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Un des symboles suivants apparaitra sur la dernidre image de cheque microfiche, selon ie cas: le symbols — ► signifie 'A SUIVRE", le symbols V signifie "FIN". Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent §tre film6s d des taux de reduction diffdrents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul clich6, il est filmd d partir de I'angle sup6rieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant ie nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la m6thode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 ( mmmm Mmo PUBLIC LIBBARK , ^^ SOME EVIDENCES GofflfflBi'ciar Trangacliion? -v-vxa?». PREHISTORIC TIMES. BY WILLIAM KENNEDY. '='^^:^^'^*'?»i%%5^^?:5<^%^;^^ ..^•^/(S^f.. K li ■ 'f^Wfmffumw'i^^'m'^-'mi -4,. SOME EVIDENCES OF COMMERCIAL TRANSACTIONS IN PREHIS- TORIC TIMES. BY WM. KENNEDY. inl ci\ th( of mm wmmm JjJ3 SOME EVIDENCES OP COMMERCIAL TRANSACTIONS IN PREHISTORIC TIMES. A PAPER READ BEFORE THE HAMILTON ASSOCIATION BY WM. KENNEDY. FIRST PAPER — NON-METALLIC AGE. Every year the student of commercial history obtains more information from those valuable publications issued by nearly every civilized nation in the world, entitled «• Commercial Relation." In these volumes are to be found detailed statements with a multitude of figures showing the quantity and value of the articles sold to or iiiiiWM i bought from the various countries with which the publishers of the volume have had dealings, and also in many are to be found the opinions of the Consuls regarding the state and prospects of trade in the different places in which they are located. Valuable information is thus given, and useful lessons are learned regarding the trade and history cf the country. But, in addition to all this, and reading between the lines, as it were, we learn a lesson much more valuable to the student of man than any which may be obtained from pages of figures, however valuable — we learn the great lesson of civilization. ' Above and beyond everything in bringing men together, in knitting and uniting them in the great bond of brotherhood, and in teaching men to recognize in each other, a brother, independent of his country, his race, his color, or his creed, commerce stands be- yond a rival; without fear or without envy, she is always isady to welcome any means whereby the end she has in view may be at- tained. Commerce is the elder sister of civilization. As stones in the earth remain for ever angular, while in the brook or river, by coming in contact as they roll along with the stream, here gently pushing, there knocking violently against each other, they are smoothed and rounded into the pebbles we find and admire for their roundness and and polish, so it is with men. Man isolated from his fellows remains in an almost stationary condition, some- times retrogressing, scarcely or never progressing, and always retain- ing his angularities. Bring him into contact with other men, throw him, as it were, into the river, and soon we find him beginning to move forw^ard with the great stream of life, and by and by we find him occupying his proper position among the people of the world. The great lever moving the world is commerce. Go where we may, from zone to zone, in the most highly civilized nations, or amongst peoples of the lowest grade we continually find her opening the way, unbarring the gates, and making the path smooth for her younger sister, civilization, leading her gently over the dangerous places, and pushing her boldly forward where chance or necessity may occur. The birthday of commerce is an unknown period, and her age, a time not to be measured by years, nor by centuries, nor yet by cycles. The oldest peoples of which we have any record at all had a certain amount of commerce existing amongst them, and even the rude$t savage of the present day betrays his knowledge and i of the ind the trade in rraation ade and reading valuable m pages ilization. ;ther, in i, and in indent of ands be- isady to lay be at- stones in river, by re gently they are dm ire for a isolated on, some- lys retain- en, throw [inning to »y we find he world, where we lations, or opening h for her dangerous necessity eriod, and turies, nor record at them, and irledge and :r longing for it by being always ready to open up a trade ; while the most polished and highly civilized nations have often resorted to war to maintain their right to trade. In the following pages I have endeavored to show some, a few it may be, of the transactions of commerce in times far back, beyond the publication of " Blue Books or Commercial Relations," and even beyond the uays of written records. I do not suppose, however, that I have reached the beginning, in all probability I have commenced in the middle of the history, and I confidently look forward to, and expect a time when the explorations in the Eastern world, and fuller examinations of the monuments of Europe will show us a record which will place the few traces I have here presented in what might be called modern times. This continent will also, without doubt, when thoroughly known, widen the lines of evidence as already known, and give us proof of the existence of a commerce dating far back into the misty realms of the past. Man, by nature is always counting his successes, calculating his gains, and looking to his losses — always looking to the future profit and neglecting or overlooking the past. So it is when the reader of the newspapers of the present day turns to the financial reports and mentally calculates how much the richer or the poorer he has be- come during the night, as the particular class of stocks or shares in which he has invested has risen or fallen in the share market. He is not apt to let his mind wander back through the past, and think of the times when joint stock companies were so far in the future as not even to be dreamed of by the most ardent progressionist when every man was his own banker and broker, wh^n nations had not learned to raise a revenue by the imposition of a customs tariff or excise duties, or borrow from their neighbors by the issue of "Con- sols " or debentures, or even by war indemnities; when the con- queror repaid himself for his trouble and annoyance by carrying off whatever part of the property of the vanquished he could obtain ; nor of the time when the internal revenue of a country was paid in service. Nor are we, of these days of rapid transit by steam and electric- ity, likely to give more than a passing thought to the time when a short journey was a thing to be carefully considered before being undertaken ; when the whole commerce of the world was carried on mm by long trains of horses or camels, occupying days, or even weeks on a journey which is now done in as many hours ; when the eastern trade was solely in the hand" of the Arabians and Egyptians, and the Phoenician tugged laboru .sly at the oar in his westward journey- ings toward the land of tin. Still less likely are we to look even farther back to the time when the useful horse, and the equally useful camel were unknown in the work of men ; where the common carrier consisted solely of the manufacturer and the seller ; when labor knew no divisions — the maker being also the vendor, carrying his wares himself from place to place, from tribe to tribe, giving what he had for what he could get in return, and doubtless often surrendering his wares to a stronger and less scrupulous rival, who considered "might right," and who effectually closed up the opposition, and the weaker mer. chant's mouth, by a process which recognized the fact that " dead men tell no tales." As we daily handle the coins and moneys of the land we may be residing in or passing through, we probably never for a moment think of the times long past whan paper was not, nor had coins themselves even been thought of; when all commerce was carried on by barter, and when even the precious metals were unknown for any other purpose than that of ornament. Coinage is a compara- tively modern invention, being first introduced by the Lydians about 678 B. C. Strange though it may appear, the Assyrians had no knowledge of coin, and the earlier Egyptians, with all their exhaustive and highly finished civil and religious polity, do not appear to have had any higher commercial facilities than barter. Yet there were times much earlier than these; times long before the spices of the East, the tin of the West, or even the gold of Ophir were considered of any mercantile value ; and yet, even then, the love or necessity of trade was in existence. The unwritten history of our race as read by archaeologists, place before us unmis- takeable evidences of the ancient inhabitants of Europe carrying on a species of commerce in stone for implements and shells for the manufacture of ornaments, and also in later times of copper and tin for the manufacture of bronze. Explorations in the caverns of central France have disclosed traces of the Flint-folks belonging to an era estimated by some scientific chronologists as antedating our mai Mi * . mt a >tm ^ - \ weeks eastern ins, and journey- he time inknown solely of risions — lelf from what he ares to a It right," aker mer. at "dead d we may I moment had coins as carried Iknown for compara- Lydians yrians had all their y, do not )arter. imes long the gold yet, even unwritten us unmis- ;arrying on lis for the opper and caverns of ilonging to idating our own by 100,000 years. Professor Dawson, however, states with good show of reason, that man could not possibly have existed in either Europe or America at that early date, and that probably none of these cavern deposits date further back than 6,000 or 7,000 years at most. At a recent meeting of the French Association at Grenoble, M. de Mortillet read a paper on Tertiar.y Man, in which he affirmed the existence of man in the Tertiary Period. A number of flints were exhijbited from both the upper and lower Tertiary, which had been intentionally chipped and exposed to fire. These traces, so far from bringing us any near' the original ape, show man in his earlier stages to have been a being in muny respects superior to some of the savages of our own time. He was a man, and as such no doubt had trade dealings with his fellow men, although at present the evidences are not known. In America also, we have in the same unwritten history, testi- mony of commercial relations existing between widely extended and far distant tribes or communities. We find the natives of the coast exchanging their shells for the metals of the north with the inland tribes ; the inhabitants of the plains exchanging dried meats and other products of the chase with the laborious mining population ot the region of the Great Lakes, while the agriculturalist of the south carried home with him copper in exchange for his zea maize and tobacco. This prehistoric man — this dweller in caves, crouching before the entrance of some water worn cavity in the side of a rock, en- gaged in the chipping of flint into implements, either for his own use, or for the purposes of bartering with the other men of his time, was the business man of the day, and the progenitor of the merchant princes of the present time. The transition from the one to the other — from the rude implement maker fashioning his stock in trade out of the hard flint, to the Whitworths, the Armstrongs, and the Montcrieffs, engaged in manufacturing the hundred-ton 'guns and all the other modern implements of war, is a great one, and is the result of the work of a great many centuries. The change from the dwellers in countries producing the favorite stone for the axes, chisels and other imple- ments of war or the chase, carrying their wares from place to place wherever they might be wanted, to the present day, when steamboat ^ ^^^m. d , and rail are daily pouring millions ot pounds worth of articles into the vaiious great markets of the world, is equally great, and occupied a corresponding length of time. No estimate of the time necessary for the carrying out of such a change can be given, or even guessed at. There are no means of knowing. In tracing the course of this great transition time rela- tive can only be used for a period which must necessarily have occupied several thousafcd years, and if it be found that the man of the Tertiary Period had commercial intercourse with his neighbors, then the thousands may be indefinitely increased. We have written history of commercial transactions occurring some two thousand years before the birth of Christ, and traditions going several cen- turies still farther back. In the Imperial museum at St. Petersburg, there is a Chinese bank note dating from the 2200 year B, C. As the Chinese of that period were in possession of paper money, we may infer that their commerce was at least several hundred years oldei. Of the trade in the days of the flint worker, however, we have no such evidence as in the case of China, but only the evidences left behind him in his works ; numerous specimens of which have come down to our day. Beginning then, at the earliest links in the chain of which we have any evidence whatever, we may with propriety consider the proofs produced by Archaeologists in favor of the dwellers in pre- tiistoric times having had a certain commercial relation with each other, although in many instances widely separated. Of the fact that these people had such relations with each other, the evidences, although not many, are indisputable. They may be treated under the following five divisions, which, I think, embraces nearly all the various proofs which can be offered : First : We frequently find articles of various kinds belonging to both the so-called first and second stone periods in positions which, apart from their form, the geology of the districts shews, must have been carried by some means from the native home of the material to the place where the article is found. Second : The carriage of the raw material or manufa-^tured implements must have been performed by human agency, the un- disturbed character of the deposit in many places being such as to cles into occupied I of such means of time rela- irily have tie man of neighbors, ,ve written thousand veral cen- 'etersburg, l^ear B. C. ler money, I hundred r, however, ut only the ecimens of which we •nsider the [lers in pre- with each •f the fact evidences, le treated fU.es nearly belonging I positions ricts shews, lome of the Imufa'^tured :y, the un- such as to exclude any theory of the carriage being effected by floods or other geological changes. Third : In addition to implements of war or agriculture, or the material for their manufacture, we frequently find many articles of a tender nature, such as shells and mica, which would from their composition be destroyed by the rough usage they would naturally be subjected to if transported by any other means than by man, and even then the owner must have considered them of such value as to induce him to carry them in as careful a manner as he possibly could. Fourth : We frequently find metallic specimens in localities far removed from their native rocks. These metals are often in pieces, just as they had been dug out of the mine. Very frequently they shew traces of having been hammered or subjected to fire, and often worked into the shape of articles of jewelry cr ornaments, some showing in a high degree the artistic skill of the ancient workmen. Fifth : In addition to specimens of simple metals, we frequently find what may be considered the strongest proofs of commercial relations between prehistoric peoples : — these are specimens of their handiwork in compound metals or alloys. These articles are chiefly of bronze. There are few traces of a Bronze Age in North America. This metal is confined almost exclusively to Europe. The absence of bronze among the North American tyibes, or peoples, may be ac. counted for by the scarcity of tin, none being then known on this continent outside of Mexico and Peru, and an analysis of the bronzes of these peoples shews them to have been more sparing of their tin than were the Europeans. Although articles of copper are frequent in the mounds of the Mississippi Valley I have been unable to find in any of the authorities consulted any reference to the finding of a single article of bronze. Mr. Tylor, in his address to Section H (the Authropological section) of the British Associa- tion, at Montreal, in 1884, says : " In connection with ideas borrowed from Asia there arises the question, How did the Mexicans and Peruvians become possessed of bronze ?" and answers it thus ; "Seeing how imperfectly it bad established itself, not even dispos- sessing the stone implements, I have long believed it to be an ■•■•■■■■■■••••I tQ Asiatic importation of no great antiquity, and it is with great satis- faction that I find such an authority on prehistoric Archaeology as Professor Worsaae comparing the bronze implements in China and Japan with those of Mexico and Peru, and declaring emphatically his opinion that bronze was a modern novelty introduced into America." This is decisive enough in shewing that during the age of bronze in Mexico and Peru, there existed a trade relation be- tween these peoples and China and Japan. How, or why this rela- tion did not bring bronze into greater repute, and cause it to spread amongst the other peoples of America, it is very difficult to say, unless these nations did not trade with the more northern peoples. An interesting corroUary to these evidences of there having existed a prehistoric commerce may be here stated. The prehistoric peoples of both continents had in a measure formed a sort ot division of labor at an apparently early stage of their history. A man who shewed any peculiar aptitude for any special line, generally confined his efforts to the manufacturmg of that particular class of articles ; thus, any one who proved expert or skilful in the manufac- ture of arrow heads, devoted himself to that branch of business, while the makers of totemic emblems or ornaments, confined their attention to the manufacturing of these articles. Archaeologists state there were three different ages though which men passed on cheir march of civilization viz : the Stone Age, divided into the Palaeolithic and the Neolithic, the Bronze Age and Iron Age. Some are in favor of adding a fourth, or age of transition between the Stone and the Bronze Ages and distinguishing it as the Age of Copper. Evidences have been adduced by Archaeologists of there having existed a Copper Age in Hungary, and many proofs are also shown of such a period having indured for a long time in North America. During its existence on the American Continent it was a period of great activity among the tribes then living. An important consideration in all matters relating to commer- cial pursuits, is the facility for the carnage or distribution of the articles to be disposed of It would be of little use for anyone to produce an article he did not want for his own use, had he no means of dispos ing of it. If his immediate neighbours had no desire or requirement for the article, then he would be compelled to find some other mar- ket more or less distant from the place of manufacture ; but to II ti great satis- chaeology as 1 China and emphatically oduced into iring the age relation be- vhy this rela- : it to spread iicult to say, lern peoples, iving existed 2 prehistoric ,ed a sort of history. A ine, generally ular class of the manufac- of business, onfined their ages though e Stone Age, nze Age and of transition, ling it as the iseologists of ay proofs are me in North lent it was a to commer- )f the articles produce an s of dispos [requirement other mar- re ; but to enable him to sell his products in a distant place, he would require to have some means of carrying them there. Without means of con- veying merchandise from one place to another, all sorts of traffic would be seriously impeded, and no doubt the insufficient and also very hazardous modes of carriage, would to a great extent, interfere with prehistoric man's commercial proclivities, but did notj as we shall see, altogether keep him out of trade. The readiest and easiest mode of carriage would naturally be by water ; hence we find the rivjers of a country were the great high- ways of early commerce. Of the value of water as a means of com- munication prehistoric men were by no means ignorant, and we have many evidences of primitive skill exhibited in the numerous canoes which have been discovered in Great Britain, notably in the estuary of the Clyde. In the district in which Glasgow now stands, no less than seventeen canoes of various sizes have been discovered, and what is now one of the greatest seats of shipping and ship-building in the world appears to have been even in prehistoric times the seat of a large population skilled in the science of naviga- tion. The earliest race in Scotland of which any traces are to be found, were essentially a nautical people. Numerous evidences of their seafaring propensities have been found in various parts of that country. Whether these canoes were used simply for coasting or fishing or for the purposes of a long voyage it is difficult to say, but one circumstance connected with the discovery of these vessels and peculiarly interesting in any inquiry into the commercial relations of these ancient navigators, is the fact mentioned by Dr. Wilson in his Prehistoric Annals of Scotland, that one of the canoes found near the present site of the city of Glasgow had a hole cut in the bottom evidently for the purpose of drying the boat. This hole was neatly filled by a plug not made of the wood of the district, but of cork. Cork is a native of the Iberian Peninsula, and must have been brought to the place where the canoe was found by some means — evidently by trade in some way or other. Had it drifted there by the sea current, a circumstance extremely unlikely when the distance and position of the land past which it must have floated is con- sidered, it is very doubtful whether the ancient boat-builder was provident enough to gather driftwood to serve his purposes. Unless brought to him directly by some means he would be more 12 II I I likely to make his plug out of the same material as his boat. It is to the alluvial clays, gravels and other drift matsrial filling the valleys of the different rivers throughout Europe and America that we owe most of our knowledge of man in the earlier stages of his career. Lakes, estuaries and the sea-coast have each con- tributed a little towards our store of information, but not to such an extent as the drift filled valleys of ancient rivers. It is, therefore, to these ancient valleys we must look for the earliest records of com- merce, and consequently of civilization. m Nearly all great movements in the history of man have taken place along the courses of large streams. In our own times we find this to be the case. A new people entering a country naturally settle upon the coast and river valleys first. In America we find the white race settling first upon the sea-coast, next gradually pushing their way along the courses of the great rivers, the St. Lawrence, Hudson, Mississippi and others, and finally when they have obtained the com- plete control of these highways, they push back into the country. This course is useful to settlers in two ways, — in providing security for themselves in the event of disaster in their intercourse with the natives, and also in providing a means of outlet for their products, navigation being looked upon as essential to their commercial pros- perity. As is the case now, so it was in the prehistoric ages. The rivers of Scotland, England, France and Italy, in Europe, and the Mississ- ippi, Ohio, Hudson, and St. Lawrence all give conclusive evidence that primitive man was perfectly acquainted with the value of water as a means of transportation. When man first made his appearance in Europe, the principal rivers stood at a much higher elevation than at present. They had not then cut the deep chan- nels through which they now run, and what is now the vale of Clyde, with a river running through it, was then an estuary of the sea. Considering the numerous facilities for water carriage on the American Continent, it would be somewhat surprising if the prehis. toric inhabitant had not used that means to move from place to place, as his roving nature might prompt him. M. Joly, in a recent publication, " Man before Metals," says : " It is impossible to doubt that the first attempts at navigation date from the Archaeolithic Age, when we find buried twenty or thirty 13 .1 as his boat, natarial filling and America earlier stages ave each con- it not to such [t is, therefore, ecords of cotn- lan have taken I times we find naturally settle : find the white 1 pushing their rence, Hudson, :ained the com- ;o the country, ividing security course with the their products, nmercial pros- s. The rivers id the Mississ- isive evidence the value of irst made his much higher e deep chan- vale of Clyde, the sea. rriage on the if the prehis. rom place to [etals," says : ivigation date knly or thirty yards below the beds of rivers in Scotland, England, France and Italy, canoes still containing the stone axe with which they were dug, and lying beside the bones of men, and of the elephas primigenius or mammoth, with which they were contemporary. These canoes were from ten to fifty feet long, and from two to fourteen feet wide." M. Joly considers the use of these canots for long trading voyages an impossibility, yet on the same page he gives an instance of canoes being used to carry flints from France to the islands of Elba, Sardinia and Pianosa, and also of men bringing from Sardinia to the other two, pieces of black obsidian rock, foreign to these islands, from which the natives made knives as sharp as those cf Mexico. The ancient Americans used canoes for long trading voyages, and the Peruvians understood the use of sails and the rudder. Columbus when on his fourth voyage, landed on one of the Guanaja Islands, and while there saw a large trading canoe, which from the statements made by the cacique on board, was supposed to have come from Yutacan, a distance of about forty leagues, and over a sea, the tempestuousness of which daunted even the hardy sailors of the Spanish fleet. This canoe although formed out of a single tree, was about eight feet wide, and had twenty-five rowers. In the centre of the canoe there was a tent or awning, under which the cacique and his wives sat. Bartholomew Ruiz, the pilot of the expedition for the conquest of Peru, encountered in the open Pacific, a Peruvian balsa, formed of huge timbers of light porous wood, with a flooring of reeds. This balsa had two masts which sustained a large square cotton sail, and was constructed with a moveable keel and rudder. On board Ruiz found ornaments wrought in silver and gold, vases and mirrors of burnished silver, curious fabrics both of cotton and woollen, and a pair of balances made to weigh the precious metals, The balsa had come from a Peruvian port, some degrees to the south, and the crew consisted of both men and women, and carried provisions for the voyage. Here then we see that the natives of Yutacan were accustomed to take long voya- ges in canoes, and that the ancient Peruvian navigators understood the use of sails and the rudder. The Polynesians, long before the advent of whalers and trading vessels in these seas, are known to have had intercourse with each other. The Tonga people are known to have had dealings with M m i Vavao, Samoa, the Figi Islands, Rotuma, and the New Hebrides. Messrs. Forster and Cook obtained from a native of the Society Islands, a map which has been shown to contain not only the Marquesas and the islands south and east of Tahiti, but the Samoan, Figi, and even more distant groups, and the Hawaiian islanders appear to have had considerable knowledge of navigation. One of the headlands of the Hawaiian Islands bears the name of the Starting Place for Tahiti^ the natives having at a certain season directed their course towards Tahiti by a particular star. Now in the face of these instances of other people having under- stood navigation to such an extent, is it not reasonable to suppose that prehistoric man in Europe, particularly those of Britain, had a knowledge of the same mode of locomotion, and that they used this knowledge to aid them in their commercial dealings with each other. Although water would naturally present itself to early man as the most convenient mode of locomotion, long journeys by land do not appear to have been by any means uncommon. Amber has been found in Switzerland, and no doubt, found its way there by means of internal trade, or probably by means of periodical journeys by the tribes inhabiting that part of Europe. These periodical journeys were by no means of an infrequent occurrence among the tribes of North America, even down to comparatively modern times. So late as 1859 when Professor Hynd was on the Saskatchewan Chief Shortstick, of the Plain Crees, pointed out to him some mem- bers of his band who had gone to the Rocky Mountains two years before, and had returned with several scalps, grizzly bears' claws, necklaces and pipes. From the articles brought back, it might be inferred that these Indians did not go so far for trading purposes alone, and their trophies were largely obtained in the manner which some writers have styled " compulsory exchange." Men engaged in hunting and whose mode of living was nomadic, would not be likely to be afraid of the hardships of a long journey. Jade has been found in various parts of Europe, indicating either an extensive system of exchanges or long journeys by land or river, the native home of this mineral being in China and Central Asia. The various Indian tribes were in the habit of making periodi. cal journeys to the Coteau des prairies for the purpose of obtaining supplies of the red pipestone for which that district, even in early IS New Hebrides. of the Society I not only the )ut the Samoan, raiian islanders Ration. One of B name of the certain season itar. le having under- ible to suppose ■ Britain, had a It they used this with each other. :o early man as neys by land do n. Amber has ts way there by riodical journeys hese periodical nee among the modem times, Saskatchewan^ lim some mem- tains two years y bears' claws, ;k, it might be ading purposes manner which fen engaged in d not be likely Jade has been Ktensive system ative home of pking periodi. of obtaining even in early times, was famous. AtiOther evidence of primitive man undertaking trading journeys is the tradition preserved in Georgia " that among the Indians who inhabited the mountains, there was a certain riiimber or class who devoted their time and attention to the manufacture of darts : that as soon as they had prepared a general supply, they left their mountain homes and visited the seaboard and intermediate localities, exchanging their spear and arrowheads for other articles not to be readily obtained in the region they inhabited. The further fact is stated that these persons never mingled in the excitement of war, that to them a free passport was at all times granted, even among tribes actually at variance with that of which they were members ; that their vocation was esteemed honorable and they themselves treated with universal hospitality. We see, therefore, that the primitive peoples of the present day have a means of communicating with each other, and that prehistoric man had and used his means, limited as they may have been, for the purposes of communicating with his neighbors. Let us now look at the evidences of his commercial transactions. Confining our attention for the present to the evidences in favor of a prehistoric commerce having existed in both the old and new [worlds, to the five divisions already mentioned, let us consider these [divisions separately throughout their different stages. First : We frequently find articles belonging to the Stone Age in such positions as warra.it us in assuming they were placed there by iian. In speaking of the Age of Stone or Bronze or Iron, it must ilways be borne in mind that these divisions are not in any case ibsolutely distinct periods in the history of the world generally, nor iven with the one people, for, although they are to a great extent iistinct periods in the history of a nation, they are not so absolutely. '^e often find the stone and bronze merging into each other, :reating as it were, a sort of period of transition. In the same way ire find the bronze and iron running side by side, even among the Jsame people, and while we are in the middle of the Iron Age, some )f the peoples of the world are still in the Age of Stone or merging iirectly from it into the Age of Iron. At the time of the discovery )f America by Columbus, it was the Age of Bronze in Mexico and i6 Peru, Copper among the peoples of the Mississippi and Ohio Valleys, and Stone and Bone with the rest of the Continent. I. — EVIDENCES IN EUROPE. i !■ The earliest race of men, of which we have any record, has been denominated by Archaeologsts as Palaeolithic man, or men of the Drift period. These men were cave dwellers, and were the contemporaries of the mammoth, woolly haired rhinoceros, cave bear and cave lion. Their remains, which have been found in many of the caves in England, France and Belguim, as well as in other countries in Europe, show them to have occupied the greater part of Central Europe. Palaeolithic man was not unacquainted with art, and several of the drawings exhibiting animals singly and in groups, give actual evidences of their imitative and artistic skill. Five skulls have been found showing the cerebral development to be such as will compare favorably with any of the modern savages. The physical characteristics of the skeletons of the Palaeolithic men, show them to have been of large stature a d great muscular develop- ment, circumstances which Dr. Dawson attributes "to abundant food, a temperate climate and roving habits in a wild country and without beasts of burden." The ornaments of these cave dwellers were of ivory and shell, and their weapons or implements were for the most part, inde^'d, almost exclusively made of flint. Among the cave men there were weapons of reindeer horn, and a few have been found consisting solely of the lower jaw of the gigantic cave bear, man's most formid- able enemy in that time. Flint was abundant throughout France, England and the Baltic provinces. The implements are of the rudest kind, being simply flakes ot flint chipped from the block without the least sign of their being subjected to any kind of oper- ation to shape them. The reindeer were plentiful throughout Europe, and appear to have been the chief article of food with these people. They had a knowledge of fire and while some of the tribes appear to have had a knowledge of the art of making rude pottery, others had not. From this it would appear these tribes were widely apart and had little or no communication with each other. If they had we would hardly i and Ohio lent. record, has I, or men of nd were the OS, cave bear I many of the ler countries t of Central th art, and groups, give Five skulls be such as vages. The olithic men, alar develop- to abundant country and ry and shell, )art, inde'^d, n there were d consisting nost formid- lout France, are of the n the block :ind of oper- i appear to They had a > have had a not. From had little or rould hardly '7 expect such a useful art as the making of pottery could long remain unknown to the whole. In all probability these Palaeolithic men had some sort of bar- ter between each other, but it must have been of a very primitive kmd and not of very frequent occurrence, at least not so often as to make any appreciable difference in the social condition of the people Flint though abundant in the south of England, there are many parts of Scotland in which it is scarcely to Ge found, yet in some of the ancient cists opened in these parts, arrow and spearheads of flint have been found, thus indicating some sort of a traffic in that stone. Dr. Wilson in his "Prehistoric Annals of Scotland" says "among the varied objects in the collection of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland IS a skull found in an ancient cist on the farm of Clash Farquhar, parish of Banchory Devenick Kincardineshire in 1822. In form and cerebral development it corresponds to a class of skulls found in the earliest caverns and barrows. In each corner of the cist a few flint flakes were carefully piled up into a heap." Here then, It would appear that the earliest inhabitants of Scotland had I knowledge of trade and exercised it. These large statured strong men were followed by a race of men much smaller physically, but of a higher type intellectually, and [ much better versed in the art of making implements. This second I class has been designated as Neolithic men. Of the Neol hie men we have more evidences of their having Imtercourse. not only with each other, but also with tribes of peoples ^occupying countries lying at a considerable distance from them. It is probable that these people conducted their business at certain places agreed upon, and which were held to be neutral or sacred territory. We know that such was the case in later times Coteau des prairies was a sacred or neutral meeting place among the Indians on this continent at a very early period in their history, and continued to be so for long. It is supposed by some that the [ancient copper mines on Lake Superior were worked by the various :tnbes under the same sort of guardianship or neutrality, and in addition to the chief purpose of mining, these mines were used as . a pkce of barter, where the different tribes met for the purpose of I exchanging their productions. i8 11 !'. In contradistinction to the Palaeolithic men, who do not appear to have been acquainted with agriculture in any form, and commerce only in a very limited way, we find the Neolithic men enjoying both in a certain sense. They also were more advanced in the way of art. Their weapons were richly carved and highly polished, and for their manufacture they employed not flint alone, like the Palaeolithic men, but serpentine, jade, diorite, or any material hard enough to suit the purpose. In the lake dwellings of Switzerland we find extended evidences of Neolithic commerce. By exchange from one hand to another, or by periodical journeys, they received coral from the Mediterranean; from the dwellers on the Baltic they bought the yellow amber, and from the East they obtained the valuable nephrite. Such of their arms as were made of flint were made of a species not known in Switzerland, but which must have been brought from either France or Germany. In their agricuUm* they employed various kinds of grain, such as barley, wheat, beans and millet. Some of these grains were grown in Egypt at a very early date, and it is believed these Lacustrians brought the seeds from that country. Baskets similar to those in use in Egypt have been found among the ruins of some of the Swiss dwellings. The question of where the Neolithic men obtained the nephrite, of which their axes were made, has occasioned many contradictory statements. M. de Mortillet's first opinion was that this supposed oriental jade is simply a serpentine stone, more or less impregnated with silic3j and formerly rather common in the Swiss Alps and the Apennines; but he nov/ owns that no veins of jade which might have served to make the axes in question, have hitherto been found in Europe. M. de Quatrefages thinks that these nephrite or jade axes found in France and elsewhere, have been conveyed thither from Asia, by means of barter. Altogether, however, the eastern origin of the stone, and consequently an extended commerce appear to have the best of the evidence. With coral, amber, nephrite, flint and grain, as articles of trade these lake men must have had widely extended commercial relations. The flints from Grand Pressigny, found in Belgium, and green obsidian articles found in the valley of Vibrata, show that there was a trade relation between France and the Low Countries, and between I «9 do not appear Bind commerce enjoying both in the way of lished, and for the Palaeolithic lard enough to nded evidences i to another, or Mediterranean; ow amber, and Such of their , not known in I either France arious kinds of Some of these i it is believed untry. Baskets |ong the ruins of ed the nephrite, contradictory this supposed ss impregnated Alps and the hich might have Deen found in te or jade axes thither from astern origin of ippear to have ;d rticles of trade ercial relations, ium, and green 1 that there was es, and between Italy and Bohemia. These men also carried on a trade in flint between France and the neighboring islands in the Meditenanean. II. — EVIDENCES OF PREHISTORIC TRADE IN AMERICA. The evidences of an extended commerce in the stone age on the American Continent, are much clearer than those of Europe. One cause for this may be that upon the arrival of the European in America he found the native races in the midst of their stone age or only emerging from it into the age of metals. Prehistoric man in America had widely extended commercial relations during the age of stone. He dealt extensively in flint, slate, mica, red pipestone, shells, pearls, jasper and obsidian. According to Mr. Squier, implements made of the compact silicious stone of Flint Ridge, in Ohio, have been found in Kentucky, Indiana, Illin- ois and Michigan. In 1869, some children playing in the neighbor- hood ot Fayetteville, St. Clair County, Illinois, found a deposit of fifty-two disc shaped flint implements. These implements were made of the stone from Flint Ridge. This fact shows conclusively that this stone formed an article of trade with the natives, aud had been carried by them a distance of over 400 miles. This Flint Ridge appears to have been the gigantic quarry from which the thousands of flint implements found scattered over so many states were produced. It apparently stood in the same relation to the worker and user of stone as the ancient copper mines of Lake 1 Superior did to the worker of copper after the introduction of that metal as the chief article for manufacturing purposes. It was prob- lably a sacred or neutral territory upon which all the tribes met on [an equal footing, and at peace with one another, being at the same [time a great fair ground or market place, in which the products of [the various peoples were exchanged. It is hardly probable, judging [from the quantities of spoiled and broken implements found in the [neighborhood, that Flint Ridge was a seat of manufacture occupied [by one tribe or people, in the same manner as the copper mines [appear to have been. Another species of stone, dealt largely in by the ancient North ; American, was slate. This slate is of a greenish shade, often marked with darker parallel or concentric stripes or bands- There are in the National Museum at Washington, objects of this slate ao rom the States of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsyl- vania, Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, Illinois, Iowa, Louisiana, Michigan, and Wisconsin, and a specimen has been found in Missouri. The native home ot this stone is along the Atlantic Coast, from Rhode Island to Canada. It is also found on Lake Lake Superior and Green Bay. It does not occur in situ, in Ohio, where objects made of it are more abundant than in any other part of the United States, but water worn pebbles, some of them sufficiently large to form the objects found, are plentiful. Obsidian was another article in which the prehistoric merchant dealt. The Geological Survey of the Unitea States Government has ascertained that this mineral is found in Washington, Oregon, Cali- fornia, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, and New Mexico. Extensive deposits have been found in the Yellowstone National Park. Messrs. Squier and Davis have found articles of obsidian, mostly arrow heads, spears and cutting implements in five mounds of the Scioto Valley, in Ohio. Specimens have also been found in Tennessee. Where did they get this obsidian ? The Aztecs used it exten- sively, and it is probable the inhabitants of Ohio received their supply from that point. If so, they must have carried it a straight distance of over 1700 English miles, if however, they were better geologists or miners than we generally assume them to have been, they may probably have found their supply in the Yellowstone region. In that case the distance from Ohio would be over 1300 English miles. From these evidences it will be seen that the stone folks of both continents had a sort of ill-defined commercial relation amongst the various tribes. Of the Palaeolithic man of Europe, little can be said regarding his mode of excnange. Although the tribes were widely scattered, the physical characteristics of the men of the time were such that no doubt they often came in contact for the pur- poses of barter, or met in the chase or at war with each other. In any of these cases it is likely there was more or less exchanging of j articles, while in the case of war the stronger would appropriate whatever he fancied or imagined he had any use for from amongst I the property pf bis opponent, and in this way, no doubt, many of ^ork, Pennsyl- ana, Michigan, Missouri. The :, from Rhode ; Superior and e objects made United States, ge to form the itoric merchant lovernment has Oregon, Gali- leo. Extensive il Park. obsidian, mostly mounds of the been found in ai the articles found in places very far from their place of manufacture, came to be present. Of the Neolithic man, however, we have much clearer evidence of his trading propensities and energy. The numerous articles of which he had a knowledge, and in which he dealt, were gathered from very widely separated parts ot the world. It has been held by some archu::ologists that Neolithic man was a new wave of immigrants from the east, which entered Europe and supplanted the old Palaeolithic inhabitants, and as such would bring with him his higher knowledge of art and manufactures, and also his supply of nephrite. He was acquainted with agriculture to a certain extent, and the seeds of the grains found may also have been brought from the east amongst the rest of his paraphernalia. If Neolithic man came from the east, his arrival in Europe must have been at a very early date. He must have left Asia before the introduction of iron into the region whence he came, as it can hardly be credited that a man acquainted with the use of iron would not carry that knowledge as well as some of the metal with him, but would voluntarily carry with him nephrite for implements, and abandon such a much more useful material as iron. One thing, however, he did not obtain from the east, and that was the yellow amber of the Baltic. It at least must have been the product of trade of some sort. With such evidences as we have, we are forced to admit that the spirit of trade flourished among the men of the stone age in Europe. ^ In America, the whole evidence tends to the same conclusion. [Whether this trade was a direct exchange of articles, or an exchange [in such a way that the articles passed from tribe to tribe, there is [very little f^vidence to show. The probability is that in some cases [it was a direct exchange after the manner of the tribes of the moun- I tains of Georgia. If such was not the case, then trade must have I been very intermittent and often at a standstill, as the frequent wars : between neighboring tribes would, while they lasted, completely put an end to anything like the exchanging of articles from tribe to tribe. Such articles as did find their way into the other tribes would be the spoils of victory, and would in that case be more or less likely only such as would help the victor to carry on war. I 9ta Second : The carriage of the material or implement must have been performed by human agency. The undisturbed character of the deposit in many places being such as to exclude any theory of the carriage being effected by floods or other geological changes. Many of the articles belonging to prehistoric man are pliced in such positions that no theory of their having been so placed by geological changes, either in the shape of floods, or otherwise, is tenable. It is quite true that many of the articles found are of such an imperishable nature that they would adn-it of being rolled about or carried along with other debris by rivers overflowing, or by the articles themselves being dropped by some prehistoric hunter or fisher into the water. Yet we find that most of the discoveries have been made in such positions as to preclude this view. Amongst the Palaeolithic men when the weapons of war and implements of all sorts consisted simply of chips or flakes of flint, no doubt very little care would be taken of them. These flint flakes were in most instances so easily obtained, and of so little value, that the Palseolithic hunter or warrior would not consider them worth the trouble of carrying any great distance, but would throw them down wherever used, and depend upon obtaining another knife or axe when he next needed its use. It would be different with the Neolithic men. Their implements were highly finished, often elab- orately decorated with carvings, and required a long time, and great expenditure of labor to produce. Neolithic man would therefore be more careful in the use of these articles, hence it is we find more of the productions of the polished, than of the rough stone period, and they are always found in positions which show that they were placed there with great care. It is to this carefulness of the Neolithic man that we owe most of our knowledge of his mode of living and his commercial relations. It is in prehistoric burying grounds, in the Barrows, Dolmens, and Tumuli, we find the most complete records of ancient man's manner of living, and in them have been found many evidences of commercial relations having existed between the different tribes at the period the grave was made. To the almost universal custom existing among the prehistoric tribes, of burying with the dead, his arms, ornaments, and e\ery article he had valued during life, .archaeologists are indebted for much of the information they now »3 lent must have ;d character of J any theory of cal changes, in are phced in n so placed by Dr otherwise, is und are of such ng rolled about wing, or by the itoric hunter or discoveries have r. >ns of war and lakes of flint, no tiese flint flakes little value, that der them worth (uld throw them nother knife or ff'erent with the led, often elab- time, and great I therefore be e find more of one period, and ey were placed If the Neolithic e of living and possess. When a man died it was necessary, according to the relig- ious belief of the time, to bury his property with him, in order that he might make a respectable appearance in the next world; and with that object in view, nothing was considered by the deceased's relatives as too valuable to be placed in the grave, hence it is that so many really beautiful and valuable articles have been found in the various burying places which have been opened. The evidences are very numerous, much more so than space will permit, we will therefore confine ourselves to a few of the lead- ing cases. I. — EVIDENCES IN EUROPE. We have seen that among the Lacustrians, in Switzerland, the trade consisted largely of amber, nephrite, flint, coral, and grain. These articles had to be brought from widely different directions. The amber from the Baltic, the nephrite from Central Asia, while the coral and grain came from the Mediterranean, and probably Egypt. Now no geological change that we know of can be credited [with the carriage of these articles from their original localities to where found. If it were possible for such to be the case, then we [might expect similar articles to be found in other parts of western [Europe ; but we have no record of any such discoveries except in Idolmens. In many parts of Scotland urns containing flint arrow heads lave been found placed within ancient cists, showing that the natives mst have attached a considerable value to them. In the caves of France and Belgium, numerous evidences have klso been found, denoting the value placed upon various articles, and [he great care exhibited in placing them in such positions that the lead man should not want anything when he arrived in the next irorld. Ancient man in Europe built his tombs in a substantial manner, ^'he cromlechs or dolmens were constructed of heavy upright stones, irith others placed horizontally to cover them, so as to form a sort of fude vault or chamber, which was in most cases enclosed by a tumulus )r mound of earth, and reached from without by a passage formed of Btone. These chambers are sometimes of large dimensions, and the 24 stones which form them of such size and weight, that considerable speculation has arisen as to how these primitive men with so small a knowledge of mechanics were able to put them in the positions in which they are formed. The large chambers formed the last resting place of numerous bodies, and the corpses, in order to occupy as small a space as possible, were deposited in a sitting or contracted position, surrounded by the articles their friends deemed necessary to bury with them. Caves were also used as burying places. In 1862 Dr. Noulet visited the cave I'Herm, and along with the remains of about thirty human skeletons found amongst other things, polished axes of Jade, a few necklace beads and a ring of bronze. In many of the dolmens have been found serpentine pendants, necklace beads of the same materials, of slate, chalk, alabaster, jet, amber, a kind of turquoise and several kinds of shells. Discs made of the upper part of the Cardium and perforated for stringing. The dolmens also contain funeral urns, drinking cups and vases of toler- ably fine clay, occasionally elegant, though not very varied in form. M. Cartailhac discovered in some of the dolmans in the department of Gard and Aveyron, red amber. Carved flints have been found in Elba, where that mineral does not exist in a natural state; arrows made of the black obsidian of Sardinia have been found in the same island, and also in Pianosa. A jade axe was found at Pauilhac, in the department of Gers, augite of Anevergu has been found in Brittany, and the green turquoise of Brittany has been discovered in several dolmens in the south of France. All these articles, of which the rough material is foreign to the country where they are found, prove that the articles must have been carriv^d to the positions in which they have begn discovered, by the agency of man, and that the men of the period had widely spread commercial relations with each other. II. -EVIDENCES IN AMERICA, We now turn to the new world for further proof of man's agency in carrying articles of commercial value for long distances. In the new world as well as the old, we are indebted in a great measure to the ancient custom of burying with the dead man his arms, orna- ments and other per^sonalities. In the mounds of Scioto and through- wmmm t considerable vith so small a le positions in :he last resting to occupy as 5 or contracted imed necessary 562 Dr. Noulet of about thirty d axes of Jade, ntine pendants, c, alabaster, jet, s. Discs made stringing. The i vases of toler- varied in form, the department e been found in tej arrows made he same island, auilhac, in the md in Brittany, ered in several IS, of which the re found, prove Isitions in which id that the men ions with each )f man's agency tances. In the teat measure to I his arms, orna- Ito and through- *5 Out Ohio, as well as those in the Mississippi valley, various articles have been discovered, showing a spirit of commercial enterprise. These articles are placed in such positions as to put beyond doubt man's agency. In the valleys of the Scioto, Ohio and Mississippi, there are numerous artificial constructions known by the name of mounds, and their builders have received the name of the Moundbuilders. Ac- cording to Schoolcraft, the moundbuilders were the ancient AUe- ghanians, the oldest tribe in the United States, of which the tradition is distinct. This tribe had the seat of its power in the Ohio valley and its confluents, at a very ancient date. Here they had numerous towns and villages, and to this district they brought various articles which the archaeologist now finds in the course of his explorations, and which we may safely assume as evidences of there having existed a commercial spirit amongst these people. These mounds are of three distinct classes, each differing from the other, and apparently used by the original owners for different purposes. First, there is a class of mound known as the emblematic mound, designed to represent the armorial bearings of the builders* Second, the sacrificial mound, and third, the burial mound In the sacrificial mound or altar, the construction appears to be different from the others. The special features of their erection are, they are built of alternate layers of gravel, mould, sand and slices of mica, ilhey usually cover an altar of stone or baked clay, hollowed into the |shape of a basin. In this hollow the offerings were placed. Now let us see what kind of offerings were made : obsidian mives, thin slices of mica cut into various shapes and perforated for jftringing, necklaces of beads, pierced teeth and of silver, earrings and Irmlets of bloodstone, lances and arrowheads of quartz, obsidian lint and manganesian garnet, articles of copper, bone and ivory, :onch and other shells. Pipes are plentiful in these mounds and of irarious kinds, some of the brown pipestone of the Chippewa river, md others of the blood red pipestone of the Coteau des prairies. We have already seen that the obsidian must have been brought distance of at least 1300 English miles. Mica is not found in Ohio. The only places known to produce mica in North America re New Hampshire, Maine, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, iPennsylvania, Maryland and North Carolina. A species of mica is 26 ! i' also found in New Jersey and Canada. The nearest place, Union-, ville, Kentucky, being over 300 miles distant noeasyred in a straight hne. Neither bloodstone nor garnet is known in Ohio,. but they may probably have been obtained from water worn pebbles. Copper and silver were obtained in the Lake Superior region. The conch shell is a native of the coast of Florida and the West Indies. In the burial mounds or tumuli, articles of a similar nature haye been found. Mr. Rau describes in his article on the Stock in trade of an aboriginal Lapidary, the finding of a collection of Jasper orna- ments in Lawrence County, Mississippi, consisting of four hundred and forty-nine articles, some of which were elaborately finished, others only partly wrought and others showing no work whatever. He adds by way of a note that no Jasper pebbles occur in the neighbor- hood of the place where the ornaments were found. According to the latest authorities, jasper is not found in the State of Mississippi. Some of the articles were of red jasper, which is found on the banks of the Hudson, at Troy and in Calaveras County, California. In an ossuary at Beverly, in the county of Wentworth in Ontario, Canada, Mr. Schoolcraft found sea shells which must have come from the south, eight armlets of red pipestone, from Coteau des prairies, in Minnesota, pipes corresponding with th^ antique pipe found at Thunder Bay and copper bracelets. The positions in which every one of these articles have been found show they must have been placed there by man. That no other agency could possibly do so, and the logical deduction is that man in America, at that period, had a widely extended system of exchange. Now all these transportations of the various articles found, mean commercial relations between the existing tribes at that time. According to Dr. Wilson in his " Prehistoric Annals of Scotland," the dolmens or cromlechs were the tombs of the chiefs, or great men of the tribe. Such tombs did not fall to the common lot, and if the native was not so honored, a stranger wandering amongst them would not DC likely to be accorded such a distinguished resting- place. Therefore, a stranger carrying such articles with him, could not have deposited them in such positions. The feet of their being place, Union-, i in a straight but they may Copper and >rida and the ar nature have Stock in trade )f Jasper orna- four hundred inished, others fvhatever. He I the neighbor- According to of Mississippi, i on the banks ifornia. In an ntario, Canada, :ome from the des prairies, in pipe found at [cles have been n. nd the logical had a widely larticles found, ]s at that time, of Scotland," [s, or great men lot, and if the imongst them lished resting- [ith him, could of their being 27 so placed shows that these articles must have belonged to the tribe, and must have been obtained in the way of trade. Third ( In addition to implements of- war, or agriculture, or the material for their manufacture, we frequently find many articles of a tender nature, such as shells, mica, etc., and which would, from their composition, be destroyed by the rough usage they would naturally be subjected to if transported by any other means than by man. In the second division, I have just shewn that from the posi- tions in which the various articles have been found, they must have beep placed in these positions by man ; that no geological changes of pny known description could have so placed them. I will now try and shew you that from the very nature of the articles themselves man must have carried them from place to place ini a very careful manner, and accordingly must have valued them Highly. All savage or rude peoples delight in ornamenting themselves ; feven the lowest classes of humanity are not without vanity in this direction. Savage peoples are vain of the personal appearance, and what- ever may be the standard of their ideal, they are ready to undergo any amount of what, to us, would appear inconvenience, and suffer [acute pain to produce the desired effect. Thus we find the different [peoples of the present uncivilized world fond of finery. Searching ifter his ideal beauty, we find the native of the Hermit group decor- iting himself with bracelets of large seashells, ornaments of a iimilar character around his neck and in his ears,, piercing the bptum of his nose, and suspending from it the teeth of a dog, or Running a long piece of bone through it from side to side ; hanging luman arm bones covered with feathers down his back, and painting limself in various colors. Again, we find the native of New ruinea staining his hair with red powder, adorning his flat nose with pair of boar's tusks, and otherwise decorating himself with the )ones of the cassowary and dog. The inhabitant of Wottan perforates his ears with large holes, ^rom which he suspends enormous earrings, ties a band of plaited ;rass around his arm, and suspends from it a bunch of feathers or 38 i i i ''y^:'> The people of Api, one of the lowest in the scale of civiliza- tion, have peculiar modes of burial. They keep the body until decomposition sets in, when the bones are carefully removed, painted red, and wrapped in bark and buried. A stout post is fixed upright at each corner of the grave, and the sides ornamented with large shells, skulls, and bones of the dugong. In all cases these people tatoo and paint themselves. The present North American paints himself; the ancient inhabitants of Britain, according to Caesar, dyed themselves with vvoad, and there is evidence that the reindeer hunter also decorated himself with paint, using the red haematite or oxide of manganese for that purpose. A shell full of red haematite was found in a cave on the banks of Garden, and close to the shell a mortar, which had been used to grind the color and mix it with grease. Now we have evidences ' shewing that what a man used or valued most during life was buried with him at death. We also know that what a man places the highest value upon he is most likely to take greatest care of, carrying it carefully, and perpetually watching, lest it be lost or injured. Knowing this savage love of ornament and their habit of bury- ing with the dead his personal effects, let us look at the contents of the various caves and tumuli, and examine the articles found. In these burying grounds we will find many substances, in the shape of ornaments, of such tender a nature as to preclude the idea of their having been deposited by any other agency than by man. The beauty and great variety of marine shells no doubt were reasons for their being used as articles of personal adornment. They were used for other much more commercial as well as his- torical purposes among the tribes of North America. Shells have been used in both the new and the old worlds as currency. The Cowrie shells, which are the most familiar to com- mercial students, are procured on the coast of Congo, the Philippine and Maldive islands. Of the Maldive group they form the chief article of export. The Philippine islands are in the Southern Pacific, and the Maldives in the Indian Ocean, yet these shells circulate as currency in Southern Asia, and almost into the heart of Africa. tt a I mm Lg{{P^^|lll^lii^ 1ll l ^r | ^^T■■-' l l l l l|lll^ MWl. ^ l l ^n ll.^ 29 Among the Chinook and Other Indians on the Northern Pacific [the dentalium forms not only an article of ornament, but consider- I able trade is carried on between the various tribes on Vancouver Island through the medium of these shells. The earlier writers on American currency give tabulated statements of the currency values of the white and blue wampum which were long used as current money in the transactions between the Indian and white races. The Indian tribes, however, had other purposes to which they put the use of the wampum than that of either currency or orna- ment. It was used to record the history of all great operations of the tribe ; indeed Penn's title deed to the land purchased by him consisted solely of a string of wampum. Among the North Ameri- can tribes this wampum was much prized and held sacred. It f corresponded in its use to the ancient quipu of the Peruvian and Mexican. Wampum consists of beads of different colours strung together, [generally in the form of a belt. It is of two kinds, the white and [the purple. The white is worked out of the great concho into the [form of a bead, and perforated to be strung on leather. The purple [is worked out of the inside of the mussel shell. They are woven [as broad as one's hand, and about two feet long. At the close of [the war between the English and King Philip in 1675, when Philip [was killed, an old chief handed to Captain Church two broad belts [elaborately worked in wampum. One of them reached from the [shoulder to near the ground. This was the Magna Charta of the [New England tribes. The laws of the celebrated Iroquois league were recorded in [wampum made of spiral fresh water shells strung on deer skin thongs or sinews, and these strands braided into belts or simply united into strings. These strings were the only visible records of the Iroquois, and were kept and interpreted by a specially consti- tuted keeper of the wampum. In the mounds of the Mississip: i Valley beads and shells have been found in great quantities. Ii Grave Creek mound shell beads such as constitute wampum were found to the number of between three and four thousand. I 30 No evidence appears as yet of shells forming a primitive cur- rency among the ancient Europeans, although abundant proofs have been obtained of their being used as ornaments. In 1838 an elevated knoll in the Phoenix Park, Dublin, was levelled. It was discovered to be a sepulchral mound, and con- tained two male skeletons and a quantity of the common nerita littoralis. These shells had been rubbed down so as to make two holes for stringing purposes. In a cavern at Aurignac were found eighteen perforated discs of the cardium. At Mentone were found pierced seashells surrounding the head of a skeleton. Shell orna- ments were also found in another cavern of the same district. In la Madelaine pierced tossil marine shells have been found. At Cro Magnon pierced marine shells to the number of about 300 have recently been discovered, and at Trou-de-Frontal, in Belgium, ' pierced fossil shells have also been found. The Ceritheum Gigan- teum, a shell of large size, cannot have been obtained from nearer localities than Rheims or Versailles. The use of these shells has been assigned to ornamentation. They are all pierced for stringing, and bear a general resemblance to those used in America for the manufacture of wampum, both in the positions in which they have been found and in their manufacture. So close are the resemblances in some, particularly those ground into shape, that we might almost assume that they had been used as currency, or they may have been used as records in the same way as the wampum, even although no direct evidence of such having been the case is forthcoming. Whatever the uses to which the ancient man put his shells, he evidently valued them highly, and apparently took great care that they should accompany him on his journey to the next world. Here, therefore, we have in one single article abundant eviden- ces of the care with which man in early times looked after his valu. ables. But shells were not the only article of adornment or use in his possession. The tombs of each world — the old and the new, give us a list of many things highly prized by the primitive inhabit- ant, many of which he must have obtained by the way of barter or some sort of tiade from his more immediate neighbors or from tribes many hundreds of miles distant 31 k, Dublin, was )und, and con- ommon nerita to make two ic were found ne were found 1. Shell orna- le district. In en found. At of about 300 \\, in Belgium,' itheum Gigan- id from nearer ornamentation. I resemblance to im, both in the ir manufacture. ' those ground had been used 1 the same way af such having to which the ;m highly, and any him on his undant eviden- after his valu. ent or use in and the new, mitive inhabit- y of barter or bors or from I. — EVIDENCES IN EUROPE. Iti various parts of Hungary, pearls from the Indian Ocean have Ibeen found. In the same country amber in the shape of beads, both [wrought and unwrought, have also been discovered. In the lake jdwellings of Switzerland, we have already seen that amber and coral in the shape of necklaces have been found. Fragments of pottery [discovered among the ruins of the lake villages in Switzerland, are found to be coloured black by means of graphite. This mineral according to Dana does not appear to occur in Switzerland, but is found in various parts of Austria, Prussia and France, and it is likely these people brought their supply from some of those places. In the same ruins, beads of jet have also been discovered. Without recounting the various articles found in the tumuli, or :aves, one of the strongest arguments which can be adduced in favor )f man's agency in the matter, is the finding of human skeletons jntire in many places associated with the articles in which he had an Interest in the way of arms or ornaments. II. — EVIDENCES IN AMERICA. Various articles have been found scattered throughout fhe diflfer. bnt parts of the United states and Canada, none of which could have [eached the localities in which they have been found by any other leans than by man. Thus, the numerous plates of mica, cut in irious shapes and sizes, found in the mounds of the Mississippi, ^nd other valleys. The finding of the immense quantities of marine lells manufactured into ornaments throughout the Ohio valley, [essrs. Squier and Davis found in the mounds of Ohio the following Decies : marginella, oliva, nautica, cassis, pyrula perversa, and a large )ecies of conch. All these shells belong to tropical or sub-tropical jgions, and occur in the United States on the eastern shores of Horida and the Gulf of Mexico. Mr. Rau estimates the probable imit of the shell trade to be a distance of nearly eight hundred Eng- lish miles. Mr. Schoolcraft states that he found in an ossuary at Jeverly, in the county of Wentworth, Ontario, two specimens of |hells, the pyjula spirata and the pyiula perversa, both of which must lave come from the coast of Florida, and which were probably )btained by barter from the southern Indians. Shells from the coast )f Florida and the Gulf of Mexico have been found over three thous- 3a and miles from their native habitat and several hundred miles from the shore. In the Huron gravemounds of the Georgian Bay, tropi- cal shells from the Mexican Gulf have been found. A very strong evidence of the Indian tribes in the days of the moundbuilders, having an extended commerce which might be treated under this head, is their agricultural advancement. They cultivated the zea maize, a tropical plant, which they brought with them from the south. Tobacco also supplies us with another proof of the same sort. Although extensively used by the various tribes in all matters of ceremonial, its cultivation was altogether confmed to the area of the southern states, and from that district it was brought by the more northern peoples. I have so far, except in one or two instances, when speak- ing of this ancient commerce, endeavoured to confine the proof of a prehistoric commerce to the age of stone. Brief the notices o the various evidences necessarily have been, but to my mind con- clusive enough to show that the earliest peoples on both continents had, during the socalled stone period, whether we divide it into two epochs or treat it as a whole, a species of commercial relationship with each other Limited no doubt it was, but still the spirit of trade existed and showed itself under the many adverse circumstances, by which it was surrounded. These people were undoubtedly a migra* tory class, hunting and fishing their simple though arduous and dan- gerous occupation ; hunting especially so. When we consider the defenceless state of early man, the inefficiency of his arms, and the foes with which he had to contend, we can hardly wonder at the want of improvement shown by him in the earlier stages of his career. The descriptions given by Palaeontologists of the two most formidable enemies of man — the cave lion and cave bear — show these animals to have been no mean opponents of man, even under much more favor- able circumstances than those in which they came in contact. " Man," says Professor Boyd Dawkins, " disputed with the lion j sometimes j man ate the lion and often the lion ate the man." The rudiments of art were not wanting among the neolithic men. We find many of their implements and arms richly decorated with carvings of various sorts and often polished in a high degree. In j addition, pieces of mammoth tusks and reindeer horns have been discovered, having rude drawings of various subjects cut upon them. mmmmmm ired miles from gian Bay, tropi- the days of the might be treated They cultivated with them from oof of the same !S in all matters i to the area of jht by the more 3, when speak- ) confine the Jrief the notices ) my mind con- >oth continents vide it into two :ial relationship B spirit of trade cumstances, by btedly a migra- duous and dan- e consider the s arms, and the der at the want lis career. The ost formidable hese animals to ich more favor- intact. "Man," m ; sometimes neolithic men. | decorated with jh degree. In )rns have been :ut upon them. 34 »nd were beginning to be looked to more and more as the means of iexistence. By the introduction of metals, a new erg of commerce and conse- iquently of civilization was commenced, and many interesting proof* iof commercial advance could be given, but into these evidences we [have not, for the present, time to look. They must therefore be left Ito the future, when probably we may be able to trace the course of Icommerce and follow her footsteps down to the time when written [history steps in and assists us in our work of research. As it is, in Ithe stone period we have seen taen showing a spirit of trade. We Ihave judged them by their own acts and have read their history, so Ifar as we have gone, by their works and by their deeds ye shall know Ithem. I" |(t (( |(< I" i« r. Wilson Prehistoric Annals of Scotland," Br. Wilson Manual of Mineralogy',". . . . • j, ^ Dana Dawn of History," . . q. F. Keary British Association Report," Fifty-fourth (Montreal) Meeting, 1884. Fossil Man," Professor Dawson S5 i .«0«« '^ffe«' Wi^i'*^^ W these modern days might learn from those primitive peoples, is patience. The time they occupied in ftSRIbhIfltf