it is now incorporated with that ofl?™^ "' 1 he navy which used to oonsis? of forty ships of thlZr has by the events of the last war almost t'^tairdbli'p:^;:^ i60 HOLLAND. I Revenue. The revenue was about three milliona and a half sterling, but was greatly exceeded by the expen- diture; so tli-w lii J 'tional debt was computed at about 13O,0O0,00OA_steii';4);« but 2,800,000/. were annually re- ceived as the Interest of loans to other for'^ign powers. Political Importance, &c. /he political im- portance and relations of the United Provinces are at pre- sent completely immerged in those of France ; she is forced to contribute to her own annihikiion, and the aggrandize^ ment of her enemies. Manners and Customs. A stranger visiting Holland is surprised at the extreme cleanliness observable in the houses aj>d streets ; even hamlets inhabited by poor fishermen displaying a neatness and freshness, which forms a striking contrast with the squalid appearance of the Ger- man villages. The air being always moist, and commonly cold, the Dutch dress is calculated for warmth and rot for 4'legance. The people are of a phlegmatic temperament ; and their courage at sea is rather obstinacy than ardour. A late amiable traveller observes, that " the infatuation of loving money, not as a mean but as an end, is paramount in the mind of almost every Dutchman, whatever may be his other disposition and qualities ; the addiction to it is fervent, inveterate, invincible, and universal from youth to the feeblest old age." Their dress is little affected by fashion. The opulent merchants delight in their villas, and gardens^ in which perhaps one tulip root might cost 50 guineas. In the winter, skating is a favourite amusement, and the canals are crowded with all ranks, from the senator to the milk-maid with her pail, and the peasant with his eggs. They possess some valuable collections of paintings and prints, which also have become an article of commerce and avarice. Language. The Dutch language is a dialect of the German. Public Schools. The mode of education pursued in these provinces seems to have been greatly inferior to that used in Scotland, a country enjoying an ecclesiastic government somewhat similar. The Dutch youths being chiefly allotted to a seafaring life, there was not indeed op- rvrkt^f ntnitiT t/»t» n'nT*"1*'M^c! rxo ■»■•#-» j^V» lol ci^V\*^i-\1c 'in/-! f>r\r\cf^fiiM^lf\f l^^^i *.\tixsxj j*.'t ii t.liiiv.i ^^ vtvj |^«i «/Tyf littx u^wii"-" -'n^'j -ib.(s.4 - • -? p- »i.'^ | »• •"--- difi'usion of common knowledge. The most celebrated Latin schools were at Rotterdam, Breda, Middleburg, HOLLAND. 161 Groningen, 8cc. The universities are five ; Leyden, Utrecht, Harderwyck, Franecker, and Groninj^en ; with two inferior colleges at Amsterdam and Deventer. There is an aca- demy of sciences at Haarlem. Cities and Towns. Amsterdam, the chief city of Holland, is upon the small river Amstel. The haven is not distinguished by natural advantages, but has been im- proved and secured by art: and the wide forest of masts impressed every traveller with amazement. The popula- tion is computed at about 2 12,000. The streets arc general- ly narrow, and the canals feculent. The houses have the common air of neatness peculiar to those of the Dutch. The chief edifices are the state-house, founded on piles at an immense expence ; the exchange, and the post-office ; but some streets along Jthe chief canals display houses of uniform grandeur. Some agreeable walks occur in the interior of the city ; but the environs are chiefly visited by water ; yet to the S. there is an agreeable road to Ouder- kirk through pleasant gardens and groves. Leyden is esteemed the next city in population, contain- ing about 50,000 souls. It is the Lugdunum Batavorum of antiquity, and is distinguished by its university. Here the ancient Rhine almost expires in a number of small channels, which are passed by so many bridges that the number has been computed at more than one hundred. The meadows and gardens around Leyden are remarkably productive, and there is a daily intercourse, by canals, with the other chief cities and provinces. *The fair is still much frequented ; but the university has declined. Next is Rotterdam, with a population of about 48,000 people. There is a noble quay, with houses as handsome as any in the squares of l.ondon ; and the great length of the streets is haracteristic of Dutch cities, and even towns ; yet tijey arc generally narrow, and the foot pavement is only distinguished by a clean line of bricks. In the mar- ket place stands the well-known statue of Erasmus. Haarlem is computed to contain 40,000 souls ; and, like Leyden, is fortified by old brick walls. The great church is esteemed the largest in the province of Holland ; but the celebrated organ is more remarkable for power than sweetness. The Hague is only esteemed a villape, tlsouirh the in- habitants be computed at 36,000. TJ coun O pa. 16J HOLLAND. 'ii lace, contains several chambers allotted to the different branches of government, besides the apartments of the Stadtholder. The states-general meet in a room which contained twenty-six chairs, for the usual number of the members. The cabinet of natural history has been carried to France, and probably the most curious books and pic- lures. The Hague is distinguished by its pleasant situation and tranquil grandeur. Inland Navigation. To enumerate the canals of the United Provinces would be infinite, for they ^qual the roads in other countries. Manufactures and Commerce. The chief ma- nufactures of Holland are linens ; pottery, and painted tiles, especially at Delft ; leather, wax, snuff, sugar, starch, pa- per, besides some of woollen, cotton, and silk. But the most precious branch of commerce consisted in spices and drugs, brought from the settlements in the East Indies. The fishery in the Northern Seas, and even on their own and the Enp;lish coasts, was also an object of great com- mercial importance. Latterly perhaps the chief advan- tage was derived from Holland, being the grand deposit of commerce between Cireat Britain and the continent, parti- cularly Germany and France. The inland trade with Ger- many, by the canals and the Rhine, is almost the only branch which has escaped the ravages of war. Of this the most remarkable feature consists in the vast fioats of tim- ber brought down the Khmc. The length of these rafts is from 700 to 1 000 feet, the breadth from 50 to 90 ; and 500 labourers direct the floating island, which is crowned with a village of timber huts for their reception. Climate and Seasons. Humidity and cold are the chief characteristics of the climate of the United Pro- vinces. The general face of the country is that of a large marsh which has been drained ; the canals, and even the sea, looking pale and discoloui'ed by mud. The whole country may be said to display an intimate combination of land and water ; and the few elevations commonly consist of barren sand. Soil and Agriculture. The agriculture of such provinces cannot be expected to be considerable, the land being mostly under pasturage, except a few crops of madder, and tobacco, which are cultivated with great ^pre- dilection. The pasturages in the north of Holland, espe- f HOLLAND. 163 cially those of Bemster, and in Friesland, supply such quantities oi excellent butter, as to become a staple article ol commerce. The cows seem to have been originally from Holstein, and the utmost attention is paid to warmth and cleanliness, so that even in summer the animals appear in the meadows clothed with ludicrous care. KivEus. The chief rivers of the United Provinces are the Rhine and the Weuse ; the huter here receivhig at Its estuary the Aa, joined with the Dorael from the S. and from the N. that ^reat outlet of tlie Rhine called the Waal : and near 40 British miles further to the W. the second grand outlet of the Rhine, called the Leek, joins the Meuse, alter which but a small stream passes by Leyden to the German ocean. 'Ihe principal river falling into the Zuy- der Zee is the Issel, which rises not far to the S. W of Munster, and after receivin;> the canal of Drusus near Duisberg becomes a considerable stream. On the N of this IS the small estuary of Wecht, which rises to the N of Munster. The rivers of Friesland and Groningen are so diminutive that they are mostly lost in the numerous canals betore they join the sea. Vegetable and Animal Productions. The quantity of grain produced here is not sufficient for home consumption ; but by draining their bogs, the Dutch have made excellent meadows, which fatten lean cattle from Germany and Denmark, to a gr. at size ; and they make prodi.,.iousqua'itities of excellent butter and cheese. Their country produ(,es turf, tobacco, some fruit and iron. They have a „ood breed of sheep that is highly valued, and their horses anti horned cattle are of a lander size than any in Je-urope. I heir shores abound with fish, particularly tur- bot and soals.--,«ut their chief fishery is on the coast of England and Scotland. DENMAHK. 'TH£ name of Denmark, implying the marclies, boun- daries, or territories, of the Danes, is derived from the inhabitants who are first mentioned by this appellation in the sixth century, when we begin to acquire a faint idea of "Scandinavia from the history of Jornandes. Morway, an- ciently Norrick, or the Northern kingdom, afibrds a palpa- ble and precise derivation. Extent. From the river Elbe, in the south, to the northern extremity of Danish Lapland, and the wild en- virons of the river Tana, may be computed, after excludiug the entrance of the Baltic, an extent of not less than 1400 British miles m length, by a medial breadth of only 1 50. Of this great length, Denmark occupies about 260 miles, while the remainder belongs to Norway. To the south the Danish province of Holstein borders on the wide territories of Germany ; on the east, west, and north, Denmark is surrounded by the sea. The eastern limits of Norway are chiefly indicated by a long chain of mountains, passing be- tween that country and Sweden, Divisions. The territories subject to the crown 6i Denmark art divided into thirteen provinces, viz ; Five in Denmark proper, seven in Norway, and one in the Isles of I erroe. Original f opulation. The original population of Denmark appears to have consisted of Cimbri, or Nor- thern Celts, the ancestors of the Welch; and who in par- ticular ^eld the C'imbric Chersonese, or modern Jutland andSleswic. On the progress of the Goths from the N. and E. the Cimbri wt-re expelled, and their country was possessed by seven Gothic tribes, among which were the DENMARK. 165 Angli, who afterwards invaded and gave appellation to England. The original possessors of Norway appear to have been the Fins and the Laps, who were driven to the northern extremities by the Gothic invasion, allegorically said to have been conducted by Odin the God of war. The population of Norway has since ccmtinued pure and unmix- ed by foreign conquests. ' The chief historical epochs of Denmark are the follow- ing ; thpse of Norway p eceding the union, are too obscure to be noticed. Historical Epochs. 1. The most ancient po- pulation of the continental part of Denmark by the Cimbri, 2. The conquest by the Goths, who appear to have pro- ceeded from Scandinavia into the isles and Jutland, as the dialect differs greatly from the German Gothic, while it is a sister of the Swedish and Norwegian. 3. The Roman and Francic accounts of Denmaik, from the time of Pliny and Tacitus to that of Charlemagne. 4. The fabulous and traditional history of Denmark, which extends from about the year of Christ 500 to the reign of Pleriold, mentioned by the Francic historians in the time of Charlemagne. 5. The conquest of Denmark by Olaf 11. king of Swe- den, about the year 900. 6. The more certain history commences with Gurm, or Gormo, A. D. 920. Gorvno is succeeded by his son Harald Blaatand 945, who is followed by Iiis son Swein 985, well known by his invasion of England, where he in some measure usurped the sovereignty, and died A . D. 1014. ^ 7. The reign of Canute the Great, king of Denmark, England and Norway. The conversion of Denmark to Christianity had commenced in the beginning of the nintlj century ; but Christianity was far from being universal there till the reign of Canute the Great, when it was followed by its universal consequences, the cessation of piracy and ra- pine, and the diffusion of industry and civilization. 8. The reign of VValdemar, surnamed the Great, A. D. 1157, who defeats the Wends, or Slavonic inhabitants of the southern shores of the Baltic, in many battles, and sub- dues the isle of Rugen. Hence followed slowly the conver- sion of Pomerania, and of the countries on the east. Wal- demar ifs rpcrmvlfrl nc thf navf^nt- r»f tli« Piot-iicK lon.o 166 DENMARK. m 9. The marriage of Hakon VI. king of Norway, with Margaret daughter of Waldemar III. king of Denmark, A. D. 1363, produced the memorable union of the three crowns of tli6»north. On the death of her young son, Mar- garet ascended the throne of Denmark and Norway in 1387, and that of Swed|n in 1389. Her husband, Eric of Pomerania, reigned aObut 26 years after her death ; and was followed by Christopher of Bavaria, who removed the royal residence from Roskild to Copenhagen. 10. The accession of the house of Oldenburg, in the person of Christiern I. A. D. 1448. The repeated revolts of Sweden were suppressed by his successor John, who was crowned at Stockholm, in 1497. 1 1. The tyrannical and unhappy reign of Christiern II. when Sweden was emancipated by the efforts of Gustaf Wase. 12. The abolition of the Roman Catholic religion by Christiern III. 1537 ; but the Lutheran had been already introduced in 1526. 13. The reigns of Christiern IV. and his successor Fre- deric III. who was constrained to sign a treaty in March, 1660, by which he abandoned to Sweden the valuable pro- vince of Scone, and other parts in the south of Scandinavia, which had long remained in the possession of the Danes, together with the fertile island of Paigen. 14. The memorable revolution of the 23d October, 1660, by which the crown was declared absolute and hereditary. The subsequent events have been little memorable. Antiquities. The ancient monuments of Den- mark and Norway are chiefly what are called Runic ; though it be not clear at what period the use of the Runic charac- ters extended so far to the north. C ircles of upright stones are common in all the Danish dominions ; in Iceland their origin is perfectly ascertained, as some were erected even in recent times of the Icelandic republic, being called Domhring, or Circles of Judgment. Monuments also occur of the other forms imagined by our antiquaries to be Druidic Religion. The religion of Denmark and Nor- way is the Lutheran. There is no archbishop ; but the bishopricks are twelve, six in Denmark, four in Norway, and t,vo in Iceland. The chief see is that of Zealand, which loon/ Q lr«iQ»» » *-]ta #%«-l-..-... —1 : I - - 1 i„, — , „ jCiii , viiv vfLiiv,! ciciiuui urucrs arc vields about DENMARK. i«r provosts, or archdeacons, parish priests, and chaplains. The parochial clergy ar« maintained by their glebes, tithes, and surplice fees ; but in Jutland some of the livings do not exceed 20/. a year. ^^ G^ovERNMENT. Since the revolution of 1660, the Danish government has been an absolute monarchy. That revolution was produced by the obstinacy of the nobility, and consequent enmity of the clergy and burgesses, who perceived ne other means of humbling their adversaries. 1 lie Danish government has however been ffenerallv conducted with mildness and moderation ; and their re^al acts pass through many councils who carefully observe the legal torms The laws are chiefly comprised in the code of century.'" ' ''^^"'^ ^" '^' ""^ °^ '^^ seventeenth ru\n\^Z^^'^''^'''''' . ^^^ population of the Danish do- minions is computed at two millions and a half: though' here seem little room to infer that it yields to that of Swe- rnjL .V"^ suppose the square contents to be about 1 80,000 miles, there will only be 12 inhabitants to the square mile nn?.7^T IS not supposed to contain more than r©0,000 souls, no Iceland above 50,000, the former only yielding six, ?he latter one, to the square mile. ^ !L XT "™^"' °^ wh»h Denmark supplies abo ut 40,000 and Norway the remainder. The navy,^ prioi to t he late Ts'^sSoTt^'r ''^ ^"Slishoff Copen'ha^en, consisteiTf nr.« ^?,?[^NU=^- The annual revenue is computed at about Z.6TZ'^'^\''''^'r''^^^ ^^^"^ superForto that of Sl^!w ' "??l^^^ contributes 543,554/. Norway 290,000/. 122 ?.! • In """ ^^'''^'^ "P°" ^^^P^ Passing the Sound anmtn .^^*?^ ^'^'^^' ^^'^ expencesof the state amount S^fXecotS/. '^'''^''''^^' ^^ - ^-thened wiTa t\r^f^\^-^^^^^ Importance and Relations A 1 ussia^tsl r ^«"^,^"it«d this monarchy in alliance witb Wisdom wnni?'^" °^ '"^T-^ ^-^^'"^^ ^^^d^" 5 but more P us^ r •^^*PE'^' '" ^ fi^'"* *"'^"^e ^'th Sweden and 1 nissia against the exorbitant nower nf th. p„„o:.^ i;!!!" 161 Denmark. Makners and Customs. The manners and cus- toms of the superior Danes differ little from those of the same classes in other parts of Europe. The peasantry continue in a state of vassalage, except those of the crown. They are of course idle, dirty, and dispirited : on the con- trary, the Norwegian peasants are spirited, frank, open, and undaunted, yet not insolent ; their usual dress is of a stone colour, with red button holes, and white metal but- tons ; and the women often appear only dressed in a petti- coat and shift, with a close collar round their throat, and a black sash. Their usual bread, like that of the Scottish peasantry, consists of flat cakes of oatmeal ; which in times of great scarcity is mingled with the white inner rind of trees. Laplanders areof a small size, generally about four feet, with short black hair, narrow dark eyes, large heads and high cheek bones, a wide mouth and thick' lips, and a swarthy complexion. Towards the shore they build huts; and on the mountains use tents of a flatly conic form, and divided by several rude partitions into apartments for them- selves, their servants, and cattle. The sun is here abbent for seven weeks ; yet from ten in the forenoon to one in the afternoon there is a kind of twilight even in the shortest days, so that one may read without a candle ; but the stars are very visible, and the moon, when apparent shines all day. The rivers supply salmon, and other fish, a consi- derable part of the Laplandic food ; but at a festival are seen mutton, or rein deer, and mead. The men wear conic red caps, lined with fur, and a kind of robe of cloth or skin ; the poor sometimes using that of salmon, which appears like a white shagreen. Till recent times they were immersed in paganism, regarding particular mountains and rocks as holy. Language. If we except the Laponic, the lan- guages spoken in the Danish dominions are all sister dia- lects of the Gothic. The Icelandic iothe most ancient and ve- nerable, being esteemed the most pure dialect of the Clothic. Education. The silence of travellers and geo- graphers concerning the modes of education pursued in dift'erent countries has been more than once regretted in this v\ork ; but the materials are not equally deficient con- cerning Denmark. Each parish is provided with two or tiii'ce schools, where chtldrcii ate tuughL lo read and write DENMARK. |^, their native tongue, and the principles of j^rithmetic- the schoolnaasters are allowed abiut 1 2" a year, wUh a house! lalTh' r'^^^^d^.-"tages. There are besides many Latin schools, maintanied at the royal expence ; 16 in liol- stein ; 1 1 m Sleswic; 19 in Denmark proper, or Jutland and the isles : but only four in the wide extern orN^ way ; and wo in Iceland There is also a special seminary fbi- the Laplanders at Bergen; and at Soroe, Odensee^?d Altona, there are superior academies of edicaUon ' 1 he universities are at Copenhagen and Kid. The royal academy of sciences was founded in 1742, but has tu""l ^Z%''Tn'T!' " r°".^l -tiquities,'than na! lurai nistory. in 17^6 was founded the society for the improvement of nc hern history, also styled the royal so- ciety of Icelandic literature. There is another resnectaWe insftution at Drontheim, style, the roy7soc Lty o'^^^^^^ ences. Ihese foundations confer honour on the Danish government ; and will doubtless contribute to difib e xience and inspire emulation. ""mbc xience, Cities and 1 owns. Copenhagen, the chief citv of Denmark, stands on the eastern shor! of the larec and fertile island of ^.ealand, about 25 British miles to the^^omh ;/ar^:sraif tZt ;^Drrrt ^^r^ The streets are rather narrow but are well Ta-ed ?, u regularly fortified, the circumference being b^ween Ll md five mdes, and the inhabitants about 9ofooo The bar hour .s spacious and convenient, havine on the south .h.' .s le o A,„,w, peopled ,, ,,^ des^ndantfof a colZ- f™™ tiZ ir?o '"*• '," f "™ ''"^ inland was granted by Chri™ b^erlU^ZSn'-'irrji'' -S-"". ch/ese an'd ^»a'i \ufpT:fih! -x^rf :, -t^-^" --1 castle and cathedral are remarKabJ^Spx^^'t":' cMrf 170 DENMARK. trade is in fish, hides, timber^ Sec. The population in computed at 1 9,000. The third city, of Denmark, and indeed the second in population, is Altona on the Elbe, within a gun-shot of Hamburgh, originally a village of the parish of Ottensen ; but in 1640 it became subject to Denmark, and was consti- tuted a city in 1664. In 1713 it was almost entirely re- duced to ashes by the Swedes; but its commerce was af- terwards so much fostered by the Danish sovereigns, as a diminutive rival of Hamburgh, that it is computed to con- tain 25,000 inhabitants. Edifices. The chief public edifices are in the cities. The castle and palaces of Cronberg, and the two other royal villas in Zealand, do not merit a particular description, the buildings and gardens being generally in an antiquated taste. In T, AND Navigation. The chief inland navigation of Denmark is the canal of Kiel, so called from a consi- derable tov i? in the north of Holstein. This canal is in- tended to unite the Baltic with the river Eydar, which flows into the German sea. The extent of this important canal is about 20 British miles and a half; the breadth 100 feet at top and 54 at bottom ; the least depth is about 10 feet, so as to admit vessels of about 1 20 tons. It was be- gun in July 1777, and was finished in 1785. Manufactures and Commerce. At Copenha- gen are what are called the royal manufactures, in which Mr. Marshall says that 400 looms were employed, from the finest woollen cloth used at court, to that worn by the sol- diery. Other manufactures have also been recently en- couraged by the crown, which has paid more attention to commerce, and agriculture than to the arts and sciences. The chief exports of Denmark consist of native products. Jutland with the isles, Sleswic, and Holstein, generally ex- port corn to a considerable amount ; and the horses and cat- tle of the latter province furnish a supply to Holland. The chief products of Norway are wood, hides (chiefly those of the goat% with s Iver, copper, and iron : while Iceland exports dried fish, falcons and hawks, and eider-down. The commerce of this kingdom has been greatly improved since the acquisition of Altona, and the opening of the Kiel navigation. The colonies in the East and West Indies also supply some resources. DENMARK. 171 Climate and Seasons. The kingdom of Den- mark proper, may be. considered as possessing a humid and rather temperate climate. Yet the winter is occasionally of extreme severity, and the sea is impeded with ice. Nor- way, chiefly extending along the west side of the Scandina- vian Alps, exposed to the vapours from the Atlantic, is not so cold a region as might be conceived. Finmark indeed feels the utmost rigour of winter; while in Iceland, on the contrary, that season is unexpectedly moderate, so as ge- nerally to permit the natives to cut turf even in January. ooiL AND Agriculture. In Holstein and the south of Jutland the agriculture may be compared with that of iLUgland; the fields are divided by hedges and aitches ii excellent order, and sown with corn and turnips. Farther to the north, cultivation is less perfect In Nor- way the portion of arable ground is scanty, and far from sufficient to supply the consumption. That mountainous country is however abundant in pasture and cattle : which, as in Swisserland, are driven to the heights in summer ; and a patriotic society has so much encouraged agriculture, that within these fifty years estates have risen near one third in value. Rivers. In the kingdom of Denmark proper, the rivulets are numerous ; but scarcely a river of any note except the Eydar, the ancient boundary between Denmark and Germany. The chief river of Norway is th^ Glom or Glomen, which IS not navigable, but full of cataract, and shoals; yet about 50,000 trees are annually floated upon it to Frederick- stadt. It springs from the lake of Oresund on the north ot the Fcemund, and runs nearly south about 300 British miles. In Finmark the most considerable river is the Tana, which IS followed by the Alten ; both rising in the moun- lams to the north of Swedish Lapland, and flowing into the Arctic ocean. ' Lakes. The lakes in the Danish dominions are numerous, the most extensive being in the south of Nor- T'^^ fk ^u^ ^^^^ °^ ^'^'^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^ British miles ih length, but the breadth is in general little considerable, except towards the centre, where it is from 12 to 1 8 miles: it contains an island about ten miles in circumference, fer- tile in corn, pasture, and wood. Next is the lake of Rands 172 DENMARK. or Rands-S.on, which is near fifty miles in length, but nofe inoi-e than two in breadth. The lake of Ty ri is a beautiful piece of water, about fifteen miles in length and breadth, diversified with many bays and creeks : the environs are dehglitful, consisting of corn-fields, fertile meadows, and han-mg iorests, backed by lofty mountains towerini? above each other. ° Mountains. Norway is almost wholly an Alpine country ; the southern part of the Scandinavian chain run- ning nearly N. and ij. and terminating at the province of Romsdal, is called Langfiall, or the Long Mountains. Hence the part called Dofrafiall extends towards the east, ending above the lake of Aursunji or Oresund ; where It again proceeds alnjost due north. Here also a consider- able branch proceeds by Swucku, &c. towards Sweden. The third part of the range, from the north of Oresund and the vicinity of the copper mines of Roras, is called the Cham of Kolen, extending between Norway and Swedish Lapland, and afterwards bending in the form of a horse- shoe, on the south of Finmark. The height of these mountains has been extremely ex- aggerated. The following have been measured to their bases, or to the next adjacent waters ; Areskutan, a soli- tary mountain of Jaemtland, about four or five Swedish miles from the highest Alps which separate Norway and Sweden, is said to be 6162 English feet above the nearest rivers; Swuckustoet within the borders of Norway, 4658 above Lake Faemund, and that lake is thought to be 2 or 3000 above the sea ; and finally SylSaellen, on the borders of Jaemtland, is 3132 feet perpendicular from the height to the base. Vegetable and Animal Productions. The botany of Denmark proper does not materially differ from that of the northern provinces of the German empire, which has already been slightly sketched in the account of Prussia. That of Norway will be incorporated with the vegetables of the rest of Scandinavia, under the article Sweden. There is a great diversity in the animal productions of the Danish dominions. The horses of Norway and Iceland are as remarkable for diminutive size, as those of Holstein are for the contrary quality. Among the more peculiar animals may be first named the rein-deer, com- DENMARK. 173 mon in Finmark and throughout Lapland. This animal resembles a stag, but is stronger ; and the deep division of his hoofs IS adapted to tread on the snow, being suited by Providence to a cold climate, as the camel is to the hot desert. 1 he elk is a more southern animal, and sometimes appears m Norway, which is infested by the bear, the wolf, and the lynx. 1 he lemming, or Norwegian mouse, pro- ceeds from the ridge of Kolen, and sometimes spreads de- solation hke the locust. These animals appear in vast numbers, proceeding from the mountains towards tli • sea, and devouring every product of the soil: it would seem th!l T''''?'""'*"^ ^''^^y thing eatable in their course, they at last devour each other. This singular creature is ot a reddish colour, and about five inches in length, i. or- TniL f° ?^'*' ""^ *'.''^^"' ^"'^ '^^ f^J^ons are reckoned the vart^inmh "^"^'^^^T^"^^^ P^'-t of the Laplander's food ; and vast numbers are transported on rein-deer from the shores ot the Tana. Hares are also common in that remote re- aTd"'th: r" "' '^' ^'''' ^y"^' ^"^ f°^ ' "°^ -^e the glutton and the beaver unknown. About Roras in Norway the latter animal is sometimes found white ^ Minerals. About the year 1645 some gold ore was found near Arindal, of which ducats were s ruck The mines of Kongsberg, about 40 British mu" to he t We aTd o'n '' """'^"^r ^'^" ^°"^ ^^P^^^^ ''^^ richest in i^urope , and one mass of native silver in the roval cabinet weighs 409 marks, being M'orth 3000 rixlSolSror 1^^^^^^^ feet in"tLt?sf ' Th ^''^-.^^^f--^^ to more' than two leet in thickness. These mines were discovered in 1622 to rid'TboT ro ooof "^ "^^^ ^^ '' '^'^^^'^^^ "-^ emn . , u ^^'°°^^- annually, when 4000 men were mnes at I ossum, 20 miles to the north, and itissuDDosed that the produce barely defrays the expence ^^ ^ miles s"Tn?n 'T.^'' ""^""^ °^ ^°^'^«' ^^out 68 British Teins «t f • ^f ^''^"theim, were discovered in 1644. The ore of a nT "'I '"'^^'? '^ ^^^ ^"^ "^ thickness ; and t e verv LnH^ ' ^'"°r- ^" ^""^^^^ the mines of Koras are very productive, and a source of considerable revenue Th s': "Ll"- M ^''^^^1 '' ^^^^""^ -^ ^ recen dTse^o" potrnnd'"i'lilT '- •''"'^'' '^"^' "^^^' "^ P-»"»- / a«« i^v«vvi««n, rtuu in colour. P 2 nng starch ; and tne 174 DENMARK. mine is supposed to produce r clear annual revenue to the crown of about \ 5,000/. But the iron mines of Norway are esteemed the mo»t profitable. Lead appears in the vicinity of Kongsberg; and there are alum works near Christiana. Natural Curiosities. The northern provinces of Norway afford many -singular features. The Malstrom, is a remarkable whirlpool off the shore of Norland, which will involve boats, and even ships ; nay the bellowing strug- gles of the whale have not always redeemed him from the danger ; the bottom is full of craggy spires, and the noise truly trernendous. The volcanoes of Iceland may also be classed among the grandest features of nature. Among these, Mount Hekla is the most remarkable ; it rises to the height of about 5000 feet above the sea. The summit is covered with snow, except some spots where the heat pre- dominates. The craters are numerous, but the eruptions rare; there having only been ten from the year 1104 to 1 693, after which it remained quiet till 1765, when it emit- ted flames and lava. The boiling springs of Iceland pre- sent a singular phenomenon ; that of Geyser to the nonh of Skallholdt is the most remarkable, rising from an aperture 19 feet in diameter, and springing at intervals to the height of 50 or even 90 feet. DANISH ISLANDS. THE prime seat of the Danish monarchy having ever •been in the isles of Zeeland, Funen, Laland, Falst^r, and the others of that group, they have been considered in the general description of the monarchy. In the east, the far- thest isle belonging to Denmark is that of Bomholm, a 'Small but fertile spot. Off the west coast of Jutland are the isles of Nordstrand, Fora, Sylt, Rom, Fanoe, and others. The Norwegian coast presents^ one continued series of gtnskM and unimportant islands, most of them indeed unin- habited. The Norwegian isles are in general mountainous or crag- gy, like the corresponding coast, with precipitous rocks ^id a sea from iop to 300 fathoms deep washing their DENMARK. 174 venue to the The Ferroe isles are an appanage of the Danish crown : thpv are seventeen in number, and not unfertile, producing son barley, and abundant pasturage for sheep. Small junipers, stunted willows, and birches, alone bear a dimi- nutive image of trees. They were discovered prior to Ice- land, in the ninth century ; and export feathers, eider-down, caps, stockings, salted mutton, and tallow. The inhabitants do not exceed '^OOO. The large a. a celebrated island of Iceland may be re- garded as 260 British miles in length from the most west- ern cape to the most eastern, and about 200 in breadth from N. to S. but the inhabitants do not exceed 50,000. The government was an aristocratic republic for about 387 years, till in 1261 it submHted to Norway. In the mid- dle of the fourteenth century this isle was greatly depopu- lated by a pestilence called the Black Death. A volcanic island recently arose to the south of Iceland, but afterwards disappeared'. From Iceland a colony passed to Greenland, a short course of about 200»miles ; but the Danish colony in Gneenland has been long explored in vain, the eastern coast on which it was set Jed being since blocked up by fNordstrand, V ' Ai -,%. %. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) y ucATioN. The manner of education has, as usual, been neglected by travellers and geographers, though perttaps one of the most important branches in the whole circle of human affairs. Compared with this primary foundation, an enumeration of universities is of small con- sequence. That of Upsal is the most ancient and renew n- ed, containing about 500 students ; while that of Lunden presents about 300. A third is at Abo in Finland, fre- quented even by students from Russia ; and the whole num- ber is computed as equalling that of Upsal. There are besides twelve literary academies, most of which publish memoirs of their transactions. The library at Upsal is richly furnished with books remitted by Gustaf Adolph, "when his victorious ai ms penetrated deeply into Germany ; Sweden having thus acquired by war the first materials of her literary fame. Cities and Towns. Stockholm, the capital of Sweden, stands in a singular situation, between, a creek, or inlet of the Baltic sea, and the lake Maeler. It occupies seven small rocky islands, and the scenery is truly singular and romantic. " A variety of contrasted and enchanting views is formed by numberless rocks of granite, rising boldly from the surface of the water, partly bare and crag- gy, partly dotted with houses or feathered with wood." Most of the houses are of stone or brick, covered with white stucco : except in the suburbs, where several are of wood painted red, as usual in the country of Sweden. This city was founded about the middle of the thirteenth cen- tury ; and in the seventeenth century, the royal residence was transferred hither from Upsal. The entrance to the harbour is through a narrow streight, of somewhat diffi- SWEDEN. ,gf a castie, an arsenal, and several academips Ti,« «,« / ture, are few, of g..„, china, ^^^SSi, llt^"^^; a population of 9n nnn tK« ^"»«" city m Sweden, having: Ch'aiies I^or raSeTb/^^^^^^^^^ '^V"^^^ '^^ derable commerce the hpr^.^nl A P^' besides consi- rich Gothenbii The strii?'^ fishery contributes to en- wmcijuurg. 1 He streets are Uniform • an a *u^ • cumference is computed at near three mileT ' "* ""■■ Edifices. Even includine the mval n.i Sweden cannot boast of many SDlendW 17k P*"?^?'' roads are in general far snpS^r^o tho" . of nl"'" J^^. Norway, which seem unaccountably negtee^^^!?'^ '"f bemg the ve=7 stamina of national^mXmen! '' ""^' has b'erp''a?dtiXVL%atio*'n'':irt,!rct^^^^^ been to fo™ a canal betweeSkhoIm and Go.S '"' Wener; and by the riverS?,"' °'«' ,«''»« '» tliat of already in some measure ™rpIeM ^"'^ "''"S" « manutes are Tr ^frL"^ bei"' ""'" '"''« Swedish chieay of thoseofirTaiSTeel wfth"rrT' ""'''""B and sail cloth Th. ™o„r.''" '^'°""' ''«"' watches. and the construction o^lf™ T' "^ "=°PP'' '""' •>««'» In "«,it waTcoZu°edtK'f4 0or"P^ ""'"'' '""«'»• those ofwool, silk, and cotton nf .■ *"* e°>P'oyed in i i ♦ 183 mmmtmmmmmmm SWEDEN. copper. Herring6 also form a considerable article. The chief import is corn of various kinds, particularly rye, Sweden rarely affording a sufficiency for her own con- sumption ; with hempf tobacco, sugar, coffee, drugs, silk, wines, &c. Mr. Coxe has published a table of the Swedish commerce, whence it appears that the exports then amount- ed to 1,368,830/. 13«. 5rf. and the imports to 1,008,392/. I2«. iid. so that the balance in favour of Sweden was about 360,000/. • Climate and Seasons. The different parts of Sweden present considerable varieties of temperature. The gulph of Bothnia becomes one field of ice ; and tra- vellers pass on it from Finland by the isles of Aland. In the most southern provinces, the climate may be compared to that of Scotland, which lies under the same parallel ; but the western gales from the Atlantic, which deluge the Scotish Highlands with perpetual rain, and form the chief obstacle to improvement, are little felt, in the north the summer is hot, by the reflection of the numerous moun- tains, and the extreme length of the days ; for at Tornea, in Swedish Lapland, the sun is for some weeks visible at midnight ; and the winter in return presents many weeks of complete darkness. Face of the Country. Soil and Agriculture. No country can be diversified in a more picturesque man- ner, with extensive lakes, large transparent rivers, winding sta'eams, wild cataracts, gloomy forests, verdant vales, stu- pendous rocks, and cultivated fields. The soil is not the most propitious ; but agriculture is conducted with skill and industry, so as much to exceed that of Germany and Denmark. Even Finland presents many rich pastures, and not a few fields of rye, oats, and barley. * Rivers. Sweden is intersected by iiumerous rivers, the largest of which are in the native language called Elbs, or Elfs. The most considerable flow from the lakes, with- out any great length of course ; such as the Gotha, the only outlet of the vast lake of Wener, but impeded by many rocks and cataracts. The most important is the river Dahl, consisting oftwo conjunct streams, which rise in the Norwegian Alps, give name to the province of Dalarn, or Dalecarlia, and, after a course of about 260 British miles, enter the Bothnic gulph ; not far from its mouth is a cata- ract, esteemed little inferior to that of the Rhine at ^chaff- SWEDEN. 183 ?.J^ Vk perpendicular height being between 30 and 40 teet. 1 he surrounding scenery also assists the effect, which IS truly sublime. ' . Jc!?^^!!,^'**?'^ "°"''' ^"^ '" Swedish Lapland, are many AIns rJ'fl "'^^'*' ""^''^ '-^'^^ ^^'«^ f*^"* the Norwegian a'lt^soo'm'n^^^^^^^ ''^^"'P' of Bothnia, after circuit's of Lakes. Few countries can rival Swedsn in the nrnv?n '""^ oT^k"" °^ ^"^^^' ^^^'^^ ^ear in almost every province. Of these the most important is the Wener. brSh'if'"' ^^"^^"^ ""^^ in length by abouV sS in breddth,in great part surrounded with forests,.and rocks and conflfnc"^* ^ '^''^'''^.^ ^t "^^»''' ^^«""d* ^it»» fish, and contains many romantic isles. in W^adth ' wK^k'''';Ii^ ^^^' °^ "^"^* '^"&th but inferior m breadth, which seldom exceeds twelve miles. This ect%n^i?^/"''°"'!u^'^ '^i;^ mountains is particulariy sub- ject to storms in the stillest weather, whence arise man v popular tales and superstitions. ^ . The lake Meier, at the conflux of which with the Baltic miles" intn'th f^ .of Stockholm, is about sfxtyB^Uih wi h Di"tuf"fn. ^^ ,^^&hteen in breadth, and is sprinkled w th pictui-esque isles. And to the S. W. is the lake of H eimar, more remarkable for its proposed utUity in the inland navigation than for its extent ^ Mountains. Sweden may be in general regarded cltrTsr''-Tn"^""'7 ' ^" ^^^'h respit hi stfS contrasted with Denmark proper, or Jutland, and the isles .The chief mountains are in that elevated chain ^vhich dL' vides Sweden and Swedish Lapland from NorwaV from v^hich successive branches run in a S. E. direccion th« /^^F'^ABLE AND Animal Productions. * Under ^le direction of the colleges established for the improve- ment of agriculture, the peasants have, at length, in a%?Iat m a ure, corrected the natural sterility of their counTrT' snn; fr°"'^^^^ '/^'°"'' they now raise gmin enough to gfn» s=;tsf -sy^-s Of S "!'''"' *u'"'"' ^"""'y' o""- beans Ld^as 184 SWEDEN. dinavia, arc the Nbrway pine, and th* fir : of these there are immense forests spread over the rocky mountains, and deepening with their sullen hue the whole horizon ; thou- sands of giant growth are every winter overthrown by the storms, and allowed to perish where they fall from tire impossibility of transporting them to the sea ; others in more accessible situations, are converted to various hu- man uses ; the wood from its lightness and straightocss is excellent for masts and yards, and various domestic pur- poses ; the juice, as tar, turpentine, and pitch, is almost of equal value with the v/ood ; and the inner bark, mixed with rye meal, furnishes a coarse bread in time of scarcity. The mountain ash, the alder, the birch, and dwarf birch, and several kinds of willow, are found in the whole penin- sula ; the lime, the elm, the ash, and the oak, though grow- ing with freedom in the southern parts, are incapable of withstanding the rigours of a Lapland winter. The Swedish horses are commonly small but spirited ; and are preserved, by lying without litter, from some of the numerous diseases to which this noble animal is subject. The cattle and sheep do not seem to present any thing re- markable. Among the wild animals may be named the bear, the lynx, the wolf, the bea^ver, the otter, the glutton, the flying squirrel, &c. The rein-deer of Lapland is briefly described in the account of the Danish monarchy. Sweden also presents one or two singular kinds of falcons, and an infinite variety of game. Minerals. Sweden has some gold and silver mines, though they are not highly valued. Its copper mines are rich : the chief are in the province of Dalecar- lia. On the east of the town of Fahlun is a great copper mine supposed to have been worked for near a thousand years. The metal is not found in veins, bui in large masses ; and the mouth of the mine presents an immense chasm, nearly three quarters of an English mile in circumference, the perpendicular depth being about 1020 ieet. About 1 200 miners are employed. Copper is also wrought in Jemtland ; and at Ryddarhytte is found iron. Nor is Sweden deficient in lead : but iron forms the principal product, and the mine of Danaraora is particularly celebrated for the superiority of the metal, which in England is called Ore- grund iron, because it is exported from Oregrund an adja- cent port, where the Bothnic gulph joins the Baltic. Berg- SWEDEN. 185 man describes the iron mine of Taberg in Smoland, as consisting of bed. of ore, of a blackish brown, separated by beds of mould without any stone. Xhis enormous mi- neralpile is rivalled by an entire mountain of iron ore near lornea, in Lapland; and at Luleo the mountain of Celli- var forms a mass of rich iron ore, of a blackish blue, ex- tending like an irregular vein for more than a mile, and in thickness from 300 to 400 fathoms. SWEDISH ISLANDS. Sweden possesses many islands, scattered in the Baltic sea and gulph of Bothnia. Kugen, the most southerly, aflFords as it were a passage to the Swedish possessions in Pomerania. It was annexed to Sweden by the treaty of Westphalia, and ,t is not a little productive in grain and nti^J M i^^;, *? ^^^ "^"^^ ^^*' ^* ^^^ long island of 2i.?t .;v' ^^^f"\^" ^^"gt'* ^bo"t seventy milesTin breadth !-♦» I 7 •\5*''*^^* ^*-' ^"'^^ ^"* strong, and the fo- rests abound with deer, nor is the wild boar unknown. Next occurs the island of Gothland, about seventy miles in kngth, and twenty.four in breadth; a fertile district re- markable for an excellent breed of sheep. The isles of Aland mark the entrance of the Bothnic gulph, deriving their name from the largest, which is about forty miles ia ength, and fifteen in breadth, containing about 9000 inha- bitants, who speak the Swedish language, though included m the government of Finland. Q2 PORTUGAL, i;t THE ancient name of this country was Lusitania ; that of Portugal is of recent ori};;in. In the Koman period there was a town called Calle^ now Oporto, near the mouth of the river Douro ; and, this having been enynently dis- tinguished, acquired the name of Porto Caile; which, as the country was gradually recovered from the Moors, was improperly extended to the whole kingdom. Extent. Portugal extends about 360 British miles in length by 120 in breadth ; and is supposed to con- tain about 27,280 square miles, which, with a popu- lation of 1,838,879, will yield 67 inhabitants to the mile square. Original Population. The original population of Portugal may be traced in that of Spain, and has un'Ser- gone the same revolutions. Historical Epochs. The historical epochs of so recent a state cannot be numerous ; nor is it necessary to recur to those ancient events, which more property be- long to the general history of Spain. 1 . The kings of Asturias subdue some of the Moorish chiefs of the north of Portugal. In 1054 Ferdinand king of Castile extends his conquests to Coimbra ; and on shar- ing his dominions among his sons, Don Garcia, along with (ialicia, had a part, of Portugal, whence he is styled on his tomb, A. D. 1090, Fex Portu^alia et GalUcie. 2. Alphonso VI. brother of Garcia, and king of Castile, havinj;; favourably admitted several French princes to his court, among them was Henry, whom he nominated count of Portugal, adding his natural daughter Theresa in mar- riage. The count signalized himself by many victories PORTUGAL. isr I. of Portugal, who m the year 1 1 j9 gains an illustrious Victory over five Moorish princes, and iJ acclaimed C^^^^^ his troops upon the field of battle. ^ ^ 3. Alphonso III. about the year 1254, comnletes the conquest of Algarve.-Portupal continued to be fi,rt J e ma succession of great princes; but the wars a^-ains the Moors were unhappily followed by those against the kings 4. Portugal vyas to attract the admiration of Europe bv her commercml discoveries. In 1415 John the G^eat king of Portugal, carrying his arms into Africa, and takbg the c.ty of Ceuta, an impulse was j-iven to the nationaS Maildra The l' T '"' '^-^ ^°^^"^'"^«^ ^ posseSf Madeira. 1 he Portuguese discoveries in Africa proceeded under John's successors, Edwai-d, and Alpi.onso V Ind he auspices of Pnnce Henry, till, in the reign of JohnTi Ei:TvilV^\^''''' "'^°°^ Hoi,e>andinthaVof Lmanuel, V asco de Gama opened the East Indies. 5. John III. admits the inquisition, A. D. 1526- since .vhich event the Portuguese monarchy'has rapidly decS 6. bebastian kmg ot Portugal leads a powerful armv on an Idle expedition into Africa, and is slain in battle He°s succeeded by his m.cle Cardinal Henry ; who dyint two Tpain, iTsa ^' '"''"^'^ "" '''''' by' Philip' iTki'ng of 7. The revolution of 1640, which placed the house of Braganza on the throne of Portugal. Little of consequence has since arisen, except the eai thquake at Lisbon in"755 and the recent intermarriages with Hpain, which pmmise at no remote period, to unite the kingdoms. P^°"^*^^' ri,;.fl T'.?'"'''''^^- '^^^ antiquities of Portugal consist chiefly of Roman monuments, with a few Moorish rer^ains merly a Roman aqueduct. Amon^ the antiquities of the n^iddle ages may be named the noble^ monastery of Batalha m Urtuguese 1 stramadura, about 60 miles to the norf h^f Lisbon, founded by John I. 'at the closTotLe fourteenth century in consequence of the ,reut victoiy over the khg cIlieH th'V°"^u?^''^^ "^^^^ "^I^J^ monuments of whani called the Gothic style of architecture. Catho^fc'-'Tra stit' r"^^'" of Portugal is the Roman "wojic , and a strict observance pf its duties forms one 138 PORJUGAL. of the national characteristics. There are two archbishop- rics, and ten episcopal sees : and there is besides a patri- arch. The niimber of parishesi approaches four thousand. Government, &c. The constitution of Portugal is a monarchy, absolute and hereditary ; yet in case of the Ling's demise without male issue, he is su xeeded by his next brother ; whose sons heve however no right to the throne til! confirmed by the states. The chief articles of the constitution are contained in the statutes of Lamego, issued by Alphonso I. in 11 45. The laws have few parti- cularities : they are lenient in cases of theft, which must be repeated four times before death be the punishment. Divisions and Population. Portugal is divided into six provinces. Two being on the north of the king- dom, two in the middle, and two in the south. The popu- lation of the whole is, according to Boetticher, 1,838,879 ; but by Murpliy's statement, 2,588,470. Army, &c. The army is only computed at about 24,000 ; and the militia might perhaps amount to as great a number. The naval power, once considerable, is reduced to thirteen sail of the line, and fifteen frigates. Revenues. The revenue is calculated at 2,000,000/. sterling, and the gold of Brasil mostly ptisses to England in return for articles of industry. Political Importance ANr Relations, Por- tugal retains small influence in trie political scale of Eu- rope. Her commsrce is almost wholly dependent on England ; but by land she is exposed to no danger except from Spain, or by the consent of Spain. The union of the two countries would doubtless be advantageous to both ; but might prove detrimental to English commerce, and the weight of England in the Portuguese councils would iiifallibly subside. Manners and Customs. The manners and cus- toms of the Portuguese are discriminated into those of the northern and southern provinces, the former being more industrious and sincere, the latter more polite and indolent. In general the Portugiiese are an elegant race, with regu- lar features embrowned by the sun, and dark expressive eyes. The prejudices of nobility are as common and per- nicioua in Portugal as in Spain ; nor is that general inler- cour'^e found which imparts knowledge and vigour to so- cietv. Lcidies of rauk still imitate the industry of their . PORTUGAL. 189 ancestors in spinning flax from the distaff : and the orienta' manner of sitting on cushions on the floor is often practis- ed. The dress resembles the Spanish. The peasantry re- main mis«rable vassals of the Fidalgos, or gentlemen. Language. I'he Portuguese language is more re: ^ote fiom that of Castile than might be er.pected from the circumstances. As the royal race was of French ex- tract, It 18 supposed that many of the words are derived trom tue Limosin and other dialects of the S. of France It is a grave and solemn speech. Public Schools. Edwcation seems greatly ne- glected in Portugal, though the university of Coimbra be of ancient date. Th^tof Evora was founded in 1553 ; and a college at Masra in 1772. The royal academy is of re- St*'''*''^^°"' an^ the design aspires to considerable public Cities and Towns. Lisbon, the capital city of Portugal, was called by the ancients Ulyssippo, and the foundation fabulously ascribed to Ulysses. The situation IS grand, on the north side of the mouth of the Ta^o, and is sheltered on the N. W. by a ridge of hills. The haven is capacious and excellent. The population is computed at about 200,000. The earthquake of 1755, a dreadful and memorable epoch among the inhabitants, has contributed to the improvement of the city, the new streets beinr broad and well paved, resembling those in the west end of Lon- don, Ihe ppTiarchal church is singularly magnificent; and the revenue is computed at 114,000/. The Eniclish have an open burial f^round. The royal monastery of Be- lew, iouiiaedby kmg Emamiel in 1499, stands about five r.nies b. W. of Lisbon ; and to the north is a noble modern aqueduct completed in 1732. The next considerable and only town we shall notice is Oporto ; seated on the N. side of the river Douro, about live miles from the sea, upon the declivity of a hill, so that the houses rise hke an amphitheatre. The streets are llo^/ever narrovv, and the hr-uses ill constructed. The churches are of little note : the British factory is a larce and neat ouildiug. The chief exports are wine, oranges, le- mons, Sec. and linen cloth to the American colonies in iJrasil. r.fi, ^^■^'^'^s. The chief edifices of Lisbon are the catnedral, and monasteries, formerly mentioned. The no- 190 PORTUGAL. bilitjr, as in Spain, crowd to the capital, whence the coun- try is littie decorated with villas. Under this head may be also classed a noule aqueduct of two leagues, which conveys water from the rock of Liquor for the use of the city. Under the grand arch of this beautiful edifice, a frigate might pass in full sail. Inland Navigation. Portugal seems to have paid no attention whatever to the construction of canals ; nor perhaps are they found necessary, in a country abound- ing with rivers, and bordered with an ample extent of sea coast. Manufactures and Commerce. The Portu- guese manufactures are few and unimportant ; hats and paper have been lately fabricated at Lisbon ; but the chief manufactories are those of woollen cloth at Covilham, Portalegre, and Azeitaon. A considerable commercial intercourse subsists with England ; but the balance in favour of the latter appears to be about 400,000/. sterling : and Ireland gains by her ex- ports about 63,000/. annually. The Falmouth packets bring frequent remittances of bullion, coin, diamonds, and other precious stones ; and tor a considerable time the Portuguese gold money was current in England. Besides woollens and hardware, England transmits to Portugal large cargoes of salted and dried fish, the last article to the annual amount of about 200,000/. The exports of Portugal are chiefly wine, oil, oranges, lemons, figs, sugar, cotton, cork, drugs, and tobacco. Portugal also maintains a con- siderable trade with her flourishing colony in Brasil, the inhabitants of which are computed at 900,000. The arti- cles exported to America are chiefly woollens, linens/stuffs, gold and silver lace, fish dried in Portugal, hams, sausages, &c. with gl 3s manufactured at Marinha. Brasil returns gold, silver, pearls, precious stones of various descriptions, rice, wheat, maize, sugar, molasses, ornamental timber, and many other articles rather curious than important. The drugs, spices, and articles used in dying must not however be omitted. The trade with the East Indies is inconsiderable ; and that with the other European nations scarcely deserving notice. Some .trade is also carried on with the American states. Climate and Seasons. The climate of Portugal is familiarly known to be most excellent and salutary. At PORTUGAL. 19{ Lisbon the days of fair weather are computed to amount to 200 in the year ; and those of settled rain seldom exceed 80. 1 he medial heat is generally about 60*». RivBRs. The chief rivers and mountains of Por- tugal have been already enumerated in the description of Spam. ^ Vegetable and Animal Productions. The vegetable and animal productions of Portugal may be re- prded as the same with that of Spain. The horsrs are however much inferior. The sheep are also neglected, and far from numerous ; but swine abound, and are fed wi€h excellent acorns, 8Q that the Portuguese hams are de- servedly esteemed. Minerals. The mineralogy of Portugal has been almost as much neglected as the agriculture. In the two northern provmccs are seen immense mines, supposed to , ""^ ''^liif ^''^^^ ^y the Romans. The mouth of the .^^^^^■P^^°"&h th^ »o^»d rock,,,|| a mile and a half in circum|pnce,and upwards of 500 fletdeep ; at the bottom n meas»s'2,400 feet by 1,400. MShy subterranean pas- ^*^f PW*^^ mountain like a labyrinth, and the whole works are^ the grandest scale. Small veins of gold have been observed in the mountains of Goes and Estralla: and it is still found in the siind of some streams. Under the domination of the Spaniards, a mine of silver was worked, not far from firaganza, so late as the year 1628 lin was also found in various parts of the northern pro- vinces. There are lead mines at Mursa, Lamego, and togo ; copper is found near Elvis and in other districts Ihe iron mmes are neglected, from a deficiency of fuel • though coal be found jn different parts of the kingdom* and that of Buarcos supply the royal foundery at Lisbon' Lmery is found near the Douro j and many beautiful mar- bles abound in this kingdom. Fullers earth occurs near uuimerans. Portugal also boats of antimony, manganese, Uismuth, and arsenic ; and near Castello-Branco are mines pt quicksilver. Rubies have been discovered in Algarve • jacinths in the rivers Cavado and Bellas ; beryl or aquama* nnem the mountain of Estralla. th .^^"^J^*^^ Curiosities. On the north bank of e river x^ourt) is a high massy cliiT, with engraved letters or hieroglyphics, stained with vermilion and blue: be- neath which is a grotto supposed to abouTid with bitumen. SWISSERLAND. THE provinces now koo^wn by the collective name of Swisserland, were in ^cient times disting^jshed by several appellations. By the Romans they wcfc »|^j||ded as a part of Gaul ; and the chief possessors were tt|K|Helvetii on the west, and the Rhseti on the east ; the chj^ city of the Helvetians' be. ug Aventicum, now Avench^ On its emancipation, m the beginning of the fourtee^plentury, from the house of Austria) first appeared th|p|^dem de- nomination of Swisserland, fltber derived ^pocni the canton of Schweitz, distinguished in ilbat revolution, or from the general name of Schweitzers, givea by the Austrians to this alpine people. Extent. In length from east to west, Swisserland extends about 200 British miles ; and in breadth, from north to south, about 1 30. The contents in square miles have been estimated at 14,960 ; but the greater part is lost to human industry, consisting of vast rocks, partly covered with eternalice and snow. Even of this country, the boun- daries are rather arbitrary than natural ; though on the west mount Jura forms a grand division from France ; and on the south tMfe Pennine Alps, a partial barrier from Italy. On the east lies the Austrian territory of Tyrol, and on the north is Swabia, containing, as it were an excrescence of Swisserland on the other side of the Rhine, the small can- ton of Schaff hausen. Divisions. The Swiss league, before the French Six of the \j\FZi JX:SX.\iXJ. TJX. I.ZXZ1 t.^vxz cantons, together with their subjects and allies cantons are Protestant, and seven Roman Catholic SWISSERLAND. 19 j ; ,.®*'/:'*'AL Population. The original population .s thought to have been Celtic; yet it vrould be difficuk, either from history or from ancient appellations, to trace the residence of the Celts in Swisserland ; and there is every reason on the contrary to believe that the Helvetians were a <:,othic race, a very ancient colony of Germans Historical Epochs. The chief historical epochs may be arranged m the following order : 1. The wars with the Romans; the subjugation of the Helvetii and Rh^ti, and the subsequent events till the de- dine ot the Roman empire in the west ii,!v'^^I ^''^"P'jfip^^ Alemanni in the beginning of fj' ^Jt^ subjugA)nof the irestern part of Swisserland as ttion of Bua^^^K '!!f^2?°^«' -^° annexed tha Fert fn^LiS*'*^^*^ u ^ ^f^* °» the east were sub- ject toJB^onc, and other lun^ of Italy. ?nverBion of the coui^ to Christianity by the Columbanua, GaUi^ and others, in the beein- leventh century. ^ Siwion of Alemanni 1 by the Huns in the year the mi^dlJ';;^^^^^'*'"'' "^'' ^'"^ barbarians^iU 6. About the ymt 1030 the provinces which now consti ^ e Swisserland beg«t to be regarded as a part of the em pire of Germany ; and in the course of two centuries th^v gradually became subject to the house of Hapsburg ^ \ D T^n7''''T*?''^'"u"' °^ '^'^ Swiss emancipation, of Auslria ' " «"'^«^^le as a strict alliance with ™a!!e ih. proximity to France introduced the lan- oftheirri^ '*"""■ J^^'o^'^of Austria, were the cause corr„«^''T *'"' Customs. Amidst the seneral ri,7L^^ of manners, those of the Swiss have lonl ex pendent ThlT '''"' ■"""' """^""''^ and frSndel Sithe "• , It^Tr "■* ?\"'"'.'y instructed of wood, vM .I.-- P"* '°™' *'"> staircases on the outsid/' ."y an^^lte JlT^h'"''?'''"''"' "> '"''" "«'™ 'or- nate their existence ThU • °' ■^'"™ """•« """■•mi- able, and Hable to be awaken^SbTr" ''?°^'. '^"=^'''- cumstances. Hence inThe Frl.^ the most minute cir- tiie Ranees de" Vaches oft^n^ ^ armies the tune called n>«ds when thev went m .h !"^ ^^ ""^ ^"''^ ™i^- dieted, tecause iTrnZHtf^""''"; ™' <^'"-"''«"y '"ter- .ars k„dSLli;:rp;^LTdt?.r ^"'''^ 196 SWISSERLAND. ! i Education. The important subject of education has been little illustrated by the travellers into Swisserland ; but as they testify their surprise at the knowledge general- ly prevalent among the peasantry, there is reason to infer that this useful province is not neglected. There is an university of some reputation at Geneva, and another at Basel ; with colleges at Berne, Zurich, and Lucerne. Cities and Towns. In enumerating the chief cities and towns of Swisserland, according to the compara- tive standard of population, Basel will engage the first at- tention, being supposed to contain 14,000 souh. This city stands in a pleasant situation upon the banks of the Rhine, here broad, deep, and rapid. It crowns both banks, and is united by a bridge. The cathedral is an ancient Gothic edifice, containing the tomb of the great Erasmus ; and the university has produced many illustrious men. Bern claims the next rank to Basel, possessing a popula- tion of about 1 3,000. This city is of singular neatness and beauty, the streets being broad and long, and the hgiuses of grey stone resting on arcades. There are several streams and fountains ; and the river Aar almost surro«i»ids the city. Bern contains several libraries and collections of natural curiosities. Zurich is the third in rank among the Swiss cities, situ- ated on a large lake, amidst a populous and fertile country, which produces abundance of wine for domestic consump- tion. The college and plans of education are respectable; and the public library contains some curious manuscripts. Lausanne contains about 9000 inhabitants and is deserv- edly celebrated for the beauty of its situation, though in some spots deep and rugged. The church is a magnifi- cent Gothic building, having been a cathedral, while the Pays du Vaud was subject to the house of Savoy. Edifices. The chief edifices of Swisserland are in the cities, and hsive been already noticed. Commerce and Manufactures. Commerce and manufactures do not much flourish in this inland re- gion. Cattle constitute the chief produce of the country ; and some of the cheese forms an export of luxury. The chief linen manufactures were at St. Gal. Printed cottons, I ,i._i -»!-- ^ --~~; J-^_«l-,l;n r>i.4-!^1oo Aif col*» nnr are •lllll VVil(.i;iIC3 UI3V iUHil *-U113lUCi auiv ai ti-^^ivij \}z uAl-^-j '••J- silk manufactures unknown in Swisserlaud. SWISSERLAND. 197 Climate AND Seasons. The climate of Swisser- land IS deservedly celebrated as salubrious and delightful. From Its southern position considerable heat miRht be expected ; but this, though sufficient to mature the grape, IS attempered by the cold gales from the Alps and glaciers. When the sun descends beyond Mount Jura, on a sum- mer evening, the Alpine summits long reflect its splendour, and the lakes for near an hour assume the appearance of burnished gold. The winter is however in some parts ex- tremely severe ; and the summer heat in the deep vales sometimes oppressive. Rivers. The rivers of Swisserland are nume- rous ; and among the most sublime scenes of this country must be classed the sources of the Rhine and Rhone, twp 01 the most important streams in Europe. The Rhine rises in the country of the Grisons, from a glacier upon the summit of mount Badur, at the head of a valley, called the Rhinewald. From its source the Rhine pervades or borders Swisserland, for about the space of 200 British miles, running N. E. to the lake of Constance, whence it bends W. to Basel ; where it begins its lont? nor' thern course. ° The Aar arises in the Alp called the Grimsel, bending Its course to the N. W. till it arrives near Arberg, it after*- wards turns N. E. receives the Reuss and the Limmat, and joins the Rhine opposite to Waldshut, after a course of about 1 50 British miles. The Reuss, which divides Swisserland into two almost equal parts, eastern and western, springs from the lake of Lucendro on the xN. W. of St. Gothard. The Reuss joins the Aar, alter a course of about 80 British miles. The Rhone, a noble stream, can only be regarded as a Swiss river prior to its entering the lake of Geneva, after a course of about 90 British miles through that extensive vale called the Vallais. This river rises in mount Furca, the source being rather warm, and about 5400 feet above the sea, '.' Lakes. The lakes of Swisserland are numerous and interesting. The most considerable are those of Con- stance on the N. E. and (^fn»>va r.p *>.« c is/ tm.,. r... in some places 15 IS about 45 British miles in length, and in breadth R3 198 SWISSiERLAND. V I i I The lake of Geneva extends in the form of a crescent, about 40 British miles in length, and nine at its greatest breadth. The beauties of this lake have been celebrated by- Rousseau, but would be considerably increased if it were sprinkled with islands. Next to these are the lakes Mag- giore, and [.u[;ano. The lakes of Neufchatel and Zurich and some others of inferior note. Mountains. The mountains of Swisserland are the most celebrated in 1 urope ; and are supposed to yield in height to none, except those of South America. In a general point of view the Alps extend, in a kind of semi- circular form, from the j^ulph of Genoa through Swisser- land, which contains their centre and highest parts ; . and terminate in the Carnic Alps on the N. of the Adriatic sea. This chain has been divided into different portions, known by flistinct appellations. The maritime Alps are those which arise from the gulph of Genoa. Mont Genevre, whence springs the river Durance, was anciently named the AlpisCottia, from Cottius a prince who resided at Suza. Farther to the N. were the Alpes Graiae, now the little St. Bernard. The Alpes Penninae consisted of the great St. Bernard, Mont Blanc, and the grand chain extending on the S. of the Rhone, to the N. of modern Piedmont : the eastern part being also styled the Lepontine Alps, from a people who inhabited that region which gives origin to the Rhone and Tesino. The Rhaetian Alps extended through the Grisons and Tyrol, terminating in the Carnic, or Ju- lian Alps. That chain which pervades Swisserland, from mount Santez in the S. W. towards the sources of the Irm on the N. E. was known by the appellation of the Helvetian Alps. Some writers admit of more minute divisions, as the Tridentine Alps above Trent; and the Noric Alps above the source of the river Tagliamento. The extent of this vast course of mountains may be computed at about 550 British miles. Of all these stupendous works of na- ture Mont Blanc is the highest, being 15,662 feet above the level of the sea. Vegetable and Animal Productions. In no country, of which so great a proportion consists of lakes and mountains, can agriculture be carried to a great ex- tent. But there is no want of industry, and the grain seeuis sufficient for domestic consumption. Barley is cultivated even to the edge of the glaciers ; oats in regions a little 8WISSERLAND. 199 warmer ; rye in those still more sheltered ; and spelt in the warmest parts. Yet in general the produce does not exceed five for one ; and it has been found necessary to support public granaries, in case of any deficiency. The country being fitted by nature for pasturage, the chief de- pendence of the Swiss is on his cattle. A considerable quan- tity ot flax IS also cultivated, and tobacco has been lately introduced. Vines are cultivated in some of the districts. There is also abundance of fruit, apples, pears, plums, chernes, filberts ; together with mulberries, peaches, and other products of a uarmcrcHmatc. In the Alpine valleys, and along the course of the torrents, vegetation assumes a stately appearance; the juniper, the savine, the stone- pine, and alder, broken by nature into irregular thickets, diversify the scene. On the declivities of the mountains, commence the fo- rests ot larch, of pme, and fir, intermixed here and there with the yew, the mountain ash, and the birch. Where the firwoods cease, the subalpine regions begin, diversified with meadows and corn fields, and forests of deciduous trees The oak, the elm, the beech, the ash, he ime, and the hornbeam are tlie most prevalent, and he borders of the streams are shaded by poplars and wil- lows. The plants are chiefly those which occur in the north and midland parts of France and Germany 1 he hoi-ses of bwisserland are esteemed for vigour and spirit : and the cattle attain great size. Among the ani- mals peculiar to the Alps may be first named the ibex, or rock goat. Ihis ammal resembles the common goat: but the horns of the male are extremely lon;.^ and thick. The h7k' TK^V^"'* ^n' ^**'°"»'^d. With a black list along the - fe.r.f I ^l^ex.^i" mount a perpendicular rock of fifteen leet, at three springs, bounding like an elastic body struck against a hard substance. ""uysuucK Another singular animal is the chamois, which is com monly seen in herds of twenty or thirty with Tcentinel who alarms them oy asnrill cry. The colo^isyeL2rbrow„ but Ihey sometiines occur speckled. Tlie food is ihe lichen oHiss mountams. In summer thev feed on ninm. «i..„ J s"umm.''"'!f^''^''' ^'S^^"S ^^^"»'n^^« in the ground for (2 ' ^'^- ""'^^'^ ^°^ ^i»t^»*- About the beginiW of October, bavmg provided hay, they retreat to leir hojj^f 200 SWISSERLAND. ■where they remain torpid till the spring. The size is be- tween that of the rabbit and the hare. Amonja; Alpine birda may be named the vulture, called also the golden or beard- ed vulture. It inhabits the highest Alps, forming its nest in inaccessible rocks, and preying on the chamois, white hare, marmot, and sometimes on kids and lambs. Minerals. The mineralogy of this interesting country is not so important as we might be led to infer from its mountainous nature. Gold, copper and lead hnve been found in small quantities ; but the chief mines are those of iron in the country of Sargans. In the canton of htm, there are valuable quarries of rock salt: and it is said that coal and native sulphur are not unknown. Rock crystal forms perhaps the chielexportofSwisserland, being some- times found in such large pieces as to weigh seven or eight hundred weight. Natural Curiosities. To enumerate the na- tural curiosities of Swisserland would be to describe the country. The Alps, the glaciers, the vast precipices, the descending torrents, the sources of the rivers, the beauti- ful lakes and cataracts, arc all natural curiosities of the greatest singularity, and most sublime description. Of late the glaciers have attracted particular attention ; but those seas of ice, intersected with numerotisdeep fissures, owing to sudden cracks which resound like thunder, must yield in sublimity to those stupendous summits clothed with ice and snow, the latter often dtscendmg in what are called avalanches, or prodigious balls, which, gathering as they roll, sometimes overwhelm travellers and even vil- lages. On the north of Swisserland the Rhine, ne'>'' the village of Nauhasen, descends in a cataract of 40 feet ajindst. alack and horrid recks. Among the milder char- * f >a, oun- try may be named the lakes ; and the small lake of Kandel Steig bears at one extremity the charms of summer, while the other presents the glaciers and pomp of winter, Numerous rills, which descend from the mountains, often fali i. V iscades of great beauty, among which that of r*=;ni:; -ch h computed at 900 feet, over a rock as perpcn' dlc'Ak ' *8 a wall. GERMAN STATES. IN describing an extensive country, subdivided intoroaiiy states, it becomes indispensable to give a general idea of the whole, before the respective territories are delineated. The geography of Germany is the most perplexed of aiy region on the globe, the great divisions, or circles^ being now interwoven, and almost antiquated, while no modern and more rational distribution has yet appeared. Extent. Germany, considered in its modern li- mits, extends about 600 British miles in length, from the isle of Rugen in the north, to the southern limits of the circle of Austria. The modern breadth, from the Rhine to the eastern boundary of Silesia, is about 500 British miles : anciently the breadth extended beyond the Vistula, about 200 miles more to the east. Original Population. This country appears to have been full of extensive forests, even in the Roman period, and of course to have been in many parts thinly peopled. The Cimbri, or modern Celts, possessed several tracts in the south, as they certainly occupied a larpe por- t!c . of the N. W. The N. E. of Germany was held by the Finnish nations ; but both were obliged to yield to the in- vasion of the Scythians or Goths who migrated westward hom their original seats on the Euxine, long before the Koman interference in the affairs of those countries. Historical Epochs. Some of the grand histori- cal epochs have already been mentioned, in describing those large portions of Germany, the Austrian and Prus- sian dominions ; and some of the others ma^ he briefl" hinted in the account of the respective states.' Suffice "it oereto mention: 1. The ancient period, chiefly resting on 20S GERMAN STATES. the ;ircount of the Roman and Francic historians. 2. The middle period. In the end of the eighth century, Charle- magne, having subdued the Saxons and other parts of Ger- many and Italy, was in the year 80C proclaimed emperor of the West. His successor Louis le Debonnaire held the empire with France ; but his son Lothaire I. was restricted to Germany. After many intestine commotions Henry duke of Saxony was chosen emperor in 918, and this line failing 1024, was followed by that oi" Franconia. In the twelfth century arose the factions of t'le Guelphs and Gi belines, and, after long contests, the sceptre was at length assigned to the house of Austria in 1273 ; and after some deviations continued to remain in that family. 3. The mo- dern period, which may be traced from Charles V. or from his grandfather Maximilian. Antiquities. The antiquities of Germany con- uist chiefly of a few Roman remains in the S. and W. It would be endless to enumerate the churches founded by Charlemagne ; or the numerous cartles erected by power- ful princes and barons. Religion. The religion f any fami- der the con- rman writer d be foreign »f Germany )00,000. It send forth a Illations are e revenues, tached, and nder the ar- iistoms, and The Saxon Horn of the Swabia, Ba- GERMAN STATES. 20S In the descriptions of the Austrian and Prussian domi- nions are contained many of the eastern provinces of Ger- "^f,"'':.. .A^®P»^*w*»ich remains is the western half, natu- rally divided mto two portions by the river Mayn. Rivers. Both portions are watered by numerous and miportant rivers. In the north the Kibe is the most distinguished stream, rising in the Sudetic mountains of bUesia, and entering the sea near Cuxhaven, after a com- parative course of more than 500 British miles. The chief cities on the banks of the Elbe are Dresden, Meissen, Wit- tenberg, Magdeburg, from which it runs almost a solitary stream to Hamburg. ^ Not far to the west is the mouth of the Weser, which first receives that name when its two sources, the Werra and the lulda join. Including the Werra, its chief branch, it flows about 270 British miles. The principal towns on this nver are Bevern, Minden, and Brenien. The sources and mouths of th■ 210 GERMAN STATES. In this northern half of Germany there are six or seven other smaller principalities, containing together about half a million of people ; besides the three ecclesiastical elector- ates of Mentz, Treves and Cologne, which contain about 300,000 inhabitants, each, and six or seven bishoprics of from 70,000 to 200,000 each : but some of these have been partitioned between France and Prussia. THE GERMAN STATES ON THE SOUTH OF THE MAYN. Electorate of Bavana conjoined with the Palatinate. —'Ducnxj of IVurtemburg. — Anspach .--mi^alzia .— Smaller St a tcs . — Jiccl€»iastic Poiver. IN the southern division, Austria excepted, the elector of Bavaria and the Palatinate is the chief of all the secon- dary powers, his dominions being computed at 16,176 miles square, ■'.'ith 1,934,000 inhabitants. The French having seized more than half of the Palatinate on the left bank of the Rhine, the remaining part, on the right bank of the river, is about twenty-four British miles in length, by the same at its utmost breadth ; but contaihs the best part of the principality, pervaded by the ri\er Neckar, produc- ing excellent wines, and enriched by the cities of Manheini and Heidelberg. In 1693 the Palatinate was rendered al- most a desert by the Vandalic ravages of the French. In the last war, after mangling the carcase, they claimed it us their own. The duchy of Bavaria is divided into Upper and Lower, and what is called the Higher Palatinate (or that of Bava- ria). The length from N. to S. is somewhat interrupted, but may be about 130 British miles, and the breadth about 1 20. Upper Bavaria is, in a great degree, mountainous, and covered with forests, interspersed with large and small lakes. Lower Bavaria is more plain and fertile. The chief mineral riches of Bavaria consist in the salt springs at Traunstein, which occupy many people in productive in* dustry. The religion is the Roman Catholic, which, as usual, damps the spirit of industry ; and the manufactures are of small account, the chief exports being corn and catde The revenue is computed at 1,166,600/. and the military IE MAYN. GERMxYN STATES. 211 force at 12,000. The chief city is Munich, esteemed the most elegant in Germany, with 38,000 inhabitants: in Lower Bavaria are Landshut and Strauben. The next potentate in the south is the duke of Wur- temburg, whose jjominions are computed at 3,200 square miles, with 600,000 inhabitants. His revenue is computed at 245,000/. his military force at 6,000. This duchy forms the most considerable and fertile part of the circle of Swa- bia ; and is, indeed, after Saxony, one of the best in the em- ^'''?*x. »*^ '''^^^^^" '^ ^P*^^*' ^"^^ some barley and wheat, with flax, &c. and the fertility suffices even for export? The wines of the Necker are not so abundant as to supersede the use of cyder. The chief river is the Necker, which, with the Nagold, and its other tributary streams, enlivens and fertilizes the duchy. The states consist of fourteen superior clergy, and the deputies of sixty-eight towns and bailliagcs. The religion is the Lutheran, with some Cal- vinists, and some colonies of the Vaudois. There are ma- nufactures of pottery, glass, woollen, linen, and silk ; which, with the natural products of the country, supply a conside- rable export: the imports are by Frankfort on the Mayn. 1 he chief city IS Stutgard, agreeably situated on a rivulet which flows into the Necker, and the ducal residence since the year 1321, Among ;he secondary powers, in this southern division 01 Ge''mr.ny,^must first be named Anspach, or Onolsbach, whir.. " reuth, maintains a population of 320,000 on -,300 s lies. These regions are mountainous and bandy ; I: the Mayn yield good wines. The chief mines are ^ on, the otfters being neglected. . The country of Salz, also called Salzia, and the arch- bishopric of Salzburg, is a compact and interesting re- gion, about 100 English miles in length, and 60 at its greatest breadth j computed at 2,880 square miles, and a population of 250,000 ; by Hoeck's account, only 200,000 1 he archbishop is primate of all Germany, the see beimr tounded by St. Rupert, an Englishman, in 7 1 6. Salzburg «as an university, with about 20,000 inhabitants. The Ro- jnan Catholic system has banished many industrious inha- bitants, who have chiefly taken refuse in the Prussian dnmS mons The salt works at Hallenr about twelve raUes "s ^i oalzburg;, are very lucrative. 212 GERMAN STATES. This grand southern division of Germany also contains the territories of tl»e Margrave of Baden, 832 square miles, with 200,000 inhabitants ; the lands of Hesse Darmstadt, belonging to another reigning branch of the house of Hes- sia, the imperial city of Nuremberg which has considera- bly declined, but still contains about 30,000 souls, while Ulm has not above half the number. To enumerate other •mall secular principalities would only«obstruct the inten- tion of this description, which is to impress on the memory the more important. But as the intention of secularizing the numerous eccle- siastical territories in Germany seems to be the politics of the day, it may be proper to add here, the names at least of the chief sees to the south of the Mayn. I . The archbishop. no of Salzburg, which has been already described. 2. The large bishopric of WwrtzbUrg, being chiefly on the north of the Mayn, has been mentioned before. 3. Bamburg. 4. The bishopric of Speyr, or, as the French call it, Spire, one half of which is now subject to France. 5. The bi- shopric of Aichstett, in the southern extremity of Franco- nia. 6. The large and opulent bishopric of Augsburg. 7. Of Constance, whose territories also extend into Swisser- land. 8. A great part" of the bishopric of Strasburg. 9. The large abbatial territories of Kempten, Buchan, and Lindau ; with the priory of Ellwangen in the north. 10. The bishopric of Passau. 1 1. That of Freysingen, with the county of Werdenfels. And 12. The bishopric of Ra- tisbon, which is of small extent. The lion and other beasts agreed to hunt in partnership ; it wguld be wise in some of the small partitioners of the ecclesiastical territory to re- collect the result of the fable. ITALIAN STATES. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. DiviaioriB, -^Boundaries j^^Extent. '■—Original Pofiulationf—f Present Population.'— -Face of the Country.— KiverSf— . Lakesj—Mountainsj— 'Botany.— Zoology. THE classical and interesting country of Italy has been 80 repeatedly described, that it has become familiar even to the common reader. This description shall therefoi-c be restricted to very narrow limits ; and will also of neces- sity be somewbat abridged by the present unsettled state of the country. We shall delineate only those lasting fea- tures of nature which no political change can influence. Divisions. Italy may be regarded as having been, in all ages of history, divided into three parts, the southern,^ the central, and the northern. The southern part having received many Greek colonies was honoured with the anci- ent appellation of Magna Graecia : the centre was the seat of Roman and Etrurian power ; while the northern was the Cisalpine Gaul. Boundaries, &c. The boundaries of this renown- ed country are deeply impressed by the hand of nature, in the Adriatic and Mediterranean seas, and the grand barrier of the Alps, which divide it from France, Swisserland, and Germany. The length of Italy from mount Rosa, the highest summit of the Italian Alps, to the Cape de Leuca, is about 670 British miles ; while the medial breadth be- furuAn ♦!■,— A Jl..:_<.:- 1 Tt/t-.Ui :_ .1 . . . »"vvn iiic x^uiiaui/ uiiu i.vicuii.cri'uii:;uii iu uuuui IWU ; out from the Adige, the recent limit of Austrian power, to the eastern frontiers of the new French departments of Liman 314 ITALIAN RTATr.S. wul Mont nianc (rormrrly Suvoy), the biTiulth In nhout 300 milei. The oriijiiuil pnpuUaioii of the loulh coiiHiNted of Pelui^i from the Pclopoiniciiuii ; the northern part of lllyrl- Ann, who were nuccecdcd hy (icrtnun ( iiiuU ; and the Ktnii- cans of the centre arc Raid to hwvchi'cn of I^'dian extnut. The Kuinuns rfecm to derive their origin fioni the early (Jrcek e.olonicn ; and their Iunj',*H\fifc was regarded as an ^oUc dialect of the (Ireek. It in ahnoul HUperfluoiit* to udd, that the rciij^ion in the Honiati Catholic. The preHcnt population of Italy, with the inlandH of Sicily and Sardinia, cannot he estimated at more than l.T,()()(),()()(). The kin^- dojn of NaplcN and Sicily contai!)» about ('t,0()0,0()() ; the central part about :),()00,()()0 ; and the northern about four. 'I'he manners, cuMtomii, and dialectH are variotm and diH* cordant, though the general lun^iiage be the Italian, c%- teemed the ptircHt in Tuscany) while the enunciation is most perfect at Home. Facr or Tni Con nth y. Italy prcRcntu a va- riety of scenery, decorated wilh nol)le architecttu'e, uh villas, venerable remains of ancient art, amidnt a climate generally serene, though liable to violent ruins. In the north the Hublime scenery of the Alps is contrasted wilh fertile plains. In the centre there are many nuirshcs and standing waters, which occasion a pernicious disiempe- raturc of the air. A great part of the king*lom of Naples is motmtainous ; but the country jrenerally beautiful ; yd ii» addition to the fiery eruptions of Vesuvius and Etna, it is exposed to the terrible eiVcct of fretjucnt eurlluiuukcs, and the enervating sirocco. IhvRus. Italy is interai'ded with rivers in almost every direction, of wliich the Po is by far the most larnc and extensive. I'hisj noble river, called by the ancients Paduu and Eridanua, rises on the very confines of I'runcc and Italy. Thus descending from the centre of the west- ern ^Alps, it passes to the N. E. of Salurzo, to Turin; receiving even in this short space many rivers, as tiic Varitta, Maira, and Cirana from the S. and from the N. the Eelice, Sa^^on, and others. After leaving the walls of Turin, the Vo receives inmnncrablo rivers and rivulets from the Alps in the N. and the Apennines in the S. Among the former may be named the Doria, the Tesino, the Adda, the Oglio, the Mincio. Erom the south the Vo first receives the copious Alpine river Tanarq, itself swc|- ITAI.IAM STATI-B. jj^ In! I)y the miba, lloimhla, niul other slrcBmn. Thcroiime ol the I'o niuylje unnpurativily estimated at ahoiit noo llnUHh tnilcH. I he niiiiicniiin tiihutai y livciH, lioni the Alps ttiu Apcniimcn, bring down no much Hand and Kravd. that the hod oi the Po ha» in modern time* been t onHider! ably ramed, no that in many phiccn banks of thirty feet in heiKhl are nuieHmuy to prcHtrvc the cmnnry from inun- (lalion. jlcncc hydraulicH have been much studied in the north oMtttly ; and the numerous cunuls of IrriRalion dc- light and niHlruct the traveller. * The other rivers of the north of rtaiy, ai the Adlta- the Jrcnttt, the Piayi, and the Tagliamenlo, must now rather be regarded as Austrian streanis. , In the centre lirst appears the Arno, which rises in the Apennines, and llrnvH by Morcnce and I'isa into the Rulph ol t.enoa. 1 he I iber, an immortal stream, is by far the most considerable m the middle, or south of Italy, rising near the source of the Arno,S. K.of ht. Marino, and pass? m by PeruKiu, and Rome, to the Mediterranean, which It jonis after a course of about 1 50 Ilritish miles Lakks Italy contains many beautiful 'lakes, par- ticuarly m the northern divJHion. The Lago Mair^iore, .« uboul twemy.scven Hritinh miles in length, by three of mcdud breadth. This lake formerly adjoTned to the Mi- lancse territory, and contains the bcautif\.| JJoromean isles, ; cicbrated by many travellers. Still farther to the east is lie lake of Como, which is about thirty.twoJJritish miles in lenj; h, but the medial breadth not above two and a half Yet farther to the east is the noble La^o di (iarda, an ex- pan«e of about thirty Uritish miles in len^th by d;ht fn •>rtadth here are few other lakes in Italy, but they are of smaller dimensions. ' ^ ^ Mountains. The most important mountains of ay are the Alps already in a grelt measure descHbeS. ndcr he article of Swisscrlund. The maritime Alps rise o.nthe»eatothewe»tof()ne),lia, and are succcTd I y lici denominations, extending due north to mont IJlanc e ancient boundary of Savoy. The most rema kuble )ussa,>e through the maritime Alps is the Col de Tentle and mount Cenis is a noted passa, c to Turin In general ti;e western Alps rise, in successive elevation! fr'omth'i "«e Italian Alps bends N. L. presenting the high summits 516 ITALIAN STATES. of the ercat St. Bernard, mount Maudit, and mount Rosa, the last nearly approaching Mont Blanc itself m height. From mount Rosa this grand chain continues its progress N. E. by Simplon, &c. through the country of the Gnsons to the glaciers of Tyrol, terminating m the balzian Alps. The next grand chain of Italian mountams is that ot the Apennines, Avhich are at first a branch of the Alps, sepa- rating the plains of Piedmont from the sea. They begin near Ormea, in that high ridge which now forms the boun. dary of the French department of the maritime Alps, and stretch without any interruption along both sides of he Kulph of Genoa, at no great distance from the sea. In the fouth of the territory of Modena, they proceed almost due east to the centre of Italy; thence S. E to its extremities, generally approaching nearer to the Adriatic than to the ^S rus'briefly considered the chief ridges of Italian mountains, those sublime features of the country the voL S^^oes must not be omitted. Vesuvius is a conic detach- ed mouTain, about 3,600 feet high. The terrors of an eruption, the subterranean thunders, the thickening smoke, the ruddy flames, the stony showers ejected to a prodigi- ous heieht, amidst the corruscations of native lightning, the ?hroesofthe mountain, the eruption of the lava, descend- \L in a horrid and copious stream of destruction, have e.- ercised the power of many writers, but far exceed the nt- most enertiv of description. Yet Vesuvius, placed by the side of Etna, would leetn a small ejected hill, the whole circuit of its base not ex- ceedine 30 miles, while Etna covers a space of 180, and is height above the sea is computed at about 11,000 feet, This enormous mass is surrounded by smaller mountains, some of which equal Vesuvius in size ; and while the la of the latter may devolve its stream for seven i«iies, Ltn AvlU emit a liquid fire thirty miles m length. The crater of Vesuvius never exceeds half a mile m circumference, while that of Etna is commonly three, and sometimes six miles, buch is the height of Etna that the aruptions rarel attain the summit, but more usually break out ^t Uie «'f XT..„.> th^ rrntpr hetriris the rcgion of perpetual snow ana iceT which is followed by the woody region; consistiuij^. ' oaks, beeches, firs, and pines, while the upper is almost de5 titute of vegetation. Ve the trees olive, th( raond, tl the carol cypress, the vine. In the indicate mate; an examinei ducts to ' livening 1 The I oftheLo was form Young as 111 made, Italy ; an diflPerent manners wallowinj light, is S4 of the sev Africa, h( mot, and the Apen cuiiar to t a; Nap] kingdom < tral part c marked ai «3aUuiCtl 1 Adriatic, of medial Vol. ITALIAN STATES. 217 ount Rosa, 1 height. ts progress he Grisons ian Alps, that of the Mps, sepa- Phey begin ;s the boun- s Alps, and ides of the sea. In the eed almost extremities, than to the C9 of Italian try the vol- )nic detach- rrors of an ling smoke, 3 a prodigi- jhtning, the va, descend- »n, havee\'- ceed the nt- would leein )ase not ex- 1 80, and its 11,000 feet, p mountains, hile the lava miles, Etna The crater •cumference, )metimes six ptions rarely t at the sides. jal snow and consisting; (ii is almost lie*' VEftETABLK AND AnIMAL PRODUCTIONS. Among the trees, besides the common ones of Britain, we find the olive, the date plum, the storax tree, the bead tree, the al- mond, the pomegranate, the azarole plum, the pyracantha, the carob tree', the ilex, the pistachia, the manna-tree, the cypress, the date palm, the l6mon, the orange, the fig, and the vine. In the southern parts, cotton, rice and the sugar cane indicate the fertility of the soil, and the warmth of the cU- mate; and the fields, and pastures, as far as they have been examined, bear a striking resemblance in their native pro- ducts to those which have been already mentioned, as en- livening the southern provinces of Spain. The Italian horses are of little reputation. The cows of the Lodezan, where the noted cheese is now made, which was formerly produced near Parma, are described by Mr. Young as generally of a blood-red colour, long, lank, and 111 made. The buffalo is in Europe almost pecoliar to Italy ; an animal, though tame, of ferocious aspect, and as different from the bull,* as the ass is from the horse. In manners he somewhat resembles the hog, being fond of wallowing in mud, his flesh is coarse, and his hide, though light, IS so firm as to have supplied the buff coat, br armour of the seventeenth century. Originally as is supposed from Africa, he is little adapted to- any cold climae. The mar^ mot, and the ibex are also reckoned among the animate of the Apennines ; and the crested porcupine is esteemed pe- culiar to the south of Italy. THE SOUTHERN PART OF ITALY. Mifiles and Sicily^ ivith the adjacent lale^ Naples and Sicily. THTS division comprises the kingdom of Naples and Sicily ; being divided from the cen- tral part chiefly by an arbitrary line ; nor has nature indeed marked any precise distinction, except some rivers were ysuuicd as boundaries, towai-ds the Mediterranean and Aariatic. Sicily is about 170 British miles in length, by 70 01 medial breadth : while this part of Italy exceeds 300 VOL. I. X II 218 ITALIAN STATES. miles in length by 100 in breadth. Square miles 29,824, with six millions of inhabitants. Though the religion be the Roman Catholic, the Inqui- sition has been carefully excluded. Few men of distin- guished genius have recently appeared in this portion of Italy, which is overrun with priests and lawyers : but among the latter Giannone has distinguished himself by his spi- rited history of his country. There are no less than 20 archbishoprics, and 125 episcopal sees ; but no university of any reputation. The ecclesiastics are computed at 2C0,000 ; and it is supposed that about one-half of the lands is in their possession. The government is nearly despotic. The laws are contained in the Codex Carolinus published in 1754. The political importance is inconsiderable. The chief city is Naples, esteemed, after Constantinople, the most beautiful capital in the world: the inhabitants are computed at 380,000. Palermo in Sicily is supposed to contain 130,000. Messina was nearly destroyed by an earthquake, 1783 ; but Bari is said to contain 30,000 souls, and Catanea 26,000. Besides ex(fellent wines, oranges, olives, rice and flax, this kingdom abounds in cattle ; and some parts are celebrated for the produce of manna and saffron. The manufactures, particularly those of silk and woollen, date from the reign of Ferdinand I. of Arragon ; and these, with the native products, constitute the chief ar- ticles of trade. Iron manufactures have been recently in- stituted near Naples, but the mines and the agriculture are alike neglected; and Sicily, anciently so fertile in grain, is now of little account. The revenue is computed at 1,400,000/. sterling ; and the army at 40,000. There are about four ships of the line, and four frigates. The mountains have been already mentioned in the general description of Italy, and the rivers are inconsiderable. The natural curiosities of these regions are numerous and interesting, independent of the grand volcanic appearances. About six miles from Girgenti, and very remote from Etna, there is a singular volcano, which in 1777 darted forth a high column of pot- ter's earth of which there are continual ebullitions from about sixty small apertures. Spallanzani has explained the noted wonders of Scylla and Charybdis ; the former b^ing Q lot't"' rock on the Calabrian shores with some caverns at the bottom, which by the agitation of the waves emit sounds resembling the barking of dogs. The only danger ITALIAN STATES. 219 is when the current and winds are in opposition, so that vessels are impelled towards the rock. Charybdis is not a whirlpool, or involving vortex, but a spot where the waves are greatly agitated by pointed rocks, and the depth does not exceed 500 feet. The chief islands in the neighbour- hood of Italy are the isles of Lipari, the smallUles off the gulph of the ancient Caprea, the isle of Ischia, Italian Pen- dataria, the small isle of San Stephano,and the three Ponzian isles. The isles of Malta and Gozo are of far more con- sequence. They are rocky and barren, not producing grain sufficient for half the consumption of a thin popula- tion ; but may in the hands of the English prove a valuable acquisition. Malta is about 50 British miles in circumfer- ence, and is supposed to contain 60,000 inhabitants. The isle of Gozo is about half the extent, and is rather fertile, the population being computed at 3000. These two islands are possessed by the British, and are of so much importance to the nation, that the minister who surrenders^ them, while France has a port on the Mediter- ranean, will deserve to loose his head. THE CENTRAL PART OF ITALY. Dominiom of the Church. — Tuscany. >-^Lucca,'- St. Marino. Fiombino^ and the Isle of Elba. THIS portion comprehends the dominions of the thurch, and the grand duchy, now kingdom of Tuscany • With a few diminutive states, as the republics of Lucca and J5t. Manno, the principality of Piombino, and the small portion of territory around Orbitello belonging to thekine- dom of Naples. The territory belonging to the Pope reaches from near J^esaro to beyond Terracina. By the treaty of Campo I'ormio m 1797, confirmed by that of Luneville in 1801, the provinces of Bologna, Ferrara, and Romagna were ceded to the Cisalpine republic, a state lately erected by, and dependent on France. The pontiff is elected by tile cardinals, a kind of chapter consisting nominally of pi'iests and deacons, but in effect nf nnnipnf f^nn^^^\^.*\^„ -' > -levated to this dignity by their services to the r family connections, or by princely recommen- church, dation. 220 ITALIAN STATES. Rome is supposed to contain 162,800 inhabitants: and Ancona 20,000. The revenue arising from the papal ter- ritory -was computed at about 350,000/. sterling ; but by exactions in foreign countries was raised to about 800,000/. Yet there was a large debt, bearing eight per cent, interest, k sure prdwof the want of industry and prosperity. The grand duchy, now kingdom of Tuscany, has long been celebrated for the arts ; and Florence is regarded as the Athens of modern Italy. This principality is about 1 20 British miles in length by 90 in breadth ; but on 7,040 square miles contains a population of about 1,250,000. This charming country has been granted to a prince of Spain, who wields his tributary sceptre of Etruria under the protection of the French republic. The revenue is computed at about half a million sterling, but the forces do not exceed 6 or 8,000. Tuscany is one of the most beau- tiful and fertile regions of Italy, with a temperate and healthy climate. It abounds in corn and cattle, and pro- duces excellent wines and fruit. Florence contains about 80,000 inhabitants, and Livorno (corrupted by our mariners to Leghorn) 45,000. The manufactures of silk and velvet were formerly celebrated, and still maintain reputation. The small republic of Lucca is supposed to contain 120,000 people, on 288 square miles ; of which Lucca holds about 40,000. It assumed independence in 1370, and in the recent revolutions of Italy this state adopted a constitution similar to the French. The Lucanese are the most Indus- trions people of Italy, and no spot of ground is neglected, the hills being covered with vines, olives, chesnut, and mulberry trees, while the meadows near the coast nourish numerous cattle. Oil and silk are the chief exports of I^ucca. The diminutive republic of St. Marino has been celebrated by many able writers. The inhabitants of the village and mountain are computed at 5000. It is sur- rounded by the dominions of the Pope, and claims his pro- tectimi. The principality of Piombino, consisting of a small por- tion of the Italian shore, and the opposite isle of Elba, has recently been yielded to the French republic. Piombino is a small neglected town, the princes having generally re- _:j_j „.. T> T^^ :c1o nf V\htx io ahniit ninp TnileS ID SiUCU ill £\U11IC. A iiv tf.i^ v« JK."»» .-- 1 length, and three in breadth ; and has been remarkable from early antiquity for its metallic productions, particu- ITALIAN STATES. 221 larly beautiful ores of iron, often crystallized, and mingled with native Prussian blue. Ragusa, another small commercial republic, though si- tuated on the eastern shore of the Adriatic, is often consi- dered as an Italian state. It has a population of about 56,000, on 352 square miles. The religion is the Catholic, and the speech the Slavonic, but most of the inhabitants speak Italian. It is an archbishopric, with six suffragans, and its commerce is considerable, as it supplies the Turks with several kinds of merchandize and ammunition. THE NORTHERN PART OF ITALY. Pied?noni. — Milan.- -Mantua. — Parma and Placentia. — Mo- dena. — Gtnoa. THIS largest division formerly comprised the extensive territories subject to Venice, and the king of Sardinia, with Milan and Mantua, appanages of the house of Austria, the principalities of Parma and Modena, and the long moun- tainous strip belonging to the Genoese. But the Venetian possessions to the river Adige, have now become subject to Austria ; France has seized on the greatest part of Piedmont and Savoy, with the county of Nice, and the small principa- lity of Monaco. Parma and Placentia were consigned to a Spanish prince, but are now under the direction of French commissioners. The state of Genoa with some of the Im- perial fiefs, constitute the new Ligurian republic, under the influence of France ; and the remainder together with the provinces ceded by the Pope, constitute the Cisalpine re- public, also at the disposal of France. The most extensive province of this division is Piedmont, about 150 English milts in length by 100 of medial breadth.. ^yhUe the revenue of Sardinia was estimated at 1,085,000/. Piedmont contributed 953,750/. Savoy 87,500/. and Sardi- nia only 43,750/. This delightful province enjoys a mild and pure air, and distinguished fertility of soil, the plains producing wheat, maize, rice, with some olives and wine, and the pasturages abound with cattle. Around Turin and the watering of meadows, is practised with great assiduity and success. The copper mines in the duchy of Aosta are T2 222 ITALIAN STATES. numerous ; and in some places this metal is accompanied with antimony, arsenic, and zinc. The chief city of Piedmont is Turin, supposed to contain more than 80,000 inhabitants, with an university founded in 1405 by Amadeo duke of Savoy, this city having been subject to the family since A. D. 10^7. VercelU is said to contain !20,000 ; and Alessandr'n ; ' CjoO. The king of Sar- dinia used to maintain an armj ut 40,000. The ex- ports consist of silk which was >efly manufactured at Lyons, some hemp, and large flocks of cattle. The island of Sardinia used to be considered as an ap- pendage of Piedmont. It has been shamefully neglected by the govemment ; but being now the sole remnant of the possessions formerly annexed to the Sardinian crown, will no doubt be benefited by the presence of its sovereign. The Cisalpine republic is little else than a province of France. It comprises the provinces of Romagna, Bologna, and Ferrara as far as the Po, the duchy of Modena and Mas- sa Carrara, the Imperial fiefs of Villa-ffanca, Ulla, and Fosdi Nuovo; the duchies of Milan and Mantua, the Lu- melline, Upper and Lower Navarcse, and Val de Sesia; the Valteline and all the former Venetian territory W. of the Adige, including the Bergamese, Brescian, and part of the Veronese. We will give a sketch of the princi- pal divisions. Of these the most important is the fertile duchy of Mi- lan, said to contain, on 2,432 square miles, a population of 1,1 1 6,850. Of the chief city of Milan the inhabitants are computed at about 120,000. The revenues of this duchy are computed at about 300,000/. At Paviais an university of great repute, the professors having much distinguished themselves in natural history. It is regarded as the first in Italy. There are manufactures of wool and silk, but the latter is inferior to that of Piedmont : there are also nu- merous workmen in gold, silver, embroidery, steel, and in crystal, agate, aventurine, and other stones, so that the country swarms with artizans. The irrigation of the Mi- lanese Mr. Young represents as a stupendous effort of in- dustry, and the canals for this purpose are mentioned as early as the eleventh century ; some of them being more than 30 miles long, and near 50 feet wide. The price of land is npar 100/. the acre, and yields about three per cent, in- ITALIAN STATES. 223 terest. The cattle, dairies, and cheese are excellent ; but the sheep few and bad. The small duchy of Mantua had been subject to Austria since the year 1707, and was ruled by the governor-general of the Milanese. The capital stands on a lake formed by the Mmcio, and was formerly supposed to contain 50,000 inhabitants, now reduced to about 12,000 ; the position and tortihcations render it a place of great strength. The duchy of Modena is a remnant of the power of the celebrated family of Este, who also possessed the adjacent country of Ferrara. It contains about 320,000 souls, and the city of Modena 30,000; the revenue was 140,000/ The soil resembles that of the duchy of Parma. The breed of sheep is neglected. It is remarkable that in diejrinc wells near Modena, at a certain depth, a particular stratum IS tound, which being passed, the water gushes up as from a subterranean lake or river. The territories of Parma and Placentia have been con- joined for many ages ; and have lately been occupied by the k rench. The population is computed at 300,000 ; revenue 175,000/. Parma is a considerable city with some manu- tactures, and an academy of painting. Both Parma and Placentia have universities. The soil is a rich sandy or gravelly loam, with fine pastures; and the Parmesan cheese now made at Lodi in the Milanese, has been celebrated for many centuries. The Imperial fiefs, and smaller states in this part of Italy, would little merit descriptior especially in the pre- ^nt uncertainty with regard to iheir final destination Ihis account shall therefore close with the republic of benoa, consisting of a long mountainous tract, formeriv noted lor the acuteness and treachery of the Ligurians its inhabitants. The papal power is here little venerated, the people being immersed in business, and receiving monied heretics with open arms. The population of the territory IS computed at 400,000 ; of the city at 80,000. The troops including the country militia, may amount to 30,000 ; but the once powerful fleets have sunk to a few gallies The air IS pure and salubrious, and there are excellent fruits and vegetables; but the grain is not sufficient for the consump- "on. 1 he manufactures are chiefly of silk and velvet ASIA. Extent. THIS great division of the earth ex- tends ifi length from the Hellespont to what is called the East Cape; that is from about the 26<' of longitude, east from London, into the other hemisphere to near 190 de- grees of east longitude, or 170° west from London ; be- ing no less than 164°, or (taking the degree at a medial la- titude) more than 6500 geographical miles. From the southern cape of Malacca to the cape of Cevero Vostochnoi, which braves the ice of the Arctic ocean, the breadth ex- tends from about 2° of northern latitude to about 77", or nearly 4500 geographical miles. If, for the sake of a rude and merely comparative calculation, one-sixth part be added for the difference between the statute and geographical mile, the length of Asia in British miles would be about 7583, and the breadth 5250. It is now well known that Asia is limited, on the east, by a strait which divides it fram America, of about 40 miles, and which, in honour of the discoverer, is called Beering's Strait. The northern and southern boundaries are the Arctic and Indian oceans, in which last many large islands, particularly that of New Holland, now more classically styled by some Justralasia^ affords a vast additional extent to this quarter of the globe. The western limits of Asia are marked by the eastern limits of Europe. Original Population. . The population of Asia is by all authors allowed to be wholly primitive and original; if we except that of the Techuks or Tchuktchi, who, by the Russian travellers and Mr. Tooke, are supposed to have passed from the opposite coast of America. With TT r" /, . ,; T^inianuers. rcnniimaoi«».m,iii«,wr- 11. tins (chief godj Esthonians: Livoniansf iummala.j ~\ Laplanders. Votiacs & Chermisses. LHungarians. Voguls 8c Ostiacs. Asia IS By airaniiiorsi aiioweu w m wnony priinitive ana original; if we except that of the Techuks or Tchuktchi, who, by the Russian travellers and Mr. Tooke, are sunuosed to have passed from the opposite coast of America. ' With ASIA. 335 ori- a few trifling exceptions Asia presents a prodieious wWch^^n bT' "r ">' '^ f '^'^'^ f^«- '"^^ LloTing able. LINNJEAN TABLE OF THE NATIONS AND LANGUAGES IN ASIA. II III. IV. V. Crdo, Genua, fAssyrians. Assyrians. -J Arabians. LEgyptians. Speciet, Chaldee. Hebrew, &c. Persians. Scythians.^ Scythians, Sarmats. JS^^l^*- I Parthians. I Indi. Hindoos. Sina. J Chinese. i Japanese. Armenians. The Persi and Zend are cognate with the intra et extra Gothic, Greek, & Ittiaum, &c. Latin, according to Sir W. Jones. Georgians. Circassians. Northern & South* ern, &c. TTiese have a Tata- ric form or face. r^sT^f f^""^^^ A^^""^ ""• P<>P"lation which Europe has re- iitive ana 'chuktchi, supposed :a. ' With PRIMAEVAL INHABITANTS. Ordo. Genua. Celts. r Irish. < Welch. (.Armorican. Sfiecies. Erse, Manks. Cornish. IT p- / t^. n fEinlanders. Permians or Biarmians "■ Fjns (chief god I Esthonians: Livonianse '''"'"''"'• " "'"■>' J i-upianaers. Votiacs & Chermisses. LHungarians. Voguls & Ostiacs. II 226 ASIA. COLONIES FROM ASIA. Ordo. Genus. Species. f Icelanders, Norwegians. III. Scythians or Goths J Swedes, Danes. (Odin.) j Germans. Swiss, Frisic. LEngHsh. Flemish, Dutch. IV. Sarir ats or Slavons f |^°^^^/ JJ^*'"!^- (Perun.) 1 Russians. Vendi. (.Kossacs. Lettes. The inhabitants of France, Italy, and Spain ai 2 also of Asiatic origin ; and speak corrupted Roman, which, like the Greek, is a polished dialect of the Gothic, according to Sir William Jones and other able antiquaries. The He- ruli, Wends, and Lettes, used mixed and imperfect dia- lects of the Slavonic. Critical Review, vol. xxvii. p. 129. Seas. Though Asia cannot vie with Europe in the advantages of inland seas, yet, in addition to a share of the Mediterranean, it possesses the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea, and gulphof Persia ; the bays of Bengal and Nankin; and other gulphs, which diversify the coasts much more than those of Africa or America, and have doubtless con- tributed greatly to the early civilization of this celebrated division of the earth. The Red Sea, or the Arabian gulph of antiquity, consti- tutes the grand natural division between Asia and Africa; but its advantages have chiefly been felt by the latter, which is entirely destitute of other inland seas ; Egypt and Abys- sinia, two of the most civilized countries in that division, having derived great benefits from this celebrated gulph, which from the straits of Babelmandel to Suez extends about 2 1°, or 1470 British miles ; terminating not in two equal branches, as delineated in old maps, but in an exten- sive western branch, while the eastern ascends little beyond the parallel of Mount Sinai. The Persian gulph is another noted inland sea, about half the length of the former, being the grand receptacle of those celebrated rivers the Euphrates and the Tigris. The other gulphs do not afford such strong features of what are properly termed inland seas ; if the Euxine be ex- cepted, which has already been briefly described in the general survey of Europe. But the vast extent of Asia ASIA. 33, uesides herrings, salmon, and other fish wWi, « • Derbent s rocky aSd ?h.?nfV' r^' "e'-^"''" •• «•>»* "f lakf o7kra? TS°- "'^ "^' "' '"e'cal^S?!; the sea or miles nb™;d*Vhisse"A'-° ™"'=» » '^"gth. and 70 dese«s has C-UufetKffS^^^llt fehrfit;ii?h''d"^''''' ^r '^'""'^^^^^^^ thUouanirofthe^Zh"'"^?'? !?/""' """■Mains, &c. of I TURKEY IN ASIA. Extent.! y THIS region extends from the shores of the Egean sea, or Archipelago, to the confines of Persia; a space of about 1050 British miles. The boundaries to- wards Persia are rather ideal than natural, though some- what marked by the mountains of Ararat and Elwend. In the north the Turkish territories are now divided from the Russian by the river Cuban, and the chain of Caucasus ; in the south they extend to the junction of the Tigris and the Euphrates, which last river, for a considerable space, divides the Turkish possessions from those of the Arabs. From the river Cuban to the junction of the Tigris and Euphrates, may be about 1 100 British miles. Divisions. This extensive territory, which in it- self would constitute an empire, could it resume its pris- tine population, is divided into nine or ten provinces, viz. Natolia, Caraminia, Eyraco Arabic, or Chaldea, Diarbec, or Mesopotamia, Turcomania or Armenia, Curdistan or Assyria. Georgia, including Mingrelia, Imaretta, and part of Circassia, Amasia, Aladulia, Syria with Palestine. These provinces are subdivided into governments arbi- trarily administered by pashas. Original Population. The original population of these regions consisted chiefly of Scythic nations, ming- led with a few Assyrians, from the south. At present tiie ruling language is the Turkish, next to which may be placed the modern Greek ; but the Arabic, Syrian, Persian) and Armenian^ with various dialects used by the tribes on the Black sea^ indicate the diversity of population. TURKEY IN ASIA. ' 229 Historical Epochs. The dhief epochs of Turk- ish history have already been mentioned, in describhT^ the;ir European possessions. "cscnoing .n i^'^'^^'^'TiE*- The antiquities of Asiatic Turkey ZV^V^r^'T^' ofthe arts, are numerous and im-* portant, but have been so repeatedly described as to ha^e become trivial themes, even t6 the genera reader Thf most spkndid ruins are those of Pafmyra/or Tad^^^^^ the desert, about 150 miles to the S. E of Alepno^at the noithem extremity ofthe sandy wastes of ArabL^ ' '^' Bawbee, the ancient Heliopohs, is about 50 miles to the ni.J' °^^^"»^«^»«' the most remarkable ruin bein^ that of a temple, supposed to have been dedicated o thTsun Recent investigation has disclosed another remarkahl. scene of antiquity, in the site and celebrS pi JHf Tro^^ The tombs of remote antiquity having been cons rucSd ^^=.^1^^:^ custtfr„-t%^ 7f ranging over extens ve ^alt S^itv"?' ^^•^"^''^^^' renders travelling verv «n,lf i 1 "^ ^^ government Pedim^nf .•;"'"-^ ^^^y unsafe, and has proved a great im rHo^s rin^ '^ '^.'^' geographical knowledgelf theTe' and the ammS T" '"' '""V^''''' ^^avernment I'ndu ^ Cities TkhT •''''" '"'' '^^^ "^^^'^^^^ territory. ^ en^pi^e'r b^en ^^el^^ descrTJrd "^^^^ ''"^ ^^^^^^ "nportance is the citv of hXk ^ '^^ "' "^'^"'^^ ^"^ contain about 2 o^Tinhlbkants' °TH,'^r-'"PP°^^^^ '^ ed with some t'ecance and h. n ^^"'^'^y is construct- ^A ...-., .. ^cj^ance, and the tall cvnrpsa ft>««» .. a picturesque appea^re'^n"^-rr^ "^"^^"^«' ^^' '^' seem to have been on th- ^^ buildings and population nave been on the increase, but the adjacentVillages I I S30 TURKEY IN ASIA. are deserted. The chief languages are the Syrian and Arabic. The manu&ctures of silk and cotton are in a flourishing condition, and large caravans frequently arrive from Bagdad and Bassora, charged Avith the products of Persia and India ; Consuls from various European po>vers reside here, to attend the interests of the respective nations. Damascus is supposed to contain about 1 80,000 souls. It was formerly celebrated for the manufacture of sabres "which seem to have been constructed by a method now lost, of alternate thin layers of iron and steel, so as to bend even to the hilt without breaking, while the edge would divic!? the firmest mail. The manufactures now "onsist of silk and cotton, and exciellent soap. From the Mediterra- nean are imported metals and broad cloths ; and the oara- vans of Bagdad bring Persian and Indian articles. This city also increases, the Pashalik of Damascus is esteemed the first in Asia. Smyrna may be regarded as the third city in Asiatic Turkey, containing about 120,000 souls. This flourishing seat of European commerce is the chief mart of the Levant trade, but the fi'equent visits of the pestilence greatly im- pede its prosperity. Prusa is a beautiful city, in a romantic situation at the northern bottom of mount Olympus. By Tournefort's computation of families, the inhabitants may be about 60,000. Angora may contain 80,000 inhabitants. The trade is chiefly in yarn, of which our shalloons are made ; and in their own manufacture of Angora stufls, made chiefly of the fine hair of a particular bre6d of goats. Tokat is also a flourishing place. The inhabitants are computed at 60,000. The situation is singular, amidst rugged and perpendicular rocks of marble, and the streets are paved, which is a rare circumstance in thfe Levant. Silk and leather are manufactures of Tokat; but the chief is that of copper utensils, which are sent to Constantinople) and even to Egypt. Basra, or Bassora, on the estuary of the Euphrates and Tigris, contains 50,000 inhabitants, and is of great com- mercial consequence, being frequented by numerous ves- g«io from Eurone and Asia? and the seat of an English consul. TURKEY IN ASIA. 2j5l Ihe great and romantic Bagdad, the seat of the Califs, and the %cene of many eastern fictions, has now dwindled into a town of a' out 20,000 inhabitants. Not far to the south are some ruins of the celebrated Babylon, which have been ably illustrated in a recent work of Major Rennell. Many an important city of antiquity has sunk into a village, and even the village often into amass of rubbish, under the destructive domination of the Turks. The an- cient and celebrated city of Jerusalem is reduced to a mean town, chiefly existing by the piety of pilgrims. Manufactures. The chief manufactures of A si- auc Turkey have been already incidentally mentioned. Ihese with rhubarb, and several other drugs, may be re^ garded as the chief articles of commerce. Climate and Seasons. The climate of Asia Minor has always been considered as excellent. There IS a peculiar softness and serenity in the air, not perceiv- Able on the European side of the Archipelaj^o. The heat orthe summer is considerably tempered by the numerous chains of high mountains, some of which are said to be covered with perpetual snow. Vegetable and Animal Productions. The general appearance of Asiatic Turkey may be regarded as mountamous ; but intermingled with large and beau- titui plains, which, instead of being covered with rich crops of gram, are pastured by the numerous flocks and herds of t|ie 1 urcomans. The soil, as may be expected, isuxtremely various; but that of Asia Minor is chiefly a ^eep clay ; and wheat, barley, and durra, form the chiet products of agriculture. But excellent grapes and ohves abound ; and the southern provinces are fertile in concUti ^y^a the agriculture is in the most deplorable Rivers. The principal river of Asiatic Turkey is, )eyond all comparison, the Euphrates, which rises from tile mountains of Armenia, a few miles to the N. E of trzeron ; and chiefly pursues a S. W. direction to Semisat, where it would fall into the Mediterranean, if not pre' vented by a high ridge of mountains. In this part of its course the Euphrates is joined by the Morad from the east, « stream almoHf HnnhlinrY. ;« io.>».fU *.u. "^ • ' inat the latter river might more just irom mount Ararat, about !60 British iiittu vi x:.upnrates ; so spring the east of 232 TURKEY IN ASIA. l>i the imputed source. At Semisat, the ancient Samosai^, this noble river assumes a southerly direction; then runs an extensive course to the S. E. and after receiving the Tigris, falls by two or three mouths into the gulph of Per- sia. The comparative course of the Euphrates may be estimated at about 1400 British miles. Next in importance is the Tigris, which rises to the north of the Medan, about 1 50 miles south from the sources of the Euphrates, and pursues nearly a regular direction S. E. till it join the Euphrates below Korna, about 60 miles to the north of Bassora ; after a comparative course of about 800 miles. The Euphrates and the Tigris are both navigable for a considerable distance from the sea. The third river in Asiatic Turkey is that called by the Turks Kizil Irmak, the celebrated Halys of antiquity, ri- sing in mount Taurus not far from Erekli, but by other ac- counts more to the east, and pursuing a winding course to the north, nearly across the whole of Asia Minor, till it join the Euxine sea on the west of the gulph of Sansoun. The river Sacaria,the ancient Sangarius,or Sangaris, rises about 50 miles to the south of Angoi'a, and running to the N. W. joins the Euxine, about 70 miles to the east of Con- stantinople. In the next rank may be placed the classical river of Maeander, rising to the north of the ancient city of Apamia, and running, in a winding stream, about 250 British miles. It is called by the Turks Boyue Minder, or the great Mseander, to distinguish it from a small tributary stream, Avhich resembles it in mazes. The Minder, not far from its mouth, is about 100 feet broad ; with a swift, muddy, and extremely deep current, having received a considera- ble accession of waters from the lake of My us. The Sarabat, or ancient Hermus, renowned for its gold- en sands, joins the Archipelago about 90 British miles to the north of the Minder, after a course of similar length. The other rivers of Asia Minor are far more inconsider- able, though many of them be celebrated in classical his- tory and poetry. The chief river of Syria is the Orontes,now called Oron or Osi, rising about 80 miles to the N. of Damascus, and running nearly due north till it suddenly turns S= E, near Antioch, after which it soon joins the Mediterranean. TURKEY IN ASIA. 333 Lakes. Asiatic Turkey also contains numerous lakes. That of Van in the north of Kurdistan, is the most remarkable, being about 80 British miles in length from N. E. to S. W. and about 40 in breadth : it is said to abound with fish. In Syria, what is called the Dead Sea, may be regarded as a lake of about 50 miles in length, and 12 or 13 in breadth. The lake of Rackama, to the south of Hilla and the ancient Babylon, is about 30 miles in length, and flows into the Euphrates. Towards the centre of Asia Minor there is a remarkable sahne lake, about 70 miles in length, and a mile or two in breadth, being the Tatta or Palus Salsa of D'Anville*s an- cient geography. Numerous other small lakes appear in Natolia, among which may be particularly mentioned that of Ulubad, an- ciently styled the lake of Apollonia, which according to Tournefort is about 25 miles in circumference, and in some places seven or eight miles wide, sprinkled with se- veral isles and some peninsulas, being a grand receptacle ot the waters from mount Olympus. The largest isle is about three miles in circuit, and is called Aboulllona, pro- bably from the ancient name of the city which stood on it About 50 miles to the N. E. was the lake called Ascanius by the ancients, now that of Isnik. Mountains. Many of the mountains of Asiatic lurkey deserve particular attention, from their ancient celebrity. The first rank is due to the Taurian chain of antiquity, which was considered as extending from the neighbourhood of the Archipelago to the sources of the Ganj^es, and the extremities of Asia so far as discovered by the ancients. But this notion' little accords with the descriptions of modern travellers, or the researches of re- cent geography ; and we might perhaps with equal justice inter that the Carpathian mountains, the Alps, and the Py- renees constitute one chain. Science is equally impeded by joining what ought to be divided, as bv dividing what ought to be joined. The Caucasian mountains have been well delineated by the Russian travellers, as formint? a range from the mouth of the river Cuban, in the N. W? to Wwcre the river Kur enters the Caspian, in the S. E. 'J he remaining intelligence is dubious and defective ; but it would seem that a chain extends from Caucasus S. W to U2 234 TURKEY IN ASIA. ; near the bay of Scanderoon. This ridge seems the Anti- Taurus of antiquity : but various parts of it were known by different names. At the other extremity of the Cau- casus other chains branch out into Persia ; which they per- vade from N. W. to S, E. but they may all be justly con- sidered as terminating in the deserts of the southeastern part of Persia ; or as having so imperfect a connection with the mountains of Hindoo Koh, which supply the western sources of the Indus, that it would be mere theory to re- gard them as a continued chain. The chain of Taurus, now called Kurun, perhaps from the old Greek name Ce- raunus, extends from about 600 miles E. and W. from tlie Euphrates to near the shores of the Archipelago. A re- cent traveller found the ascent and descent, between Ain- tab and Bostan, to occupy three days ; and the heights abound with cedars, savines, and junipers. Towards the east of Armenia is Ararat. It is a detach- ed mountain, with two summits ; the highest being covered with eternal snow. In one of the flanks is an abyss, or precipice, of prodigious depth, the sides being perpendicu- lar, and of .1 rough black appearance, as if tinged with smoke. This mountain belongs to Persia, but is here mentioned on account of connexion. Beyond Ararat are branches of the Caucasian chain ; to which, as is probable, belong the mountains of Clevend, which seem to be the Niphates of antiquity. In Syria the most celebrated mountain is that of Le- banon, or Libanus, running in the southerly and northerly direction of the Mediterranean shore, and generally at the distance of about 30 or 40 miles. The Anti-Libanus is a short detached chain, running nearly parallel on the east. These mountains are of considerable height, the summits being often covered with snow ; and they seem to be cal- careous, the granite not appearing till the neighbourhood of mount Sinai and the Arabian gulph. The eastern side of the Archipelago presents many mountains of great height and classical fame, chiefly in ranges extending from N. to S. Of these Olympus (now Keshik Dag) is one of the most celebrated, and is describ- ed by Tournefort as a vast range covered with perpetual snow. Many small streams spring from Olympus, and the large lake of t'Uatoad is another receptacle of its water's. TURKEY IN ASIA. 235 About 140 miles to the west of Olympus rises mount Ida, of great though not equal height The summft of Ida was by the ancients called Garganus; from XcT ex tend western prominences reaching to the Hellespont ^d aniidst them stood the celebrated dty oi\^oyTi!TL^t or he summit of Ida, being about 30 miles irom the shore • and giving source to the Granicus, the bimois, and othe; noted streams, most of which run to the north. To the dia n cal ed ?i'f "' '' f l"^"^^^' '"^^ '^"-'•- detaches a ^fc^n^tlil^'c^cl^^^^^^^^ '^"^^' '^^'^"^ ^^-"-^^ ^^- '-'- VtGETABLK AND AnIMAL PRODUCTIONS Thp mountains in Asiatic Turkey are often clothed with immense forests of pines, oaks, beeches, elms, and oier Among the indigenous trees may be distinguished the ohve tree abounding throughout the whoirircSa^o and the shores of the Levant; the weeping wilbw Sva b'l^oV t"'F P-t-V»^-nches, wLlfhas adorSt banks of the Euphrates from time immemorial ; the wild olive, bearing a small sweet esculent fruit ; the .^hite mul- beri^;the storax tree, from which exudes thri-LTant gum resin of the same name, the pomegrLa^ almond tree, and peach tree ; the cherry, a native of Pontus whence t was brought to Rome by Lucullus ; the kmon and orange! the myrtle, growing plentifully by the side of runnfn^ s reams; the plantain tree; the vine, in a perfectly wSd state chmbing up the highest trees, and forming verdint grottos among its ample festoons; the mastich"chiotur pentine, and pistachia nut tree ; the cypress the ceda. a ew large trees of which still remain on iVi^unt Lebanon the venerable relics of its sacred forests. T he fil tree* and sycamore fig, abounding in Palestine and othe? parts of Syria ; the date tree, the prickly cupped oak, from which Z Evt/'" ^ri "^"^^^^-^^ the oi'ientTl p?ane L.^ J^ esteemed lor its shady tent-like canopy of fo- "age; and menispermum cccculus, the berries of which commonly ca led cocculus indicus. are much used by the natives for taking fish, on account ef their narcotic qualities arer.o'l'^Jf ^ ^'T^^ '''''''^'' ^^ '^^ materia medfca drein) 'orted from the I ^vn.* o«,.^« u:-u . . riiio«. J 11 — •'", " '" ***"""& "i"ui niuy oe parti- cuJar.^.d madder, jalap, scammony, sebesten, c4ton tine lorium J ricinus communis, the seed of which yields by ex- J i 33G TURKEY IN ASIA. pression the castor oil ; squirting cucumber, coloquintida; opium poppy, and spikenard. The best horses in Asiatic Turkey are of Arabian ex- tract, and are sparingly fed with a little barlev and minced straw, to accustom them to abstinence and fatigue ; but mu'es and asses are in more general use ; beef is scarce and bad. The mutton is superior ; and the kid is a favour- ite repast. In Asiatic Turkey appears that king of ferocious ani- mals the lion, yet he rarely roams to the west of the Fu- phrates : large tygers seem to be restricted to the wastes of Hindostan. The hyaena, and the wild boar, are known aiii-^ mals of Asia Minor, together with troops of jackals, which raise dreadful cries in the nij^ht. The ibex, or rock goat, appears on the summits of Cau- casus. The goats of Angora have been aire ady mtntioned. The common antelope is also an inhabitant of Asia Minor, with numerous deer and hares. Minerals. The mineralogy of those extensive and mountainous provinces remains in a deplorable state of imperfection. Ancient Lydia was famous for the produc- tion of gold ; but in modern times no mines seem to be in- dicated, except those of copper which supply Tokat; lead, and copper ore, with rock crystals, have been observed in the island of Cyprus. ISLANDS BELONGING TO ASIATIC TURKEY. THE chief islands in the A rchipelaijo, considered asbe- longing to Asia, are ^:ytilene,Scio,^amos,Cos,and Rhodes. Mytilene, the ancient Lesbos, is the most northerly and largest of these isles, beinp about 40 British miles in length, by 24 at its j^reatest breadth. The climate is exquisite : and it was anciently noted for wines, and the beauty of the •women. Scio, the ancient Chios, is about 36 British miles in leiigth, but only about 13 in medial breadth. The Chian wine celebrated by Horace, retains its ancient fame. The Greeks here enjoy considerable freedom and ease ; and dis- play such industry that the country resambies a garden. This particular favour arises from the cultivation of the TURKEY IN ASIA. aar mastic tree, or rather shrubs, ivhich supply the cum, so acceptable to tho ladies of the sultan's seraglio. Tourne- fort observed here lanie partridges, kept like poultry ; and Chandler saw numerous groves of lemons, oranges, anrf citrons, perfummg the air with the odour of their blossoms, and dehghtmg the eye with their golden fruit. The in- habitants are supposed to be about 60,000 Samosis about 30 miles in length, and 10 in breadth. 1 ournetort computes the inhabitants at 12,000, all Greeks. 1 he pottery of Samos was anciently excellent ; but at pre- sent niost branches of industry are neglected. Pitch is pre- pared from the pine trees in the north part of the island, and the silk, honey, and wax are esteemed. Cos is about 24 miles in length, by three or four in Ijreadth. It is covered with groves of lemon trees, and there is an oriental plane tree of vast size, and the chief trade is in oranges and lemons. Rhodes is about 36 British miles in length, by 15 in breadth. It is fertile in wheat, though the soil be of a san- dy nature. The population is computed at about 30,000. Ihe city of the same name, in which no Christian is now permitted to dwell, was anciently noted for a colossus in bronze, about 1 30 feet high. This isle was for two cen- turies possessed by the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, thence styled of Rhodes, till 1523, when they were exnel- led by the Turks. ^ Alongtrie southern shore of Asia Minor, there are some small isles ; but they are of no moment when compared with the large and celebrated island of Cyprus, which is about 160 British miles in length, and about 70 at its great- est breadth. In the fifteenth century this isle was possess- ed by the Venetians J but in 1570 it was seized by the 1 urks. The soil is fertile, yet agriculture is in a neglect- ed state. The chief products are silk, cotton, wines, tur- pentine, and timber. The wine of Cyprus is deservedly celebrated. The oranges are excellent ; and the moun- tains are covered with hyacinths and anemonies, and other beautiful flowers. The Cypriots are a tall and elegant race • but the chief beauty of the women consists in their spark- ling eyes. To the disgrace of the Turkish government the population of this extensive island is computed at 50.000 souis. ao populous was it under the r'eign of Trajan, that the Jews invaded the island and slew 240,000 of its 238 TURKEY IN ASIA. iuhabitants, since which a Jew is not suffered to enter the island, and so rich as to tempt the avarice of the Ro- mans, who sent thither, to fleece the inhabitants, Cato : he raised a contribution of 7000 talents equal to 2,100,000 crowns. In order to convey this vast sum safely to Rome, he divided it into small portions, which he put up in se- veral boxes, of about two and a half talents each ; and to each box he fastened a long rope with a piece of cork at the end of it ; by which, in case of shipwreck, the treasure might be seen again. There is not one river in the island, that continues its course in the summer ; but there are many ponds, lakes, and fens, producing a damp and malif^nant air. The chief cities are Nicosia, the capital and reaidenceof the goveoior, and Famagusta. RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. Extent. THIS large portion of the habitable globe, extends almost the whole length of Asia, from about the />7th degree of longitude east of London to more than 190 , or 133 of western longitude. As the northern lati- tude IS very high, the degree shall only be assumed at 30 miles, and the length may thus be computed at about 4000 geographical miles. The greatest breadth from the cape ot Levero Vostochnoi, called in some maps Taimura,to the Altaian chain of mountains on the south of the sea of Baikal, may be 28o or 1680 geographical miles, an extent which will be found to exceed that of Europe. Boundaries. The farthest eastern boundary is that of Asia, and the seas of Kamchatka and Ochotsk ; while the northern is the Arctic ocean. On the west the frontiers correspond with those between Asia and Europe. The river Cuban, part of the Caucasian chain, and an ideal line, divide the Russian territory from Turkey and Persia on the south. The boundary then ascends through the desert of Issim, till it meets the vast empire of China ; the limits be- tween Russia and Chinese Tatary being partly an ideal hne ; and partly the river Argoon, which joined with the Onon constitutes the great river Amur. Original Population. The population of Asiatic Russia may be regarded as wholly primitive, ex- cept a few Russian colonies recently planted, and the lechuks in the part opposite to America, who have been supposed to have proceeded from that continent, because "icir persons and cuslonis j.re different from those of the other Asiatic tribes. The radically distinct languages 240 RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. amount to seven, independent of many dialects and mix- tures. When the Russians began the conquest of the country, being unconscious of its extent, the name of Sibir, or Sibe- ria which belonged only to a western province was gradual- ly diffused over the whole, comprising half of Asia. The boundary between China and Russia is the most ex- tensive on the globe, reaching from about the 65th to the 145th degree of longitude; eighty degrees (latitude fifty) computed at 39 geographical miles, will yield the result of 3120 miles. Its history therefore becomes singular and interesting. Antiquities. The most curious antiquities seem to be the stone tombs which abound in some steppes, par- ticularly near the river Yenesei, representing in rude sculp- ture human faces, camels, horsemen with lances, and other objects. Here are found besides human bones those of horses and oxen, with fragments of pottery and orna- ments of dress. Religion. The Grecian system of the Christian faith, which is embraced by the Russians, has made incon- siderable progress in their Asiatic possessions. Many of the Tatar tribes in the S. W. are Mahometans ; others follow the superstition of the Dalai I^ama, and the more eastern Tatars are generally 'addicted to the Shaman reli- gion, a system chiefly founded on the self-existence of matter, a spiritual world, and the general restitution of all things. This system is intimately connected with that of the Dalai Lama, and is so widely diffused, that some have asserted Shamanism to be the most prevalent system or the globe. The archiepiscopal see of Tobolsk is the metropolitan of Russian Asia in the north, and that of Astracan in the south. There is another see, that of Irkutsk and Nershink, and perhaps a few others of recent foundation. Government. Siberia is divided into two great governments, that of Tobolsk in the west, and Irkutsk in the east. In the S. W. is the government of Caucasus, with one or two other divisions, intermingling Europe and Asia. At a distance from the capital the government be- comes proportionably lax, and tribute is the chief marii c? subjection. ts and mix- RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. 2il Population. The population of Siberia cannot be computed at above three millions and a half; so that Europe can m future have little to apprehend from the lataric swarms Small Russian colonies have been esta! bhshed in several of the distant provinces and isles. The pohticul importance and relations of this part of the Russian empire chiefly relate to China and Japan^ tnm AVr^'f r° .^^«'^°^«- 'A he manners and cus- toms of Asiatic Russia vary with the numerous tribes bv whom that extensive regioa is peopled. ^ 1 he manners of the Tatars, who are the most numerous, and he same people with the Huns of antiquity, are mi all ot the Roman empire, prior to which period f -y seem to have been aosolutely unknown to the ancients Th^ Monguls are wholly Nomadic, their herds cons siine of horses, camel., oxen, sheep and goats. The women tan leather,digthe culinary roots, prepare the winter pro^fsbns dined or salted, and distil the koumiss, or spiritTmTre'.' milk. 1 he men hunt the numerous beasts and ^an^that k^nT f fT^^^ K " '^'' ^^^^^' 'J^'^^i^ ^ents are fomed of a th prieS'havJ^.r"^' ^T ^l!^^ ''''' ""^^ temples anS tne priests have also wooden hovels around the temples TheKalmuks are divided into three ranks ; the nStv' whom they call white bones ; the common people, who aTe bondmen, and termed black bones; and he clergy de A«, or chief pnnce, consists solely in the number and onu wld^^t'jr '•'t?' ^"T^^ 'f^ °f - estim^Tn in'so" /i S MO tn^'^nnf J' -f' ^"'"^ "" ^'"**' ^i^'d^d into iwaA*, tiom 150 to 3()0 families, each Imak beine com pan ofth'/ 'tf "";' ^r^''" ^'"^^ ^"^"^^ - about'^atenTh part of the cattle and other property ; but on the first sum- S. rr""'"" "^"f ^PP^^'- on horseback before the pnnce whodismisses those whoare unfit for the fatigues of 21. fi weapons are bows, lancts, and sabres, and some- tftt., "'"'^'' ^"^the rich warriors are clothed in mail The Mon!j:uls are rathpr slimf :« ^*„« !.i ~ rVddtsh m vTn ' •^\'^'' ^'\^^' ^"^ ^'^^ complexion of a reUd.sh 01 yellow- ish brown ; but that of the women is cle«r. ^0L. I X 242 RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. and of a healthy white and red. They have surprising quiekness of sight and apprehension, and are docile, hospi- table, beneficent, active, and voluptuous. Industry is a virtue entirely female, yet great, and accompanied with perpetual cheerfulness. Their religious books are in the dialect of Tangut, or Tibet, and there is a schoolmaster in every imak, who imparts more knowledge to the boys than would be expected. Animal food is abundant, and some- times mixed with vegetable, while the general drink is water ; but they sometimes indulge in sour milk, prepared after the Tatarian manner, butter milk, and koumiss ; but mead and brandy are now greater favourites. When pas- turage begins to fail, the whole tribes strike their tents, generally from ten to fifteen times in the year, proceeding in the summer to the northern, and in the winter to the southern wilds. Such, with some slight shades of difference, are also the manners of the Tatai s and Mandshurs. The three distinct barbaric nations of Tatars, Monguls, and Tunguses, or Mandshurs, are by far the most interest- ing in these middle regions of Asia, as their ancestors have overturned the greatest empires, and repeatedly influenced the destiny of half the globe. Language. The languages of all these original na- tions are radically different; and among the Tunguses, Monguls, and Tatars, there are some slight traces of liter- ature ; and not a few manuscripts in their several languages. In the Mongul language there are also many books, writ- ten in the various countries to which their wide conquests extended. Cities and Towns. In Asiatic Russia the princi- pal city is Astracan, at the mouth of the Volga, which is supposed to contain 70,000 inhabitants. The wooden houses have exposed it to frequent conflagrations, and attempts have been vainly made to enforce the use of brick. There are twenty-five Russian churches, and two convents. The Armenians, Lutherans, and Papists, have also their places of worship ; and even the Hindoos have been per- mitted to erect a temple. The chief trade of Astracan is in salt and fish, particularly sturgeon and kaviar from the •»r_i . _^J :». «1-,^ uffno/^t-c cr»rr»«» r»r»t«tinn of '^•'•fnl'i-U. r.OHl" merce. ire also the RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. 243 The chief place after Astracan is Orenburg, founded in the year 1740, to protect the acquisitions in these parts, and promote their commerce. Nor have these views failed, lor Orenburg is the seat of a considerable trade with the tribes on the east of the Caspian. On passing the Uralian chain, fii-st occurs the city of To- bolsk, which only contains about 15,000 souls, but is es- teemed the capital of Siberia. Tobolsk is more distin- guished as the residence of the governor and archbishop, than tor the importance of its commerce. On the river Angara, which issues from the sea of JJaikal stands Irkutsk, supposed to contain 12,000 inhabi- tants. 1 here are several churches and other edifices of Irkmlw .K J°r '*^'' ^""r^^^ ^'*^ ^^^^^ ^""^ convenient. Irkutsk IS the chief mart of the commerce between Russia and China, the see of an archbishop, and the seat of supreme jurisdiction over eastern Siberia. On the wide and frozen Lena stands Yakutsk, with some stone churches, but the houses are mostly of wood. The Lena is here about two leagues in width, (though about 700 miles Irom its mouth,) but is greatly impeded with ice Manufactures and Commerce. Ther€ are some manufactures, particularly in leather, at Astracan, Jsmglass IS chiefly manufactured on the shores of the Cas- pian, irom the sounds or air bladder of the sturgeon, and the beluga. Kaviar is the salted roe of large fish There is a considerable fabric of nitre, about 40 miles to the north ot Astracan. Near the Uralian mountains are several ma- nutactures in iron and copper. The chief commerce of this part of the Russian empire consists m sables, and other valuable furs, which are eaeer- y bought by the Chinese, who return tea, silk, and po^cc- lain ; that with the Kirguses is carried on bv exchangincr Kussian woollen cloths, iron, and household articles; for norses, cattle, sheep, and beautiful sheep-skins. On the Clack bea there is some commerce with Turkey, the ex- ports being furs, kaviar, iron, linen, Sec. and the imports wine, truit, coffee, silks, rice. In the trade on the Caspian me exports are the same, but the return chiefly silk. Climate and Seajjovs- in Aciot;,- u.,oc;„ *u,. I'nm ^VV^''^*'"'^' *"''""" ^^'^ ^" '^ N- f^'O"^ the vine'arthe bot'l A,vi- ^^"^^''"^' ^o tl^e solitary lichen on the rocks of the --victic ocean. The general climate may more justly be 244 RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. regarded as frigid than teniperate. The finesi climate in the eastern parts seems to be tliat of Oaouria, or the pro- vince around Nershinsk ; and the numerous towns on the Amur evince the great superiority of what is called r.hinese Tatary, which is comparatively a fertile and temperate region. Soil and Agriculture. Many parts of Siberia are totally incapable of agriculture ; but in the south'^rn and western districts the soil is of remarkable l'<;rtility. Toward the north of Kolyvan barley generally yields more than twelve fold, and oats commonly twe'Vcy fold. Buck- wheat, in this black light mould, is apt to risn into stalk, but sown in the potxrest spots yields from twelve to fifteen fold. Exclusive of winter wheat, most of the usual Eu- ropean grains prosper in southern Siberia, llie best rhu- barb abounds on the banks of the Ural, or Jaik in the southern districts. y Rivers. ^ome of the largest rivers of Asia be- long to the Russian empire. The Ob, including its wide estuary, may be said to hold a comparative course of 1,900 British miles, while that of the Yeneseiis about 1750, and that of the Lena 1570. The Ob is navigable almost to it? source, that is, to the lake of Altyn, and abounds with fish, but the sturgeon of the Irtish are the most esteemed. After it has been fro- zen for some time, the water becomes foul and fetid, but is purified in the spring by the melting of the snow. Next is the Yf nesei, which is considered as deriving its source from the mountains to the S. W. of the Baikal, in the river called Siskit ; but the name Yenesei is not impart- ed till many streams have joined, when it holds its course almost due north to the Arctic ocean. This river has seme rapids, but is navigable for a great way. The last of these large rivers is the Lena, which rises to the west of the sea of Baikal, and, till near Yakutsk, pur- sues a course from the S. W. to the N. E. a direction of considerable utility, as affording navigation to the remote regions. From Yakutsk the course is nearly due north; the channel being of great breadth and full of islands. Such are the three largest rivers of Asiatic Russia ; others though of considerable magnitude we must omit. Lakes. In the north of Siberia the most consider- able lake is that of Piazinsko. In the south the sea of RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. 245 Baikal is fresh, but, the extent far exceeding that of any other lake. Between the river Ob and the Irtish is a laree lake, about half the length of the Baikal, or 170 miles in length, divided by an island into two parts, called the lakes of 1 chany and Soumi. In this quarter there are many smaller lakes, and others to the north of the Caspian, some ot which are salt, particularly that of liogdo, near the small mountain so called. Mountains. The Uralian mountains have been already described in the account of European Russia The grandest chain in Siberia is that called the mountains of Altai, which, according to Pallas, crossing the head of the Irtish, presents precipitous and snowy summits between that river and the sources of the Ob. Thence it winds in various courses, and under different names, to the eastern extremity of Asia. According to Dr. Pallas, Bogdo Tolu, or Bogdo Alim, the Almighty mountain, rears its pointed summits with striking sublimity, on the limit between the Soonr arian and Mongolian deserts, while the chain passes south, and is supposed to join those of Tibet. The western part of the Altaian chain is chiefly arj-il- laceous, with granitic heights, but many parts are calcalc- ous. bmnaia-Sopka, or the blue mountain, the chief sum- mitm the government of Koiyvan, does not exceed 3000 leet above the sea. That space of the Altaian chain which runs between the Ub and the Yenesei has been little explored ; but affords granite, porphyry, jasper, primitive and secondary lime- stone, with serpentine, petrosilex, slate, mountain crystal, carnehan, and calcedony : one of the highest summits is the ^abin, near the source of the Abakan. In general thev fi^evr^' ^^^'""^ ^""''^"^^ ^""'"^^ '" ^''^ bottoms ntur the hZ^l "^o»ntains of Nershink, or Russian Daouria, send blanches towards the Selinga, ?nd the Amur. Amont? the products may be named granite, porphyry, jasper, cidcc lony, carnehan, onyx, large smoaky topazes, beryl, or qua-marine, the re.l topaz, and the jacint. In this opu- lent district are also salt lakes, and warm sminos with vL ^noiic pyrites, ores of alum, native sulphur,^ and' coah'The romJn-''"^ T""' "'''';' ''^PP'^^' ^"^^ *^^"y ^"i»^« of lead ore, f^oiuaming silver and gold. X2 246 RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. The classical range of Caucasus forms a partial limit between the Hussian empire, and those of Turkey and Per- sia. Between the Euxine and the Caspian the Caucasian chain extends for about 400 British miles. The summits are covered with eternal ice and snow ; and consist as usual of granite, succeeded by slute and limestone. In ancient times they produced gold ; and there are still vestiges of silver, lead, and copper ; and it is supposed of lapis lazuli. The vales abound with excellent forest trees. Althouj^h Asiatic Russia is so abundant in forests that particular names have not been assigned to so vast an ex- tent, yet the northern and eastern parts of Siberia are hare of wood ; the Norway fir not being found farther north than latitude 60". In Europe, on the contrary, the Norway iir extends to the arctic circle. Stepps. After the forests, may be considered the extensive uvel plains, almost peculiar to Asia, and some parts of European Russia : but somewhat similar to the sandy deserts of Africa. The sitpps are not so barren of vegetation, being mostly only sandy, with scattered patches of thin grass, and at wide intervals a stunted thicket. On the eastern side of the Volga begins an extensive stepp, formerly called that of the Kalmuks, from tribes who used to roam there, till they withdrew from the Rus- sian dominions in 1771. This vast desert extends about 700 British miles from E. to W, and including Issim, nearly as far from N. to S. but on the N. of the Caspian the breadth does not exceed 220. The stepp of Barabin, N. VV. of Omsk, is about 400 miles in length, and 300 in breadth, contahiing a few salt lakes, but in general of a good black soil, interspersed with forests of birch. That of Issim aspires but rarely to the same quality : and in both are found many tombs, in- closing the remains of pastoral chiefs, Tatar or Mongul. The vast space between the Ob, and the Yenesei, from the north of Tomsk to the Arctic ocean, is regarded as one stepp, being a prodigious level with no appearance of a mountain, and scarcely of a hill. Vegetable and Animal Productions. Rus- sia in Asia, w> .h regard to its vegetable production, is di- vided by nattrrc into two unequal poriors : The smaller of these is bounded on the west by the Don, and Wolga, on the east by the Uralian mountains, and evi the south by RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. 247 Th3'PTT\-"1.^^^ '^"^'l^ish, and Persian frontiers 1 he chmute of this district is dehcious, and the soil fertlL!* It slopes towards the south, and is protected fomth/^''±^ crn blasts by lofty mountainous ridges; the ce^a, th^?. S'nu "'"'' ^-^d juniper, bee^ch/anioakr^^^^^^^^^^ s des of the mountains ; the almond, the peach and the fie abound ,n the warm recesses of the rocks; the cfuince thf apncot, the willow-leaved pear, and the ;i e ^e^'^^ Tests"" T?r'V" ''! ''^^^^^^^' ^"^ «" ^'- ^'l-^'- of the lorests. i he olive, the stately wide-spreading eastern tuZT"''''^''''?'''''' '^^' *"^ IaurLtinus,yow ^ abundance on the shores of the sea of Azof, and the ('as p.an ; and the romantic vales of the Caucasus are peifuncJ Ahli :"' 1 Z '''' ^°"'^^ ''y '''' '"-^y --- ts of thj Ahaian, and other mountainous chains. As the winters are ot great length and severity throughout the Uo e7f n^.h^rt'l"""'.,^"' '^"^ I^ardiest vegetables arc found to inaabit ,t. Even the common heath, and bog myrtle, which cover the lower parts of Lapland, venture but Tve^ iHtie way eastward of the Uralian mountains. We are no^t I ow! ever hence to conclude that the mighty rivers ot\Siber pour their everlasting streams through a barren waste if perpetual snow ; on the contrary they are boidererlith inexhaustible forests of birch, of ak.r,^f liL, of tI^^^^^^^ maple, of black and white poplar, and aspen, besides mil" hons of noble trees of the pine species, such ^s thelr,^ e Scotch p.ne, the larch, the stone pine, the vew-leaved fir In the greater part of Asiatic Ilussia theVein deer, which extends to the farther.east, performs the office of the iTorse he cow, and the sheep; if we except Kamchatka' S dogs are used for carriage. But \he south may per! haps be considered as the native country of that noble ani ma , the horse, being there found wild, a's well as a spec s of the ass. The terrible urus or bison is yet found n the the rl"i- ''"""• ^^'^ '^^"^ °^' '""^^ g"^' i^ frequent on - — „,.„^,,,,, j^xv^ipjucs .- ana large statrs occur in tii« mZT T' t ^-k^^-i^*^ tL mu'sk anTma ; he wild boar, wolves, foxes, and bears, of various names and 248 RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. descriptions, are also found. That kind of weazel called the sable affords a valuable traffic by its firs. Some kinds of hares appear, little known in other regions ; and the castor or beaver is an inmate of the Yenesei. The horses of the Monguls are of singular beauty, some being ribbed like the tiger, and others spotted like the leo- pard. The nostrils of the foals are commonly slitted, that they may inhale more air in the course. The three great Nomadic nations of the centre of Asia, the Tatars, Mon- guls, and Mandshurs, have no aversion to horse flesh, which is in their opinion superior to beef ; but it is never eaten raw, as fabled, though they sometimes dry it in the sun and air, when it will keep for a long time, and is eaten without farther preparation. The adon^ or stud of a noble IVlongul, may contain between three and four thousand horses and mares. 'IMie cattle are of a middling size, and pass the winter in the stepps or deserts. As these nations use the milk of mares, so they employ the cow for draught, a string being passed through a hole made in their nostril. Mr. Bell met a beautiful Tatar girl astride on a cow, at- tended by two male servants. Minerals. The mineralogy of Siberia is equally fertile. Peter the Great, who directed his attention to every object of utility, was the first who ordered these re- mote mines to be explored. The chief gold mines of Siberia are those of Catherin- burg or Ekatheringburg, on the east of the Uraliar, moun- tains, about latitude 57**, where an office for the manage- ment of the mines was instituted in 1719. The mines of various sorts extend to a considerable distance on the N. and S. of Catherinburg, and the founderies, chiefly for cop- per and iron, are computed at 1 j. But the gold mines of Beresof, in this vicinity, were of little consequence till the reign of Elizabeth. The mines of Nershinsk, discovered in 1704, arc principally of lead mixed with silver and gold ; and those of Koly van, chiefly in the Schlangenberg, or mountain of serpents, so called by the German miners, b^,- gan to be worked for the crown in 1748, But the iron mines of Russia are of the most solid and lasting importance, particularly those which supply the Rock salt is chiefly found near the Ilek, not far from Orenburg. Coal is scarcely known ; but sulphur, alum. RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASU. U9 saUmmoniac, vitriol, nitre, and natron, are found in abun- Normustthe gems of Siberia be omitted, of which there ,s a great variety. Common topazes are found ii Adun- shol o, m quadrangular prisms, as is also the jacint The beryl or aqim-marme is found in what are ca led the ^em mmes of Moursmtsky near Catherinburg, along wkh^]^ chrysolite R.d garnets abound near the sea o^BaUca and a yellowish white kind was discovered by Laxman i he green felspar of Siberia is a beautiful stone, by the Russians carved into various ornaments. The Daourin mountains between the Onon and the Argoon also prod^^^^^ alSndTo^h^^^S^ -- -- -' ^-ifu? ston^: ISLES BELONGING TO ASIATIC RUSSIA. THESE were formerly divided into the Aleutian An- drenovian, and Kurilian groups, with the Fox s er^hich extend to the promontory of Alaska in North America Jt the Aleutian isles, on the east of Kamchatka, there are only two worth notice, Beering's isle and Cooped isle The Andrenovian isles may be regarded as the same whh the and lit /''""^ ;^-' "^"'^"* P^^^ <>f '"^^ same lilnge ; the's^E"! o" rrg's." ""' ""^ '^'^'^ ^'^"^ ''' -^- '^ tnrl^^f ^"""l" f""^ ^''*'^"^ *'^**"^ *^e southern promon- ory of Kamchatka towards the land of Jesso and Japan being supposed to be about 20 in number, of which the argest are Poro Muschir, and Mokanturu. Several of these isles are volcanic ; and some contain forests of birch, alder, and pme. Most of them swarm with foxes of va mus colours The inhabitants of the Kurihan Lies seem to be of similar origin with the Kamchadals. THE CHINESE EMPIRE. IN the last century the Chinese emperors, of the Mand- shur race, extended this wide empire orer many western cduntries, inhabited by wandering hordes of Mongqls, Mandshurs, and Tatars ; and established such firm influ- cnce over Tibet, that the Chinese empire may now be con- sidered as extending from those parto of the Pacific ocean culled the Chinese and Japanic seas, to the rivers Sarasou and Sihon in tha west, a space of 81^, which, taking the medial latitude of 30°, will amount to nearly 4,200 geo- graphical, or 4,900 British miles. From N. to S. this vast empire may be computed from the Uralian mountains, lal. 50°, to the southern part of China about lat. 2 1'^, inc:29 degrees of latitude, 1 740 geographical, or nearly 2,030 Bri- tish miles. It may be divided into three parts, viz. China pnoper, the territory of the Monguls and Mandshurs, and th« interior country of Tibet. CHINA PROPER. 1 HIS distinguished region is, by the natives stvl*.rl Tchon-Koue, which signifies th^ centre of hTjarthri they proudly regard other countries as merfsklts ind ffrn"p:^t"bv°tie"? '"" H ^'^^^r ''' -"^,"^7 of^he no"r' nern part by the descendants of Zintjis, it was stvl^H rl ay, while the southern part was knobby tre ap^i on of Mangi. 1 he origin of the name of China, or Tsb seem« uncertain; but the connexion between tht^ "ord anTthe W h "^K'^'^'f ^PP"^''^ imaginary, the country of he n Kv u ^u ^Jf hometan travellers of the ninth centurv pubhshed by Renaudot, call this country Sin but the PeT sians pronounce it Tchin. ' ^^' China Proper extends from the great wall in the north V^p v"r' T '" t' ^°"^^' ^b«"t 1 140 ^eographicator 13o0 British miles. The breadth from the sLres of 'thl Pacific to the frontiers of Tibet may be comnuteH Tt h«! geographical, or nearly 1030 BritiL .X^^Tn ,1/re miles the contents have been estimated at 1,297,999 On he east and south the boundaries are maritime, and to the north they are marked ,y the great wall an?the desen of ^hamo ; the confines with Tibet on the west seem tnh; cMy indicated by an ideal line, though occ^onTl" 1': strongly marked by mountains and rivers seen.?l?',rV ''•^'^''';^'°''- ^^^^ Pop^'lation of China seems wholly aboriginal, but the form of the features an nT M^nT?^ intimate affinity with the Tatars Mon.l and Mandshurs ; yet the Chinese probably constitnt . i eSl'JaTer'"' ^^^^^^^ ^^^^-^ iVom either o7 252 CHINA PROPER. Historical Epochs. The Chinese history is said to commence, m a clear and constant narration, about 2500 years before the birth of Christ. The founder of the monarchy is I'o-Hi ; but the regular history begins with Yao. The dynasties or families who have successively held the throne amount to 22, from the first named Uia, to the present house of 'I'sing. Sometimes the monarchy is divided into that of the south, wliich is esteemed the ruling and superior inheritance ; and that of the north. The Mandshurs to the north of China repeatedly influenced the succession to tlie empire ; but the Monjruls under Zingis and his successors seized the five northern provinces. Hoaitsinp;, who began to reign A. D. 1627, was the last prince of the Chinese dynasties. Some unsuccessful wars against the Mandshurs, had rendered this emperor melan- choly and cruel ; and insurrections arose, the most formi- dable being conducted by two chiefs Li and Techang. The former besie,^ed Pekin, which was surrendered by the general discontent, and the emperor, retiring to his garden, first slew his daughter with his sabre, and afterwards hang- ed himself on a tree, having only lived .So years. The usurper seemed firmly seated on the throne, when a prince of the royal family invited the Mandshurs, who advanced under their king Tson Te. The Mandshur monarch had scarcely entered China when he died ; and his son of six years of age was declared emperor, the regency being en- trusted to his uncle. The young prince named Chun Tchig, was the first emperor of the present dynasty, and has been followed by four princes of the same Mandshur family. Antiquities. The chief remain of ancient art in China is th i.t stupendous wall, extending across the northern boundary. This work, vvhich is deservedly esteemed among the grandest labours of art, is conducted over the summits of high mountains, some of which rise to the hcii^ht of 5295 feet, across the deepest vales, over wide rivers by means of arches; and in many parts is doubled or trebled to command important passes and at the distance of almost every hundred yards is a tower or massy bastion. The ex- tant is computed at I jOO miles ; but in some parts of smal- ler danger it is not equally strong nor complete, and to- wards the N. W. is only a ranipurl of earth. Near Koo- peko the wall is 25 feet in height, and at the top about 15 CHINA PROPER. 353 ieet thick: some of the towers which arc square, are 48 feet high and about 50 feet wide. When this stupendous wall was erected is uncertain • some authors say it has been standing 2000 years, and others only 600. / " »> «"u Religion. According to Du Halde the ancient Chinese worshipped a supreme being, whom they styled Chang Ti, or 1 ,en. They also worshipped subaltern spi- rits who presided over kingdoms, provinces, cities, rivers, and mountains. Under this system sacrifice* were offered on the summits of hills. "ncrea About A. D. 65, the sect of Fo was introduced into China from Hindostan, and the chief tenets are those of the hindoos, among which is the metempsychosis, or tran- sition ol souls from one animal to another. The oriests are denominated Bonzes, and Fo is supposed to be gratified by the favour shewn to his servants. Since the fifteenth century many Chinese literati have embraced a new system, which acknowledges an universal pnncple, under the name of Taiki, seeming to correspond T e rir'"^"^''^ T^^ "^ ^^'^^^ ^"-^"^ philosophers Ihc Chinese believe also in petty demons who deliUt in nd the Chinese temples are always open, nor is there an^ subdivision of the month known in the country ^ tiovERNMENT. The government of China is well known to be patriarchal The emperor is indeed absolute but the examples of tyrrnny are rare, as he is taught to re- gard his people as his -Jiildren, and not as his slaves. All the officers ofgovernment pass through a regular education and a progress of rank, which are held indispensable Of these officers, who have been called mandarins, there are nme classes, from the judge of the village to the prime mi! TZJ^^ profession requiring a long and severe course ot study, the practice of government remains, like that of medicine, unshaken by exterior events ; and while the im- pena throne is subject to accident and force, the remain- aer ot the machine pursues its usual circle. novver ITTu- "^^*'*' P'-ovinces have great and absolute power, yet rebellions are not unfiequent! Bribery is also ^universal vice ; and the Chinese government, S man; owners, is more fair In tVi*» *k<.««., ♦i.,,. :„ .> . . ^. ."' tlif. ar« • ," " "'" "'^"*:^ '•^»«J» "1 i"e practice, let nie amazing population, and the general ease j Vol. I. happi 254 CHINA PROPER. ness of the people, evince that the administration of the go- vernment must be more beneficent than any yet known ^^AereSbly to a table pubrished by Sir G. Staunt<5ti there are in Chin» Proper 18 provinces, 1,297,999 square miles, and 333,Obo,000 of inhabitants. ^ r-r . The army has been computed at 1,000,000 of infantry, and 800,000 cavalry ; and the revenues at about thirty-six millions and a half of Tahels, or ounces of silver, or about nine millions sterling; but as rice and other gram are also paid in kind, it may be difficult to estimate the precise amount or relative value compared with Eiiropean money. Sir G. Staunton, estimates the revenue at 200,000,000 of silver, which, he says, is equal to 66,000,000/. sterling; but valuing the ounce of silver at five shillings, the amount is 50,000,000/. ^, , , . Manners and Customs. The Chinese being a people in the highest state of civilization, their manners and customs might require a long description ; the limits of this work will only admit a few hints. In the sea ports there is an appearance of fraud and dishonesty ; but it is to be supposed that this is not the general character. Ihe indolence of the upper classes, who are even fed by their servants, and the nastiness of the lower, who eat almost every kind of animal, in whatever way it may have died, are also striking rlefects, occasioned, perhaps, by dire ne- cessity in so populous a country. To the same cause rna be imputed the exposition of the infants. On the othe hand the character of the Chinese is mild and tranquil, and universal affability is very rarely interrupted by the slight- est tincture of harshness or passion. The general drink is tea, of which a large vessel is prepared in the morning tor the occasional use of the family during the day. Marriages . are conducted solely by the will of the parents, and polyga- mv is allowed. The bride is purchased by a present to her parents, and i» never seen by her husband till after theceit- mony. It is not permitted to bury in cities or towns, and the sepulchres are commonly on barren hills and moun- tains, where there is no chance that agriculture will distur the deau. The colour of mourning is white, that persona nerject or forgetfulness may appear in its squalor, i^l Willis of the houses are sometimes of brick, or of hardei clav, but more commonly of wood ; and they geneK CHINA PROPER. 255 consist only of a ground floor, though in those of mer- chants there be sometimes a second story, which forms the warehouse. The dress is long with large sleeves, and a flowing girdle of silk. The shirt and drawers vary ac- coi-ding to the seasons, and in winter the use of furs is ge- neral from the skin of the sheep to that of the ermine. The head is covered with a small hat in the form of a funnel, but this varies among the supe .or classes, whose rank is distinguished by a large bead on the top, diversified in colour according to the quality. Language. The language is esteemed the most singular on the face of the globe. Almost every syllable constitutes a word and there are scarcely 1500 distinct sounds; yet in the written language there are at least 80,000 characters, or different forms of letters, so that every sound may have about 50 senses. The leading cha- racters are denominated keys, which are not of difiicuit ac- quisition. The language seems originally to have been, hieroglyphicai ; but afterwards the sound alone was consi- dered. Education. The schools of education are nu- merous, but the children of the poor are chiefly taught to follow the business of their fathers. In a Chinese treatise of education published by Du Halde, the following are re- commended as the chief topics. 1 . The six virtues, name- ly, prudence, piety, wisdom, equity, fidehty, concord. 2. The six laudable actions, to wit, obedience to parents, love to brothers, harmony with relations, afleclicn for neigh- bours, sincerity with friends, and mercy with regard to the poor and unhappy. 3. The six essential points of know- ledpje, that of religious rites, music, archery, horseman- ship, writing, and accompts. Such a plan seems well cal- culated to make good citizens. Cities and Towns. The chief cities of China are Pekin and Nankin, or the northern and southern courts. Pekin occupies a large space of ground ; but the streets are wide, and the houses seldom exceed one story. The length of what is called the Tatar city is about four miles, and the suburbs are considerable. By the best information ^vhlch the recent embassy could procure, the population was computed at 3,000,000. The houses indeed are nei- mei- large nor numerous ; but it is common to find three generations with all their wives and children under one 256 CHINA PROPER. roof, as they eat in common, and one room contains many beds. The walls of this capital are of considerable strength and thickness ; and the nine p:ates of no inelegant architec- ture. Strict police and vigilance are observed, and the streets are crowded with passengers and carriages. The ^^randest edifice is tlie imperial palace, which consists of many picturesque buildings, dispkersed over a wide and greatly diversified space of ground, ^o as 1 j present the appearance of enchantment. Nankin, which was the residence of the court till the fifteenth century, is a yet more extensive city than Pekin, and is reputed the largest in the empire. The walls are said to be abcmt seventeen British miles in circumference. The chief edifices are the gates with a few temples ; and a celebrated tower clothed with porcelain, about 200 feet in height, which seems to have been chiefly erected as a me- morial, or an ornament, like the Grecian and Roman columns. To the American reader one of the most interesting cities is Canton, which is said to contain a million and a half of inhabitants ; numerous families residing in barks on the river. The chief export is that of tea, of which it is said that about 13,000,000 of pounds weight are consumed by Great Britain and her dependencies, about 5,000,000 by the rest of Europe, and above 2,000,000 by the United States. The imports from England, chiefly woollens, with lead, tin, furs, and other articles, are supposed to exceed a million ; and the exports a million and a half, besides the trade between China and their possessions in liindostan. Other nations carry to Canton the value of about 200,000/. and return with articles to the value of about 600,000/. So that the balance in favour of China may be computed at a million sterling. . The other large cities of China are almost innumerable , and many of the villages are of a surprising size. Edifices. The most striking and peculiar edihces in China are the pagodas or towers, which sometimes rise to the height of nine stories, of more than twenty feet each. The temples, on the contrary, are commonly low buildings, always open to the devout worshippers of polytheism. Wo * Ds. The roads are generally kept in excellent ordeiN with convenient bridges. That near the capital is thus described by Sir George Staunton : " This road toi-ms CHINA PROPER. 257 a magnificent avenue to Pekin for persons and commodi- ties bound for that capital, from the east and from the south. It is perfectly level ; the centre, to the width of about 20 feet, is paved with flags of granite, brought from a consi- derable distance, and of a size from six to sixteen feet in length, and about four feet broad. On each side of this granite pavement is a road unpaved, wide enough for car- riages to cross upon it. The road was bordered in many places with trees." Inland Navigation. The canals of China have long excited the envy and wonder of other nations. The imperial canal which, in utility and labour, exceeds the enormous wall, is said to have been begun in the tenth century of the Christian era, 30,000 men having been em- ployed for 43 years in its completion. " The ground which intervened between the bed of this artificial river, and that of the Eu-ho, was cut down to the depth of about 30 feet, in order to permit the waters of the former to flow with a gentle current into the latter. Their descent is afterwards checked occasionally by flood-gates thrown across the canal, wherever they were judged to be necessary. They consist merely of a few planks let down separately one upon another, by grooves cut into the sides of the two solid abutments or piers of stone, that project one from each bank, leaving a space in the middle wide enough to admit a passage for the largest vessels employed upon the canal. As few parts of it are entirely level, the use of these flood-gates assisted by others cut through its banks, is to regulate the quantity of water in the canal. " Light bridges of timber are thrown across those piers, which are easily withdrawn whenever vessels are about to pass underneath." The same authoE describes this canal as beginning at Lin-sin-choo, where it joins the river Eu-ho, and extending to Han-choo-foo, in an irregular line of about 500 miles. Where it joins the Hoan-ho, or Yellow River, it is about three quarters of a mile in breadth. Manufactures and Commerce. The manufac- tures of Clhina are so multifarious as to embrace almost every article of industry. The most noted manufacture is that of porcelain, and is followed in trade bv those of silk, cotton, paper, &c. ■ Y3- 258 CHINA PROPER. Thp internal commerce of China is immense, but the external trade unimportant, considering the vastness of the empire ; a scanty intercourse exists with Russia and Japan : but the chief export is that cf tea, which is sent to England fo the value of about one million yearly. Climate and Seasons, The European inter- course with China. being chiefly confined to the southern part of the empire, the climate is generally considered as hot, whereas at Pekin in the north the average degree of the thermometer is under 20° in the night during the winter months ; and even in the day it is considerably be- low the freezing point. Face of the Country. The face of the country is infinitely diversified ; and though in a general view it be flat and fertile, and intersected with numerous large rivers and canals, yet there are chains of mountains and other dis- tricts of a wild and savage natuie. The soil is various, and agriculture by the account of all travellers is carried to the utmost degree of perfection. *' Where the face of the hill or mountain is not nearly perpendicular to the level surface of the earth, the slope is converted into a number of terraces, one above another, each of which is supported by mounds of stone. By this management it is not uncommon to see the whole face of a mountain completely cultivated to the summit. Pulse, grain, yams, sweet potatoes, onions, carrots, turnips, and a variety of other culinary plants are produced upon them. A reservoir is sunk in the top of the mountain. The rain- water collected in it is conveyed by channels successively to the diflPerent terraces, placed upon the mountain's sides. " The collection of manure is an object of so much at- tention with the Chinese, that a prodigious number of old men and women, as well as of children, incapable of much other labour, are constantly employed about the streets, public roads, banks of canals, and rive»-s, with baskets tied before them, and holding in their hands small wooden rakes to pick up the dung of animals and oflals of any kind that may answer the purpose of manure i but above all others, except the d\»>g of fowls, the Chinese farmers prefer night soil. Th^ manure is mixed sparingly t'/ith a por- tVu and formed invo cakes dried after* tills state it sometimes becomes an ^^¥ i2.it\mf I r\.*x mjcr ^MiftX* w^rdsin the sun. CHINA PROPER. 259 object of commerce, and is sold to farmers, who never em- ploy It m a compact state. , " T.^e quantity of manure thus collected must however be still madequate to that of the cultured ground, which bears so vast a proportion to the whole surface of the coun- try. It is reserved therefore in the first instance, for the purpose of procunng a quick succession of culinary ve- getables, and for forcing the production of flowers and fruit. " The great object of Chinese agriculture, the produc- tion of grain, is generally obtained with little manure, and without lettmg the land lie fallow. Irrigation is practised to a very great extent. Th husbandry is singularly neat, and not a weed is to be seen." Rivers. In describing the rivers of this great em- pire, two are well known to deserve particular attention, namely, the Hoan-ho and the Kiart-ku. The sources of the first, also called the Yellow River, from the quantity of mud which It devolves, are two lakes, situated about the Ssth*' of north latitude, and about 97tho east from Greenwich This prodigious river is extremely winding and devious in its course, and discharges itself into the Yellow Sea. Its com- parative course njay be estimated at about 1800 British miles: and its velocity equals seven or eight miles in the hour. The Kian-ku rises in the vicinity of the sources of the Hoan-ho, and winds nearly as far to the south as the Hoan- ho does to the north. After washing the walls of Nankin It enters the sea about 100 miles to the south of Hoan-ho Us length is estimated at about 2200 English miles These two rivers may be considered as the longest on the 'face of the globe ; they certainly equal if they do not exceed, the tamous river of the Amazons in South America. Lakes. Nor is China destitute of noble and ex- tensive lakes. Du Halde -af -OS us that the lakeof Tone- tint-hou, in the provinc. Oi iiou-quang, is rr le ^han 80 leagues in circumference. That of Poyang-hou, in the province of Kiaiig-si, is about 30 leagues in circumference Upon a lake near the imperial canal were observed thou- sands of small boats and rafts, constructed for a sinc-ular - ', , ;•; ' ' ' -;" ^"^" ■'^"-'- '" ^^^t are ten or a do- zen birus, which, at F signal from the owner, plunge into the water; and it is astonishing to see the enormous size 260 CHINA PROPER. of fish with which they return grasped within their bills, without swallowing any portion of their prey, except what the master was pleased to return to them for encourage- ment and food." Mountains. Concerning the extensive ranges of Chinese mountains; no general and accurate information has yet been given. From Mr. Arrowsmith's recent map of Asia it appears that a considerable branch extends from those in central Asia, running south to the river Iloan-ho. Two grand ranges rumiing E. andW. intersect the centre of the empire, seemingly continuations of the enormous chains of Tibet. In the southern pai't of China the princi- pal ridges appear to run from north to south. Vegetable and Animal Puoductions. Among the trees and larger shrubs we find particularized the thuya orifciitalis, an elegant evergreen ; the camphor tree, whose wood m-kes an excellent and durable timber, and from tiie roots of which that fragrant substance camphor is procured by distillation ; the oleander-leaved euphorbia, a large shrub used as a material for hedges ; the tallow tree, from the fruit of which a green wax is procured that is manufactured into candles ; the spreading banyan tree, growing among loose rocks ; the weeping wil- low ; Spanish chesnut, and the larch. Of the fruit trees the following are the principal : China orange ; the plantai" tree ; the tamarind; the white and paper mulberry tree; the former of these is principally cultivated for the use of its leaves, on which the silk worms are fed ; and of the bark of the latter, paper, and a kind of cloth are made. Nor must the two species of the tea tree be left unnoticed, whose leaves constitute so large a proportion of the Euro- pean trade with China. There are few animals peculiar to the Chinese territory. Du Halde asserts that the lion is a stranger to this country, but there are tigers., buffaloes, wild boars, bears, rhino- ceroses, cDmels, detr, 8cc. The musk deer is a singular animal of China as well as Tibet. Among the birds many are remarkable for their beautiful forms and colours, in which they are rivalled by a variety of moths and butter- flies. , . Minerals. ' Among the metals lead and tin seem to be the rai est. China possesses mines of goid, siivci, iron, white copper, common copper and mercury, together with CHINA PROPER. 261 lapis lazuli, jasper, rock crystal, load-stone, granite, por- phyry, and various marbles. In many of the northern provinces coal is found in abun- dance. The common people generally use it pounded with water, and dried in the form of cakes* Pekin is supplied from high mountains in the vicinity, and the mines seem inexhaustible, though the coal be in general use. Tutenag, which is a native mixture of zinc and iron, seems to be a peculiar product of China, and in the pro- vince of Houquang there was a mine which yielded many hundred weight in the course of a few days. CHINESE ISLANDS. Numerous isles are scattered along the southern and eastern coast of China, the largest being those of Taiv»^an, also called Formosa, and that of Hainan. Formosa is a re- cent acquisition of the Chinese in the latter end of the seventeenth century ; the natives being, by the Chinese ac- counts, little better than savages. The southern part of Hainan is mountainous, but the northern more level and productive of rice. In the centre there are mines of gold; and on the shores are found sm^ll blue fishes, which the Chinese esteem raore than those which we call gold and silver fish. The isles of Leoo-keoo, between Formosa and Japan, constitute a little civilized kingdom tributary to China. These isles were discovered by the Chinese in the seventh century ; but it was not till the fourteenth that they became tributary to China. CHINESE TATARY. I I THIS extensive region might more properly be called Mongolia, as the greater number of tribes are Monguls ; or the western part might be styled Tatary, the middle Mongolia, and the eastern Mandshuria. The two latter are the objects of the present description ; as that of Inde- pendent Tatary will be found after the account of Persia with which it has (as now limited) in all ages been cpn- nccted. Extent. This wide and interesting portion of Asia, which has repeatedly sent forth its swarms to deluge the arts and civilization ofEurope, extends from the rad" of longitude east from Greenwich to the 145th°,a space of not less than rs*' of longitude, which at the medial latitude of 45^, will yield about 3100 geographical miles. The breadth from the northern frontier of Tibet to the Russian confines is about 18^, or 1080 geographical miles, Originai. Population. The original population of this part of Asia appears to have been indigenal, so far as the most ancient records extend. Part of the west was held by the Scythae of antiquity, seemingly a (jothic race, who were subdued or expelled by the Tatars or Huns from the east, pressed on the other side by the Mcnguls. Bc;yond the latter were the Mandshurs, who, though inferior to the Monguls in power, yet retained their ancient possessions, and in the seventeenth century conquered China. Historical Epochs. The chief historical epochs of the region we now contemplate may perhaps be more certainly traced in the Chinese annals, than in any other documents. The first appearance of the Huns or Tatars. may he observed in the pat"es of Roman history. The annals of the Monguls, the most important nation, faintly CHINESE TATARY. 268 illuminate tlie pages of Abulgasi, whence it would appear that prior to Zingis there was only one celebrated chan named Oguz, who seems to have flourished about the 1 30th year of the Christian aera. The reigns of Zingis and Ti- mur are sufficiently known in general history ; but the di- visions of their conquests, and the dissentions of their suc- cessors, have now almost annihilated the power of the Monguls, atKlthe terror of their arms. Religion. The religion most universally diffused m this part of Asia is what has been called Shamanism, or the belief in a supreme author of nature, who governs the universe by the agency of numerous inferior spirits of ^reat power. ° Government. The government at present is conducted by princes who pay homage to the Chinese em- pire, and receive Chinese titles of honour ; but many of the ancient forms are yet retained. Though writing be not unknown among the Monguls, yet the laws appear to be chiefly traditional. Population.- Of the population of these regions It is difficult to form any precise ideas ; but perhaps it does not exceed six millions. Divisions. The country of the Mandshurs is by the Chinese divided into three great governments. 1. That of Chinyang: the chief town is Chinyang, still a con- siderable place, with a mausoleum of Kunchi, regarded as the conqueror of China, and the founder of the reigning family. 2. The government of Kiren-Oula, which ex- tends far to the N. E. Kirem the capital stands on the river Songari, and was the residence of the Mandshur ge- neral who acted as viceroy. 3. The government of Tsit- chicar, so called from a town recently founded on the Nonni Oula where a Chinese gaiTison is stationed. In this division may also be mentioned Corea, which has for many centuries acknowledged the authority of China, and which boasts a considerable population. To the west are various tribes of Monguls, whose coun- try may be considered under three divisions. 1. That part called Gete which some regard as the country of the ancient Massageta. 2. Little Bucharia, so called to dis- tinguish it from the Greater Bucharia ; the people of Little Bucharia are an industrious race of a distinct nricln. wV"^ are little mingled with their Kalmuk or Mougul lords. 3^. 'Mm 264 CHINESE TATARY. The countries of Turfan to the north of the lake called Lok Nor, and that of Chamil or llami to the east, regions little known, and surrounded with wide deserts. Army. A numerous horde of barbarians, unskil- \ed in modern tactics. Manners and Customs, Language and Litera- ture. The manners and customs, language and lite- rature of the Mongulshave been already briefly described /in the account of Asiatic Russia. Cities and Towns. This extensive portion of Asia contains several cities and towns, generally construct- ed of wood, and of little antiquity or duration. They are mostly inconsiderable, and too uninteresting to an Ameri- can reader to be enumerated. Trade. The principal trade of the Mandshur country consists in ginseng and pearls, found in many rivers which fall into the Amur. Excellent horses may also be classed among the exports. Cashgar was formerly ce- lebrated for musk and gold. Corea also produces gold, silver, iron, beautiful yellow varnish, and white paper, einseng, with small horses about three feet high, fur&. and fossil salt. The other towns are rather stations for mer- chants than seats of commerce. Climate, &c. Though the parallel of central Asia correspond with that of France, and part of Spain, yet the heights and snows of the mountainous ridges occa- sion a degree and continuance of cold little to be expected from other circumstances. . Face of the Country. The appearance of this extensive region is diversified with all the grand features of nature, extensive chains of mountains, larvae rivers, and lakes. But the most singular feature is that vast elevated plain, supported like a table, by surrounding mountains, This prodigious plain, the most elevated continuous region on the globe, is intersected by some chains of mountains, and by the vast desert of Cobi or Shamo. Destitute of plants and water, it is dangerous for horses, but is safely passed with camels. This desert extends from about the 80th° of E. longitude from Greenwich to about the 1 10th , being 30« of longitude, which in the latitude of 40o,may be ' 1380 geographical miles. Agriculture. Among the southern Mandshurs, and tiie people of i^.ittle Bucharia, agriculture is not WnO-.y CHINESE TATAKY. 263 neglected, nor is wheat an unknown harvest. The ^oil nf soextensn-e a portion of the earth nuiy Le unposed'^ be mhmtely va .us ; but the predominating; suSc:';^ bhl^ i)erva^ie7pnr;„i a '^^V'^ "'^ "^^"'^ considerable rivers that tLosJoSkish ^.Tt "^ '•'" '''^" ^''' of 8'-eat extent, a. Holm Nor, o,' he burc hke will "''' '''' ''™" """'='' of the Monguir ' ' -"" '"""' '» » '"be Animals. The 7nnlno-,r ,xf *i • ., »i>h long sharp eafs'^ """"'' '^°'°"^' "»<• ="■"". becnlfcpi:;,d. '"'' ""--K-y of central Asia has ISLAND OF SACJALIAN, OR TCHOKA. Till this larne island was pvpipr„,i u,. ,. OMigator La Ferouse it ^.^=7 , , ^^ "he uniorlunate • Vol. 1. ' 2 """" '" ''' '"">' " ^""l' IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) WJ. ^j z 1.0 I.I 1.25 f^i^ 111^ ut m 1 2.2 £ Si ■" I "^ ilia 11= 1-4 ill 1.6 ^' »^ ^ &.. s '/ W 'C Photogmphii Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14S80 (716) 872-4303 "^ A # ^<^ .'7. ' 266 CHINESE TATARY, isle at the mouth of the Amur. It is now found to extend from the 46tho of latitude to the 54th<*, or not less than 480 geographical miles in length, by about 80 of medial breadth, and is the most important portion of that naviga- tor's voyage. The natives seem to approach to the Tataric form ; their dress is a loose robe of skins, or quilt- ed nankeen, with a girdle. Their huts, or cabins, are of timber, thatched with grass, with a fireplace in the centre. The people are highly praised by La Perouse as a mild and intelligent race. TIBET. . THE name of lUbet, which is probably Hindoo or Per- S '/ "Vl"® T"*'*y ^^'^**"' ^"^ ^" ^^"Sal, pronounced y/dder or 716;. But the native appellation is /»«>' or Fug irc^cA.;n, said to be derived from Pue% signifying northern, and Joachim, snow, that is the snowy region of the north Tiu^^^V^^Ir A*^<^or**ing to the most recent maps, libet extends from about the rsth to the 101st degree of longitude, which m the latitude of 30« may be about 1350 geographical miles. The breadth may be regarded as ex- tending from the 27th to the 35th degree of latitude, or nbout 480 geographical miles. The original population has not been accurately examined ; but it may perhaps be con- eluded that they are derived from the Bootanesc, a race of men which approaches the Tataric, though they cannot be regarded as iMandshurs, Monguls, or Tatars proper Provinces Tibet is divided into three parts, Up- per, Middle, and Lower. Upper Tibet chiefly comprises the province of Nagari, fall of horrible rocks, and moun- tains covered with eternal snow. Middle Tibet contains the provinces of Shang, Ou, and Kiang : while the pro- vinces of Lower Tibet are Takbo, Congbo, and Kahang. 10 these must be added the wide region of Amdoa, if It be not the same with Kahang, but it seems more proba- bly to embrace the confines towards China, as the native* S ^^^^l^^^^y ingenious, and speak the Chinese language, ihe N. E.part was, with the Chinese province of Shensi, IK i^?. &^^^t wall was exten(|ed in this quaiter, the ce- lebrated 1 angut of oriental history and geoj^raphy. On the vvestdrn side, high mountains, covered with perpetual snow, and with all the terrible avalanches, and other fea- tares oi the Swiss Alps, have in all ages prevented the Per- 26» TIBET. sians and the conquerors of Bucharia from invading this country, and have also prevented travellers from penetrat- ing into that quarter of the globe. About ir 15 the emperor of China being desirous toob- tain a map of Tibet, two Lamas were sent who had studied geometry in a mathematical academy. These lamas drew a map from Sining, in the province of Shensi, to the sources of the Ganges; which was afterwards examined by the Jesuits, and improved by them, so far as their ma- terials would admit. But the geography of Asia cannot be said to be complete till we have new and correct maps of the central parts, particularly of Tibet, which may be called tlie heart of Asia. 1 he sources of the Ganges and Indus, the Sampoo, and all the prodigious and fertile streams of exterior India, and of China, belong to this mteresting region. , Religion. The religion of Tibet seems to be the schismatical oiisprlng of that of the Hindoos. It bears a very close affinity with the religion of Brahma in many important particulars, but differs materially in its ritual, or ceremonial worship. 1 ibetans assemble in chapels, and unite togetl-Jfcr in prodigious numbers to perform their re- ligious service, which they chaunt in alternate recitative and chorus, accompanied by an extensive band of loud and powerful instruments. Government. The ruling government is th« spiritual, though the lama was accustomed to appoint a f//ia, or secular regent, a right which has probably passed to the Chinese emperor. The laws must, like the relii^ion, bear some affinity to that of the Hindoos. Population. No estimate of the population of Tibet seems to have been attempted ; but as the country may be said to be wholly mountainous, and the climate excessively cold, even under the 2rth degree of latitude, (the influence of mountains being far superior to that, of imaginary zones,) the people are thinly scattered, and the number of males far exceeds that of females, and of course the latter are indulged in a plurality of husbands. There is every reason to suppose the population is inconsiderable. Revenues. The revenues of the lama, and of the secular princes, seem to be trifling; nor can Tibet ever as- pire to anj political importance. In a commercial point of view, friendship and free intercourse with Tibet might TIBET. 369 open new advantages to the British settlements in Bengal: hv M. h' ?-"'^" '^P^^^^^ ^"^°y« *° t^^ '^"^a w«^re sent il„ J* "f^^'^S^' a governor who possessed the most en- arged and enhghtened mind, and an active attention to the interests of his country. r.nf.^"fl''''^^t^' ^*'- ^^- '^'"'•"e'' represents the cha- racter of the Tibetans as extremely genlJe and amiable. 1 he men are generally stout, with something of the Tata- hei^Men'?.-?^ '^u T^'" °f «ruddy brown complexion, heightened like the fruits by the proximity of the sun, while the mountain breezes bestow health and vigour, int.:. . •'''''rT°"'*'5,^^"™^''"^Se are neither tedious nor imle ar , and quickly brought to a conclusion. 'J'he priests ot Tibet, who shun the society of women, have no share in hrL'',M'''''*'"l'^''K°'- "' "^''^'y"^^ '^'^ obligation between the parties, which, it seems, is formed indissolubly for Such is the respect paid to the lamn, that his body is preserved entire in a shrine; while those of the inferior puesls are burnt, and their ashes preserved in little hollow images of metal. But in general the dead bodies are ex- posed to the beasts and birds of prey, in walled areas; and of t^deld '' '' ' '' '" ^""^'^ ""^^ ^^'"^^ ''^ ^°"°"^ hnv ^^''*'^J'^^=- The origins of the Tibetan speech cirnvorH'" I^:°P^^^y "^'^stigated. The literature is chiefly of the religious kind, the books being sometimes pnnted wuh blocks of wood, on narrow slips o^f thTpa^er iabncated from the fibrous root of a small shrub. In ?hi8 practice they resemble the Chinese ; while the Hindoos l^Z^Vlr' T^' ^'^^ " ''^'^ ''y^^^' "PO" the iecem eaves of the palmyra tree,(borassusflabelliformis,) afford- inga fibrous substance, which seems indestructible by ver- min. 1 he writing runs from the left to the right, as in the languages of Europe. ^ ' Tih m'/^.I^ • ^'''' '^ '''^'''- ^^ t^^ cities and towns of Tibet little IS known. The capital is Lassa. citv \nuTf '' situated in a spacious plain, being a small city, but the houses are of stone, and are spacious and lofty i he noted mountain of Putela, on which stands the palace 01 the Lama, is about seven miles to the east of the city Z2 . . /•' . :j7o TIBET. Edifices. Among the edifices, the monasteries may be first mentioned. Mr. Turner describes that of Teshoo Loomboo, as containing three or four hundred houses, inhabited by monks, besides temples, mausoleums, and the palace of the sovereign pontiff'. The buildings are all of stone, none less than two stories in height, with flat roofs, and parapets composed of heath and brushwood. Some of the palaces and fortresses are described and deli- neated by Mr. Turner; and the architecture seems re- spfctable. The roads amidst the rocky mountains- resem- ble those of Swisserland, and arc particularly dangerous after rain. Manufactures, 8cc. The chief manufactures of Tibet seem to be shawls, and some woollen cloths; but there is a general want of industry ; and the fine undermost ha-rofthe goats, from which shawls are manufactured, is chiefly sent to Caslimir. The principal exports are to China, consisting of gold dust, diamonds, pearh, lamb bkins, some musk, and woollen cloths. Many of the Chi- nese imports are manufactured articles. To Nipal, Tibet sends rock salt, tincal, or crude borax, and gold dust ; re- ceiving in return base silver coin, copper, rice, and coarse cotton cloths. Tlirough Nipal is also carried on the chief trade with IJengal, in gold dust, tincal, and musk. 'I'he returns are broad cloth, spices, trinkets, eme^alfls, sap- phires, lazulite, jet, amber, &c. ' * ' Climate. *' In the temperature of the seasons in Tibet a remarkable uniformity prevails, as well as in their periodical duration and return. The spring is marked, from March to May, by a variable atmosphere ; by heat, thunder storms, and occasionally with refreshing showers. From June to September is the season of humidity, when heavy and continued rains fill the rivers to their brim, which run off from hence with rapidity to assist in inundating Bengal. From October to March a clear and uniform sky succeeds, seldom obscured either by fogs or clouds. For three months of this season a degree of cold is felt, far greater perhaps than is known to prevail in Europe." Soil and Cultivation. From the same intel- ligent traveller we learn that Bootan, with all its confused and shapeless mountains, is covered with eternal verdure, and abounds in forests of large and lofty trees. The sides of the mountains are improved by the hand of industry, TJBET. 271 jud crowned with orchards, fields, and villaR-es Tibef Proper, on the contrary, exhibits only ]o^^rockv h n U vv.thout any visible vegetation, or extens ve Lrid thin oJ" an aspect equally stern. Yet Tibet produLs .real Tun trive soniTP to f^k«r- ^^ "*"> niountains that d rectZ ?h ^^f,^^"Ses, proceeds first in an E. and S F (lirtction ; then ,t bends S. VV. and flows into the estuarv miles! ^"^''' ''^''' ' farther course of about 400 b!S Many other considerable rivers are believed tn r\..; Lakes. These Alpine regions contain, as usual, nostconmilor.iKlr. K^:„ . *' man, lakes .he -st con;iS;y;S; r:;™:;^^,^ 'sot'"; 1^".?ii.^:i'.»" J";- -! !-'.^">. -d the name of » broad. sVg^ea; rrh^s^ "i '^ o?" fc' iJT/' '"" UinstvraLra^ee:'^yare'J;T»l^^^^^^^^ .sno^accurategeographicarde,i„ei.io„'Xh:t'co^lf::5 S. asTthe AlnraL'th^" """^' '^'•™^'>" «'''™'' N. and but with iLi"^' "' """'•'^ """y P^'bm be traced, attof the'^roWn^r' '" "" general map oVfibet, ami able t^'"^^^- , ■ '" ?°°""» ^™ "'W animals are observ- ub uescriptions. The horses arc of a small siz^. i,.„ %72 TIBET. spirited. The cattle are also diminutive. The flocks of sheep are numerous, commonly small, with black heads and legs; the wool soft, and the mutton excellent. It is a peculiarity of the country that the latter food is generally eaten raw. When dried in the frosty air it is not disagree- able in this state, to an European palate. The goats are numerous and celebrated for producing a fine hair, which is manufactured into shawls, and which lies beneath the exterior coarse coat. Nor must the singu- lar breed of cattle be, forgotten, called Yak by the Tatars, covered with thick long hair ; the tail beinr^ peculiarly flowing and glossy, and an article of luxury in the east, where it is used to drive away the flies, and sometimes dried for ornaments. The musk deer delights in intense cold. The musk, which is only found in the male, is formed in a little tu- mour at the navel; and is the genuine and authentic article so styled, being commonly black, and divided by thin cuticles. Minerals. The mineralogy is best known from the account appended to Mr. Turner's Journey in 1783, from which it appears that Bootan does not probably con- tain any metal except iron, and a small portion of copper ; while Tibet Proper, on the contrary, seems to abound witli rich minerals. Gold is found in great quantities, some- times in the form of dust, in the beds of rivers, sometimes in large masses and irregular veins. There is a lead mine, two days journey from Teshoo Lumboo. Cinnabar, rich in quicksilver, is also found ; and there are strong indications of copper. The most peculiar product of Tibet is tincal, or crude borax, found in a lake about fifteen days journey from Teshoo Lumboo. The tincal is deposited or formed in the bed of the lake ; and those who go to collect it dig it up in large masses, which they afterwards break into small pieces for the convenience of carriage, exposing it to the air to dry. It is used in Tibet for soldering, and to pro- mote the fusion of gold and silver. Rock salt is universally used for all domestic purposes in Tibet, Bootan and Kipal JAPAN. THE kingdom, or, as it is by some styled, the empirfc ot Japan, has, by most geographers, been classed among the Asiatic isles, and may in some measure be compared with Great Britain and Ireland, forming a grand insular power near the eastern extremity of Asia, like that of the iintisJi isles near the western extremity of Europe Marco Polo, the father of modern Asiatic geography, mentions Japan by the name of Zipangri or Zipangu. The inhabitants themselves call it Nipon or Nifon, and the *^ninese bippon and Jepuen. .t, J^^Jf^'^' . '^^'^ empire extends from the 30th to the 4 1st degree of N. latitude; and according to the most lecent maps, from the 131st to the 142d degree of E lon- gitude from Greenwich. We shall pass over many smaller isles, as by far the most important is that of Nipon The grand isle of Nipon is in length from S. W. to N. E. not less han 750 British miles ; but is so narrow in proportion, that the medial breadth cannot be assumed above 80 though m two projecting parts it may double that number ihese islands are divided into provinces and districts, as usual in the most civilized countries. nJ?-*u^ N. of Nipon is another large isle, that of Jesso, or Lhicha, which having received some Japanese colonies, IS generally regarded as suliject to Japan ; but being inha- Dited by a savage people, is rather considered as a foreign conquest than as a part of this civilized empire. K« ^.^'<^^NAL Population. The Japanese seem to ^e a kmdred race with the Chinese, though, according to ^aempter, the languages be radically distinct. But if com- 274 JAPAN. pared with that of Corea, the nearest land, and the latter vrith the Chinese, perhaps a gradation might be observable. Historical Lpochs. The history of their own country is universally studied by the Japanese; and Kxmp- fer has produced an elaborate abstract, divided into three epochs, the fabulous, the doubtful, and the certain. Pass- ing by the two first, \ire shall take notice of the last period. The third, or certain period, begins with the hereditary succession of the ecclesiastical emperors, styled Dire, from the year 660 before the Christian era, to the year of Christ, 1 585, during which 107 princes of the same lineage governed Japan. At the last period the secular princes assumed the supreme authority. In general the reigns are pacific; though at very distant intervals the Mandshurs and Cureans occasionally invaded Japan, but were always de- feated by the valour of the inhabitants. In 1385 the ge- 'nemls of the crown, or secular emperors, who were also ihereditary, assumed the supreme power; the Dairis being Afterwards confined, and strictly guarded, that they might not reassume their ancient authority. Antiquities. The Europeans have not explored this country enough to be acquainted with its antiquities, jf it really possesses any worthy of notice. Religion. The established religion of Japan is a •polytheism, joined with the acknowledgment of a supreme creator. There are two principal sects, that of Sinto and that of Budsdo. The first acknowledge a supreme being, far superior to the little claims and worship ot" man, whence they adore the inferior deities as mediators, the idea of a mediator being interwoven in almost every form of reli- gion. They abstain from animal food, detest bloodshed, and will not touch any dead body. The priests are either secular \»r monastic ; the latter alone being entrusted with the mysteries. The festivals and modes of worship are cheerful, and even gay ; for they regard the gods as beings who solely dt^light in dispensing happiness. Besides the first day of the year, and the three or four other grand festivals, the first day of the month .s always kept as a holiday. There are several orders of monks and nuns, as in the Roman Catholic system. They believe in the metempsychosis or transmigration of souls, the wicked being supposed to migrate into the bodies ofanimajs, till they have undergone a due purgation. JAPAN. 275 Soon after the discovery of this country by the Porta- guese, Jesuitic missionaries arrived in 1549 ; and their suc- cessors continued to diffuse their doctrine till 1638, when 37,000 Christians were massacred. Not contented with their station, that intriguing order endeavoured to intro- duce themselves into the governing councils of the nation Smce that memorable epoch Christianity has been held in supreme detestation ; and the cross, with its other symbols, are annually trampled under foot; but it is a fable that the Dutch are couEtrained to join in this ceremony. Government. The Kubo, or secular emperor, is now hereditary and sole monarch of the country. Yet oc- casionally his authority has been controverted ; and Japan has been ravaged by many civil wars. The ecclesiastical dignities were of six orders, some belonging to particular offices, others merely honorary. The secular prince is accustomed to confer, with the consent of the dairi, two honorary ranks, equivalent to our noblemen and knights The ecclesiastical court is chiefly occupied with literary pursuits, the dairi residing at Miaco ; and his court remains though not in its former splendour. The government of each province is intrusted to a resi- dent prince, who is strictly responsible for his administra- tion, his family remaining at the emperor's court as hos- tages ; and he is himself obliged to make an annual appear- ance, the journey being performed with great pomp, and accompanied with valuable presents. The emperor, as in the feudal times of Europe, derives his chief re venue from his own estate, consisting of five inferior provinces, and soine detached towns. Each Prince enjoys the revenues ot his fief or government, with which he supports his court and military force, repairs the roads and defrays every civil expense. ' The superiority of the laws of Japan over those of i-urope, has been loudly proclaimed by Kxmpfer. The parties themselves appear, and the case is determined with- out delay. Thunberg informs us that the laws are few, Dut rigidly enforced, without regard to persons, partiality, or violence. Most crimes are punished with death ; but wie sentence must be signed by the privy council at Jedo. rarents and relations are made answerable for the crimes \LaI ^*^°*^ ^^^^^ education they ought to have super- mtended. The police is excellent, there not only being a 376 JAPAN. chief maj^istratc of each town, but a coimnissary of each •ti'cet, elected by the inhabitants to walch over property and tranquilhty. Two inhabitants in tlieir turn nightly patrole the street to guard against fire. The best proof that the laws aro salutary is that few crimes are committed, and few punishments are inflicted. The brief code, according to Thunberg, is posted up in every town and village, in large letters, on a spot sur- rounded with rails. Population. All travellers agree that the popu- lation is surprising, although a great part of the couiUry be mountainous. 'I'hunberg observes that the capital Jedo, is said to be 63 British miles in circumference, and at any rate rivals Pckin in size. Kacmpfer says that the number of people daily travelling on the highways is inconceiva- ble, and the tokauhy the chief of the seven great roads, is sometimes more crowded than the most frequented streets of European capitals. Perhaps a pretty safe estimate may be formed of the population of Japan by supposing it to equal that of China ; and the fomier country being about one tenth part the size of the latter, the population will of course be about 30,000,000. Army, 8cc. The army has been estimated by Vare- nius at more than half a million ; and the character of the people is singularly brave and resolute. I'he navy, like that of the other oriental powers, is beneath notice. The Japanese vessels are open at the stern, so that they cannot bear a boisterous sea. Revenues. ~ The revenues of this empire are stat- ed by Varenius at 2834 tons of gold, on the 1 lemish mode of computation ; and taking the ton at only 10,000/. ster- ling, the amount would be 28,340,000/. sterling, besides the provinces and cities wliich are immediately subject to the emperor. The emperor besides the large revenues of his provinces, has a considerable treasure in gold and sil- ver, disposed in chests of 1000 taels, or thayls, each being nearly in value to a Dutch rix dollar, or about four shillings and four pence English money. Manners and Customs. " The people of this nation are well made, active, free and easy in their motions, with stout limbs, although their strength is not to be com- pared to that of the northern inhabitants of Euro]ie. 1 hey are of a yellowish colour all over, sometimes bordering oli JAPAN. 27r brown, and sometimes on white; Ladies of distincUon who seldom go out in the open air without hein,? covered; nesithes!^ ""^T' V' ""^ '^'''' ^'y"» '^■'''^ "''^ the C hi! nese, these people are distmjruishable. Thesl- omans havi. not d,at rotunchty which those of other naUons exS but aic obIong,8maIl, and are sunk deeper in the head, n conse arc yet rather thick and short." ^ ' "**» This highly civilized people are supposed to be free fmm ' iSof'f r'^'^^ maritime Chin^-L. Theyvt^^^^ aueties of looi, Productions. Thouj.h there be some plains of consider- able extc nt, yet the country in general consists of moiuUiuns, hills, and valleys, the coast being mostly rocky and precipit* ous, and invested with a turbulent sea. 'I he soil in itself moy be said to be rather barren j but the prolific showers con- spire with labour and manure to overcome even this obsta. clc. Agriculture is a science in the highest estimaiion With this sensible people, so that exce,Jt the most barren and un- tractable mountains, the earth is universally cullivatcd; and even most of the mountains and hill«. if any portion be found uncultivated it may be seized by a more indns- trlous neighbour. Manure is laid upon the plants, when tUey have attained the height of about six inches, so that they instantly receive the whole benefit, and weeding is carried to the utmost degree of nicety. nice is the chief grain ; buck-wheat, rye, barley, and wheat being little used. The sweet potatoc is abundant; with several sorts of beans and peas, turnips, cabbages, Sec. The rice is sown in April, and gathered in November: in which last month the wheat is sown, and reaped in .lune. The barley also stands the winter. From the seed of a kind of cabbage lamp-oil is expressed ; and several plants are cultivated for dying; there are also cotton shrubs, untl mulberry treps, which last feed abundance of silk wornjs. The varnish and camphor trxies, the vine, the cedar, the tea tree, and the bamboo reed, not only grow wild, but arc phmled for numerous uses. KivERS. The rivers of Nipon have not been deli- neated with much care. Among the few named are the Nogafa, the Jedogawa, and the Ojingava ; of which we know Httle more than the names ; the last is one of the largest and most dangerous in the country, though not sub- ject, like the others, to swell during rains. Lakks. One of the chief lakes seems to be that ofOitz, which emits two rivers, one towards Miaco, the other towards Osaka, and it is said to be fifty Japanese leagues in length, each about an hour's journey on horHC- back ; but the breadth is inconsiderable. Mountains. The principal Japanese mountain is that of 1 'usi, covered with snow almost throughout the JAPAN. 381 year. The Fakonic mounialiis arc In the name ciimilcr HurroiindinK a small hike ol the same name. Ncai'thc lake of Oitx in the (lcli^r|,tr„i mountain of lo- Han ; which is esteemed Hacreci, and is said to nicsent not less than 3000 temples. Vroktahlk and Animal PuonucTioNs. The ginger, the soy-bean, black pepper, sugar, cotton, and in- digo, though perhaps natives of the more southern re- Rions of Asia, arc cultivated here with greut success, and in vast abundance. The Indian laurel and the cam- phor tree arc found in the high central parts of Japan, as IS also the rhus vcrnix, from the bark of which exudes a Rum resin that is supposed to be the basis of the cxdui- sitely beautiful and inimitable black varnish, llesidrs the common sweet or China orange, another species, the ci- trusjaponica, is found wild. Two kinds -of nmlbeny ate met with, both in an indigenous and colli vated state, ilie one valuable as the favourite food of the silk worm,tbe other eateemed lor the white fibres of its inner bark, which are manufactured into paper. The lurch, the cypress, and weep- ing wil ow,the opium, poppy, white lily, and jalap, are loiind here, j he trumpet-flower (bifrnonia cutalpa) is common to this part of Asiaand Peru ; in which circumstance it resem- bles the vanilla, whose berries form an article of c(,n.nicTce, being largely used in the preparation of chocolate. Ihe tallow tree, the plantain, tJie cocoa-nut tree, and two olhai- palms, adorn the wood-land tracts, esjx ciully near the seu-siiore, by the variety of their j-rowth und folJaj-e. Neither sheep nor goats are found in the whole empire ot.Iapan;the latter beinK deemed mischievous to cultiva- tion, while the abundance of cotton rcrompenses the want ol vyool. Swine are also deemed pf-n.icioiis to ai^rictihure • and only a few appear in the nei;;hbouihood ofNarasuki. he number of horses in the empire were computed by Ihunbcrg as only equal to those of a single Swedish town. Mill fewer cattle are seen ; as the Japanese neither use Uieir licsh nor their milk, but employ them only in idoni'-h- inj^or drawmg carts, i he P.oil (or.sistH almost entirely 01 hah and fowl, with ve< et iblcs flens ?.nd common ^'----cks are domesticated, chielly on -uumnt of their eggs. " a7cw (logs are kept from moUves r.i superstition j and the cats arc fttvounles of the ladies. Aa2 292 JAPAN. There are some wolves and foxes : these last being uni- versally detested, and considered as demons incarnate. Minerals. " That the precious metals, gold and silver, are to be found in abundance in the empire of Japan has been well known, both to the Portuguese, who former- ly exported whole ship loads of them, and to the Dutch in former times. Gold is found in several parts, and perhaps Japan may in this respect contest the paJm with the richest country in the world : but in order that this metal may not lose its value, by becoming too plentiful, it is prohibited to dig more than a certain stated quantity ; not to mention that no metallic mine, of any kind whatever, can be opened and wrought without the emperor's express permission. " Copper is quite common in every part of the empire, and is richly impregnated with gold, constjituting the main source of the wealth of many provinces. It was not only formerly exported in amazing quantities, but still continues to be exported, both by the Dutch and Chinese merchants. " Iron seems to be scarcer than any other metal in this country. " Brimstone is found in great abundance in Japan. Pit- «5oal is likewise to be met with in the northern provinces." THE BIRMAN EMPIRE. COMPRISING THE KINGDOMS OF AVA AND PEGU. THE Birman empire derives its name from the Bir- mahs, who have been long known as a warlike nation in the region formerly styled India beyond the Ganges ; the capital city of their kingdom being Ava or Awa. Pegu is by the natives styled Bagoo; being the country situated to the south of the former, and justly inferred to have been the Golden Chersonese of the ancients. Extent and Boundaries. It .is difficult to as- certam with precision the boundaries of the Birman em- pire. Mr. Symes informs us, that " it appears to include the space between the 9th and 26th degree of north lati- tude, and between the 92dand lorth degree of longitude east of Greenwich; about 1050 geographical miles in length, and 600 in medial breadth. To the north the Birman empire is divided by mountains from Asam, a country little visited or known ; and farther to the east it borders on I ibet and China. On the west n ranire of mountains and the little river Naaf divide the Birman possessions from the British dominions in Bengal j and the limit is continued by the sea But the southern and eastern boundaries still ren' ' > obscui-e. Original i"OPULATION. Thenrio-innl nrkTMi1of:rwn ot this re.sion can be only guessed at. It is probably a branch of the pfreat Hindoo family. History. The Birmans, a brave and warlike race formerly subject to the king of Pegu, became afterwards 284 BIRMAN EMPIRE. masters of Ava, and caused a revolution in the former country about the middle of the sixteenth century, when they took Martaban. They continued to exercise their supremacy over Pegu till about the year 1740, when a civil war arose, during which the Peguese in 1750 and 1751 gained several vic- tories over the Birmans j and in 1752 Ava was besieged and taken > When Binga Delia, king of Pegu, had completed the conquest of Ava, he returned to his own country. All ■wore the aspect of tranquil submission, when Alompra, a Birman of low extraction, who was only the chief of a small village, with one hundred devoted followers, attacked a band of fifty Peguese, whom he put to the sword : he afterwards defeated a small force sent against him ; and about the autumn of 1753, took possession of Ava, while the Peguese government seems to have been lost by mere infatuation. Alompra proceeding in his conquc^ls, founded the town now well known by the name of Rangoon, which signifies '^ victory achieved." In 1756 he blockaded Syrian, which yielded to his arms ; he next advanced against tlie city of Pegu, situated on an extensive plain, and then sur- rounded with no mean fortifications, while the stupendous pagoda of Shomadoo served as a citadel. 1 his capital was invested in January 17j7, and in about three months became a prey to the Birmans. Alompra next determined to chastise the Siamese, for the encouragement they had t iven to his rebellious sub- jects, and ordered a fleet to sail to Merghi, a sea-port be- long ing to the Siamese, which was easily taken, and was followed by the conquest of Tanaserim a large and popu- lous city. The victor next advanced against the capital of Siam ; but two days after the siege had commenced, Alompra was seized with a deadly disease, which saved the Siamese from destruction. He died within two days march of Martaban, about the 1 5th May, 1766, regretted by his people, who at once venerated him as their deliverer, and as a great and victorious monarch. Shembuen, second son of Alompra, continued the war against Siam; and in 1766 two armies entered that country from the N. and S. and, being united, defeated the Siamese about seven days journey from their capital. After a blocks governo man so\ The ( quests, a were CO though ' in Vetera either si the mom arms of char. I son Che spiracy i deragtte, ceased S Minde pec, and in 1783, The E Siam, ar Junkseil( left his c 20 field I in his tui to the so Birmans tera mar with this the Siam ancient fi BIRMAN EMPlRt. 2d5 a blockade of two months the city capitulated ; a Siamese governor bein^jj appointed who swore allegiance to the Bir- man sovereignty, and engaged to pay an annual tribute. The Chinese, apprehensive of the progress of these con- quests, advanced an army from the province of Yunnan, but were completely defeated by the Birmans. The Siamese though vanquished remained unsubdued ; and there is an inveterate enmity betwixt the nations, which will prevent either servitude or alliance. A Siamese prince assumed ihe monarchy, and in 177 1, defeated the Birmans, while the arms of Shembuen were employed in the conquest of Ca- char. He died at Ava in 1776, and was succeeded by his son Chenguza, whose tyrannical conduct occasioned a con- spiracy in 1782, at the head of which was Shembuen Min- deragtte, the present monarch, younger brother of the de- ceased Shembuen. Minderagee determined to pass the mountains of Anou- pec, and subdue Aracan. This conquest was commenced m 1783, and was speedily effected. The Biiman arms were now once more turned against Siam, and in 1785 a fleet was sent to subdue the isle of Junkseilon. Meeting with a repulse, the Birman monarch left his capital at the head of :i(),000 men, with a train of 20 field pieces ; but was defeated by the king of Siam, who in his turn failed in an invasion of the Birman possessions to the south- In 1793 a treaty was ratified between the Birmans and Siamese, by which the latter ceded the wes- tern maritime towns as far S. as Merghi inclusive. But with this exception, and that of some northern provinces, the Siamese monarchy retains a considerable portion of its ancient fame. Hence it appears that the Birman empire can scarcely be computed to extend beyond the 1 02d de- gree of longitude, and that only in the part to the north of Siam. Religion.. The Birmans follow the worship of Hindostan. They believe in the transmigration of souls, after which the radically bad will be condemned to lasting punishment, while the good shall enjoy eternal happiness in the mountain Meru. Laws AND Government. "The Birman sys- tem of jurisprudence is replete with sound moralityvand is distinguished above any other Hindoo comm- ntary- for perspicuity and good- sense ; it provides specifically for 286 BIRMAN EMPIRE. almost every species of crime that can be committed, ar.u adds a copious chapter of precedents and decisions, to guide the inexperienced in cases where there is doubt and difficulty. Like the immortal Menu, it tells the prince and the maf^istrate their duties in language austere, manly, and energetic." Though the form of government be despotic, yet the king consults a council of ancient nobles. There are no hereditary dignities nor employments : on the demise of the possessor, they revert to the crown. Rank is also de- noted by chains, with various divisions (3, 6, 9, or 12) and by the form and material of various articles in common use. Population. Colonel Symes states the popula- tion of the Birman dominions at 17,000,000, confessedly however the result of a very vague estimate. Army and Navy. Every man in the empire is li- able to military service, but the regular army is very in- considerable. During war the viceroys raise one recruit from every two, three, or four houses, which otherwise pay a fine of about 401. sterling. The family of the soldier is detained as hostages, and in case of cowardice or deser- tion suffer death ; a truly tyrannic mode of securing allegi- ance. But the war boats form the chief military establish- ment, consisting of about 500, formed out of the solid trunk of the teak tree. They carry from 50 to 60 rowers, the prow being solid, with a flat surface, on which a piece of ordnance is mounted. Each rower is provided with a sword and lance, and there are 30 soldiers armed with muskets. Revenues. The revenue arises from one tenth of all produce, and of foreign goods imported : the amount is uncertain : but it is supposed that the monarch possess- es immense treasures. Manners and Customs. The general disposi- tion of the Birmans is as strikingly contrasted with that of the Hindoos, as if they had been situated at the oppo- site extremities of the globe. The Birmans are a lively inquisitive race, active, irascible, and impatient ; the un- worthy passion of jealousy, which prompts most nations of the east to immure their women within the walls of an ha- ram, seems to have scarcely any influence over the iriinds of this extraordinary and more liberal people. Birman wives and daughters are not concealed from the sight of men, and are suffered to have as free intercourse with each •ther, a! other res treatmer same sc: pied in i. the feroc coDsideri are fond is the he of seven Lan presents like the ] executed monaster lonel byn royal libr 100. Tl] of each c CiTI spires, tu sence, se* placed bel numerous ty of the amphithej grand and public gra pie at eacl rior to oth of this foi front, beyi ported by Ava, foi walls are sides, and mine the f in the difl'( palace, of of the won rial sni»»*» h «hibit a n . Pegu, foi '•IS; havini BIRMAN EMPIRE. 287 •ther, as the rules of European society admit ; but in other respects women have just reason to complain of their treatment ; they are considered as not belonRinp to the saine scale of the nation as men, and are generally occu- pied m the labours of the loom. In war the men display the ferocity of savages, while in peace they can boas* a considerable degree of gentleness and civilization. They are lond of poetry and music, and among their instruments is the heem, resembling the ancient pipe of Pan, formed of several reeds neatly joined together. Language and Literature. The alphabet re- presents 33 simple sounds, and is written from left to rieht lij^e the European. The Birman books are more neatly e)&cuted than those of the Hindoos, and in every Haul or monastery, there is a library or repository of books. Co- lonel bymes was surprised at the number contained in the oyal library, in which the large chests amounted to about 100. 1 he books were regularly classed, and the contents ot each chest were written in gold letters on the lid. Cities. The new capital Ummerapoora, with its spires, turrets, and lofty obelisk, denoting the royal pre- senee, seems to rise like V enice, from the waters, being placed between a lake on the S. E. and a large river with numerous isles on the N. W. The number and singulari- ty of the boats moored in the lake, and the surrounding amphitheatre of lofty hills, conspire to render the seen? grand and interesting. The fort is an exact square, with pubhc granaries and store rooms ; and there is a gilded tem- p/e at each corner, nearly 100 feet in height, but far infe- nor to others in the vicinity of the capital. In the centre ot this tort stands the royal palace, with a wide court in iront, beyond. which is the Lotoo, or hall of council, sup- ported by 77 p,llars, disposed in eleven rows. Ava, formerly the capital, is in a state of ruin. « The walls are now mouldering into decay, ivy clings to the sides, and bushes suffered to grow at the bottom, under- T^l ^he foundation, and have already caused lar^e chasms m the different faces of the fort. The lines of the royal palace, of the Lotoo or grand council hall, the apartments 01 the women, and the spot on which the piasath or impe- ».vu-u-l" " """ ^'""•"' ^"H«^"»cr witn ail the oilier buildings exhibit a most striking picture of desolation and ruin. i-egu, formerly the capital of a kingdom, is also in ru- 'ns; havmg been razed by Alompra, i- 1.757, the praws S88 BIRMAN EMPIKR. or temples beinp; spared ; and of these the vast pyramid of Shomadoo has alone been reverenced, and kept in re- pair. It is seated on a double terrace, one side oi the lower being 1391 feet, of the upper 684. 'i he building is composed of brick and mortar, octagonal at the base, and spiral at the top, without any cavity or aperture. At the summit is a Tee, or sacred umbrella, of open iron work gilt, 56 feet in circumference ; the height of the whole being S6\ feet, and above the inner terrace 331 feet. Tra- dition bears that it was founded about 500 years before Christ. One of the chief ports of the Birman empire, is Ran- goon, which though, like the capital, of recent founda- tion, is supposed to contain 30,000 souls. The grand river of Irrawady is bordered with numer- ous towns and ' villages. Persain, or Bassien, stands on its western branch. At a considerable distance to the north is Prome, celebrated as the scene of many long sieges and bloody conflicts. The number of inhabitants exceeds that of Rangoon. Edifices. The most remarkable edifice is the Shomadoo before described. The Kioums are often of singularly rich and fantastic architecture. Colonel Symes has published a view of the grand hall of audience, perhaps as splendid an edifice as can well be executed in wood. His reception at the " golden feet," such is the term used for the imperial presence, was also remarkably grand, the pomp in some degree corresponding with that of the an- cient Byzantine emperors. Manufactures. The Birmans excel in gilding, and several other ornamental manufactures. The edifices and barges are constructed with singular oriental taste and elegance. A considerable trade is carried on between the capital and Yunan, the nearest province of China, consisting chiefly in cotton, with amber, iv6ry, precious stones, and betel nut ; the returns being raw and wrought silks, vel- vets, gold leaf, preserves, paper, and some utensils of hard ware. European broad cloth and hard ware, coarse Ben- gal muslins, China ware, and glass, are imported by fo- reigners. The Birmans, like the Chinese, have no coin: but silver in bullion, and lead are current. Climate and Seasons. The vigorous health of the natives attests the salubrity of the climate, the seasons vc no coin • BIRMAN EMPIRE. ^stf Weing regular, and the extremes of heat and cold little known. Soil and Produce. " The soil of the southern provinces of the Bimian empire is remarkably fertile, and produces as luxuriant crops of rice as are to be found in the finest parts of Bengal. Farther northward the country becomes irregular and mountainous ; but the plains and valleys, particularly near the river, are exceedingly fruit- fol ; they yield good wheat, and the various kinds of small grain which grow in Hindostan ; as likewise legumes and most of the esculent vegetables of Indi,. Su|ar can^ ferenttrliLl ?'?''' "^""^^^ J"^'^^' ^°"^' ^"^ the di^ ^..rF.^r^^l' u- V'^- &^°g^«Phy of the rivers "is yet im: pertect. The chief river is the Irrawady, which probabl v passes by Moguang to Bamoo, and thence by Ummera^ poora and Prome towards the sea, which it joins by many mouths, after a comparative course of near 1200 bS Mountains. It is probable that the highest ran^e of mountains is on the frontiers of Tibet, of which and"he other ranges we have no satisfactory delineations Vegetable and Animal Productions. ' It is m those parts of the torrid zone that abound with water and whei;e, from the influence of the monsoons, tTe co^ntrv IS extensively flooded every year, that vegetat on aTsumls a vigour and sublimity wholly inconceivable by the nathes of more temperate climates; everlasting verL re "er^e ancl majesty of form, height and amplitude of growth are the disunguishmj? attributes of their trees, compared wiJh an Inf I'" '"'T'^'^t ^^ °"^' ^°''^^^^ '^^ ^"^0 vTgetableTS an inferior order: the same exuberance of nature is con spicuous in their shrubs and herbaceous pl^ts, ii the^; blossoms and their fruits, whose vivid brillfaiKv of co our singularity of shape, aromatic fragrance rd^aitedT^ SV^^s^^^^t^- '''^'^^ the'puny rre':^ tflftT 'V" g''''t<=f''lo "■?' '^''" '1"^ '™" "> British Tk a, a Von * ^"^t^ ' *" "•"* J«* bbok ebony 290 BTRMAN EMPIRE. wood is the produce of one of the indigenous trees of Co- chin China, l he sycamore fig, the Indian fig, and the banyan tree itself a ^rove, by the breadth of their leaves and the luxuriance of their foliage, afford a most delicious shelter, impenetrable even by the meridian ardour of an Indian sun. The ginger and cardamom, two pleasant aromatics, are found wild on the river sides ; the turmeric, whose princi- pal use in Europe is as a dying drug, is used by the natives to tinL'e and flavour their rice and other food : the leaves of the betel pepper, with the fruit of the black and long pep- per, are the most favourite of their native spices, to which may also be added three or four kinds of capsicum. 1 he cinnamon laurel grows in abundance, and sometimes ac- companied by the nutmeg. The sugar cane, the bamboo, and the spikenard, are found throughout the whole coun- try j as are the sweet potatoe, mad apple and love apple, Kourds, melons, water melons, and a profusion of other esculent plants; the plantain, the mango and pme apple, the cocoa nut, and sago palm. r u- j The animals in general correspond with those ot Hmdos- tan. Elephants principally abound in Pegu. The horses are small but spirited. A kind of wild fowl called the henza, and by the Hindoos the braminy goose, has been adopted as the symbol of the empire, like the Roman eagle. Minerals. The mineralogy of this region, the Golden Chersonese of the ancients, is opulent, and some products rather sini^ular. The rivers of Pegu still con- tinue to devolve particles of gold ; and their sands must in ancient times have been yet more prolific of that precious metal ; as is evinced by the practice of gilding the roots and spires of temples and palaces, and this splendid appear- ance mieht naturally give rise to the classica. v,>. . ation of the country. Mines of gold, silver, rut.e'. ^ ^ ^P- phires are at present open on a mountain caiieo Woobdoo taun, near the river Keen Duem. Amber also, extremely X ure and pellucid, is dug up in large quantities. MALAYA, OR MALACCA. THE peninsula appended to the Birman territories on the south is styled Malaya or Malacca. 1'he Portuguese are regarded as the first discoverers of Malacca in 1509, to which they were led by the vain idea of finding the golden Chersonese of the ancients. In 1 5 1 1 they conquered the peninsula, and held it till 1641, when it was seized by the Dutch. The modern limits are not strictly defined; but Malacca IS about 8P, or 560 British miles in length, by about 150 miles of medial breadth, a territory sufficiently ample for a powerful' monarchy, had its native productions corre- sponded with its extent. Language. The Malayan language has been call- ed the Italian of the east, from the melody of frequent vowels and liquids. The Arabic character is made use of. They write on paper, vising ink of their own composition, and pens made of the twigs of a tree. Products. The indolence of the inhabitants has prevented the country from being explored ; but it pro- duces pepper, and other spices, with some precious gums and woods. The wild elephants supply abundance of ivory ; but the tin, the only mineral mentioned, may perhaps be the produce of Banka. The city of Malacca, which seems to have been founded by Mahogtietans in the thirteenth century, in the last century was supposed to contain 12,000 inhabitants, of which however only 3000 dwelled within the walls. Not above 300 were native Portuguese, the others being a mixed race of Mahopietan Malays, accounted among the chief merchants of the east. 292 MALAYA, OR MALACCA. Li general the Malays, are a wdl made people, though rather below the middle stature, their limbs well shaped, but small, and particularly slender at th© wnsts and ancles. Their complexion is tawny, their eyes ?arge, their nos«s seem rather flattened by art than nature ; and their hair is, \fvy long, black, and shiniog. Besides the tiger and elephant, Malacca produces the civet cat described by Sonnerat, who also mentions that wild men are found ia this peninsula, perhaps the noted Orang Outangs. They are restless, fond of navigation, war, plunder, emigrations, colonies, desperate enterprises, adventures, and gallantry. They talk incessantly of their honour and their bravery, whilst they are universally considered by those with whom they have intercourse as the most treach- erous ferocious people on the face of the globe ; and yet they speak the softest language of Asia. How much are they like a certain well known European nation ? This ferocity is so well known to the European naviga- tors that they universally avoid taking on beard any sea- men of that nation, except in the greatest distress, and then on no account to exceed two or three. Opposite to the coast of Malacca, though at a consider- able distance, are the islands of Andaman and of Nicobar. The great Andaman is about 140 British miles in length, but not more than 20 in the greatest breadth. — The people of the Andamans are as little civilized as any in the world, and are probably cannibals. They have woolly heads, and perfectly resemble negroes. Their character is truly brutal, insidious, and ferocious, and their canoes of the rudest kind. A British settlement has been recently form- ed on the Greater Andaman and some convicts sent thither from Bengal. . The natives, about 2000, have already pro- iited by the example of English industry. The Nicobars are three ; the largest being about five leagues in circumference. They produce cocoa and areca trees, with yams and sweet potatoes ; and the eatable birds' nests, so highly esteemed in China, abound here as well as in the Andamans. The people are of a copper colour, with small oblique eyes and other Tatar icaiures. In their dress, a small stripe of cloth hangs down behind ; and hence the ignorant tales of seamen which led even Linn«us to inft'^* '^hat some kind of men had tails. SIAM. Extent and Boundaries. THE extent of the biamese dominions cannot be accurately defined. On the west a chain of mountains seems to divide Siam from Pegu; but the northern province of Yunshan would appear to be in the hands of the Birmans, who here seem to extend to the river Maykang. To the south and' east the ancient boundaries are fixed ; the ocean, and a chain of mountains, dividing Siam from Laos and Cambodia The length of the kingdom may be about ten degrees, or near 700 British miles ; but of this about one half is not above 70 miles in medial breadth. Historical Epochs. The Siamese histo-v is imperfect, and abounds with fables. Their epoch is' de rived from the pretenc^ed disparition of their god Sammo- na Codam (or Boodh) : yet by Loubere's account their first kin- began to reign in the year 1300 of their epoch, or about 756 years after the Christian era. Wars with Pecu an 1 occasional usurpations of the throne, constitute the' .anges of Siamese history since the Portuguese discovery m 1 Sb8 the l^eRuese king declared war on account of two white elephants which the Siamese refused to surrender ancl alter prodi^.-ious slaughter on both, sides Siam becnn>" tributary to Pegu. But about 1620 Raja Hapi delivered his ciown from this servitude. In 1680 Phalcon, a Greek adventurer, being highly fixvoured by the king of Siam opened an intercourse with France, in the view of sun' porting his ambitious designs ; but they were nunished b- ins decapitation m 1689, and the French connexion ceased m consequence The latter events of Siamese history may partly be traced m that of the Birman empire. ^ Bb 3 294 SIAM. Religion, Laws and Governihent. The reli- gton of the Siamese, Hke that of the Birmans, resembles that of the Hindoos ; and the transmigration of souls forms an essential part of the doctrine ; but they imitate the Chi- nese in their festival of the dead, and in some other rites of that singular nation. The government of Siam is despotic ; and the sovereign, as among the Birmans, revered with honours almost divine. The Succcs ion to the crown is hereditary in the male line. The laws are represented by all writers on this country as exti'emely severe, death or mutilation being punish- ments even of unimportant offences. Population. Concerning the population of Siam there are no adequate documents. Yet Loubere assures us, that from actual enumeration, there are only found of mien, women, and children, one million nine hundred thousand. Army. The army which may be occasionally raised, has been estimated at 60,000, with not less than 3000 or 4000 elephants. Navy. The navy is composed of vessels of various sizes, some of which are richly decorated. Hence, as in the Birman history, naval enp^agements are not uncom- mon ; and the large rivers of exterior India are often red- dened with human gore. Manners and Customs. Siam having embraced a branch of Hindoo faith, the manners of the people are assimilated in a great degree. The women are under few restraints, and are married at an early age. The espousals are concluded by female mediation ; and on the third visit the parties are considered as wedded, after the exchange of a few presents, without any farther ceremony civil r sacred. Polygamy is allow- ed ; but rather from ostentation than any other motive. The Siamese funerals considerably resemble those of the Chinese. The body is inclosed in a wooden bier or var- nished coffin ; and the monks, called 1 alapoins, sing hymns in the Bali tonf.fue. After a solemn procession the body is burnt on a funeral pile of precious woods, erected near some temple. •T-f> Cinnxsez-A r>m-vcictc in VtCP and fish, both which articles are abundant. They also eat lizards, rats, and several kinds of insects. The on pilii country tations a great In pt The fi^ has les! ^nd raij denly c eyes ri and dull teeth hi brown tributes The( renderii The have als phants, ing, reli exhibitic La] thirty se 'thongs c mostly 1 Lit from bei the child poins, w accompt! Books of lent code seem to < rature. CiTl dom has by ^he rii extensive condition, in !76ti-, 1 accounts i SUM. 295 riie reli- L'sembles lis forms : the Chi- llier rites overeign, } almost ,ry in the i country ; punish- » of Siam isures us, d of men, ;bousand. :asionally less than >f various ice, as in t uncom- )ften red- !mbraced eople are married y female >nsidered , without is allow- lotive. ose of the r or var- ig hymns le body is :ted near etc in rirp The houses are small, and constructed of bamboos un on pillars, to guard a^^ainst inundations so commSnTn tWs country Lven the palaces only exceed the common hab! tations by occupying: a more extensive space, and beinfnf a greater height, but never exceed one floor ^ In person the Siamese are rather small, but well made The figure of their countenance, both of men and " ^en* has less of the oval than of the lozenge form beinJ^K^!^' .nd raised at the top of the cheeks; Ld tLTfiaS^^^^^^^ denly contracts, and is almost as pointed as thTdhin tW eyes nsuig somewhat towards the temples aie\m!i1 and dull : the mouth is very large, with thTrk nnl. if,. ^L* teeth blackened by art. The c^om^ion iL^o^^^^^^^^ brown mixed with red, to which L clim^ °S^^^ r^^^^^:^::^^^^ ^^^^^ ^«-te 1 he Siamese excel m theatricai amusement, Ti,.„ have also races of oxen and those of boa"s, Sats of ^/ phan,s,cock.fiKhti„g,,umbli„M;, wrestling a„d>lelnt tMrt,^=-ers, a/,"cot™tTsT:.^»S ^T thongs constituting a distinct alphabet. The words tit mostly monosyllabic, like the Chinese ^"^ the children are often placed In^^trnr^le S" poms, where they are instructed in readin., wrhino and accompts. Ihey are also tau.ht precepts of Slit v Books ot history are not unknown, and th.re t Tnetjl' lent code of laus. Poetry, tales, and mytholooic fabieT seem^to constitute the other departments^f Si^ilJeseHte: Cities and Towns. The caoitnl rU,. rF*u i • cm has been called Siam. ,t is skXTL 'J s trmS by {he river Meinam. 1 he walls, in Loubere'st me i^^ extensive , but not above a sixth part was intaS l« ^ . _ "-;--- "Y^" "^=^''"t;ci, nor nave we anv rerent accounu oi their other towns; but in general they were on?y 396 SI AM. collections of hovels sometimes surrounded with a wooden stockade, and rarely with a brick wall. Edifices. Kaempfer, in 1 690, visited Siam ; and he minutely describes two remarkable edifices near the capital. The first is the famous pyramid called Puka Thon, erected in memory of a victory there obtained over the king of Pegu. It is a massy but magnificent structure, about 120 feet in height, in a square spot enclosed by a wall. The first stage is square, each side being about 1 1 5 paces long. The others vary in form j and there are often gal- leries ornamented with columns. At the top it terminates in a slender spire^ The second edifice consists of two squares to the east of the city, each surrounded with a fair wall. They contain many temples, convents, chapels, and columns, particular* ly the temple of Rerklam, with a grand gate ornamented with statues and other carvings. Manufactures. Though the Siamese are little skilled in the fabrication of iron or steel ; they excel in that of gold, and in miniature painting. The common people are mostly occupied in procuring fish for their daily food, while the superior classes are engaged in a trifling trafiic. Commerce. The commercial relations are chiefly with Hindostan, China, Japan, and the Dutch. The productions of the country are prodii.ious quantities of grain, cotton, benjamin; sandal, aguallo, and sapan woods ; antimony, tin, lead, iron, load-stone, gold, and sil- ver; sapphires, emeralds, agates, crystal, marble and tombac. Climate and Seasons. The two first months of the Siamese year, which correspond with our Decem- ber and January, form the whole winter of this country ; the third, fourth, and filth belong to what is called their little summer, which is their spring ; the seven others to their great summer. Autumn is unkno^^n in their calen- dar. The winter is dry ; the summer moist ; the former is distinguished by the course of the wind, which blows almost constantly from the north, refreshed with cold from the snowy mountains of Tibet, and the bleak wastes of Mon- golia. ,j VJV/XXJ J» At i^ vale between two high ridges of mountains, thus some* what resembling Egypt on a wider scale. I a wooden >iam ; and 3 near the illed Puka ained over structure, i by a wall. 1 1 5 paces often gal- terminates the east of ey contain particular* rnamented e are little eel in that ion people daily food, inj^; traffic, are chiefly i quantities and sapan Id, and sil- larble and St months ir Decem- s country ; ailed their I others to heir calen- ; former is )ws almost from the ;8 of Mon- ^ is a wide hus some* SUM. 2f9y The Soil towards the mountains is parched and unfertile, but on the shore of the river consists, like that of Esypt, of an extremely rich and pure mould, in which it is even diffi- cult to find A pebble, and produces exuberant quantities of Rivers. The grand river Meinam, a name which signihes the mother of ivatcrs, reigns supreme among the isiamese streams. It is very deep and rapid, always full, and, according to Kacmpfer, larger than the Elbe. The mundations are in September, after the snows have great- ly melted m the northern mountains, and the rainy sea- son has commenced. In December the waters decline, and sink by degrees to their former level. The water though muddy, is pleasant and salutary . Animals. The chief animals of Siam are ele- phants, buffaloes, and deer. Horses seem little known or used, thoug:h found wild in Tibet. The elephants of Siam are of distinguished sagacity and beauty ; and those of a white colour are treated with a kind of adoration, as the Siamese believe the souls of such are royal. Wild boars, tigers, and monkies, are also numerous. The Meinam IS, at distant intervals of time, infested with small poison- ous serpents ; and the trees on its banks are beautifully Illuminated with swarms of fire-flies. Minerals. There are some mines of gold, and others of copper; but the mines chiefly wroueht by the Siamesearecf tin and lead. & / « Near Louvo was a mountain of load-stone : fine agates abounded m the mountains, nor were sapphires unknowrt. THE OTHER STATES OF EXTERIOR INDIA ARE, o«^ V r^*"'^; Surrounded with forests and deserts, and of difficult access by water. The soil is represented as tertilfi m rice; productive of the best benzoin and Jacca, exquisite musk, with some gold and rubies. Ku J-^^MBODiA. This country, like Siam, is inclosed , ,^ „„ ^jj^- ^.yj^j- jjjjQ wesi, ana iertilized by the ri- ver uTaykaung, which benins to inundate the country h J;""^' *^ ^^'"^y peopled, and the capital called Cam- ooaia, consists only of one street, with a single temple. !298 SMALL STATES. The most peculiar product is the sul)stance styled gam- boge, or ratlier camboge gum, yielding a fine yellow tint. Ivory also abounds, with several precious woods: and some add gold. 3. SiAMPA. This small maritime tract is to the S. E. of Cambodia. 'The people are large, muscular, and well made, the complexion is reddish, the nose rather flat, the hair is black and long, the dress very slight. 4. Cochin China. This country, presents an exten- sive range of coast, and has been visited by many nfivi ga- tors. As the shores abound with havens, the canoes and junks are numerous. The superior ranks are clothed in »ilk, and display the politeness of Chinese manners. T^he dress of both sexes is similar, being loose robes with large long sleeves ; and cotton tunics and trowsers. A kind of turban covers the head of the men : but no shoes nor slippers are used. The houses are mostly of bamboo, covered with rushes or the straw of rice, and stand in groves of oranges, limes, plan- tains, and cocoa trees. The rainy season is during Sep- tember, October, and November ; and the three following months are also cold and moist, presenting the semblance of an European winter. The inundations only last two or three days, but happen once a fortnight in the rainy sea- son. March, April, May, form a delicious spring ; while the heat of tlxe three following months is rather exces- sive. The products of agriculture are rice of different quali- fies, yams, sweet potatoes, green pumpkins, melons. Sugar also abounds. Gold dust is found in the rivers ; and the mines yield ore of singular purity. Silver mines have also been lately discovered. Tigers, elephants, and monkies abound in Cocliin China; and those edible birds' nests, es- teemed a luxury in China, are chiefly found in this country. 5. TuNquiN. This country was only divided from the former by a small river, and may at present be consi- dered as incorporated with it by conquest. The inhabi- tants resemble their neighbours the Chinese, but their manners are not so civilized. The products are numerous, and seem to blend those of China with those of Hindostan. The rivers in the rainy season, from May to September, inundate tlie adjacent* country. Kesho the capital city is SMALL STATES. 299 'led gam- illow tint, lods : and s to the S. lulai') and ather flat, an exten- ly njiviga- moes and described by Dampier, as approaching the Chinese form, with a considerable population. * In the gulph of Tunquin and adjacent Chinese sea, the tuftoons, or 1 yplions are tremendous. « They are preced- ed by a cloud which appears in the north-east, black near the horizon, edged with copper colour on the upper part fadinjr mto a ^raring white. It often exhibits a ghastly appearand twelve hours before the typhon bursts, which lasts many hours, blowm^r from the north-east, attended with dreadful claps of thunder, laive and frequent flashes of lighlninift and excessive hard rains." ** ^ isplay the joth sexes tives ; and covers the jsed. The hes or the nes, plan- ring Sep- : following' semblance last two or rainy sea- ng ; while lier exces- 'ent quail- i, melons, ivers ; and nines have d monkies ' nests, es- is country, vided from it be con si- he inhabi- , but their numerous, Hindostan. September, pital city is HINDOSTAN. INTRODUCTION. General Obsenmtions. ^^Arrangement. — Katuraland Political Divisions, '-Pian qf this firesent description. General Geogkaph y. THE description of this interesting portion of Asia is not a little difficult, from its vast and irregular extent, from the want of grand subdivi- sions, from the diversity of nations and powers, large fo- reign settlements, and other causes, so that the first object must be to determine a clear and natural arrangement. Mr. Pennant, who often excels in geographical delinea- tion, has, in his view of Hindostan . been contented with the vague divisions of Western, Eastern, and Gangetic, or that part which is pervaded by the Ganges, and its tributary streams. Major Rennell, to whom we are indebted for an excellent map and memoir, which have thrown great light on Indian geography, first considers the sea coast and islands ; as, in the construction of a map, the outline ot the coast is the earliest object. He then describes Hindostan in four other sections: 1. That part occupied by the Ganges and its principal branches : 2. That occupied by the course of the Sind6, Sindeh,or river Indus: 3. Ihe tract situated between the river Kistna, and the two former divisions : 4. The countries to the south of the Kistna, or what is perhaps improperly called the southern peninsula, as no part of Hindostan can be styled a peninsula, in tne sea. modern acceptation oi uc\n\^ fERAL Divisions. „ Rennell seems the best, not only in itselt, as was Gei The general plan adopted by Majoi HINDOSTAN. 301 id Political n. ion of this It, from its kd subdivi- , large fo- irst object ment. al delinea- d with the tic, or that i tributary [)ted for an [^reat light coast and line of the Hindostan ed by the :cupied by : 3. The wo former ! Kistna, or peninsula, ula, in the hv the sea. an adopted self, as was to have been expected from his profound acquaintance with the subject, but as having the advantage of beinj? fa- niiliar to the public, from the widely diffused reputation of his work. Amidst the want of important ranges of moun- tains, rivers alone can be assigned as natural divisions : and as in Hindostan they do not form limits, the countriei pervaded by their courses and tributary streams may be considered as detachecT by the hand of nature. Hence the Gangetic part of Hindostan, to uBe Mr. Pennant's term, in- cludes the space from the confines of Tibet to the souses of the Chumbul and S.ppra, and from the mountains near X^nSosTan. ^^" '' '° '^' most eastern boundary That portion watered by the Sinde or Indus, and its sub- Ftlir'''""'!^ '"'^ ^" "^^ ^^""^^ be termed S ndetL Hindostan ; and as a supplement to this division may be ^^iL:^:^'si:i:^t'^'^ -' -''- -- -^- V rsTvled^De'^ '°'"'^^^' '" ^"^'^"^ ^^'^ '^^^ PoS he DeSn of thTHJnT'"' '^^'"J^^PJying the south. But ine ueccan oi the Hindoos extended twice as far in a nor- therly direction, even to the river Nerbudda • so that it >vou Id in fact, with the Gangetic and Sinde?ic div sio. near y complete the whole of flindostan. The term Lee! can ,vS^therefore here used for the portion to the south of Gan . 'in? ? *^'^ u"°'''' ""^^^'^ ^'^tna, reaching- to with ^;^f °«t^" «» the north and east, and the Sihdet c ^It I . Pi^/^"^entary provinces on tiie north and west inay be styled Interior or Central Hindostan. ' In this arrangement the Gangetic part will include Ben r5n?l r ^^ i^mdetic contains Kuttore, Cashmir, Cabi 1 Candahar, Lahore, Moultan, and Sinde ' mth(\':T'u n '"'"^^^ represents (.uzerat, in the west vith Candeish, Berar, Orissa, the Sircars, the chief narrof Golconda, Visiapour, Dowlatabad, and Concan ^ ^^ Ihe southern division includes a small hok:.. o^ — «este™ coast being called that of Malabar, ^d the eL'.Sn ' v./ C 3t)2 HINDOSTAN. that of Coromandel. In this part is naturally included the iaJand of C'eylon. Political Divisions. The next topic to be con- sidered, in a general view of Hindostan, is its political situ- ation, as divided among various powers. Of these the English is at present preponderant, not only from Euro- pean tactics, but from an actual extent of territory at least equal to that of any native power. • To their former wide possessions in Gangetic Hindostan, with a large portion of the eastern coast from below the estuary of the Kistna to the lake of Chilka, and the detached government of Madras, have been recently added extensive regions in the south and west of Mysore, with Seringapatam the capital, not to mention Bombay and other detached establishments. And the large and important island of Ceylon has been wrested from the Dutch. Next in consequence are the Maratta states, chiefly con- tained in the central division of Hindostan. The Nizam, or Soubah of the Deccan, their ftrm ally, ha considerably enlarged his territory in the south at the ex pense of Tippoo ; the central part of whose dominions, ex- cept Seringapatam, is subject to the raja of Mysore, a descendant of the race dethroned by Hyder, an usurper. The British, the Marattas, and the Nizam, may be re- garded as the three leading powers, to which may be added on the west, or on the Sindetic division, the Seiks, and Ze- maun Shah, or whatever prince holds the eastern division of Persia. The following table, extracted, with a few altercations, from Major Rennell's memoir, will convey a more com« plete and satisfactory idea of this important topic. I. British Possessions. 1 . Bengal and Bahar, with the Zemindary of Benares. 2. Northern Sircars, including Guntoor. 3. Barra-Mahal, and Dindigul. 4. Jaghire in the Carnatic. 5. The Calicut, Palicaudj and Coorga countries. II. British Allies. 1 . Azuph Dowlah. Oude. • 2. Mahomed Alii. Carnatic 3. Travancore,andCochi;i. HiNDOSTAN. 303 III. Maratta States. PooNA Marattas. 1. Mahva. 2. Candeish. 3. Part of Amednagur, or Dowlatabad. 4. Visiapour. 5. Part of Guzerat. 6. Agra. ''• — — Agimere. 8. Allahabad. 9. Shanoor, or Sanore, Ban- 9. capour, Darvvar, &c. si- tuated in the Dooab, or country between the Kistna and Tombudra rivers. ". *. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Tributaries. . Rajah of Jyenagur. " Joodpour. Oudipour. ■ Narwah. ■ ' Gohud. Part of Bundelcund. Mahomed Hyat. Bopaitol. Futty Sing. Amedabad. Gurry Mundella, &c. &c. Berar Marattas. 1. Berar. 2. Orissa. Tributary. Bembajee. IV. Nizam Ali, Soubah of the Deccan. 1. Golconda. Combam) and Gandicotta ?' ^"[""gabad.. (orGanjecotta.) 1' V r'r n ^- P^^t°f ^ooty, Adoni, and 4. Part of Berar. Canoul. ^- "— Adoni,Rachore,and8. Part of the Dooab. Canoul. , [9. Other districts acquired 6. Luddapah. Cummum (or 1799.] V. Seiks. Lahore, Moultan, and the western parts of Delhi. As the other great power chiefly extends over Persia, and may be regarded as foreign, it only remains to mention the small states. 304 HINDOSTAN. 1. Sucdtssors of Zabeda Cavrn. Sehauninpm*r. 2. Jats. 3. Pattan Uoliillas. Furruckabad. 4. Adjijr Sing. Kewah, 8cc. 5. Ikindclcund, or Bundcla. 6. Little Ballogistan. To which may now be added the Raja of MystorCj The British possessions prior to the fall of Tippoo, 1 799, were supposed to contain 197,496 square British miles, hc'iuy al)out f>0,000 more than are comprised in the united kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland: the number of inhabitants was computed at ten millions. The acquisition in 1799 probably adds 15,000 square miles, and the popu- lation subject to Great Britain is supposed to be 1 2 or 1 4,900,000. The net revenue exceeded three millions be- fore the cessions by Tippoo, in 1792, computed at 400,000/. while those in 1799 do not appear much to exceed half that sum. This great power and revenue of so distant a coun- try, maintained in the midst of a highly civilized foreign nation, is perhaps unexampled in ancient or modem times. The Marattas are divided into two states or empires, that of Poona, or the western, and Berar, or the eastern ; each ruled by a number of chiefs or princes, who pay a no- minal obedience to the paishwa, or sovereign. An account of the Marattas belongs to the central division of Hindos- tan. The Seiks, a new religious sect, first appeared in the middle of the seventeenth century, and have gradually be- come formidable to the neighbouring states. The Jats, or Jets, were a tribe of Hindoos, who about a century ago erected a state around the capital Agra. The Afghans, another peculiar people, originated from the mountains between Persia and India- Before closing these general considerations with regard to this extensive country, it may be proper to observe that the name of Hindostan has been considered as synony- mous with the empire of the great Mongul. But the power of the Monguls, which commenced under Baber, 1518, was most eminent in the northern parts, the Deccan, or south., remainin!.-: unsubdued till the time of Aurunzeb, 1678, when that region, with what is calied the peinnsuia, a few mountains and inaccessible tracts only excepted, were either vanquished or rendered tributary to the throne ot HINDOSTAN. » 305 Delhi. When Aiirunzeb died in 1707, in his 90th year, !k V;.?u^"' .^"'P*'"*^ ^^'^ obtained its utmost extent from the loth to the 35th degree of latitude, (about 1750 British miles,) and about as much in length : the revenue exceed- ing thn-ty-two millions sterling, in a country where pro- visions are about four times as cheap as in Knuland. The number of its subjects may be computed at about sixty mil- lions. But this great power declined so rapidly, that within hfty years after his death, it may b« said to have been an- nihilated, and the empire of the great Mongul has vanished trom modern geography. The plan to be pursued, in the subsequent brief account ?nni ,".*''".! ^''*' .''^*^" ^^""^^^ indicated as divided into four parts; the region on the Ganges, those on the Indus, t e central, and the southern. In three of these divisions Inrl !1 J ' r^T'''^"' ^''*' powerful, if not predominant; ^nd It IS difticult to connect the political with the natural geography. Doubts may justly arise whether the British territories ought not to forni a separate and distinct portion in a perspicuous arrangement, this being another of the fan ' Rn?l^"'''"7^''^ ""/"'' '^' geography of Hindos- tjr., -^ ^.""^ "'^'^ ofthe population in these settle- nh? f ?r''''' of nativ. Hindoos, and the natural geogra- phy of the country must not be sacrificed to any extraneous consideration, it still seems preferable to abide by Uiedi! mion already laid down. Hence that form of dcsa-fption tTnnln/ ''.^'^"' >vh,ch, resting on the perpetual founda- tions of nature, cannot be injured or obliterated by the de- stinies oi man. • / *• m Jnt^l' nT*'^''f '''."?.^'^"^ premised, a similar arrange- kbvrmth f''? ^' ^"^"^^"^ ^" describing Hindostan, a abyrmth of eastern geography, with that used in delineat- ing Germany, that labyrinth of European geography A !Z:i :T f '''.' ;^^"'^ ^^g'°" «'^^" be fol Jed by a short sketch of each of the above divisions ; in which ihe Name. The name of this celebrated country in the seems to have been imnosed hv th*. ^v,,c;o«. - - Known by the name of the empire of the Great iVIorul Cq2 306 HINDOSTAN. Boundaries. This portion of Asia extends from cape Comari, culled by navigators Comorin in the sowth, to the mounlains which form the northern boundary of Cashmir ; that is according to the most recent maps, from .« about the eighth to about the 3;Hh def>;ree of northern la- titude, being twenty-seven degrees, or 1620 g miles. I'he northern boundary may be yet farther extended to the Hindoo Koh, and mountains running E. and W. on the north of the province of Kuttore. From the river Araba, on the west of the province of Sinde, to the mountains which divide Bengal from Cassay and the Birman dominions, that is from about the sixty- r,ixth to the ninety-second degree of east longitude from Greenwich, there are 26° which in the latitude of 23° con- stitute a breadth of more than 1400 g. miles. ri'he boundaries are marked on the north by the moun- tains above mentioned. On the west towards P#rsia, other ranges and deserts constitute the frontier till the southern separation ends in the river Araba. The other boundaries are supplied by tlie Indian ocearv, and Bay of Bengal, the little river Naaf, and those mountains which divide the British possessions from Aracan, Cassay, and Cashur. Original Population. The origin:*! population may be generally considered as indigenous; yet amidst the rn'eat diversity of climate and situation, the native race presents considerable varieties, as being fi«rer in the northern parts, and in the southern almost or wholly black, but without the negro wool or features. Still the tir%e of the women and superior classes is deep olive ; and the Hindoo form and features may be said to apprt>ach the Persian or Euro- pean standard. The Monguls with the Arabs and Persians, who are settled here, are generally called Moors. Historical Epochs. T he H in doos never seem to have boasted of one native historian, and the best mate- rials are derived from the Persian memoirs ; from which Ferishta himself, a Persian, compiled his histories of Hin- flostan towards the beginning of the seventeenth century. In this defect of native records we must be contented with the epochs derived from foreign sowices. 1. The invasion by Alexander the Great, who fjound western India divided among numcpous potentates, though Ue advaaced little farther than Lahore. ids from e suHth, [idary of |->s, from hern la- iS. I'he d to the . on the vince of I Cassay le sixty- ide from 25° con- e moun- \ P#rsia, • till the he other 1 Bay of IS which say, and tion may the p;reat presents :rn parts, t without e women doo form or Euro- Persians, ver seem est mate- >m which js of Hin- century. nted with HINDOSTAN. ^^^ fo.m« l™t4 of i.,lii I- ■ T."^^ — '^'■^ '»""■ ""ay be said to have vir tiemcnts were followed by tliose of the I)utcl> Th.p J cnerry.— As merchants the English hprlh^nr^. ki i. S;u:,ph-f-,-S:;:;!;:^^^^^^^ nabob, and many of the inhabitants peHsh^d i,^ asho/kin^ ZT"t pT ^'"^« ""fi"'" '» » ™all oh mbe, !!The oT:iv:,r-'r;reV:ft^^^^^^^ :fd'':f^,f'''rv4'=''"«'^"^^^^^ a'n'an°nLr,Ste'''to„''l'r'i;,:'Sfr; ™ ^™'""'°" "^ in a contest with Hyder°AHU so.dieVS'ttr.e! SXd' dethroned the Imeal sovereign of Mysore, an, extends Lk conquests to the adjacent territories. Some conflkts fo lowed on the confines of Carnada and Mysore h,,^ f^ fnT' T«i'"'^ "l^^tageous to either paZ^H'ier Iv' ngm 1783, was succeeded by his son TipMo, wl» seem,' to have been a prince of inferior abilities, TdeSatetm^ ^ 'I'J^e Bengal provinces have been in nn.=...! r .,_ i'.r.Ki.sh since 1765 ; and Benares was added in mi "'li!'-'' pc«,on might constitute a considerable ktgdl.ands 'lependently of a formidable force. The Sircars,^or d^ 308 HINDOSTAN. . tached provinces, partly belong to Golconda, and partly to Orissa, forming a long narrow slip of country from twenty to seventy-five miles wide, but about three hundred and fifty in length. These detached Sircars or countries, being to the north of Madras, on which they are dependent, are commonly styled the northern Sircars. In 1 75^ they were acquired by the French ; and conquered by the English under Colonel Clive in 1759. The English settled at Madras about the year 1 640 ; and their territory here extends about a hundred and eight British,miles along the shore, and forty seven in breadth, in the centre of the ancient kingdom of Carnada. The celebrated battle of Panniput was fou;>ht in 1761, between the Mahometans under Abdalha kin,i^ of Candahar, and the Marattas, in which the latter were defeated : the Mahometans were computed at 150,000, and the Marattas at 200,000. Ancient Monuments. Some of the most re- markable monuments are excavated temples, statues, re- lievos, &c. in an island near Bombay. The idols repre- sented seem clearly to belong to the present mythology of Hindostan ; but at what period these edifices were model- led, whether three hundred, or three thousand years ago, must be left in the darkness of Hindoo clironology. Mythology. Though the mytholoi;y of the Hin- doos may pretend to great antiquity, yet their present form of religion is supposed to vary considerably from the an- cient. The artful Bramins have introduced many innova- tions in order to increase their own power and influence ; but it appears that the fabric rests on that almost universal system of the east, the belief in a supreme Creator too in- efiuble and sublime for human adoration, which is therefore addressed to inferior, but threat and powerful divinities. Religion. The religion of the Hindoos is artfully interwoven with the common offices of life ; and the dif- ferent casts are supposed to originate from Brahma, the immediate agent of creation under the supreme power in the following manner : The Brahmin from the mouth (wisdom) : To pray, to w^'irl tr\ inctrnrt • ■»«; K i r- K cpr-f- V»«c V»a''l «i''t *»nr>ii«TK in raiep themselves above all the rest. The Cheh eree, from the arms (strength) : To draw the bow, to fight, to govern. HINDOSTAN. 309 The Brice, from the belly or thighs fnourishmpnfl . T„ prov.de the necessaries of life by a|ricKei™ traffic ,ert^' '"'' """ "-.^ fe«(»ub;ectio„)i To lab^urtto CovERNMENT. Hindostan is now divided i„t„ many governments, the form of which musTbe conslde ed n describing the sevei-al states. Suffice it here to observe that thongh the Bramins be the most digSd cast ' e.' "ro'b'-.r ™»"-™-"-<' .heLorSi'^iir ;z „<,« •'"""^"T'lON. The population of this extensive wWch,heBri'tisrr"''° ^'"™'" '° -xty miSTf quarter ' P°*''='™"» ">»>' "<>" Perhaps contain a millions sterling in modern England '^ toms of^SiTmnT" ^'"-^°»^- The manners and cus- 1i„i!l , "'"''°,<'« "'■<= "'timately blended with thci- re hgion, and are universally similar, with a few exc^;i„„: m mountainous and other peculiar districts (W?f?, jnost singular begins to expire, that 'of g ving the liv n:^ widow to the same flames with her husband's ™nse'«^ As soon as a child is born it is carefully reliste?ed in it, dXv'' a' Z" '•"'■^'''8"-' "'^ consult^ lonceming Z ■"ore vigour and ele^iance of form Th» , "" '"" p.. - ai c i;oiinnea ai Home till their twelfth vear P^TJ- ""' ;^ pnctised, but one wife is acknJv.lefe sunfeZ'' It fr„l°°' .'"•e extremely abstemious,\nd whoHv "bJ 'tain from animal iood and intoxicating liquors Vhe 310 HINDOSTAN. .houses are built of earth or bricks, covered with mortar, and sometimes with excellent cement, with no windows, or only small apertures. There is generally only a ground floor, inclosing a court, with a small gallery supported by flight wooden pillars. Languages. The general ancient language of Hindostan is believed to have been the Sanscrit, an origi- nal and refined speech, compared by Sir William Jones with the Greek and Latin. 'J'he more common dialects used in these extensive regions are very various ; not fewer tlian nine or ten. Literature. The literature of Hindostan doubt- less contains several valuable and curious monuments; but their epochs are extremely uncertain. Hence little else than confusion and contradiction are to be found in the nu- merous accounts published of Hindoo literature. The most important books are the Vedas ; there are also some epic poems which pretend to contain fragments of genuine history. It is probable the oldest was not written above seven hundred years ago. — It is a great singularity that the old Hindoo grants of land, many of which have been translated and published, are extremely long, and in a itrange poetical or inflated style, some of the compound words consisting of not less than one hundred and fifty syllables ! When we compare these singularities with the brevity and clearness of the Greek and Roman inscrip- tions, we are led to conclude that the Hindoos are the puerile slaves of a capricious imagination. The Hindoos are ii^norant of the Chinese art of printing ; they are nevertheless in general highly civilized, and of the most gentle and amiable manners. But perhaps in no art nor science are they equal to the Chinese or Japanese ; and in most are confessedly greatly inferior. The chief university in the north is that of Benares, a most celebrated and ancient school, now included in the English possessions. In the Deccan the academy of Tri- ciur, on the ?4alabar coast, is also in great repute. " At Cun^ibuam^ in Carnate^ihctQ is still a celebrated Brahman school, which, according to the testimony of Ptolemy, ex- bers are certainly equal in celebrity to the Brahmans of Benares.** mortar, ivindows, a ground )Orted by puage of an origi- m Jones 1 dialects not fewer m doubt- ents; but ittle else n the nu- i are also ments of >t written ngularity ich have , and in a om pound and fifty with the 1 in scrip- are the printing ; lUd of the i in no art apanese ; enares, a led in the y of Tri. te. " At Brahman lemvj ex- hmans of HINDOSTAN. „,, Un h^vrb^rceSr^ed froL'' """"'X^uj'es of Hindo,. the jnusnns anroSHrro^Lr ''"'^J^Pri^.^r ^ oTJ^r.r:„'d't,iS^.'*'jHTLr"^"""-'°^^^^^^^^^^^ diamonds, raw sSk:i,Lt:u;S: '°-"""7e "' trades very few tools are emnloved tI^ ™ , ^? "^'^^^ reared in the morning unStre. .L ''"^^l^ ^°°"^ ^« the evening. ^ "" ^''^^' ^"^ c^^^'ed home in Native Products. But if Jq th^ u ^ native products, which has in a Les entered H^'?'" "^ v^-LiMATE AND Seasons TU r " are considerably diversified by differen'cronr.''r'°"^ local situation. In Bengal the nf 5 latitude, and with March, and continul^^o L end of mL'T?,'^^'"^ meter sometimes rising to Uo<>:th^sinte^!llJ'V^'^''^°■ tlmes mterrupted bv vioIentth.,n^ I . ^^^^ ^« some- ;=s._The raVseL™to"mS^^^^^^ the three last months nf th '"^"''""^ *° September: but excessive f"gsofLfp,ta^lT„T ^'"^''''^"^ P'^^^^"^; The periodical ^'.ins^^rrf^,^^^^^^^ ^ ^^^uary! in the rest of the country thev alnm«^ i i Hindostan, and 'nglike cataracts from ^the Tlour Ii^wT r^ ^'^^^"^■ other rivers spread to a w'de eitem 'J" ^^^^f ^"d ceasmg in September. « By^he latter .nW V t'?"^^''°" lower parts of Bengal, conti Juo»s tn !k r^ °^ "^"^^ ^" ^''^ rampooter, are overflowed and form -^ ^'^?^^' ^"^ ^ur- than a hundred Srt widt^ ''Jk""^ villages and trees, eating very^S^^^^ • vated spot (the artificial mound nft^ ^^ ^""^ ''^^^ *^'e- ^PPearing like an isS - ^ ^^^ '^"^^ ^^^^^''^^d village) rrZZ:'TSj!^^ the chains of the Gauts, or hig:h table land in~the"cemre"Tnr'"''^''u'"PP°'^'"g the f ouds ; and the alterm4T w J.'T '^ ^''^' "^««« «f the Monsoons, occas on a rain J;." ^' ^^' ^'"^«' ^*^"^d , uccdsion a lamy season on one side of the 312 HINDOSTAN. mountains only, that is, on the windward side. The mon- soon is from the N. E. from October to April; and from May to September in the opposite direction. In general March, April, May, and June are the dry months. Excessive rains, or excessive heats, form the chief va- rieties of the year, and produce luxuriance of vegetation, almost unknown to any other co ntry on the globe. Soil. The soil in olaces is so excellent as to. consist of black vegetable J to the depth of six feet. Rice is the chief grain ; and oi» the dry sandy lands of the coast of Coromandel great industry is displayed in water- ing it. Maize and the sugar-cane are also favourite products. The cultivation of cotton is also widely diffused j and this plant particularly thrives on the dry coast of Coromandel. Rivers. The rivers of Hindostan are large and numerous, but our limits will not permit us to describe many of them. The Ganges must still be considered as the sacred so- vereign of the Hindoo rivers. It receives such a number of important tributary streams, that its magnitude exceeds what might have been expected from the comparative length of its course ; which may however be estimated at about fourteen hundred British miles. Tieffenthaler has laid down the latitude of the noted Gangoutra, or Cow's mouth in lat. SS'', being a celebrated cataract where the Ganges is said to pass through a vast cavern in a mountain, falling into a large bason wliich it has worn in the rock. At about two hundred and eighty miles to the south of this place the Ganges enters the wide plains of Hindostan ; and pur- sues a south-east direction by the cities of Canoge, Alla- habad, Benares, Patna, &c. till dividing into many grand and capacious mouths, it forms an extensive delta at its egress into the gulph of Bengal. The extreme mouths of the Gan,i>es are intersected with isles, called the Sunder- bunds, overgrown with tall bamboos and other luxuriant vegetation, the impenetrable haunts of the royal tiger and other beasts of prey. v)n the westernmost outlet ot the Ganges, called the Iloogley, or Ugli, stands (.Calcutta, the capital of British Hindostan. This, and the most eastern which receives the Burrampooter, are the widest and most important branches. The rampo the Br junctit Onth( ning f sperse* lity the the Me neoush The equal ii these g parate i afterwa The is suppi mounta sand Br of Sindc Ther chiefly j the Panj part of J uncertai river to Cutch. The J consider tributary Balisur i Poona, ai rative coi river riva inundatio are in the butary sti near the Moussi, b river joins dra, on th niany pop Vol. he mou- ind from 1 general IS. ;hief va- getation, )e. ellent as ' six feet. (Is of the in water- products. and this omandel. arge and describe lacred so- a number e exceeds nparative i mated at jr has laid v's mouth [ianj^cs is n, falling At about Lhis place and pur- 'ge, Alla- iny grand slta at its mouths of e Sunder- luxuriant tiger and [let of the dcutta, tlie )st eastern c and most HINDOSTAN. , 3^13 f he noblest tributary stream of the Gano-Pi; ;« tu^ u On the?r unfJ h ^^T'/- ^'°"^ ^°"^ '^ ^^^ miles wide! ninn; f u " ^^'°''' ^"ckipourj they form a body of run he MLna thl fj"*- . ^a ^^^ "'^"^^^ of the Ganges and these great rivers are stated to be virv near ve??hT The Deccan, or most southern oapt nf ri;„j. . considered as bounded and e "ched^v th/t- . °"*",'-" tributary streams -rhZi':.. ^ '"^ Kistna, and its Bahsurta he chain ofs^L?"' " f'/"* '""•' "^" "t Poona,andform 'a dekLeatSrnatl'''f:'''= ^°''"' °^ rative cou^e of about five hund^dPflftUh mis" n?-" river To n, the^l5^?'™"''?- J''" "»« ""o^ considerable 14 HINDOSTAN. Lakes. In this extensive portion of Asia the lakes Seem to be few, and of small account. The country of Caish- mir is supposed to have been originally a large lake, as re- ported in the native traditions ; and a considerable expanse of water still remains in the northern part of this delightful country, called the lake of Oullcr or Tal, being about fifty- three British miles In circuit. Mountains. The mountains chiefly celebrated by the Hindoos may be said to be only visible from their country, being the northern chain of the Tibetan Alps, covered with perpetual snow. The rest are mostly delineated in Major Rennell's ex- cellent map of Hindostan. The following list contains most of the names there to be found. The Chaliscuteli hills, between the western desert and the Sctlege. The Alideck mountains, above Gujurat. The mountains of Gomaun, or Kemaoon, called also those of Sewalic. The mountains of Himmaleh, N. of Tassiudon. In Bengal are several ridges of hills without names, which is the case even with the chain on the N. W. of the Sircars. The Lucknow hills, at the source of the Mahanada. Those of Gondwanah, running parallel with the Ner- budda for a space, and then turning south to Narnalla. The ridges near the Chumbul are also without names. , The Grenier mountains in Guzerat. The Shatpoorta hills, between the Nerbudda and the Taptee. On the other side of the Nerbudda there are also re- markable parallel ridges, giving source to many rivers, but nameless. The important diamond mountains of Golconda and Visiapour. A ridge called the Bundeh mountains runs parallel to the Godaveri on the south, but at a considerable distance from that river. The Gauts, peculiarly so called, are ranges which run along the western and eastern coasts of the Deccan. The former is by the natives called the mountains of Sukhien. T'U,.-.^ ^KnSnr. ntn^ r.l-i..n»>4-l«r ^-n onnVt ol^fk Kllf r»0»»f ir-llln Tl V the west, forming as it were enormous walls, supporting a he lakes ofCaish- ^e, as re- expanse elightful )ut fifty- ilebrated nil their in AlpS) ell's ex- ins most sert and Iso those : names, V. of the da. :he Ner- lalla. names. and the also re- ivers, but tnda and irallel to distance -^hich run in. The Sukhien. ffi/'iilarlv wrting a HtNDOSTAN. 315 high terrace or table land in the middle. Kxcliisive of a gap, the mount. m, of Sukhein extend from tape Comorin Jhe shTr^" "' """"" °f '■'•'"» '■""y '° ^eventy'^n.iiesZm ^^..T^m"*",'-'' *"'' Animal Phoductioks. A more ferule soil, and climate better adapted to tl e mow w!?' '""jonance of vegetation than the well watS nart „l' H"'t '"" P'"'"?" '«> '^'""•ot possibly be foumTh, any part ol the known world. Double harvests, two crops of ioniof^"" T"'' ?' "«= "•«'- '^ f™"" ™os of the rest a yea are .he'?,';^ ''hTP'^ """"« "^^ e'^«-' pari of L" wMli ?,?r 1 "r ""' '"PPO" "" swarming population ue hs nZ "■ "' ""!>' '"'^'''»'' '" ?'»■«» »f medicinal r tue, Its numerous and exquisite dying dru-s, and !t,r„f tons and other vegetable ar'ticles of clofhin^X o s ? .he^m:Ke''srre! Tr xt^^^^ put tree, perhaps the most widely diffjsed^^f anv t T'^ ".abundance on the coasts of M^bar and Command •nountains onrCarSj^fc erch'wr.v °" ""^ '°"^'- capable of coverino- ten n. i / *■"' "^s' in the vast forests on the W. of the Sircars. The dogs are generally of the cur kind, with sharp erect cars, and pointed noses. The other animals are wild boars, bears, wolves, foxes, jackalls, hyenas, leopards, panthers, lynxes : i^ the north, musk weasels, and many othv^r qua- drupeds of Inferior size. The lion seems to have been always unknown in Hindos- tan. The royal Tiger of Bengal is however a far more ter- rible animal than the stoutest lion. Such is their size and strength that they are said to carry off bullocks, the heif^ht of some being said to be five feet, and the length in proper- tion. Parties of pleasure on the isles at the mouth of the Ganj^es have often been shockingly interrupted by the sud- den appearance of the tiger, prepared for bis fatal spring, which is said to expend a ht^ndred ieet,not iniprybable when HINDOSTAN. 3,^ are indeed also found .n Brazil, but of fa.- inferior qiS 1 he chief and most ce ebratcd diamond m!,,,. ./- .u ' near Visiapour and OolcondaX.Carstream.rh,. fl"'' '"'""•^ f »'!>» in the souther,; divisfon of H?ndoV,an cT but the ruby ako occurs in Ceylon, which IJw! * seem ever tc5 have been^nown b Hindostan^whic'II'r rather been celebrated for attractin^tMs metarin^ ^* merce from other countries. Silver Vems mrel ""l throughout the oriental reu ions and thf^^" P'^"*^* of this mineral through Kdfa ' *' "° ^"^^^^'^«" Natural CuaiosiTiwc a features of nature r::yT'r::.uon.tr:^,:^:^„^^^ rn'"»t:„°"e'ct t-oUldTv^ '"^ -son^Ti^C^'da! plac'es before Sd t' e gl'nS asZTr.H'"''""^'' '» mountains covered with snoi Pn/.? • ?*^ i*"" "oMhera east of the Indusrbe^'enTan^t^o'^re: f^Ten^T ""S ri, r tabk '",anrf'\^" '"'° Srand'f^u re' f L^s" bu^rtslesrfmou .1,°/ ^''''""' ™PP°«'='' -^^ """"^ GANGETIC HINDOSTAN, OR, THE COtJNTBIES OH THE GANGES 318 HINDOSTAN. is proper first to consider them apart, and then proceed to some account of the other provinces. The British settle- ments here extend about 550 miles in length by 300 in breadth, in themselves a powerful kingdom. The native population is computed at ten or eleven millions of black subjects, exclusive of the English, whose number seems not authen uted. Heven . E. The revenue of these British provinces is computed at 4,2 10,000/. sterling ; the expense of collection, mifitary and civil charges, &c. 2,540,000/. so that the clear revenue is 1,670,000/. They are well situated in respect lo security from foreign invasion ; and since they were in possession of the British have enjoyed more tranquillity than any part of Hindostan has known since the reign of Au- vungzeb. Government. The government of Bengal and its wide dependencies was first vested in a governor-general and a supreme council^ consisting of a president and eleven counsellors ; but in 1773 these were restricted to feur, with Warren Hastings the gov ernof -general, who were to di- rect all affairs, civil and military, in the kingdoms of Ben- gal, Bahar, and Orissa ; and to control the inferior go- vernments of Madras on the K. and Bombay on the W. with Bencoolen in the island of Sumatra. The court of judicature consistsof a chief justice and three other judges, with civil, criminal, naval, and ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The Hindoos are governed by .their own laws. Army. The military establishment in Bengal is always respectable, but varies according to the situation of affairs. The British troops are supported by the Sepoys, a well trained native militia. Cities and Towns. The chief city of Bengal, and of all the British possessions in Hindostan, is Calcutta. The latitude is 22° 33' north, and the longitude 88° 28 east from Greenwich. t j- •* « Generally speaking, the description of one Indian city is a description of all ; they being all built on one plan, with exceedingly narrow, confined, and" crooked streets ; with an incredible number of reservoirs and ponds, and a great many gardens interspersed. A few of the streets are pav- ^A ,yith brick. The houses are variously built, some ot bricitTothers with mud, and a still greater proportion with bamboos and mats ; those of the latter kind are invariably HINDOSTAN. ^,9 of one story, and covered with thatch. Those of brick Tritwlnr^r ""^^•' -^^- flat terraced r^K composed entirely of brick buildings, many of which hav. more the appearance of palaces than of private houses but «.e remainder of the city, and by much the lrea"est ± 18 bull as above described. Calcutta is the Sr um of Bengal, and the seat of the Governor GeneraUHnr ft IS a very extensive and populous city, beinir sunno« H present to contain at least 500,000 inhabitants Cakf, 1 ' situated on the western arm of tK« /, ""^""' ^-f'cutta is hundred miles f7om thesea" and the rhf"; nlvf Tl °"^ to tl.e town for the largest shi^s tL vi^U TnZ ^^ 'is"^ modern city, having risen on the site of the v te of Cn ymdpour, about nine years ago. The c tadi S,n • in every point, as to strength and correctness nf,!!-^''"' any fortress in India : but on too extern vfn '^^"' *° swer the useful purpose intenrd,^^^!,:,^^ ^ Vost" in case of extremity." "u^uiug a post In this grand capital of British Asia the mixture .f Mahometan, contrast with the fSi and Thh''' "^ nances of the English, and the ch"rmTof '"e EuZe'an damsel, receive a foil from the dark Hindoo beaudes^?^ the luxuries of the Asiatic -irf. ufirUA lu "v""*^^- ■* o science of the English nfr&:„',henetsBaDetf."'r ""■* «P with care, and printed with e eKance ?anH ?h a •™" society instituted V the la^ S hle''"si ''v^S Chiefly fabricated i„rt^, tsonfr:„f"vL"X'.er ?o"k:^U""' "'"»^^' ^o™ ^'^reatpart Zhfe^'^!?; 330 HINDOSTAN. about 26 miles above Calcutta, on the grand western branch of the GanKes, which theiic« receives its name. Patna ih the capital of the provmce ot IJahar, si uated about 400 miles N. W. from Calcutta, bemf? tolerably lor- tified, and a place of considerable trade ; must ot the sa t- petre, in parlicular, exported to Lngland is made m the nrovince of Bahar. . r^i » •*• u Benares approaches to the western frontier of the British possession., the district having been ceded to the Last In- dia Company in the year 1775. It is a rich, populous, and cLpact city, on the northern bank ol the Ganges, about 460 miles from Calcutta. j .i * On leaving the British possrssions, towards the west, first occurs Allaliabad, a city belonging to the nabob of Oude, but of little conbc(iucnce. ^ , ^ . lucknow is the present capital of Oude, havmg super- *^ The gi^ela 'and good emperor Acbar constituted Agra the capital of the Mogul empire about A, D. 1 566. It has rapidly^^t^cc^nec^ of Agra, near the confines of Sindetie Hindostan, stands the celebrated city of Delhi, the Ma- hometan capital of India. This metropolis may be said ^°OuiSn which may be considered as the farthest city in the south of that portion now under view. It is about six mfles in circumference, surrounded by a strong wall, with round towers. The houses partly brick, partly wood, co- vered with lime, tai-ass, or tiles ; the bazar, or market, is Zcious, and paved with stone : there are four mosques, ami several Hindoo temples, with a new palace built by ^' Abou{ 80 miles south of Agra is the noted fort of Gwa- lior ; it stands on an insulated rock about four miles m lencth, but narrow : the sides are almost perpendiculai, from two to three hundred feet above the surrounding plain On the top there is a town witn wells and reservoirs, and some cultFvated land. This celebrated fortress, which is a^ut 80 miles to the south" of Agra, was taken by surprise by a few English under Major lopham, m 177y Adioining to the British settlements m this part of India AOJoiiniigtut ^ ^ ivi;„uio,r onrl Smnairur. rude are the people oi ivruuau, ^ti.^.ix.vj, « ;„ ♦ujo JJountaineei^, too unimportant to deserve a place in this epito:ne. HINDOSTAN. ast SINDETIC HINDOSTAN j OR, THE COUNTRIES ON THE RIVER SINDEH OR INDUS. Extent. THIS part extends from the northern mountains of Cashmir, and the Hindoo Koh, in the north of Cubu!, to the month of the Indus, a length of about 900 British miles, and about 350 in medial breadth. We shall begin with the N. E. and end with the S. W. after mentioning that Agimer, which may be regarded as the most eastern city of this division, is little remarkable, except for a strong fortress on a hill. Chief Cities and Towns. The town of Sirhind IS placed by modern maps on the river Caggar, which Major Rennell supposes to follow a detached course into the gulph of Cutch : perhaps it may be lost in the ttreat sandy desert. Lahore, now the capital of the Seiks, was the residence of the first Mahometan conquerors before they advanced to the more central parts ; and, including the suburbs, was supposed to be three leagues in length. From Lahore to Agra, near 500 English miles, there was an avenue of shady trees. The river Rauvee passes by Lahore, beinir the Reva of the Hindoos. * Almost due north from Lahore, at the supposed distance of about 200 British miles, stands Cashmir, the capital of the delightful province so called. « The city extends about three miles on each side of tlie river Jalura, over which are four or five wooden bridges, and occupies in some part of its breadth, which is irregular, i?bout two miles. 'I'he houses, many of them two and three stories high, are slightly built of brick and mortar, with a large intermixture of timber. On a standing roof of wood is laid a covering of fine earth, which shelters the building from the great quantity of snow that falls in the winter season. In the summer season, the tops of the houses, which are planted with a variety of flowers, exhibit at a distance the spacious view of a beautifully chequered parterre. The streets are narrow, and choaked with the filth of the inhabitants, who are proverbially unclean,^* The country of Cashmir is a delicious vale, extending in an oval form, about 90 miles 522 HINDOSTAN. from S. K. to N. W. It was subject to the Za^athai princes till A. D. 1586, when it became subject to the Monguls, and afterwards to the Afgans. Kice is the common pro- duct of the plains : while the surrounding hills yield wheat, barley, and other crops- The celebrated shuwls nre only manufactured here. The price at the loom is Irom 26s. to 5l. and the revenue is transmitted to the Afgan capital in this fabric. The Cashmirians are stout and well formed, but their features often coarse and broad, even those of the women, who in this northern part of India are of a deeper brown complexion than those of southern France or Spain. The dress is inelegant, but the people gay and lively, and fond of parties of pleasure on their delicious lake. The wide space from Cashmir to Cabul is more re- markable for mimerous streams and mountains than any other circumstaljce ; but the country is diversified with gentle hills, fertile vales, and stately forests, and besides delicate fruits and flowers is f.bundant in other productions. Ghizni was the seat of the first Mahometan conquerors, and the ancient capital of the country. The city of Cabul is the capital of the dominions of the Persian Shah, usually 6tyled king of Candahar, whose dominions extend west- ward beyond the sea of Durrah, including a great part of Corasan, with the large Persian province of Segistan, being about 800 British miles in length by about half that breadth. Cabul is esteemed a considerable city, in a romantic and healthy situation. Pursuing the course of the Indus towards the south, the small city and fortress of Attock which were only built by Acbar, 1581, present themselves : but the vicinity was memorable in ancieiit times as the general passage from India to the west. Moultan, the capital of the province so called, is about 170 British miles to the south of Attock, on the river Chu- nab. It is a small city, and of little consequence, except for its antiquity and cotton manufacture. The last remarkable city on the Indus is Tatta, the capi- tal of the province of Sindi, and situated within the Delta, the upper part of which is well cultivated, while the lower presents only low brushwood, swamps, and lakes. At Tatta the heats are so violent, and the winds from the sandy de- serts on the E. and N. W. so pernicious, that many pre- cautioi woolf B< by Gan the san river J the eas toW. i dial br< provinc bad, Ca name; of the J Cii division first pre! seem lit city of C fied, tak< restored of more great tvi now littlt Sural 1 the Mah( to Mecca gueze sei and it wai by the Er Bomba; known Ei niiles in h tress, a la ^vas ceded part of th« HIND0§TAN. 333 CENTRAL HINDOSTAN J OR, THE MIDDLE PROVINCES, to W. is little less thin laoo^ifhS. • IhUe'tT."* ^• divisi^o^.":; ^'aiTi^st des?riLrr';:,TJ^ro/r '"^ first presents itself, like a law promontorv but .hh?'"'''* seem httle adapted to comiSercial pSes Th« .h^f City of Guzeraf Arr»-,ioK„i • " P'" posts. 1 lie chief to Mecca, than fofan;tl, r'T cumZce""" 'f h'''rP gueze seized Surat soon after thdr TrrSn '?"','^<'«»- miles ,n lengtl., containing a very stlnl "It ° 'T" tress, a large city, a dock var/IL^- P '="'"'' ^or- «as ceded to the'^knglUh in ' 662 bv ZT f ''*™'- " Partof thcdowerof^heq^eeLofCh^ks ir"^""''' "' 824 HINDOSTAN. On leaving the shore and proceeding towards the east of central Hindostan, first occurs the city of Bwrhampour, of small note. Ellichpour is of considerable importance, be- ing the chief city of Berar. Nagpour is the capital of the eastern division of the Maratfa empire, as Poona is of the western, being a modern city of small size. Not far to the east .of this city begins that extensive and unexplored wilderness, which is pervaded byHhe great river Bain or Baun Gonga, and terminates in the moun- tains bounding the English Sircars. On turning towards the west, few places of note arise, except Aurungabad, a modern city, deriving its name from Aurungzeb, in whose time it was the capital of the Dec- can. Near this city is Dowlatabad, which gives name to the province, with a singular fortress on a peaked rock. This central part of Hindostan was formerly the seat of great power, and the western coasts greatly frequented by foreign merchants of all nations, but its commerce has been transferred to the Ganges. In later times the southern part of this coast was re- markable upon another account, being the chosen residence of daring pirates. They resembled on a small scale the piratical states of Barbary, and a succession of Jngrias was continued till 1756, when the British seized Gheriah, the principal fortress. THE SOUTHERN DIVISION OF HINDOSTAN. Boundaries. THIS part, which may also be < - ed the Deccan or south, is bounded by the river Kislrt.., and extends from the latitude of Bombay to the southern point of Cape Comorin, about 830 British miles in length, and about 350 of medial breadth. It contains nearly the whole of the province of Visiapour, and the most import- ant part of that of Gtjlconda, with the central kingdom of Mysore, the long eastern province of the Carnatic, the principalities of Tanjore, Travancore, and the Samorins of Calicut, the pepper coast of Canara, and other districts. British Possessions. In addition to the district around Madras, the British power was, in 1792 and 1799, CJ^tended over wide provinces in the south and west of Mysore, and Seringapatam the capital is also in their possessiou. the east of impour, of >rtance, be- pital of the a is of the t extensive yhhe great the moun- note arise, name from f the Dec- !S name to taked rock, the seat of quented by merce has ist was re- n residence II scale the ingrias was heriah, the OSTAN. also ber' ver Kislrtf, le southern s in length, nearly the ost import- kingdom of irnatic, the e Samorins er districts, the district 2 and 1799, md west of so in their HINDOSTAN. 325 Chief Cities. In recent times Seringapatam mav be regarded as the most important city in this portion of Hmdostan. It ,s situated in an isle, surround^ by the river Caveri, which is even here about five feet deep, and runs over a rocky channel. The length of this isle is about iour miles, and the breadth about a mile and a half: the western side bemg allotted to the fortress, distingu shed by regular out-works, magnificent palaces, and loftv Jiosques. The environs are decorated with noble gar- irV *"^,among the means of defence was wh'at is called to fifty feet^ ' ^ " '° ^^^ ^^^""^^^ ""^ ^'^™ ^^'^r In this central territory the British also possess several considerable towns Salem and Attore in the east ; Dindi- gui, Coimbetore, Palicaud, on the south ; and on the west- ern coast, Paniany, Ferokabad, Calicut, now nearly deserted, relhcherri, Mangalore, and Carwar within forty .niles of the Portuguese settlement of Goa; while on the south thev approach within a like distance of Cochin. In the Carnatic Vi7^ r '®"^ ^^^^ Madrass, wliere they settled so early as 1 640 ; but the fortress, which is strong, and includes a re- gular well built city, is of modern date. Unhappily there is no port, nor is there indeed one haven for lai-n-e vessels e^sicle^7^V'?•1"'^^^^° ''•""«'^^'' o^he eat: JXl u- ^*'^''''"' ''''"'''' ''^"'^^^^ t'"* ^^^t of singular be- nefat to-their commerce. ^ Not far from the western frontier of the settlement ai^ ThP m" ?"1.' Arcot esteemed the capital of the Carnatic. Ihe Navab often resides at Madrass. In his dominions there are several celebrated temples, visited by numerous pilgnms ; m general the southern parts of Hindostan dis- play more numerous edifices, and other marks of civiliza- tion, than die northern. Tra,Kiuel)ar is a noted Danish settlement in the kinc^dom 01 lanjore, which embraces the wide D.-ltuof the Caveri ch^L''" TV/'"' ^"^''""'^^ "^°"' '^'^' ^^^ '^^s been w o ^.3"^ f^ ' ^" "''^""' "^^'^^ ^'''^^'^"^ missionaries, who eso.ted hither to convert the Hindoos. Pondichcrr va« Ih. pnrrMpal settlement of the French, founded in J67.. and before the war of 1756, was a lar^-^^ nrd !...„.;- lul City. "^ — ""Kr.. S26 HINDOSTAN. 6. On the western coast, op that of Malabar, stands Cochin This city remained subject to the Portuguese till 1660, iyvhen it was taken by the Dutch. The surrounding creeks land marshes of this low and unhealthy shore abound with jfish and game. To the north of the British territories first occurs Ooa, formerly a capital settlement of the Portuguese, and a noted seat of their Inquisition. This city, once magnifi- cent, stands on a small isle in the midst of a beautiful bay. The harbour is ranked among the fii-st in India, and if in the hands of the English, would probably resume its form- er consequence. . r L »* Porna is the capital of the western empire of the Ma- rattas, but a mean defenceless city; the archives of the ' government, and in all appearance the chief seat of power, being at Poorunder, a fortress about eighteen miles to the ; south-east. . i . i -i. Visiapour in the Maratta territory is a considerable city. n the vicinity are celebrated diamond mines. M Hydrabad is the metropolis of the Nizam's territory, *and particulariy of the celebrated kingdom or province of 'Golconda, but seems otherwise little remarkable. Betwixt these two last named cities stands Calberga, formeriy the capital of a powerful kingdom, that of the Deccan, under the Bamineah dynasty. t », n .-v^ »*4. ochin 1660, :reeks Iwith I Goa, and a agnifi- il bay. d if in i form- ^n le Ma- of the power, to the iM le city. •ritory, ince of Jetwixt rly the I under t rnyv -■%1 *t' :;».**'•