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 <B«n«tli«» jlorirty et ffiivil dtatinttxf. 
 
 INOOaPORATED 1887. 
 
 TRANSACTIONS. 
 
 N.B.— Tbit 8oeietr< m * bodr. doM not hold Uielf ruponilble for the ftoia ud opinioni 
 stated in iin7 of iti publicttloni. 
 
 h 
 
 SOME OBSERVATIONS OX THE EXPANSION AND 
 
 CONTRACTION OF ICE ON 
 
 CANADIAN WATERS. 
 
 By John H. Dumbli. 
 
 To be read Thursday, 3rd December, 1891. 
 
 The movement of field ice on Canuiian waters, by expansion 
 and contraction, iVora change of temperature, is a matter of 
 interest to the Civil Engineer, and one that he cannot safely dis- 
 regard, vhen called upon to erect structure:! within its infiuenoo. 
 
 As Besiaent Engineer of the Cobourg and Peterborough Rail- 
 way in 1860, 1 bad a very painful experience of the force of ice 
 on the Bailway Bridge across Bice Lake. I subsequently exper- 
 imented and practically tested the susceptibility to change of 
 temperature, by expansion and contraction, of a floating piece of 
 ice, on a pond near Cobourg, the result of which I will hereafter 
 mention. The better way to illustrate the power of ice in motion 
 will be to briefly describe the Bice Lake Bailway Bridge. 
 
 The lake is a sheet of water over twenty miieb in length and 
 of an average width of two miles and one-half. The bridge 
 crossed it at its widest part, and was nearly three miles in len ,*b. 
 The depth of the water to the clay bottom (except in the chan- 
 nel) was less than twenty feet. A small island was crossed by 
 the bridge within three-quarters of a mile of the south shore. 
 The bridge, with the exception of half a mile of truss in the 
 centre, was built on oak piles, vents were fourteen feet apart, 
 with very heavy caps and stringers. The truss-bridge was very 
 strong, with eighty feet spans resting on stout timber piers filled 
 with etone. The whole structure was of the strongest and most 
 ■nbetantial character of its kind. 
 
 And yet this bridge was wrecked in a few minutes, in the 
 early pait of December, by an ice shove, and, when the ice was 
 comparatively thin. The pile work south of the island was 
 inclined like a pack of cards to nearly an angle of forty-five 
 degree*. An engine wad caught on the bridge during the shove, 
 much to the alarm and consternation of the driver. Subsequent 
 (hoves fVom all directions seriously afi'ected the bridge, and 
 twisted it into many curve* and kinks, and, it was only saved 
 ftom complete destruction by isolating it from the main field by 
 cut-channels out in the ice and constantly kept open on each side 
 of the bridge for its entire length. The piers under the truss- 
 bridge, including the larger ones under the swing, were toppled 
 over, and I hiul to protect them by building larger piers around 
 them, with • covering of timber at an incline on each side, lik<> 
 the roof of a cottage, against which the ice fractured and spent 
 itaeii. 
 
 The railway was i^ubsequently abandoned, owing to the neglect 
 and destruction of the bridge, and a million of dollars spent in 
 its coBstruotion was lost, not to spoak of the disappointment to 
 tha tc^r. of Cnb-oarg and vicinity. So much for ignorance of one 
 of the fbroes of nature. 
 
And now as to the ice itself. The formation of ice, as is well 
 known, taices placo at a certain fixed lomporaturo (32° Fnh.)i 
 and wliicb romaind constant dir.'ing the process of solidification. 
 A highor toinporature causes ice to molt. Ice mint, therefore, 
 at formation, be at its greatest or maximum dimensions, and 
 cover its largest area. The first movement of ice, after forma- 
 tion must necessarily be shrinkage or contraction. There is, 
 however, a peculiarity about the contraction of ice which per- 
 plexed me very much for somo time, ns I could not see any 
 tangible evidence of its contraction. 
 
 The ice field does not draw away from the shore during 
 shrinkage, as might be expecte<l, and leave open water to the 
 extent of its contraction. 
 
 The expansion of a largo fleld of icj is manifested by its en- 
 croachment on the shores of the lake. It fractures at the I'Ipple 
 mark and shoves on to the shore, and when the line of fracture 
 occurs at a distance from the shore, it is evidenced by the appear- 
 ance of a vertical ridge formed by the fractured ico. Such being 
 the case it would naturally bo expected that the ice field, during 
 contraction, would recede fiom the fracture, whether on shore, 
 or at a distani e from it, or tha^ fissures and cracks would be 
 easily observed somewhere in the ice field of .vidths somewhat 
 commensurate to previous shoves. Such evidence of too con- 
 traction of ice does rarely if ever exist. That contraction causes 
 fissures however, is true, but so exceedingly small that they 
 easily escape detection. It was sometime before I discovered 
 this. As I crossed the lake one morning, after a cold .snap, u verj' 
 slight covering of snow lay on the ice, and showini; innumerable 
 cracks running in every direction, filled with water, and of 
 widths from one-eighth of an inch to an inch in width. I counted 
 over one hundred in the distance of a mile. The aggregate width 
 of these fissures would fully equal the width of the greatest shove. 
 This manner of contraction is, I think, readily accounted for. If 
 the ico field were equally thick, dense and bare, which it is not, 
 it would contract uniformly towards its centre or centres, and 
 draw away from the shore by the extent of its contraction. 
 
 But ice forms in waters with currents, islands, headlands, an^'. 
 perhaps during snow storms. It is not, therefore, equally thick 
 and pure ami dense, and has many centres, and in shrinking to 
 them pulls and opens fissures in all direction.s. These fissures 
 fill with water and freeze, the ico field occupying its original area, 
 but in a state of contraction. When a change to higher tempera- 
 ture occurs or the sun shines, ex;jansion lakes place and from a 
 centre towards its ^'ircumference, the ice is shoved onto the shore 
 to an extent equal to the width of the fissuret 
 
 These shoves sometimes exceed four or five fee' width, and 
 occur on the shores, in the channels, or from headland to head- 
 land, it being easier to fracture on the chord than the arc of the 
 bay, and will always fracture on the line of lonst resistance. 
 
 It will bo thus seen that the capacity of ice to expand ana 
 shove, and shove again, is only limited by its capacity to contract 
 and recuperate. The repeated shoves have lodged ice on top of 
 a high embankment over 30 feet in width and has lifted large 
 lionldors and pressed them against the abutments of the bridge, 
 A very slight covering of snow acting as a nonconductor, prevents 
 all movement of the ice from change of temperature, hence all 
 damage from shoves occurs early in 'ho season before the sncw 
 falls. The effects which I have endeavoured to describe occur on 
 all Canadian waters in cold climates, but to some extent I'.re 
 governed by the size of the field ice. 
 
 Being much interested in the movements of ice from tny ex- 
 perience at Kice Lal<e, I endeavoureti one winter after my con- 
 nection with the Cobourg Railway had ceased, to practically tost 
 by experiment the nature of ice movement. 1 regret that I had 
 not the time or the skill to follow up and solve the question more 
 satisfactorily. The resrult of theexporiraent, however, is interest- 
 ing and somewhat instructive. I built a rough shed on the ice of 
 
h mill pond in Ooboarg, and cut out the ice 110 feet long hy 10 
 feet in width iiml nllowed nmv ico to foim. When it becanio an 
 inch and a liaif t'lick I isolatoil n Htrip of ice 103 x V and kept it 
 floating with an open channel eif^htoen inchoHin width all around 
 it. I then inKorto<l n nmall block of pine within 18 inches of 
 each end which became frozen in and firmly embedded. To one 
 of those blocks I attached and nailed the end of u seasoned pine 
 rod three inches in width and 100 foot in lonj;th, and one and a 
 quarter inch thick and tirmly <'onnected at the joints. To the 
 other block was Hrmly attached a circular target with a scale, 
 through which the graduated end of a rod moved freely. It was 
 an American engineers' levelling rod and road accurately to the 
 1,000 part of a foot. Small rollo--* underneath caused it to move 
 fteely. 
 
 The floating piece of ice was kept isolated from the main field 
 day and night with groat care and precaution taken to unsure 
 accuracy of result. I may add, that I visited the rod and registered 
 it every few hours, day and night, during part of January and 
 the whole of February, (I was young and enthusiastic then,) and 
 the annexed tables show the hour, day, tomporature, and the read- 
 ing of the rod as taken and entered at the time. The accompany- 
 ing diagram shows the movement of ico corresponding to the 
 readings in the tables. The datum is the time, the upper profile 
 or secticn shows the lineal contraction and expansion of a piece 
 of ice 100 feet in length as road on the rod (to which should be 
 added the expansion and contr .ction of the rod itself to give the 
 actual movement). The section beneath represents the atmos- 
 pheric changes as indicated by the themometer (Fah.) 
 
 The lower line exhibits the thickness of ico on the difl'erenl 
 days and times during the experiment. It will be observed on 
 referring to the ice section that it exhibito<l no movement until 
 it attained a thickness of three inches, notwithstanding various 
 changes in temperature. 
 
 From that time, however, until it became five inches thick, it 
 appeared most sensitive and jespondcd quickly to every change 
 of temperature, but its extent of expansion and contraction was 
 much less than when it attained a greater thickness. Over five 
 inches in thicknesn the ice was over uniform and regular in its 
 movement, and shews a contraction and expansion of .026 for 
 100-foot rod, over 32 degrees or from zero to 32°. 1 presume my 
 reading of the thermometer at 34' should have been 32°, as it 
 hung a little above the ice instead of being in it. This movement 
 would indicate some sixteen inches to the mile, a much smaller 
 movement than wo know takes place, and which indicates that 
 the expansion of the rod must be taken into consideration to 
 give the actual figure. It will be observed from the tables that 
 the contraction of the ice at zero on the 1st February was only 
 Oil from formation at 32°. The same influence (the underlying 
 water) which prevents movement up to three inches in thick- 
 ness doubtless, continued to a certain extent as the ice had barely 
 attained a thickness of five inches on the 1st Kobruary. The ice 
 expanded to its original dimensions at 32° on the 8th and 9th 
 February, and from that time forward was very uniform in 
 movement, notwithstanding that it was subject to a high and 
 wasting temperature at times, and even In the rays of a midday 
 sun at 45° which 1 allowed to act upon it for several hours. 
 
 It has been observed on Rice Lake that thick ice did not 
 move with the same alacrity as thin ice. It is well understood 
 that the most violent shoves occur when the ice is between five 
 and twelve inches in thickness. My exporir-ont confirmed this, 
 and it appeared that the rapidity of ice movement is inversely b.s 
 its thickness. This lagginij behind of ico and not responding 
 readily to rapid changes of temperature is well shewn on the 
 diagram of observations — 55, 62, 65, 73, 84, 92, 96, 100, 120 and 
 158. The tempoiaturo during my experiment did not fall below 
 minus 4°, but uniformity of movement throughout \v:i8 over 
 observed. 
 
 3 
 
Ifrom th«8e brief observations and somewhat ortide experiment 
 may we not sumraarize as I'ollowg :— 
 
 That ice, iilce all olhor bodies, is subject to expand and contract 
 by chan>,'o of temperature. 
 
 That ice forming at a temporature of 32° is at its greatest or 
 maximum dimensions. 
 
 Its first movement must, therefore, be contraction. That the 
 undeilying water pievenU movement in ice unc'er three inches 
 in thiclcness from change of temperature. 
 
 That up to five inches in thicltness the ice is affected ft-om the 
 same cause, and, althoug:, its movement is uniform, its capacity 
 to contract is reduced from what it alterwards attains. 
 
 The rapidity of ice movement is inversely as its thioltnesH 
 
 Ihe capacity of ice to expand and shove on to the shores and 
 to repeat the operation is due to the peculiar manner in which 
 It contracts. 
 
 A slight covering of snow (as non-conductor) prevents all ice 
 movement. 
 
 That the ice Held expands from a centre or centres and frac 
 tures on the line of least resistance. 
 
 That Railway Bridges or other structures crossing extensive 
 watei-8, if not constructed in a masiive manner, will need protec- 
 tion from the ice Held, which is most effectually done by isolation 
 and cut side channels, otherwise an inclined surface must be pre- 
 sented to the ice, on which it may run up, fracture, and spend 
 Its force and shield the piers. 
 
 N0T«._Bla« SMtion on Dlamoi ii lo,. Bl.ok, Th.rmom.Ur. 
 
CoNtEAOTION AND EXPANiloK Of Icl. 
 
 Tabic Of ObHCvations (c- 100 foot Of l.-e), Jan. and Feb., I860. 
 , S. * I 1 i !QMnlu»t«'ll Remarks. 
 
 Hour, as ra-S ««i- 
 
 i^^rsj 
 
 Wind.N.W. 
 
 W. 
 
 W. 
 
 N. W. 
 \V., olenr. 
 W. 
 W. 
 
 \V., Btronn wlnU. 
 
 N. 
 
 N. , 
 
 N., blowing a gale. 
 N. K., snowing. 
 
 N.E., liuhtwind. 
 
 N. K. 
 N. K. 
 N. 
 
 E-, clear. 
 N. 
 I N. E. 
 N. E. 
 E. 
 E. 
 E. 
 E. 
 N. 
 
 N. E 
 N. B. 
 E. 
 E. 
 \V. 
 N. 
 Calm. 
 
 S. 
 
 s. 
 
 8. E., snowing. 
 
 Calm. 
 
 Tlier, 60° in sun. 
 
 S. 
 8. 
 E. 
 S., snowing. 
 
 S. E. 
 8 E. 
 8. E. 
 
 Water on ice. 
 
 W. 
 
 W. 
 
 W. 
 
 N. W. 
 
 N.W. 
 
 8.W. 
 
 8. W. 
 
 8. W. 
 
 S.W. 
 8. W. 
 8. \V. 
 8. \V. 
 8. W. 
 
 Ice drj'. 
 
 Calm. 
 
 8. W. 
 
 leo dry. 
 
 lie wet. 
 
 8 \V., ice melUng. 
 
 8'. W. 
 
 W. 
 
 w. 
 N.'iv. 
 
 N.W.,8urface water 
 
 freezing. 
 N.W. 
 
 1 Blowing a gale. 
 
CoNTRAOTioN AND RxPANstoN Of ]oK.— Continued. 
 table of Observations (on 100 loet of Ico;, Jan. and Fob. 1860, 
 
 No. 
 
 DaU. 
 
 Hoar. 
 
 as 
 
 h 
 
 Qraduated 
 RmI. 
 
 1 
 
 Komarka. 
 
 
 
 
 ^_ 
 
 § 
 
 1 
 
 
 87 
 
 Ktb. 9 
 
 8 a.m 
 
 4° 
 
 H 
 
 ! -on 
 
 N. 
 
 88 
 
 
 
 9.30 •' 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 1 — -010 
 
 N. 
 
 89 
 
 1) 
 
 11 " 
 
 9 
 
 S 
 
 —•009 
 
 N. 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 12 " 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 — 006 
 
 
 91 
 
 9 
 
 2 p.m 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 — 006 
 
 i N." 
 
 9a 
 
 n 
 
 9 " 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 ; — 005 
 
 1 N. 
 
 93 
 
 10 
 
 1 ».m 
 
 10 
 
 H 
 
 — 005 
 
 1 Calm 
 
 94 
 
 10 
 
 ft 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 —004 
 
 1 B- 
 
 96 
 
 10 
 
 H |>.m 
 
 11 
 
 i » 
 
 — (M 
 
 K 
 
 96 
 
 11 
 
 10 ii.m 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 — ■(H)4 
 
 E. 
 
 97 
 
 11 
 
 1 p.m 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 + •001 
 
 i •• • * 
 
 9a 
 
 11 
 
 3 " 
 
 24 
 
 1 8 
 
 + •005 
 
 N. 
 
 99 
 
 U 
 
 8 " 
 
 17 
 
 H 
 
 + 002 
 
 N. 
 
 100 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 + 001 
 
 N. 
 
 101 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 i — 002 
 
 N. 
 
 102 
 
 12 
 
 2 n.m 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 , — WM 
 
 N. 
 
 103 
 
 12 
 
 H 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 ! —008 
 
 N. 
 
 104 
 
 12 
 
 » 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 ' — 006 
 
 N. 
 
 105 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 -UOl 
 
 N. 
 
 106 
 
 12 
 
 1 p.m. 
 
 23 
 
 9 
 
 + •003 
 
 N. 
 
 107 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 + •005 
 
 W. 
 
 108 
 
 12 
 
 B 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 + •006 
 
 8. W. 
 
 109 
 
 13 
 
 8 a.m. 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 + •006 
 
 E. 
 
 110 
 
 13 
 
 12 " 
 
 34 
 
 9 
 
 + •012 
 
 W. 
 
 111 
 
 13 
 
 2 p.m 
 
 34 
 
 9 
 
 + •OIZ 
 
 E. 
 
 112 
 
 13 
 
 8 " 
 
 30 
 
 9 
 
 + •012 
 
 
 113 
 
 14 
 
 4 a.m. 
 
 26 
 
 9 
 
 + 008 
 
 • • • • 
 
 114 
 
 14 
 
 8 " 
 
 26 
 
 B 
 
 + -tm 
 
 N. E. 
 
 115 
 
 14 1 12 
 
 2(1 
 
 9 
 
 + •006 
 
 N. E. 
 
 116 
 
 14 I p.lD. 
 
 27 
 
 9 
 
 + '0(i8 
 
 N. E. 
 
 117 
 
 14 3.30 " 
 
 28 
 
 9 
 
 + ■008 
 
 N. U. 
 
 118 
 
 14 10 " 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 — •002 
 
 Clear night. 
 
 118 
 
 15 4 a.m. 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 — 005 
 
 N.VV. 
 
 120 
 
 15 12 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 — 000 
 
 N. W. 
 
 121 
 
 15 2 i>.ni. 
 
 20 
 
 » 
 
 + •001 
 
 N. W. 
 
 122 
 
 15 5 
 
 22 
 
 9 
 
 + •003 
 
 H.E. 
 
 123 
 
 15 10 " 
 
 29 
 
 9 
 
 + •009 
 
 8. E. 
 
 124 
 
 Iti 
 
 9 am. 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 + •002 
 
 8. E. 
 
 125 
 
 lU 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 + •001 
 
 N. K 
 
 128 
 
 16 2 p.m. 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 + •001 
 
 N.E. 
 
 127 
 
 10 3 " 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 .+ •000 
 
 N.VV. 
 
 128 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 + •000 
 
 W. 
 
 129 
 
 1(1 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 — 008 
 
 W. 
 
 130 
 
 17 
 
 6 a.m. 
 
 H 
 
 10 
 
 — 014 
 
 
 131 
 
 17 8 
 
 — 4 
 
 10 
 
 — 017 
 
 nV 
 
 132 
 
 17 
 
 5 p.m. 
 
 + 14 
 
 10 
 
 — •004 
 
 N. E. 
 
 133 
 
 17 
 
 8 " 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 — 009 
 
 N. E. 
 
 134 
 
 17 
 
 10 " 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 — Oil 
 
 N K 
 
 1H5 
 
 18 8 a.m. 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 — 009 
 
 
 136 
 
 18 10 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 — ooa 
 
 Snow drifting 
 through roof. 
 
 137 
 
 18 12 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 —•006 
 
 N.E. 
 
 138 
 
 18 2 p.m. 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 -•004 ' 
 
 N.E. 
 
 139 
 
 18 6 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 — 001 
 
 N. K 
 
 140 
 
 19 <J a.m. 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 — 008 
 
 N.E. 
 
 141 
 
 19 5 p.™. 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 —003 
 
 N E. 
 
 142 
 
 19 9.30 " 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 —006 ; 
 
 E. 
 
 143 
 
 20 8 a.m. 
 
 26 
 
 11 
 
 + •003 
 
 K 
 
 144 
 
 20 9.30 " 
 
 27 
 
 11 
 
 + •Ot'S , 
 
 VV., moves slowly. 
 
 145 
 
 20 12 30 " 
 
 30 
 
 11 
 
 + •007 
 
 E. ' 
 
 146 
 
 20 
 
 2 30p.m. 
 
 32 
 
 11 
 
 + 010 1 
 
 W. 
 
 147 
 
 20 
 
 " 
 
 34 
 
 11 
 
 + •012 
 
 W. 
 
 148 
 
 21 
 
 3 a.m. 
 
 20 j 
 
 12 
 
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