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Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mAthode. >y errata ed to >nt me pelure, apon d 12 3 32X 1 2 3 4 5 6 District op i Br it iiememberep, that on the ninth day of July, in th , Montreal. > year one thousand ciglit hundred and thirty-five, William Eva.nsj Secretary of the Montreal Agricultural Society, has deposited in this 0|| ficc, the title of a Book, tho title of which is in the words following ; tluj is to say : •• A. Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Agriculture, adap^ ted to the Cultivation and Economy of the Animal and Vegetable produci tions of Agriculture in Canada, with a concise History of Agriculture, an| n view of its present state in some of the principal countries of the earth, aiKJ particularly in the British Isles, and in Canada ; " the right whereof he clair as proprietor. -i.S.' MONK 8i MORROGH, P. K. B. Entered according to Act of the Provincial Legislature, in the year onethoq sand eight hundred and thirty five, by William Evans, in tlie Prothonotaryj oflicc of the Court of King's Bench for the District of Montreal. ly of July, in th , ive, William Evans- posited in this Oj| )rds following; thaj i* Agriculture, ada[N Vegetable produfi of Agriculture, nn| ies of the earth, anij t whereof he clain OGH, P. K. B. n the year one thoij n the Prothonotaryj real. cui.ii WiTI / TREATISE ^ >, <» ^v K ■ PRACTICE OF AGRICULTURE, ADAPTED TO THE tULTIVATlOn AND ECONOMY OF THE AriMAL AND VEGETADLK PRODUCTION i OV AGRICULTURE IN CAXADA? With a concise History of Agriculture ; and a view of its PRESENT state IN SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF THE Earth, and particularly in the British Isles, AND in Canada. BY WILLIAM EVAJVS, Secretary to I he JUontreal Agricultural Society. MONTREAL : Printed, by FABRE, PERRAULT & Co. 1835. : ? *•■ / < over • ' t PREF ACE. ABOUNVTFUL rroviJcnco has furni.shod Cannda with inoxhaustihie sources uf woalth, in lier most fcrtilo soil, and cliinalo tiiat is by no means unlUvorahlc fV Agriculture. The duo improvement of ihcao and other natural advantages, is capable of giving riches and every rca^- na- i»lc enjoyment to her present, and a vastly incroased population. A ma- jority of the population of Canada, in the proportion of more than twenty to one, derive their subsistanco from figricultural employment, and it is that alone that must allord the direct supply of all Ihcir greatest wants ; therefore, the importance of agriculture must be obvious to every one who is capable of forming a correct opinion in such matters, and, how- over despised and neglected, by the wealthy and educated, trade and commerce arc only to be regarded as they promote the prosperity ol' ngriculture, and have no other public importance than their subserviency to this ond, in this or any other country. The author hopes he shall be excused for expressing his opinion so tl with great deference to the conh«ic!era- a2 IV. tion of ftll lliose eti^rfijjctl in the art. Thii Honrccs fnmi which h«; ha^ made HeloctioriH, anj the iiKMlerii British uiid Fren<;h AuthorB, of decided rcpulation and nunit, witli his own ob.servations and experience, durinf; his early years in the occupancy of extensive farms in Ireland, chiefly as a ^"[razicr, and for a period of nearly seventeen years that he has been u fanuer in Canada. Several years oflhe hitter period he has had the ho- nor to be Secretary to the District and County of Montreal Agricultural Society. Not at all anxious about the merit of book-making, any more than personal emolument, the author has selected from a large mass of mate- rials such articles as he thought would ho most likely to prove generally useful to Canadian Farmers. Though ho may submit tJie practice and management of agriculture in other countries, he will be cautious in re- commending any innovations to farmers here, except those which his own experience in the old Country and in Canada, will warrant him in recommending. It is his earnest desire to induce all who may take the trouble to read his book, to reflect on the subjects submitted for their consideration, and that they will join heartily in adopting and promoting every reasonable and necessary improvement, and thus increase the wealth and resources of the land of their birth, and of their choice. Convinced as he feels that the produce of agriculture is the only riches that the people of this country can call their own, and which they can ne- ver bo deprived of, it has often astonished him that men of liberal education should, in general, appear so little to regard its improvement or prospe- rity ; in fact, it is treated as a subject quite remote from common life, by nearly all who arc not engaged in it ; they, perhaps, cannot allow themselves to believe that agriculture alono can furnish the means by which trade and commerce can be carried on successfully in Canada. If the author ia so fortunate as to interest his fellow-countrymen — the people of Canada of every denomination — in the improvement of agri- rnltiire, and the encouragement of all such manufactures as can be di- rectly and profitably made from its produce, he will not regret the time ho has devoted to this work. The Author has given a list of the books referred to in this work, the titles of which he did not think it necessary to give in the text. He has also given a table of the agricultural wei^^hts and measures of the British Isles, and some of those of Franco and Canada. inant prodil and f| life. T( boun^ apprt ous n large! as th^ partit and tl the pi ,1 in mc who, and c cultu Montreal, January, 1835. r. 'oni which he \\m kuthors, of dt'cidtd rxporicnce, durin|^ Irulund, chiefly an hat ho hns Llmmi u he hafl had the ho- ntreal Agricultural ig» any more than rge mass of mate- to prove generally it the practice and be cautious in rc- t those which his ill warrant him in dl who may take submitted for their ing and promoting thus increase the :heir choice. 3 is the only riches vhich they can ne- )f liberal edurntion eraent or prospe- from common life» ps, cannot allow |ish the means by lly in Canada, countrymen — the •ovcm.ent of agri- es as can be di- t regret the time in this work, the k text. He has res of the British INTBOUUCTION. AoRicuT.TURK, in a» wiprnred ataU^ is ihr judicious niltivntlon and management of territorial .surface, by manual an iinpiov<;«! Hy.strin of hiishainlry- Ami, tli(>ii>/h it firmer tulil hu tililr t inian.') to utipply all liia nctuiil :iiii In the cncournf^emcnl of prntluc' lioM, iff capahlo of i)rodiicin^ profit. The farmer it (^nahles to (employ lahour, and cxlcnd the (piantity of what ho produces ; it is, llMrefore, his duty to use all |)ossil)lo industry to accumulate capital from his sav- in;^'.s of production ov«t consum|)ti(m. Jhit while the accumulation of industry, judiciously employed in productive consumption, or in lahour that will pay an able to do, and what they ought to do," in order thai ihey may appiv lluir iaboiu* and skill in lljo most proper and eiricient way to production. \\v may rif^pure our5<'lve?, that the more proftssional skill of every 'he indite It IS (I, «n»l prari bo UKiif pletrly fjj ply th<- Im liims<|fai The im necessary circumsta 'heir lalioi "lire indivi if* this that wo sh ;t ( Hictiiidly exerted, ami our niitiiral eiiciiiiiHtancc^ most ^om f>l<;tely lukcn udvnntage of; it i^ \W\-i lluit would t ii.ihlc t \( ry iinm t(t ap- ply \\u' licst poweri^ of his mind and ttody, to improve the conditiuii ot himself and his family. TIte industry of an enlighfemd pl< , hCl firt>, i.n iilhhat on«ilif tttlement of our lamilicH, in well cultivated fields, yielding abundant and excellent crops — numerous and well fed llockd and herds — comfortable residences for all «;lasses — increasing towns, villajrcs, trade, manufactures and commerce — rail-roads, and oth- er roads to facilitate intercourse, imd ^ndinvmcuts for education. The incana to accomplish all this is in our own power, if we will only maku llieni available. We are not, and I hoi)e we never hhall be, overwhelm- ed with high rents, tithes, taxes, and |)uu|)erisfn, to cheek our industry, and diminish its produce. The farmers of Canada may become tho most independent of their class in tho British empire — if they will only iatroduco such improvements in their system of agriculture, and applica- tion of its produce, as reason and experience, interest and policy, will point out. // ia ai:^ricuUarc, and agriculture o/o»c, that can support the inhabi- tant:* of such a country as this in plenty and real diirnity. If our lauds are covered with corn, and cattle — corn and cattle will always pur- chase what manufactures and delicacies we may require from otlicr countries. 1 do not believe that there is a connnunity in tho world, all the mcm< bcrs of which might enjoy that degree of comparative independence and comfort, necessary to real hapi)iness, more certainly, than the farmers of this country. Such a community, where the extremes of riches und [grandeur and the wretchedness of pauperism are never contrasted, will I ever be tho most desirable for Canada. There is a most commendable trait in the character of Canadian farmers — that they aro not addicted to show or extravagance — a quality that it would be well for all farmers who come lo settle among them to imitate, so far as would be consistent pvifli the reasonable comfort!^•and enjoyments of life. It is wry jiossible I'hat money may be expended in a maimer that docs not contribute to the l^oinfort 01 real happiness of the farmer or his family, d»at if applied in iiolhcr way, would give convenirncie^ an) ro."iprctnbi!ity fn both. Tho m i Ir^ Mi- > .1 i ' < 1 VIII. fanner wlio is ocf>noinicai in hit? personnl expenses, that he may better secure the C(>inrort and settlement of his family, will ever be usefuli and respected in the community of which he is a member. Though the acioico of ./it^ricultiire has been greatly improved wi{)iiu the last forty years and further progress may be possible, yet it is proba- ble that the limit of the highest state of cultivation is not so far distant as we may suppose it to be in arts and manufactures, where new com])ination3 of materials and machinery is adding to the former excellence of the article produced. In articles the produce of agriculture, science and industry have not the same advantage. Climate and soil are the main instruments by which all vegetation is raised — man has no controul over the first, and much less over the last than is generally supposed. There is in every soil a certain power of production, technically termed, the staple of the land, which evidently forms the boundary of attempted improvements. — Over working, even with manures, may, in this country, or in any other country where irrigation is not practiced, be applied to an extent that may be injurious, when employed beyond the measure which the state and strength of the land require — the crops of corn are not increased in quantity, nor do they improve in quality ; the ear is thin and short, and the grain inferior. This is peculiarly true as to thin, Hght soils. D^ep ploughing, and turning up gradually new soil, (where it is of sufficient depth to allow it,) and incorporating it with the soil previously cultivated, will greatly improve lands that have been long and ccnotantly cropped — though pasturing of such lands would be certainly the best means of re- storing fertility, and the ingredients that are required in a soil to produce profitable crops. There can be no question that farmers here have yet much to learn, that would materially contribute to their advantage — but, I am aware of the difficulty that exists at present of properly instructing them, or efiect- ing the improvement of agriculture, that is so desirable. Prejudices, that are perfectly natural, and that are entertained by farmers in a great- er degree than any other class of men all over the world, are not easily eradicated, or new practices introduced — particularly where farmers are little in the habit of reading the practices or results of agriculture in other countries. Indeed there are no works pubUshed in Canada for the ge- neral reading of farmers, that are calculated to instruct them in the the- ory or practice of an improved and profitable system of agriculture, suit- able to the climate and circumstances of the country. I hope I shall be pardoned for presuming partly to supply this want, and that I may expe- rience the forbearance and indulgence of all those who may discover the errors and inaccuracies that will, no doubt, appear in the work. It requires caution in recommending new experiments to fiirmerp. — They should try them upon a small scale, unless they have succeeded in circumstances similar to those under which they are proposed to be in- troduced ; and should I, in the following pages, recommend any changes that farmers cannot reconcile with reason and experience, let them by all means be cautious of adopting them, without first proving them by ex- periments on a small .scale. All experienced farmers must allow, that the power and capacity of a soil for production, the best mode of working it, and extracting the greatest return at the least expense, can only be ascerll ancG sufficj thereto follow the ni comer tirely they hi Agif earth' the lat| not fee say the) to the IX. ascertained by actual trial tor many years ; and that the external appcar- anco of the land, and even the growing crops, cannot be relied upon as sufficient indications of its value. Strangers coming to a country, should, therefore, be very cautious in condemning the practice of the country, followed by successive generations, and which may have originated in the nature of the soil, dim ', or in local circumstances ; end if new comers will reject the entire -ystem they find in operation, and adopt en- tirely that of another country, they will find themselves as far wrong as if they had fallen in with the system of the country they come to. Agriculture must ever be influenced by climate, the character of the earth's surface, and by the form of government which prevails. How the latter may affect the improvement of the agriculture of Canada, I do not feel myself called upon to give an opinion in this place, more than to say that security and rational liberty, at a moderate price, are essential to the prosperity of agriculture in this, and every other country ; but cli- mate, and the character of the earth's surface, have a material effect on cultivation and management, which is scarcely in the power of man to controul. I shall endeavor lo make this frealise useful to the farmers of Canada, or at least to that portion of them who may have had less experience in the theory or practice of agriculture than myself; and those who may feel that it is possible for them yet to learn something useful, however extensive their acquirements may be already, may find something to in- terest them in my book. With tiiis purpose in view, I shall, in the first part, give a short view of the origin, progress, and present state of agriculture among some of the ancient and modern nations, particularly Britain, France, Flanders, the United States, &o. I am aware the past state of agriculture can do lit- tle more than gratify the curiosity; not so its present state,which is calcula- ted both to excite our curiosity and affect our interests. There is probably no country that I shall refer to that does not possess some animal or ve- getable production, or pursue some mode of culture or management, that might be beneficially introduced into Canada ; but with the exception of the countries I have named, and parts of Italy and Switzerland, there are no very interesting reports of Europe with which I am acquainted at present. The second part will exhibit a concise view of the science of agriculture, and the principles on which the operations and results of agriculture are grounded. The third and remaining parts, will apply these principles to the practice of agriculture, adapting them to the cli- mate and local circumstances of Canada, and conclude with a few obser- vations on the portion of the trade and commerce of this country, in which I conceive farmers to be directly or indirectly interested. When I have copied from the authors I have named, I hope I shall be excused for employing better language than my own. Though my book is partly composed from my own observations and experience, as a prac- tical farmer, yet it is chiefly a compilation from other boohs, selected to suit the practice of agriculture in Canada. B '''1 !»1 • ta ISO, can only br X. LIST OF BOOKS REFERRED TO, The tUlea of which are not given in the text. Eacyclopajdia of Agriculture, by J. C. Loudon, F. L. G. Z. &, 11. S. &c., 1833, the best work that has been published on Agriculture. Penny Cyclopaidia 1834. *i Encyclopedia Rritannica^ seventh edition. Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, American edition. Falconer on Climate, &c. — Cully on Live Stock. Reports of Select Farmers in England and Scotland. Penny Magazine. — Chaptal< Agriculture of France, &c. Code of Agriculture. — Curwen's Letters. Lambert's Rural Affairs of Ireland. Davy's Elements of Agricultural Chemistry^ &c. Ellis's Practical Farmer. — Complete Grazier, 1830. liawson's Farmers' Practical Instructor. — Farmers' Farmers' Journal — Marshall's Rural Economy. Bridgewater Treatise on Chemistry, &c.j by Prout. Naismith's General View of Agriculture. Annals of Agriculture. — New England Farmer. Transactions of the Society of Arts, &c. Jacob on the Trade of Corn, and on the Agriculture of Northern Eu rope, 1834. Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland. Forsyth's Treatise on Fruit Trees, &c. General View of the Agriculture of the county of Ayr. From some of these works the author has copied largely what he con ceived useful, in better language than his own. Magazine. AGRICULTURAL WEIGHTS AND MEASIJRSS. As a source of reference to the readers of agricultural works published in Britain, I think it will be useful to give a comparative view of the land and corn measures of England, Ireland, and Scotland, and of LowerCa- nada. Land Measure. English acre, 4840 square yards — Scotland, 6150 yards — Irish acre, 7840 square yards. Ten English acres make about 7i^ Scotch acres, and 6u?oo acres Irish. The arpent of Lower Canada is 3600 square yards French measure, equal to 4083| English square yards — or 10 Enf'lish acres are equal to 11 Canadian arpents, and 3479 square yards remaining — or 10 English »< es make about llgth arpents Canadian. One hundred acres English are nearly one hundred end nineteen arpents Canadian. XI. 100 Englisli miles arn equal to about 87 Scotch miles, and 78^ Irish niiles. ' Ml 4263 English yards— 4860 do. do. 6076 do. do. 8101 do. do. Road Pleasure. English mile - - 1760 yards English — Mile geographical 2025 do. do. Scotch mile, - - 1984 do. do. Irish mile, - - 2240 do. do. French league of 2000 toises, equal to League of 25 to a'degree equal to League marine, equal to - - - German mile, geographical, equal to - - Lotifj^ jyieasure. The English foot is the same in Ireland and Scotland, and is 12 Eng- lish inches. The French and Canadian foot is 12,'^^ English inches — 100 English feet are equal to 93 f^ French feet. Corn JVIeaaure. English Bushel 2150-4 cubic inches, eight of which bushels make an English quarter — Scotch ferlot of wheat, 2193-3 cubic inches, 7-827 are equal to an English quarter — Scotch ferlot of barley 3205-5 cubic inches, 5-389 are equal to an English quarter. In Ireland, corn is sold by weight. The Canadian minot is equal to 2381-184 cubic inches English, or 100 Canadian minots are equal to 110| Winchestrr bushels. By the law of 1826, one measure only was to be adopted, called the Imperial Gallon ; this gallon was to measure 277f^^{, cubic inches, and to weigh 10 lbs. avoirdupois of water, at the temperature of 62 degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer, the barometer being at thirty inches. The Imperial Bushel is to measure and weigh eight times the above, and all divisions of the same in proportion. ' The stone is generally 14lbs. avoirdupois, but for butcher's meat or fish, it is 81bs. — hence the hundred equals 8 stone of 14 lbs., or 14 stone of 8 lbs A stone of glass is 5 lbs. — a seam of glass 24 stone, or 120 lbs. Hay and straw are sold by the load of 36 trusses. The truss of hay weighs 56 lbs., and of straw 36 lbs. ; the truss of new hay 60 lbs. until the 1st September — the hay is by that time become dry, and the same quantity weighs less. IVeighls of Cheese and Butter. 8 lbs 1 clove 32 cloves 1 wey in Essex 42 do. 1 do. in Suffolk 56 lbs 1 firkin of butter. 8 lbs 1 stone of beef, mutton, &c 7| lbs of oil 1 gallon 8 lbs of vinegar, 1 gallon 36 lbs of straw, 1 truss 60 lbs of new hay, 1 do. 56 lbs of old hay, 1 do. 36 trusses of hay or straw,onG load 7 lbs of salt, 1 gallon 66 lbs or 8 gallons, 1 bushel b2 Lon<^ Measure. 3 barley corns, 12 inchs .. - - 1 inch 1 foot 3 feet - - - 5^ yards - . - 40 poles - - . 8 furlongs - - 1 yard 1 pole or 1 furlong 1 milo rod 3 miles - - 1 league 60 geographichal, or 69^ English miles, one degree. Besides the jibove, there are the palm, which equals 3 inches ; the hand, 4 inches ; the span, 9 inches, :ind the fathom 6 feef. n i XII. ! f Wool Weight. 7 pounds one clove 2 cloves one stone 2 stone one tod 6j^ tods one wey 2 weys one sack 12 sacks one last Square Measure. 144 inches - 1 square foot 9 square feet 1 square yard 30^ square yds. 1 square pole 40 square poles 1 square rood 4 roods - - 1 acre. 100 acres was in England called a hide of land, and 640 acres a mile of land. Cubic or Solid Measure. 1727 cubic inches 1 cubic foot— -27 cubic feet, 1 cubic yard. 40 feet of rough timber, or 50 feet hewn timber, one load or ton — 42 cubic feet, one ton of shipping. By cubic measure, marble, stone, timber, masonry, and all artificial works of length, breath and thickness, are measured ; and also the con- tents of all measures of capacity, both liquid and dry. Dry Measure. 4 gills 1 pint 4 pecks 1 bushel Coal Measure. 2 pin*s 1 quart 4 bushels 1 coom 4 pecks 1 bushel 2 quarts 1 pottle 2 cooius 1 quarter 3 bushels 1 sack 2 pottles 1 gallon 6 quarters 1 wey or 3 sacks 1 vat 2 gallons 1 peck load 4 vats 1 chaldron 2 weys 1 last 21 chaldr's. 1 score. The Manchester bushel, which is the legal measure in England for corn and seeds, should be 181^ inches wide, and 8 inches deep. Its con- tents will, therefore, be 2150-42 inches. Corn and seeds are measured in London by striking the bushel from the brim, with a round piece oi light wood, of* equal thickness from one end to the other — all other dry goods are heaped. The dimensions of the Imperial standard bushel are as follows : — The outer diameter 19^ inches and in the inner diameter 18|. The depth is 8|, and the height of the cove, for heaped measures, is 6 inches. Hence the contents of the Strieker Imperial bushel are 2218-192 cubic inches, and it is to weigh 80 lbs avoirdupois of water. The contents of the im- perial heaped bushel are 2818-4887 cubic inches — the subdivision in the same proportion. In some markets corn is sold by weight, — throughout Ireland it is the case ; and it is much the fairest mode of dealing. In some markets in England where measures are used, it is customary to weigh certain mea- sures, and regulate Ihe prices accordingly. The average bushel of wheat is generally reckoned at 60 lbs. — of barley 49 lbs. — of oats 38 lbs — peas 64 lbs. — beans 63 lbs. — clover 68 lbs. — rye 63 lbs. A load of corn for a man is reckoned five bushels, and a cart load 40 bushels. — The coal bushel holds one Winchester quart more than the Winchester com bushel, and is to be heaped in form of a cone, 6 inches above the brim — the outside of the bushel to form the extremity of the base of such cone ; potatoes and all other goods that are commonly sold by heaped measures, are to be measured in the same way. XIII. In Upper Canada, the weiglits and measures arc, I believe, tlie same asm England. The Canadian quintal is 112 lbs. avoirdupois. The bundle of hay 16 lbs., and of straw 12 lbs. The 100 bundles of hay are equal to 14 cwt. 1 qr. 4 lbs., or about 28 English trusses ; 100 bundles of straw are equal to 10 cwt. 2 qrs. 24 lbs., or about 33 English trusses. In France, the common pound equals 1 lb. 1 oz. 10^ drams avoirdu- pois, and llie French quintal 1 cwt. 3 qrs. 25 lb. nearly equal to 100 kilo- grammes, of 2 lb. 3 oz. 4^ drams English, to the kilogramme. The scale for measuring heat by the thermometer of Fahrenheit, marks the freezing point at 32® , and the boiling point at 180® above or 212® . This is the one employed in England and in this country, and to which reference is always made in this work. In France, what is called the Cintigrade thermometer is generally adopted. In this, the freezing point is marked 0® , and the boiling point 100. Reaitmur\t scale is also much adopted — the freezing point, as in the Cintigrade, is 0® , but the boiling point is only 80® . It is to be regretted that the different graduations should exist, as they cause considerable trouble and confusion. It is a remarkable fact that the barometer or weather-glass varies between the tropics only one third of an inch ; within temperate climates the changes amount to three inches. ' i 1 m * , * ; ^-il It; I HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE, AMONG THE AXCIEXT AND 3IODERN NATIONS. PART I. Fn the beginning Goj) created the earth ; clothed it with trees, shnibs, plants and flowers ; every plant in a' state of pei'fection, witii its seed in itself; stocked the earth with various kinds of animals ; and when al) these things were prepared, created man, and introduced him into a beautiful world, and everything was pronounced to be very good. The world was made perfect, and all the various parts which composed it. The earth produced its fruits spontaneously ; the soil, without being torn and tormented, would have sufficiently satisfied ali the wantH and desires of man, and other animals. The happiness and plenty of this golden age, or man's first state in Paradise, must have been beyond our concep- tion. The condition of the full and continued enjoyment of all these bles- sings was obedience in man ; and failing in this, judgment was pronounced on him ; the ground was cursed for his sake, that henceforth »t should bring forth thorns and thistles ; and that man should obtain his bread by the sweat of his brow, till he return to the dust from which he was taken. The ground cursed by God, lost its original fertility, and produced thorns and thistles, making it necessary for man to cultivate, dresF, and dung it, in order to its producing him the means of subsistence. Accordingly Cain, the son of Adam, w^ are informed, was a tiller of the ground, and the first ^agriculturist. Though great the change that was made in the earth, at the fall of man, it is supposed to have still more altered for the worse at the general Deluge. The fossil remains of the plants an(| animals that have been lately discovered, prove beyond a doubt that these plants and animals must have existed in a climate and on a soil materi- ally different froni that in which their remains are found. The number of mankind of the antediluvian world, was supposed to be vastly superior to the present population of the earth, or to what the earth would be capable of sustaining now, not being considered so fruit- ful or luxuriant as the antediluvian was. From the length of the lives of the inhabitants of the earth before the Deluge, it is extremely probable their number was much greater than at the present day ; and if so, they inust have been well acfjuainted with the art of agriculture ; such a po- 2 pulation could not have found sustenance from spontaneous fruifs, and the flesh of animals. After the general Dehige, for some ages, until (he inhabitants of the earth became numerous, agriculture may not have been thought necessary ; and, consequently, not much attended to. — Pasturage of animals, hunting, fishings fruits and roots, v^ere probably more resorted to than raising of corn. It was the opinion of Sir Isaac Newton, that com was first cultivated in Kgypt, after the Deluge, on the banks of the Nile, the annual inundation of that river carrying down mud and slime, with which it covered the ground, made it exceed- ingly fruitful, without any other manure. The Egyptians had not the la- borious task of ploughing, digging., or breaking the clods^ but when the nver was retired, they had no more to do than to mingle a little sand with the earth, to abate its strength ; after which, they could sow with little pains, and almost without charge. They sowed ordinarily in October and November, us the waters fell ; and their harvest was in March and April. The same soil produced in the same year three or foOr different sorts of garden stuffs. Whether the culture of corn was first invented in Egypt or not, after the Deluge, all testimonies concur that cultivation was carried to a higher degree of perfection there than in any other country of anMquity ; other nations derived their means of subsistence fioni it. Wherever the water of the river could be procured, even by ar- tificial means, tiie land was never idle, and produced three crops annu- ally ; the rice produced eighty for one seed. Of the history of agriculture we have few records previous to the time of the Romans. That people considerably improved the art^ and ex- tended its practice with their conquests. Afler the fall of the Roman empire, agriculture was neglected, and continued so very generally in Europe till the sixteenth century. The greatest men among the Romans applied themselves to the study of agriculture ; and, though in the knowledge of the theory of agricul- ture, the Roman cultivators were inferior to our modem itnprovers ; yti in attention to circunistances, exactness of execution and in economical management, they were greatly superior. With the Remans, it was con- sidered that a farmer should be perfectly acquainted with every kind of work proper on his farm, and the season for performing it, and also be a perfect judge how much work, both without and within doors, ought to be performed by any number of servants and cattle in a given time, the knowledge of which is highly useful to a farmer of the present day, and what very few perfectly acquire. The Romans Mere sensible that good ploughing was the best culture of land, however rude the instrument was that they made use of, compared with the scientifically constructed plough of modern times. Fallowing was invariably practised among the Ro- mans, who well understood that the object was, " to let the earth feel the cold of winter and the sun of summer ; to invert the soil and render it free, light, and clear of weeds, so that it could more easily afl!brd nourish- juent.' ' Manuring the soil was held in high esteem by them. It 'was collected from every source, and ploughed into the soil, and otherwise judiciously applied. They also ploughed in green herbage as manure, and applied lime for tiie same purpose. They used a reaping machine worked by a man and an ox, that cut doMn large fields of corn in a day. • t, They Imd a aort of llitushiii^ mnchitic, cuinpu.sed of rollers, which was dni^j;ed ovor the corn on the floor. They well understood and prac- ticed the use of the hoe in weeding ; and the operation of draining was particularly attended to l>y them. Indeed their agricultural operations apptar to ditier little froai the j)racticc of modern times. The annuals raised by the llomans were the same kinds as at present. The care of poultry, which muis' hi^ve been very profitable, was chiefly committed to the wife of the farmer. When Rome was at her greatest height, in the time of the Cajsars, the minor articles of farm produce bore a very liigh |)rico : pea-lbwla were for £1 13s. 4d. ; an egg at 3s. 4d. A farm sometimes produced as many of these fowls as to sell for £500. Lu- cullus^s i\y]\ pond, on account of the quality offish, sold for £33,333 6 8. The maxims of farm management among the Romans, are well wor- thy to be observed by farmers of the present day. " To sow less, and plough better," is one which is strom^ly ruid frequently recommended : another — " wherever the eyes of the master most fre;juently approach, there is the greatest increase" — and the Rev. A. Dickson very justly re- marks — " though every person knows that the presence and attention of the master is of great importance m every business ; yet every person does not know that in no business are they so important as in farming." Ostentatious or profuse culture was not less condemned than imper- fect culture, and this fact, all farmers coming from the Old Cot try to Canada, would do well to remember. Consumption of unproducl; e la- bour or capital is injurious to individual and general interests, under the present circumstances of this country. Pliny says — " The ancients assert that nothing {urns to iesR account than to give land a great deal of culture. To cultivate well is necessa- ry ; to cultivate in an extraordinary maancr is hurtful." In what man- ner then, " he asks," are lands to be cultivated to the best advantage ?" to this he answers — " in the cheapest manner, if it be good." Industry is recomt-snded by numerous maxims. " 7'he ancients con- sidered him a bad husbandman who buys what his farn. can produce to him ; a bad master of a family, who does in the day time what he might do at nigiit, except in the time of a storm ; and, a worse than all, who on a good iay is employed more within doors than in the field." Kindness to servants is strongly recommended. Knowledge in mat- ters relative to agriculture is inculcated by all the rustic authors. — " Whoever," says Columella, " would be perfect in the science, must bo well acquainted with the qualities of soils and plants ; must not be igno- rant of the various climates, that so he may know what is agreeable, and what is repugnant to each ; he must know exactly the succession of the seasons, and the nature of each, lest, beginning his work when showers and wind are just at hand, his labour shall be lost. He must be capable to observe exactly the present temper of the sky and seasons ; for these are not always regular, nor in every year does the summer and winter bring the same kind of weather, nor is the spring dways rainy, and the autumn wet. To know these things before they happen without a very good capacity, and the greatest care to acquire knowledge, is, in my opinion, in the power of no man. Virgil adds to this — " Before we plough a lield to which wc are stranjrcrs, we must be careful t ) attain a m fo Ihi knowledge of the winds, from what point Ihry blow at particular reasons, and when nnJ from whence they are most violent ; the nature of the cli- mate, which in different places is very diflcrent ; the customs of our forefathers ; the qualities of the different soils, and what are the cropg that eac'. country and climate produces and rejects." Making experiments is very strongly recommended by Varro, who siays — " Nature has pointed out to us two paths which lead to the know- ledge of agriculture — viz., experience and imitation. The ancient hus- bandmen, by making experiments, have established many maxims. — Their posterity for the most part, imitate them. We ought to do both, im- itate others, and make experiments ourselves, not directed by chance, but reason." All experienced farmers must be aware of the difficulty to discuss satisfactorily the produce and profit of agriculture. The farmer may know the rent the /;nd i? worth, and the price of the seed sown, but the quantity of labour required to bring forth the produce, depends so much on seasons, accidents, and other circumstances, to which agricul- ture is more liable than any other art, that its value or cost price cannot easily be determined. It was a common mode of estimating the profits of farming, by the numerical returns of the seed sown ; but this is a most fallacious ground of judgment, since the quantity of seed given to lands of different qualities, and of different conditions, is very different ; and the acre, which, properly cultivated and sown with only u bushel of seed, returns from twenty or thirty to one, or perhaps more, yet may yield no more real profit, than land which, being in middling condition, received from two to four bushels of seed to the acre, and yields from five to ten for one. The returns for seed sown, mentioned by the ancients, are extraordin- ary. Isaac's sowing and reaping at Gerar, received a hundred for one. In Mark's Gospel, " good seed sown on good ground is said to bring forth in some places thirty, in others forty, in others sixty, and in others even an hundred-fold." Varro informs us that an hundred-fold was reap- ed about Garada in Syria, and Byzacium, in Africa. Pliny adds, that from the last place, were sent to Augustus by his factor four hundred stalks from one grain, and to Nero, three hundred and forty stalks ; he says, that the soil of this field, " when dry, the stoutest oxen could not plough ; but after rain I have seen it opened up by a share, drawn by a wretched ass on the one side, and an old woman on the other." Ac- cording to Herodotus, the soil of Babylon was rich, well cultivated, and yielded three or four hundred for one. The price of laud in the ♦itne of Pliny, was twenty-five years' pur- chase, and it was common to receive four per cent, fo/ capital so invest- ed. In the ages of anarchy, which succeeded the fall of the Roman power, pgriculture was nearly abandoned in Europe. In troublesome times pasturage is always preferred to tillage, because cattle and sheep may be driven away and concealed at the approach of the enemy ; but growing crops would be exposed to every plunder. During the Anglo Saxon dynasty in England, the cultivation of land was not much attended to ; but the Island abounded in numerous flocks and herds. One of their laws prohibited from ploughing with horses, and restricted to oxen. It C W -< »i ii wn^; iiltio cimcloJ thai no mnn oiionld guidu l\w plough wlio could not niuko one ; and the driver should make the ropen with which it wan drawn, with twisted willows. At the conqu(!St of England by the Normnnp, many thoiifiondti of husbandmen fron. the fertile and well cultivated plains of Flandrrn, France and Normandy, Hettled in the island, and greatly contributed to the improvement of its agriculture. William the Conqncror is eaid to hnvo been fond of agriculture, ond conducted his improvements with skill and success. The Non. * Jarons, on coming to England, were ^reat improvers of the land, and arc celebrated in history for their skill in agriciUturc, enclosing, draining, and banking. The Norman clergy, and particularly the monks, were still greater improvers than the nobility, and their lands were conspicuous for their superior cultivation and management. The monks superintended their cultivation, and fre- quently assisted with their own hands. The famous St. Thomas Bcck- et, after he was Archbishop of Canterbury, it is Baid,' used to go out to the field, with the monks of the monasteries where he happened to re- side, and join with them in reaping their corn, and making their hay. In the 14th century a law was passed in England prohibiting any stal- lion under a certain height and description from going at large, for fear of deteriorating the breed of horses ; another law, that horses should bo put to grass from the 15th of May to the 15th of October, except those belonging to gentlemen of 1000 marks yearly rent. The rine was cul- tivated in England for a considerable period, commenced by the monks aAer the Norman conquest ; the vineyards in the valo of Gloucester arc said to have produced wine little inferior to that of France. In Scotland the cultivation of the land was still more neglected than in England. In 1454, a law was passed that every labourer of" simpio estate," dig a piece of ground daily of seven feet square ; another law in 1457, that farmers who had eight oxen, should sow every year a bushel of wheat, half a bushel of peas, and forty beans, under pain of ten shd- lings, to be paid to the baron ; and if the baron did not do the same thing to the lands in. his possession, ho should pay the same penalty to the king. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the ogriculture of Scotland continued to languish. The profession of a soldier was regarded as of more importance than that of a culitvator of land : but on the ecclesias- tical lands, a better system of agriculture was introduced, and the tenants on these lands were much more comfortably circumstanced than the te- nants of the turbulent laymen. The Reformation ratlier checked than promoted the improvement of agriculture, as it took husbandry out of the hands of the monks, the only class of people who practiced it on anything near correct principles. — Scotland was much benefited by the soldiers of Cromwell, who were chiefly English yeomen, well acquainted with husbandry ; and, like the Romans of a former period, were studious to improve and enlighten the nations which they had subdued, they introduced considerable improve- ment in the agnculturc of Scotland. About the middle of the 16th century agriculture began to be studied, as a ,«;cioncc, in tbo principal countries of Europe. The works of Cres- t)f T^s^-irs— --? ccnzio in Italy, Olivier de Sorrcs in Franco, Hrrcshach in Gormnny, Ilerrcra in Spain, and Fitzhcrbort in Kn^luncl, all published about tiie samo period, Bujiplied tho materials of titudy, ucd led to iuiprovud prac- ticos among tho reading agriculturists. About tho middle of tho century following, Ilarto observes — •* Almost all tho European nations, by a sort of tacit consent, applied themselves to tho study of agriculture, and continued to do so, more or less, oven amidst tho universal confusion that soon succeeded." Diirini^ the 18th century, the march of agriculture has been progressive throughout Eu- rope, with little exception, particularly in somo districts in Italy, in the Netherlands, and in (ireat Britain. In Spain, Ilungniy, Poland, and Ruijsia, it is still in a very backward state. AGRICULTURE OF ITALY. Italy has long been represented as tho most interesting country m Europe, in respect to its rural economy. Its climate, soil, and sur- face, are so various, as to give rise to a greater variety of culture, than is to be found throughout the rest of Europe. The climate of Italy gives it a decided advantage in an agricultural point of view, particu- larly in the northern districts, where the cool temperature, accord- ing to Sismondi, admits of the finest pastures, while, from the warmth of others, the rocky sides of tho hills are as productive of grapes and olives, as the plains are in corn. It is the only country in Europe, with the exception of somo parts of Spain, where corn, grass, butchers' meat, cheese, butter, rice, silk, cotton, whie, oil, and fruits are produced, all in tho highest degreo of perfection. Only a lifth of the surface is con- sidered sterile ; while only a fifth of tho surface of France is considered fertile. The population of Italy is greater in proportion to the surlace, than that of either France or Britain. In Lombardy, the farms are from ten to sixty acres. The landlord pays the taxes, and repairs the buildings ; the tenant provides cattle, im- plements, and seed, and the produce is divided. In some cases the land- lord's half is delivered in kind, in others it is valued annually at harvest, and paid in money, or partly in money and partly in produce. Irrigation is the most remarkable feature in the agriculture of Lombardy. The water is not only used for grass lands, which, when fully watered, are mown four, and sometimes five times a year, and in some cases as early as March ; but is conducted between the narrow ridges of corn land, in the hollows between drilled crops, amon^^ vines, or to flood a foot or rpore in depth, lands which are sown with rico. It is also used for depositing a sur- face of mud, in some places where the water is charged with that mate- rial, and this is done in the manner they call warping in England. The details of warping for those and other purposes, are given in various works, and collected in those of Professor Re. In general, watered lands let at one third higher than lands unwatered. They plough with two oxen, without a driver or reins. Corn is generally beaten oui by a wheel or large fluted cylinder, which is turned in a circular track, son.^> what in the manner of a bark-mill. in Piedmont, the cattle are, in some cases, fed with extraordinary care. They are tied up in stalls — then bled once or twice — cleaned and c2 I' 'I rubbed with oil — aAerwiirdti combed, mid brunhed twioe a duy. Their food in luinincr is clovur, or otliur green herhiige ; in winter a mixture of elm loavoti, clover-hay, and pulverised walnut cake, over which boil- ing water is poured, nnd bran and suit udded ; where t;rainH can be pro- cured, they are also given. In a short time the cattle cast their hair, grow smootlit round, I'at, and so improved u» to double their vuluo to the utcher. Sheep are not common in Lomburdy ; there arc flocks on the moun- tains* but in the plains only a tew nre kept, in the manner pigs are kept in England, to cat refuse vegetables. Rico is reckoned the most profit- able crop, the next, wheat and millet. The herbage crops cultivated are chiccory, very common in the watered meadows, rib-grass, oat-grass, clovers, lucerne, saintfoin, burnet, nnd spurry. In Tuscany, in the arable lands of the plains, the row, and mostly the raised drill culture arc generally followed, or ihe lands are ploughed into beds of three or four feet broad, between which water is introduced in the furrows. Every year a third of the farm is turned ov^^r w ith a spade to double the depth of the plough, so as to bring a new soil tolho surface. The rotation of crops includes a period of three or five years. Wheat, lupines, maize, millet, French beans, turnips, and some other grains, arc grown. liupines are often ploughed in for manure. In Tuscany the cat- tle are not numerous, but the farmers are assiduous in preserving every particle, both of human and animal manure, and applying it in the most judicious manner. Cattle in the plains are kept constantly in close, warm houses, and fed with weeds, leaves, or whatever can be got. The oxen in Tuscany are ail dove coloured. Even those imported from other states, are said to Ciiange their coat here. In the neighbourhood of Vesuvius, in the Neapolitan Territory, or land of ashes, they are said to gather seven cars from one stalk of maize, many of them three palms long. 1 hi cl o tl AGRICULTURE OF SWITZKRLAWD. Switzerland is strictly a pastural country. The Swiss ccws yield more milk than those of Lombardy, where they are in great demand ; but after the third generation their milk falls oft'. The cows are at- tracted home from the most distant pastures by a handful of salt, which the shepherd takes from a leathern pouch, hanging over his shoulder. In some parts of Switzerland the cow yields, on an average, twelve Eng- glish Quarts a day ; and with forty cows, a cheese of forty-five pounds can be made daily. In the vicinity of Altdorf, they make, in the course of an hundred days, from the 20th of June, two cheeses daily, of twenty- five pounds each, from the milk of eighteen cows. Of the cheese made in Switzerland, and the Parmesan cheese, made in Lombardy, I shall give a particular description under the head, Cheese-making. At Hofwyl, near Berne, there is an establishment in great part belong- ing to agriculture, that deserves to be noticed. It was projected by, and is conducted at the sole expense of M. Fellenberg, a proprietor and agriculturist. His object was to ^pply a sounder system of education for the great body of the people, in order to stop the progress of misery and -!! rrime. Fifteen yejirs ago ho umlcrtook to syxtrniatiso (ir (diirft. tion, and to show, on u lurjj;*' nculr, how the (liiUlrcii ol'tho poor mi^'ht he bust taught, and their hihuur ut thi> Hium tiino must prolituhly npphcd. — In short how the fust twenty yeurH ofa poor njan's lA'v. luv^hi hv mo cnipUty- cd OH to provide both for his support atid his uthicution. The 1 1 usants in his ncighhourhood were at first rather shy of tnistinj; their children fur a new experiment ; and, bein}; thus ol)lijL;(d to take his pupils where- he could find them, many of the earliest were the sons of vajrrants, aid lite- rally picked up on the highways ; this is the case with one or two of the most distinguished pupils. Their treatment is nearly that of children under the paternal roof. — They go out every morning to their work, soon after sun-rise, having first breakfasted, and received a lessson of about an hour; they return at noon, — dinner takes them half an hour, a lesson of one hour follows, then to work again till six in the evening. On Sunday, the diflcrent lessonn take six hours instead of two ; and they have butchers' meat on that day only. They are divided into three classes, according to age and strength ; an entry is made in a book every night of the number of hours each ciasa has worked, specifying the sort of labour done, in order that it may be charged to the proper account, each particular crop having an account opened for it, as well as every new building, the live stock, the machines, the schools themselves, &,c. &c. In winter, and whenever there is not out-of-door work, the boys plait straw for chairs, make baskets, saw logs with the cross saw, and split them ; thrash and winnow corn, grind colours, knit stockings, or assist the wheel-wrights, and other artificers, of whom there are many employed in the establishment, for all of which dif- ferent sorts of labour an adequate salary is credited to each boy's class. The boys scarcely see a newspaper, and seldom a book ; they are taught, viva voce, a few matters of fact, and rules of practical application. The rest of their education consists chiefly in inculcating habits of indus- try, frugality, veracity, docility, and mutual kindness, by means of good example, rather than precept, and, above all, by the absence of bad ex- ample. The practicat)ility of this scheme for inculcating individual prudence and practical morality, not only in the agricultural, but in all the operative classes of society, M. Simond considers as demonstrated ; and 't only remains to ascertain the extent of its application. Two only of the pupils have left Hofwyl for a place before the end of their time ; and one with M. de Fellenberg's leavje, is become chief manager of the immense estates of Count Abafly, in Hungary, and has, it is said, doubled its pro- ceeds by the improved method of husbandry he has introduced. This young man whose name is Madorly, was originally a beggor boy, and not particularly distinguished at school. Another directs a school at Zurich, and acquits himself to the entire satisfaction of his employers. — M. de Fellenberg has besides a number of pupils of the higher classes, some of whom belong to the first families of Germany, Russia, and Switzerland. They live en famille with their master, and are instructed by the different tutors in the theory and practice of agriculture, and in the arts and sciences on which it is founded. 6 |!'< I lii: ACniCULTUUE OF FRANCB. That France is the most favourable country in Europe for agriculture, is the opinion of most writers on the subject. For though the country eufferefl deeply from the wars in which she was engaged, lirst by a hate- ful conspiracy of kings, and next by the mad ambition of Bonaparte, the purifying effects of the revolution have indemnified her ten-fold, for all the losses she has sustained. She has come out of the contest with a debt comparatively light, with laws greatly amended, many old abuses destroyed, and with a population more industrious, moral, enlightened, and happy, than she ever had before. The fortunate change which peace has made in her situation, has filled her with a healthy activity which is carrying her forward with rapid strides ; she has the most popular, and therefore the most rational, liberal, and beneficial system of government of any state in Europe, Britain not excepted ; and, therefore, she is per- haps, in a condition of more sound prosperity than any other state in the old world. Mr. Jacob's Report of the agriculture of France in 1828, says that "it occupies one of the lowest ranks in that of the northern states of Europe, but the fertility of the soil, the suitableness of the sub-soil and of the sur- face for aration, and, above all, the excellence of the climate are such as are not united to an equal extent in any other European state. When we consider these circumstances, in connection with the extraordinary exertions now making for the education of the labouring classes, and the no less extraordinary progress that has been made these few years in ma- nufactures, (January, 1829,) it is easy to see that in a few years the ter- ritorial riches of France will be augmented to an extraordinary extent. The climate of France varies. That called the central climate, which admits vines, without being hot enough for maize, Young considers as the finest in the world ; and the most eligible part of France or of Eu- rope as to soil. " Here," he says, " you are exempt from the extreme humidity which gives verdure to Normandy and England, and yet equally free from the burning heat which turns verdure itself into a rus- set brown." This climate however, has its drawbacks, being subject to violent storms of rain and hail, and sometimes to severe spring frosts.— Of the vine and maize climate, an accurate account of the crops and sea- sons for the district, for tweiity years from 1800, was kept, and the result was, that twelve years were fair average crops, four years most abun- dant, and four years attended with total loss. In the olive climate, in- sects are incredibly numerous and troublesome, and tho locust injurious to corn crops. The olive and maize districts have the advantage of two crops in the year, or at least three crops in two years. The climate of Picardy and Normandy, is nearest that of England, but rather superior ; and she possesses great agricultural advantage over England, by means of the vine and olive, whicii, owing to the climate, may be raised on rocky wastes, and give as valuable produce as the richest soils ; and in all the soils of France, weeds may be destroyed without a aummer fallow, easily and effectually. In the 17th century, in the reign of Henry the 4th, French agriculture began to flourish. By a wise ordinance of Sully, permitting a free com- 10 agriculture, the country it by a hate- naparte, the old, lor all ntest with d old abuses enlightened, rvhich peace ity which is opular, and ?overnmciit she is ptr- atate in the fxys that "it of Europe, of the sur- te are such te. "When traordinary 3s, and the sars in ma- rs the ter- extent. ate, which nsiders as T of Eu- extreme and yet o a rus- ubject to frosts.— and sea- \he result ist abun- late, in- injurious :e of two |imate of iperior ; means n rocky all the , easily [culture |e com- I nMjrce in corn, great quantities were exported to England in 1621. In 1641, the draining of fens and bogs waa encouraged ; in 1750, the land tax waa taken off newly broken uplands for a space of twenty years. — Mazarine prohibited the exportation of corn, and checked the progress of its culture, and the wars of Louis the 14th, greatly discouraged agricul- ture, and produced several dearths. Fleury, under Lewis 16th, was no friend to agriculture ; but, in 1754, a free trade in corn revived it. About this time agricultural societies were first established in France under the patronage and at the expense of government. In 1761, there were thir- teen such societies in France, and nineteen co-operating societies. Du Hamel and Buffon gave eclat to the study of rural economy, and many other writers contributed to its improvement. Some of the English breeds of sheep were introduced by Baron de Mortemart. The agriculture of France in 1819, as compared with what it was in 1789, presents, Chaptal observes, astonishing improvements. Crops of every kind cover the soil, numerous and robust animals are employed in labouring it, and dicy also enrich it by their manure. The country popu- lation Hre lodged in commodious habitations, decently clothed, and abun- dantly nourished with wholesome food. The misery which existed in France, in former times, when properties of immense extent supported lit- tle more than a single family, is banished, and its place supplied by easo and liberty. We are not to suppose, hoAvever, the same author observes, that the agriculture of France has arrived at perfection; much still remains to be done ; new plans of improvement should be more generally introdu- ced ; and a greater quantity of live stock is wanted for e\cry province of France, except two or three which abound in natural meadows. Few domains have more than half the requisite number of labouring cattle, the necessary result of which is a deficiency of labour, of manure, and of crop. The only mode of remedying these evils is, to multiply the arti- ficial pastures, and to increase the cultivation of plants of forage. — Abundance of forage is, indeed, the foundation of every good system of agriculture, as a proper succession of crops is the foundation of abun- dance of forage. The rich inhabitants of France have already adopted these principles, but they have not yet found their way among the low- er class of cultivators. According to M. Dupin, four-fifths of the pea- santry of France are proprietors of land, which they cultivate themselves ; and, though they are at present very ignorant, yet knowledge of every kind is rapidly advancing. The wages of labour in France, compaied with the price of corn, is calculated to be higher than the wages paid to labourers in England. The system of letting land to metayers^ who give the landlord one half of the produce, is said to bo too deeply rooted in France to be easily or speedily altered, and is considered one of the greatest imp diments to the improvement of French agriculture. The Revue TrimestrieUe^ or French Quarterly Review, for April, 1828, observes, *Mhat in a large part of the kingdom, in all the central provinces, regular farmers are hardly known ; that a large proportion of this part of the soil of France is culti- vated by metayers who engage to occupy the land for a period of three year.'', and to cultivate it, paying half the produce to the proprietor as rent. The proprietor supplies the stock, indispensable to its petty far- 1 p. ) ;! I M : i liii" 11 ming and the j^rain required foi the first sowing, us also the support of the metatjer and his family until the first harvest. The metayer works, sows, and reaps, and he and his family feed on the produce, after which the proprietor gets the remainder. Sometimes even a middleman, under the name of a farmer, is interposed between the landlord and the melmjer." The introduction of these middlemen has, of course, a tendency to in- crease the obstructionsto improvement, which appears to be a necessary condition of the melaucr system in its best form. Even in those pro- • vinces where leases are in practice, their duration is considered too short to enable the farmer to indomnify himself for the outlay which the introduction of new methods of cultivation Avould require. The lands in France are not generally enclosed and subdivided by hedges or other fences — some fences are to be seen near towns and the northern parts of the kingdom, but in general, the whole country is open, the boundaries of estates being marked by slight ditches or ridges, occa- sionally stones, heaps of earth, rows of trees, or occasional trees. De- predations from passengers on the highways, are prevented by gardes champilreSf which are established throughout all France. Farms are some- times compact and distinct, but generally scattered, and often alternating in the common field-manner of England, or run-rig of Scotland The farm houses of large farms are generally placed on the lands ; those of smaller ones in villages, often at some distance. The value of landed property is generally lower than in England. At present, (1829), it is sold at from twenty-two to twenty-six years purchase. The farming land in France, naturally divides itself into three kinds, first, the grand culture, in which from two to twelve ploughs are employ cd, and corn chiefly cultivated ; second, the middle culture, who also grovi^ corn, but more frequently rear live stock, maintain a dairy, or pro- duce silk, wine, cider, or oil, according to the climate in which they are situated ; and the third, the minor culture, or that which is done by ma- nual labour, and into which live stock or cows do not enter. The mid- dle culture is by far the most common. There are few farms of six or eight ploughs in France, and equally few farmers who do not labour in person, at all times of the year. The corn farming of France is carried on in the best mann jr in French Flanders, Picardy, and Brie. The first may be considered as equally well cultivated with Suffolk. The crops of these districts are wheat, maize, beans, turnips and buckwheat. The most frequent rotations are, two corn crops and a fallow, or an alternation of com and green, or pulse crops, without a naked fallow. After lands have borne crops, it is usual to let them rest a year or two, during which they produce nothing but grass and weeds, and they' are afterwards broken up with a naked fallow. Potatoes enter more or less into the field culture of the greater part of France, and especially of the northern districts, but in Provence, and some parts of Languedoc, they are still little known. Irrigation, both of arable and grass lands, is adopted wherever it is practicable. It is com- mon in the Vosges, and remarkably well conducted in the lands round Avignon, formerly for many miles the property of the church. The meadows of France contain nearly the same herbage, plants, and grasses as those of England ; but, though clovers and lucernes are cul- » ppoit of the orks, sows, r which the 1, under the B metmjer." cncy to in- i necessary I those pro- iidered too Y which the bdivided by ^ns and the itry is open, ]ges, occa- ees. De- by gardes 3 are 8ome- ahernating and The ; those of of landed J29), it is iree kinds, re employ who also y, or pro- they are le by ma- The mid- of six or abour in n French 3 equally wheat, ions are, or pulse is usual ing but fallow, er part ice, and both of s corn- round Its, and Iro cul- "i litated in many places, yet rye-grass and other grasses, either for hay crops or temporary or permanent pasture, are not generally resorted to. During summer, in the hottest districts, sheep are fed in the night, and housed in the heat of the day. Hay is the general winter food, in parts of Picardy climate, turnips. A great part of the sheep of France are fiaid to be black. Bonaparte monopolized the breeding of merinos. This breed is now much on the increase. Beasts of labour are chiefly the ox, on small farms, and the horse on the larger. Both are kept under cover the greater part of the year ; oxen are generally cream coloured. Normandy furnishes the best breed of working horses, as Limosin does of those for tho saddle. A royal stud of Arabians' have been kept in Limosin, for a century, and another was lately formed near Nismes. Studs of English horses and mixed breeds of high blood, have been established by government in several departments. The best dairies are in Normandy ; but in this department France does not excel. In the southern districts, olive, almond, and poppy oil «upply the place of butter, and goats' milk is that used in cooking. The goats of Thibet, have been imported by M. Ternaux, who has been successful in multiplying them, and in manufacturing the hair. Poultry is an important article of French husbandry, and well under- stood as far as breeding and feeding. The breed of swine are in gene- ral not good. The plough of Normandy resembles the large wheel plough of Kent ; farther south, they are mostly without wheels* Iron mould boards are rare. Harrows are generally of wood. Large farmers in Normandy plough with four or six oxen ; small ones with two ; but where stiff soils are to be worked, they join together and form a team of four or six cattle. The corn is threshed out with the flail, or by the tread of horses. Farmers, as was already observed, perform most of their operations without extra labourers, and their wives and daughters reap, thresh, and perform almost every part of the farm and garden work indifferently. From small farmers residing together in villages, a travel- ler in France may pass through ten or twenty miles of corn fields, with- out seeing a single farm house. The labourers and tradesmen employ- ed on large farms are frequently paid in kind. All plants cultivated by the British farmer, are also grown in France. The turnip not generally ; in the warm districts scarcely at all, as they do not bulb ; but it is questionable if it did bulb, whether, in these districts it would be so valuable as the lucerne or clover, which grows all winter, or the potatoe, from which flour is now made extensively. Of plants not usually cultivated on British farms, chiccory is cultivated in France, for green food, and a hardy kind of red wheat, called spelt j which grows in the worst soil and climate. They grow millet, the dura or douro of Egypt. .. v!:-. . A remarkable feature in tho agriculture of France and in most warm countries, is the use of leaves of trees as food for cattle ; mulberry, ohve, poplar, vine, and other leaves, are gathered in autumn, when they begin to change colour, and acquire a sweetness of taste ; spray is cut green in July, and dried in the sun or in the shade of trees in the woods, faggoted, and stacked for winter use. During the season they are given to sheep and cattle like hay, and sometimes, boiled with grains or bran, to cows. D I 'A h' irli i !;• . ( ■I .11 13 The afitringency of some sorts of leaves, such as the oak, is esteemed medicinal, especially for sheep. In the warm climate of France, beans are the grain of the poor, and are mixed with wheat for bread ; maize, however, is the principal food of the people. The chick pea is cultivated, and is used as food. Such is an outHne of the agriculture of France. The agriculture of the low countries, especially Flanders, has been ce- lebrated by the rest of Europe for upwards of 600 years ; Holland, for its pasturage, and the Netherlands for tillage. The climate of Holland is cold and moist. The surface of the country towards the sea is low and marshy, and of the interior sandy, and naturally barren. The soil in the low districts is a rich, deep, sandy mud, sometimes alluvial, but more frequently silicious, and mixed with rotten shells. The soil of the inland provinces is, in general, a brown or black sand, naturally poor, and, for whatever it is productive, is indebted entirely to art. • The landed property of Holland is in moderate, or rather small divi- sions ; in the richer parts, genorally in farms of from twenty to one hun- dred and fifty or two hundred acres ; often farmed by the proprietor. In the interior provinces, both estates and farms are much larger, some farms from five to seven hundred acres, partly in tillage, wood, and pas- ture. The agriculture of Holland is chiefly a system of pasturage and dairy management, for the production of butter and cheese, the latter well known in every part of the world. Almost the only objects of tillage are, some madder, tobacco, and herbage plants and roots, for stall feeding the cattle. The pastures, and especially the lower meadows, produce a coarse grass, but in great abundance. The cows are allowed to graze at least a part of the day throughout the greater part of the year, but are generally fed in sheds once a day or oftener, with rape-cake and grains, and a great variety of other preparations. Their manure is preserved with the greatest care, and the animals themselves are kept perfectly clean. The breed is large, small legged, generally red and white, with long slender horns ; they are well known in England as the Dutch breed. The ashes of towns are collected and sold at high prices, chiefly to the Flemings. The field implements and operations of Holland, are more ingen'ously contrived, and better executed than those of any other country on the continent. The farmeries, cow-houses, and stable^ are remarkable for arrangements which facilitate and economise manual la- bour, and ensure comfort to the animals, and general cleanliness. Even the fences and gates are j;;enerally found in a better state than in most other countries. So early as the thirteenth century, the culture of the low countries, both agricultural and horticultural, has been looked up to by the rest of Europe. The Flemings have ever dealt more in the practice of husbandry than in publishing books upon the subject ; so that, doubtless, their in ten- tion was to carry on a private lucrative trade without instructing their neighbours ; and hence it happened that whoever wanted to copy their agriculture, was obliged to travel into their country, and make his own remarks. To make a farm resemble a garden as nearly as possible was their ,^ til el cl 14 is esteemed he poor, and icipal food of 3(1. Such is has been ce- Holland, for ; of Holland B sea is low I. The soil alluvial, but le soil of the turally poor, small divi- to one hun- prietor. In [irger, some [)d, and pas- ;e and dairy latter well f tillage are, feeding the produce a 3d to graze ar, but are and grains, preserved t perfectly ivhite, with the Dutch es, chiefly Hand, are any other tables are anual la- s. Even n in most re of the ed up to lidiy than ir in ten- ling their spy their I his own t'as their principal idea of husbandry. Such an excellent principle, at first setting out led them of course to cultivate small estates only, which they kept free from weeds, continually turning the ground, and manuring it plenti- fully and judiciously. Having thus brought the soil to a just degree of ' cleanliness, health and sweetness, they ventured chiefly upon the culture of the most delicate grasses, as the surest means of acquiring weailh in husbandry upon a small scale, without the expense of keeping many draught horses, or servants. After a few years' experience, they found that ten acres of the best vegetables for feeding cattle, properly cultivat- ed, would maintain a larger stock of grazing animals than forty acres of common farm grass ; and the vegetables they chiefly cultivated for the purpose were, lucerne, saintfoin, trefoils of most denominations, sweet fenugreek, buck and cow wheat, field turnips and spurry, by them called marian grass. The political secret of Flemish husbandry was, letting farms on im- provement. Add to this, they discovered eight or ten new sorts of ma- nures. They were the first among the moderns who ploughed in living crops for the purpose of fertilising the earth, and confined their sheep at night in large sheds, built on purpose, the floors of which were covered with sand or earth, &c. which the shepherd carted away every morning, to the compost dunghill. Such was the chief mystery of the Flemish husbandry. .1* ... The present state of agriculture in the Netherlands, is probably nearly the same it has been for a thousand years. Sir John Sinclair visited the country with a view to its rural economy ; so has the Rev. Thomas Radclifl*. I shall select the leading features of Flemish farming, for such Canadian farmers as wish to receive a most valuable lecture on the importance of a proper frugality and economy in farming, as well as ju- dicious modes of culture. The climate of Flanders may be considered the same as that of Hol- land, and not very different from that of the low parts on the opposite coast of England. The surface of the country is everywhere flat, or very gent- ly elevated, and extensive tracts have been recovered from the yea. The soil is in most parts poor, generally sandy ; but, in various parts, of a loamy or clayey nature. The best soil is near Ostend, the worst be- tween Bruges and Ghent, being little better than pure sand. Landed property inFlanders is not in very large estates. Few amount to 2,000 acres, and proprietors very frequently cultivate their own es- tates. Estates are everywhere enclosed witli hedges, and fields are ge- nerally small. Farmeries are convenient, and generally more ample, in proportion to the extent of the farm, than in England. On the large farms, a distillery, oil-mill, and sometimes a flour-mill is added to the usual accommoda- tions. The farm house, with an arched dairy, an apartment for churn- ing, with an adjoining one for a horse to turn the churning machinery. A small building for the use of extra labourers, with a tire place for booking, and other buildings in proportion to the farm. Urine cisterns are found in the field, to receive the purchased Uquid manure ; but for that made in the farm yard, generally under the stables or in the yard. In the first case the urine is conducted from each stall to a common era- d2 ^ ' ' 'h . t ■ (• . ■; - « •ft I '^^ i!::!,ii 'ir'\ 15 ting, through which it dvHConds into the vault, whence it is taken up bjr a pump. In the best regukled farmeries, there is a partition in the cistern,, with a valve to admit the contents of the first space into the second, to be preserved there from the more recent additions, ago rendering it eonsi- dorably more oflicacious. This species of manure is relied on beyond any other, upon all the light soils throughout Flanders ; and, even upon the strong lands, (originally so rich as to preclude the necessity of ma* nuro,) it is now coming into great esteem^ being considered applicable tu most crops, and to all the varieties of soil. Fallows, according to Sir John Sinclair, ore in a great measure abol- ished, even on strong land, by means of which, produce is increased, and the expense of cultivation, on the crops raised in the course of a rotation^ necessarily diminished ; and by the great profit they derive from their flax and rapt), they can afford to^sell all their crops of grain at a lower rate. The Flemish farmers, however, understand their interest too well to abolish naked fallows on strong clayey soils, in a humid climate. The Flemish farmers carefully adopt the succession and distribution of crops to the quality of the soil. Upon the first quality of the soil, the succession is as follows : — First year, barley ; second, beons ; third, wheat ; fourth, oats, and the fiflh, fallow. For the second quahty of soil, the succession is as follows : — First year, wheat ; second, beans or tares ; third, wheat or oats ; fourth, fallow. For the third quality of soil, the succession is as follows : — First year, wheat ; second, fallow ; third, wheat ; fourth, fallow. The polders, or embanked lands of Flanders, are not included in the three qualities of soil before mentioned, but are of a still better quality. They are lands reclaimed from the sea, and once secured from the influx of the tide, become the most productive soil, without requiring the assis- tance of any description of manure. The polders near Ostend, contain- ing about 1,300 acres, let for about £2 15s. the English acre ; the usu- al rotation on these lands are rape, vnnter barley, and beans, and occa- sionally peas and tares are introduced. Sometimes beans and peas are sowed mixed. A most excellent plan. On a good loam of a yellowish colour, mixed with some sand, the pro- duce is wheat, barley, oats, hops, tobacco, meadow, rape seed, and ilax, as primary crops ; and, as secondary, buck-wheat, beans, turnips, pota- toes, carrots, and clover. Another soil, a good sandy loam, of a light colour, and in a superior state of cultivation, is relied on to give a sure and profitable return. Suc- cession as follows : — 1st, wheat, with dung ; 2d, clover, with ashes, and sometimes sand ; 3d, flax, with urine and rape cake ; 4th, wheat, with dung and sweepings ; 6th, potatoes, with farm-yard dung ; 6th rye, with urine ; 7th, rape, with urine and rape-cake ; 8th, potatoes with dung ; 9th, wheat, with manure of divers kinds. There are other parts of the country where the poverty of soil, and abundance of produce bear ample testimony tu the skill and perseveronce of the Flemish farmers. In the fifteenth century, this soil consisted of poor light sand, and barren gravel and heaths. This soil produces now, rye, flax, potatoes, oats, buck-wheat, rape-seed, clover, carrots and tur- nips, generally, and wheat in favorable spots. i 18 (cn up hj a tho cistern^ cond, to be g it eonsi- 00 beyond I even upon lity of ma- pplicable tu asure abol- reased, and farotation^ from their at a lower Bst too well inflate, distribution he soil, the ms ; third, quality of d, beans or quality of id, fallow ; idedin the er quality. 1 the influx : the assis- i, eonlain- ; the ttsu- ind occa- peasare t I, the pro- and flax, |ips> pota- superior |im. Suc- 9hes» and 3at, with Irye, with |h dung ; soil, and ^verance iisted of ^es now, id tur- Where the soil is capable of yicjdiiig wheat, th lery. Rape is much cultivated in Flanders, for seed, and feed for stock ; but the climate of Canada is unsuitable, from the severe winters. The frequer.t manuring given by the Flemish farmer astonishes a stranger ; the sources whence it is obtained in sufficient quantity form the difficulty, and this can only be resolved by referring \o the practice o( soiling J &c. the numerous towns and villages, and to (he care with which every particle of vegetable or animal refuse is saved for this pur- pose. Manure in Flanders, as in China, is an article of trade. The selling price of each description is easily ascertained. The towns let the cleaning of the streets, and the public retiring places, at great rents. Chaptal says there are in every town sworn brokers, expressly for the purpose of valuing night soil ; and that these brokers know the exact de- gree of fermentation in that manure which suits every kind of vegetable at the different periods of growth. Every substance that constitutes, or is convertible to manure, is nought after with avidity, which accouuts for the extreme cleanliness of the Fle- ^w ( " Illil 17 mish towns and pavements, hourly resorted to with brooms and barrows, as aHource of profit. Even the chips which accumulate in the formation of the wooden ahoe:i, worn by the peasantry, are made to constitute a part of the compost dunj; heap ; and trees are frequently cultivated in barren lands, merely to remain till their deciduous leaves shall, in course of time, have formed an artificial surface for the purpose of cultivation. The manures in general »ise are — the farm yard dung, which is a mixture of every matter that the farm yard produces, formed into a compost, which consists of dung and litter fiom the stables, chatf, sweepings, straw, sludge, and rubbish, all collected in a hollow part of the yard, so prepared as to prevent the juices from being wasted ; and the value of this, by the cart load of 1500 lbs. of Ghent, is estimated at five francs. The dung of sheep, pigeons, or poultry, by the same cart load, five francs and a half. Sweeping of streets and roads, same quantity, three francs. Ashes of peat and wood, mixed, same quantity, eight francs. Privy manure and urine, same quantity, seven francs. Lime, same quantity, twenty-four francs. Rape cake, per hundred cakes, fil'tcen francs. . . • , Gypsum, sea weed, and the sediments of the canals, have been all tried experimentally, and with fair results ; but the two former have been merely tried ; the latter has been used successfully in the vicinity of Bruges. Bone manure was altogether unknown in Flanders ; but, at the sug- gestion of Radclift', is now under experiment in that country The agri- cultural implements of Flanders, are by no means such as the excellence of the Flemish culture would lead us to expect. They are generally rudely constructed. Agricultural operations of every kind are performed with particular care in Flanders. The soils are frequently ploughed lor sake of pulverization as well as cleanliness, in strong soil, and in the lighter, for the destruc- tion of weeds, and blending the manure with the soil. But, considerh)g that but.one pair of horses is, in general, allowed to about thirty acres, it is surprising how, (with the execution of all the other farming work,) time can be found for the number of ploughings which is universally given.— Very generally the number, for the various crops, respectively, is as fol- lows : — , . ., , . For wheat, two ploughings, with two harrowings. Rye, two or three do. do. Oats, three - - do. do. Potatoes, four - do. do. Carrots, four - do. do. Flax, two - do. do. Buck-wheat, four do. do. Rape, tlurce - do. do, Barley, three do. do, Tobacco, four, two harrowings. Hemp, four, two do. i., i- Turnips, three, three do. / Spurry, do. do. .. .> Beans, two, two dq. • Fallow, four or fivt, and same of harrowing. J' «.■;*! ii^4. Trenching with the spade, as practiced in Tuscany, is a feature pecu- liar to that country and Flanders. The depth of the operation varies with the soil, but is generally nearly two feet. The live stock of Fltmders, are not managed or improved as well as might be expected, from their extraordinary attention to the tillage cul- I aiid barrows, formation of stitute a part ted in barren urse of time, atjon. The a mixture of npost, which ings, straw, 8o prepared fthis, by the The dung s and a half. Aslies of manure and twenty-four een all tried have been vicinity of at the sug- The agri- excclleilco 3 generally icular care vorization destruc- onsideruig acres, it (>«k,) time given.— is as fol> 'mgs. same of re pecu- varies well as Lge cul- I * lure. . The working breed of horses is exoellcnt. The Khocing f»f horses in Flanders is attended to with particular care, and in that coun- try has long Ixicn practiced the modi; of preserving the bars oflhe hoof, and of letting the frog come in contact with the ground, rcconuncndrd in England, by Freeman, and Professor Colman. To prevent ripping, the hoofs of tlie fore feet are pared away toward the toe, and the shoes so tilted that the fore part shall not touch, (within three-fourths of an inch,) the same level surface, upon which the heel and middle of the shoe shall rest. This preparation of the foot is in general use, and the horses are not thereby in any degree injured, and are particularly sure footed. The other point of difl'orence is, that the shoe is nailed on Hat and close to the foot, which, in depriving the iron of all spring, and all unequal pres- sure against the nails, may be, in part, the cause of the durability of the shoeing. The food for one cow in whiter, for tventy-four hours, is, straw, eigh- teen pounds, turnips, sixty pounds ; some farmers boil the turnij)s for them, others give them raw, chopping them v^ith the spado ; in lieu of turnips, potatoes, carrots, and grains are occasionally used, liean straw is likewise given, and uniformly a white drink, prepared both for cows and horses, consisting of water, in which some oil cake has be«n dissolved, whitened with rye meal, oatmeal, or the flour of biickwheat. For the sake of cleanliness, the tails of the cows are tied to the roof of the cow house with a cord, during the time of milking. The cow houses, both in Flanders and Holland, are kept remarkably clean and warm. The Dutch are particularly averse to unfolding the secrets of their dai- ry management ; and, notwithstanding the pointed queries of Sir John Sinclair on the subject, no satisfactory idea was given him of their ajodo of manufacturing butter or cheese. At a certain season of the year, catterpillars attack the trees, and eve- ry farmer is obligea to destroy them, upon his own premises, to the sa- tisfaction of the mayor of his particular commune, or to pay the cost of having it done for him. The domestic circumstances of the Flemish farmer and his servants, are depicted by Radcliff, in a favorable point of view. " Nothing," he says " tends more to the uniform advancement of good farming than a certain degree of ease and comfort, in those who occupy the soil, and in the la- bouring classes whom they employ. Without it, an irregular, specula- tive, and anticipatory extraction of produce, always followed by eventual Idss, is resorted to, in order to meet the emei;^gencies and d.tiiculties of the moment ; whereas, under different circumstances, the successive re- turns of a well regulated course becomes the farmer'^ object, rather than the forced profit of a single year ; and whilst he himself is thus intrinsically served, his landlord is secured, and his ground ameliorated. The labo- rious industry of the Flemish farmer, is recruited by intervals of decent and comfortable refreshment, and the farm servants are treated with kindness and respect ; they partake of their master's fare, except in his refreshments of tea, coffee and beer. The Flemish farmer seldom amasses riches, but he is rarely afflicted by poverty. Industry and frugality are his characteristics. He never looks beyond the enjoyment of moderate comforts ; abstains from spiri- ^1 I i 1 , 1 ,:M ■ f •i 1 '.i- i'l 10 tiioutt liqiiorti, howt.'vor ooMily to !>o procurod. Hcgixnrs nro acAYcu\y to l>« unoii except in towns, luid few oven tliero ; induHtry huvch them fruin tiiin. Tlio want of a MufTiciont nnpply of mnnuro must make it nrccHsary to lay down Hrublo land to poMturo for a tinin, and then hronk it up iifjruin. This was firnt practiced in a regular rotation, in Ifolstein, and Macklen* l>urf^, and raised these countries rapidly aniongHt agricultural nations. In Holstein, on moderately good soil, they adopt the following course : 1st, oats, on newly broken up grass land. 2nd, a fallow, to destroy grasses and weeds, and accelerate the decomposition of their roots. — 3rd, wheat, with or without manure, according to the state of tho land. 4th, heans, barley, or oats. 6th, wheat, manured, unless it has been done for the beans the year betore. 6th, grass seeds, pastured tor threo years or more, when the rotation begins again. A Macklenburg rotation consists of — Ist, beans, with manure, or po- tatoes. 2nd, wheat or oats. 3rd, barley or oats, unless sown the year l>efore. 4th, peas or tares, manured. «5th, wheat. 6th, white clover, and grass seeds, which were sown among the wheat the year before, and are kept in pasture tho 7th and 8th. There is no fallow, and in u moist climate, it will bo difficult to keep tho land clear. It might, however, bo easily introduced, as in the Holstein rotation. Another rotation m — lat, oats ; 2nd, beans, well manured ; 3ri^ wheat ; 4th, tares, manured ; 6th, barley ; 6th, clover and grass seeds, mown lor hay and green fodder ; 7th and 8th, ditto, fed. All these are excel- lent for a moderately good soil, well managed. If the soil is very rich, the following is the most profitable rotation of any : — 1st, rape seed, well manured ; 2nd, wheat ; 3rd, beans or potatoes, manured and hoed ; 4th, barley ; 5th, clover ; 6th, wheat ; 7th, oats, with white clover and grass seeds, pastured two or three years. The principal object in this convert- ible system is, to lay tho lands down in good heart, and as clear of weeds as possible ; the g^'^ss will then be abundant, and co' linue good for se- veral years. Liquid manure carried upon it in spring, will so enrich it as to admit of making the crop into hay, or cutting it green for the cattle in the stables. In light soils, the tread of sheep and cattle is of great use ; in heavy, wet soils, they do much harm. This rotation is not suitable for wet land. In Frus«Mi, until very lately, agriculture was in a backward state. The present government have, however, done much for its improvement. About twenty-four years ago, the Agricultural Institution of Moegdin on the Oder, conducted by the late Von Thaer, justly celebrated in Ger- many, as an agricultural writer, was founded. This institution was vi- sited by Jacob, in 1819. From his Travels^ the following account is ta- ken. The agricultural institution of Moegelin^ is situated in the country or march of Brandenburg, about forty-five miles from Berlin. The chief professor. Von Thaer, was formerly a medical practitioner at Celle, near Luneburg*, in the kingdom of Hanover, and had distinguished himself by the translation of various agricultural works from the French and Eng- lish, and by editing a magazine of Rural Economy. About ihe year 1804, the king of Prussia invited him to settle, in his dominions, and gave i ■—;^» ■■•-.' s..i««^iP9n>)i^Hn«Mi* 20 nro Bc.niTuly \o vcH tlitin fruiii it nrcc8.sary to ik it up iij^ruin. and Aliukloii' lal nntioiiH. Jwing courso : )w, tu destroy Iheir roots. — Ui of t)io land. •s it has bc(!M urt'd for threo lanurc, or po- own (ho year whito clover, r before, and id in u moist however, bo : 3ri?, wheat ; iceds, mown io are excel- is very rich, seed, well Iioed ; 4th, -r and grans his convert- ar of weeds )od for se- pnrich it as he cattle in great use ; suitable for ^ard state, rovement. Moegelin id in Ger- )n was vi- )unt is ta- ountry or 'he chief elle, near imself by nd Eng- •He year md gave ^ -I him tlic efilato of Morgolin to improve niid innnngo n.s a pattern farm. Thr rotate coiiMistH of 1200 urros. Thiier began by erecting extensi\u buildings for himself, three profensorH, a variety of tradehun n, the requi- iiite ugricultund buildingH, and a distiller}'. The three profewsors are : one for matlu-malicM, chen)istry, and geology ; one for veterinary knowledge, and a third for botany, and the use of the diiierent vegetable productions in the materia mcdieu, as well a« for entomology. BesideH these, an oxpiM'ienred agricultiuist is engaged, who.se ollico it is to point out to the |)iii)ils the mode of ajjplying the sciences to the practical bu»i- ness of husbmdry. 'J'ho course commences in Siiptcmbrr. During the winter months, the time in oceupi<'d in mathematics, and the first six books of Euclid are jjtudied ; and in the sunmier, the geometrical know- ledge is practically applied to the mea.': Tcment of land, timber, buildings, ami other objects. The first principles of chemistry are imfolded. By a goo»l, but economical apparatus, various experiments are made, both on a large; nnd a small .scale. F(.r the larger experiments, the brcw-houso and still-house, v.ith their re.'^pective fixtures, arc foimd highly useful. Much attention is paid to the analyzation of various soils, and the :■•' ■f > J p.. 1/ 21 jin«l wlipul. Winter liiroM nrc killed l»y ihe frost ; mid the snninui tipocij-s coino to nuthiii^, owiii;; tu tliu dry Noil and (lr<)tl^llt. PutulocH iire u lii- voritc cro|). TIk) Htuull tulxrcd, coniiiioii in rranrc and (ii^rinany, are prefrrred, as ihry contain more .starch, in proportion to Widk, than the liirj^o kinds. 'I'haer maintains, that beyond a certain si/e, the increase of the the potatoo is only water, and not nutriment. The produce per acre, iu 300 bushels, or .5 tons, which Timer contends, contain more nutriment than tw(!nty tons of turnips, because the proportion of starch in potatoes to that in turnips, is more than four to (uw. The soil is excellent for turnips ; but the lon^ series of dry weather, common on the (,'ontinent in the be;^inning of sunnner, renders them one of the most uncertain of cropd. A brewery and distillery, arc the necessary accompaniments of every lar<];e farming rslablishment in (Jermany. The result of many e.\|>eri- ments in the latter, proved that tho same quantity of alcohol is pr«iduced from one hundred bushels of potatoes, as from twenty-four bushels of wheat, or thirty-three; of barley. As the produce of jjrain or of pota'oes, an; relatively greater, the distillery is regulated by that proportion. Von Thaer found, al\<'r many trials, that the njost prolitabU; ve«;etable from which su.'^ar could be made, was the common fj;arden turnip, which pro- duced su^ar, equal in strerifflh ol* sweetness, anil those retined, in colour and hardiKiss, to any produced from the su^ar cane of the tropics. Von Thaer has brou annlinratin<,' tllicts upon the cul- tivation soil ill both countries. 'I'he Hussian larmer i"~ dcjjcribed ns sowinj; his oats, his rye, or his milh't, in wastes which hav*- ricNcr b{» n dun^« d ; ho dirowH down the seed as if Ik; meant it for the birds to pick up ; ho then takes n ploiij^h and scratches the earth, and a hccoujI horse follow- in;,' with a harrow, teiniinates the work ; the bounty of nature supplies tli<> want of skill, an.T 23 in China, cultivates the ground. The priests also are agriculturists, whenever their convents are endowed with land. China produces almost every useful vegetable ot Europe, or the rest of the world ; and it has some ;^eculiar to itself. The chief articles of diet are vegetables. Rice is the common grain of the country ; swine the most abundant live stock ; and tea (he chief plant of export. They cultivate a species of white cabbage called, pc/sa?, which is consumed as human food, to an immense extent over the whole empire ; and Dr. Abel thinks it may be considered to the Chinese, what the potatoc is to the Irish. Boijed, it has the flavour of asparagus ; and raw, it cats like lettuce, and is not inferior. It often weighs from fifteen to twenty pounds, and reaches the height of two or three feet. It is kept fresh dur- ing the winter by burying it in the earth. Almost all vegetables used in medicine, as well as indigo, sugar cane, and tobacco, are cultivated. Tobacco is in universal use, by all ages, and both sexes. The Chinese are sparing in the use of animal food. The broad-tailed sheep, kept in the hilly parts of the country, the hog, and the duck, are the animals most esteemed, perhaps because they can be kept at the cheapest rate. In Chinese agriculture, the great objects to be procured are water and manure. The former is raised from wells by chain-pumps, worked by oxen, and by buckets worked by long levers, exactly similar to those in use for the same purpose in Canada, and distributed over the cultivated surface in the usual manner. Manure is obtained from every conceiva- ble source. The object of their tillage, Livingstone observes, " appears to be, in the first instance, to expose the soil as extensively as possible ; and this is best effected by throwing it up in large masses, in M'hich state it is al- lowed to remain till it is finally prepared for planting. When sufficient rain has fallen to allow the husbandman to flood his fields, they are all laid under water, in which state they are commonly ploughed again, in: the same manner as for fallow, and then a rake, or rather a sort of har- row, about three feet by four, with one row of teeth, is drawn by the same animal that draws the plough through the soil to break the lumps, and to convert it into a kind of ooze ; and as the teeth of the harrow are set at only from two to three inches apart, it serves, at the same time, very effectu- ally to remove roots, and otherwise to clean the ground. For some pur- poses the ground thus prepared is allowed to dry ; it is then formed into beds or trenches ; the beds are made of a convenient size for watering and laying in munure. The intermediate trenches are commonly about nine inches deep, and of the necessary breadth to give to the beds the required elevation ; but when the trenches are wanted for the cultivatioa of water plants, some part of the soil is removed, so that the trenches may be formed of the proper dimensions. The collection of manure is an object of so much attention with the Chinese, that a prodigious number of old men, women and children, in- capable of much other labour, are constantly employed about the streets,, public roads, banks of canals and rivers, with baskets tied before them, and holding in their hands small wooden rakes, to pick up the dung of animals, and offals of any kind that may answer the purpose of manure ; this is mixed sparingly with a portion of stiff loamy earth, and formed in- I IJlllill.1 JUIM 24 ricullurisls, or the rest ' articles of try ; swine 3rt. They msumed as ; and Dr. otatoe is to it cats like to twenty t fresh dur- !es used in cultivated. he Chinese ep, kept in imals most ate. water and worked by to those in i cultivated ' conceiva- s to be, in ; and this ate it is al- 1 sufficient bey are all again, in t of har- the same 3s, and to set at only ry effectu- lome pur- rmed into watering nly about beds the ultivation trenches with the dren, in- e streetg^ Die them, dung of manure ; )rmcd in- to cakes, dried afterwards in the sun. It sometimes bernmrs nn objrrt of commerce, and is sold to farmers, who never employ it in a cf)n\mon state. Their first care is to construct very large cisterns, for containinjr, besides those cakes, dung of every kind, all sorts of vegetable matter, as leaves, roots, or stems of plants, with mud from the canals, and ofl'als of animals, even to the shavings collected by barbers ; with all these they mix as much animal water as can be procured, or common water sufji- cient to dilute the whole ; and, in this state, generally in the act of putrid fermentation, they apply it to the ploughed earth. In various parts of a farm, and near paths and roads, reservoirs are made to collect all matter that is capable of producing manure ; and the quantity of manure collect- ed by every means is still inadequate to the demand. Wood ashes, and that made from burned weeds, is considered by the Chinese, the very best manure, and is mixed with other matter in forming composition to spread on fields, or apply to individual plants. The plaster of old kitchens is much esteemed as manure ; and a farmer will replaster a cook-house for the old plaster, so that he may employ it to fertilize his fields. Night soil is greatly valued by the Chinese. The dung and urine of animals is collected with great care, and used mixed and separately. Horns and bones reduced to powder, hemp and other seeds from which oil has been expressed, small crabs, the feathers of fowls, soot, sweepings of streets, stagnant contents of common sewers, all rank as manure, and are carried to a great distance, if water carriage can be obtained. Lime is chiefly employed for destroying insects ; the Chinese arc however, aware of its fertilizing qualities. The Chinese often manure the plant rather than the soil. The nature of the climate justifies this laborious but economical practice. Rain com- monly falls in such quantities and with such force, as to wash away all the soluble parts of the soil, and the manure on which its fertility is sup- posed to depend. It is therefore proper that the Chinese husbandman should reserve the necessary nourishment of the plant to be applied at the proper time. For this purpose, reservoirs of the requisite dimen- sions are constructed in the corner of every field, or other convenient place. The manure applied to plants as they advance to maturity, is often changed. The mixture of soils is said to be a common practice as a substitute for manure. They are constantly changing earth from one piece of ground to another ; mixing sand with that which appears too ad- hesive, and loam where the soil appears to be too loose, &c. They di- rect their drills and ridges from north ij south, if circumstances will al- low it ; certainly a desirable practice. Before they sow, the seeds are kept in liquid manure till they germinate. I shall here notice the nation- al agricultural fete of the Chinese. Every year, on the fifteenth day of the first moon, which generally corresponds to some day in the beginning of our March, the Emperor, in person, goes through the ceremony of opening the ground ; he repairs in great state to the field appointed for the ceremony ; the princes of the imperial family, the presidents of the five great tribunals, and an immense number of mandarins attend him. Two sides of the field are lined with the officers of the Emperor's house^ the third by ifte different mandarins, the fourth is reserved for all the la- i : 1.:^ •m ■ i4 25 honrors oftho provincp, who repair thither to ?eo ihrir art honored and practiced l)y tlie head of tlie empire. The Kmperor enters the field alone, prostrates himsell", and touches the ground nine times with his head in adoration of Fien, the God of Heaven. He pronounces with a loud voice a prayer prepared by the court of ceremonies, in wliich he invokes the blessing of the Great Being on his labour, and on that of his whole people ; then, in the capacity of chief priest of the empire, he sacrifices an ox, in homage to heaven as the fountain of all good. WTiile the victim is offered on the altar, a plough is brought to the Emperor, to which is yoked a pair of oxen, ornamented in a most magnificent style. The prince lays aside his imperial robes, lays hold of the handle of the plough with his right hand, and opens several furrows in the direction of north and south ; then gives the plough into the hands of the chief mandarins, who, labouring in succession, display their comparative dexterity. The ceremony concludes with a distribution of money and pieces of cloth, as presents among the labourers ; the ablest of whom execute the rest of the work in presence of the Emperor. After the field has received all the necessary work and manure, the Emperor returns to commence the sowing with similar ceremonies, and in presence of the labourers. These ceremonies are performed on the same day by the -viceroys of all the provinces. ' AGRICULTURE OF AUSTRALIA. To the Canadian, a short notice of the agriculture of the Australian /sles, may be interesting. The islands of Australia form a most extensive part of the territorial surface of our globe, and are likely one day to be overspread by the de- scendants of Britons. The rapid progiess of these scarcely known re- gions to population and cultivation, is almost certain, founded as it is on the great requisites, temperate chmate, culturable and extremely fertile soil, ample water inter communications, and favorable on the whole to the health, comfort, and industry of Europeans. The surface of the country is represented to be suited in an extraordinary degree to the purposes of rural economy, the plough and the spade, the dairy and the sheep-walk. A Mr. Evans, who made a journey of 300 miles into the interior in 1818, states, " the farther he advanced the more beautiful the scenery became ; both hill and dale were clothed with fine grass, the whole ap- pearing at a distance as if laid out into fields, divided by hedge rows. Through ever/ valley, meandering trickling streams of water ; many of the hills capped with forest trees, and clumps of these mixed with mimosas and the cassuarina, were interspersed along the declivities of the hills, and in the valleys, so as to wear the appearance of a succession of gen- tlemen's parks. Their mineral productions are coal of the best description, found often in the hills, and worked from the side like a stone quarry ; limestone, slate, and iron, in great abundance. Wheat, barley, and maize, or Indian corn, is raised in great perfection. The colony is particularly suited to maize and sheep. The wool of the sheep of iS'ew South Wales is equal to the best of that produced in Saxony, and can be sent to the British 26 lorrd and ■.?-■ 1 iho fiolci 1 his head i th a loud \ 3 invokes i ': lis whole rifices an \ le victim * which is ji'. e. The ■ e plough of north Lindarins, y. The '^ cloth, as B rest of > eived all ;: ence the . These . f all the .. t J istralian 1 rritorial 1 the de- 1 own re- J it is on fertile ) to the iountry )ses of -walk. ior in ;enery le ap- rows. iny of nosaa hills, ■gen-^ often one, dian id to qual itish ■ market for about the same expense of transport. According to a calcula- tion made in 1820, makin<^ the most liberal allowance for all kinds of expenses, casualties, and deteriorations, the money sunk in the rearing of sheep in th's colony will, in the course of three years double itself, be- sides paying an interest of 75 per cent. Millions of acres of land of the very best descriptioti, perfectly free from timb-aising a capital of onemiUion of pounds sterling, in shares of one hundred pounds each. In the last session of the British Parliament a land company were chartered, on terms somewhat differing from the chartered land compa- nies of Canada. The natural grasses are said to afford an abundance of pasturage at alt seasons of the year, and no provision of winter provender, in the shape either of hay or artificial food, is made by the settler for his cattle. The native dog of New Holland is a wild animal, that has lately been very destructive to the sheep of the settlers ; they are the greatest enemy to the agriculturists in that country, and are not easily extirpated. In the Island of New Zealand, they have a plant which answers all the uses of hemp and flax There are two kinds of this plant, the leaves of one of which are yellow, and those of the other deep red, and both re- semble the leaves of flags. Of these leaves they make lines and cord- age, much stronger than anything of the kind in Europe. Tiiey likewise split them into breadths, and tying the slips together, form their fishing nets. Their common apparel, by a simple process, is made from their leaves ; and their finer, by another preparation, is made from the fibres. This plant is found both on high and low grounds, in dry mould, and deep bogs ; but as it^grows largest in the latter, that secma to be its pro- f^ .:»:S! ■*>i , 1. ji v'f.M •'v\ 27 per soil. It has lately been cultivated iti Ireland with success, but not to an extent to dtterniine its value. AGRICULTURE OF AFRICA. Of all the great divisions of the earth, Africa, in point of agriculture, is the meanest ; though in one part of it, (Egypt,) agriculture is supposed to have originated after the Deluge. The climate is extremely hot, and fully one half the continent may be considered de&ert, or unknown. The British settlement at the Capo of Good Hope, is the only country in Africa the agriculture of which I think it necessary to allude to, having already slightly noticed that of Egypt. ACRICULTURii OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. tir' The climate of the Cape of Goo^ Hope, is not unfavorable to vegeta- tion, though subject to the influence of periodical winds, and torrents of rain during the cold season. In summer, the thermometer generally ranges between 70® and 80® , sometimes betA\een 80® and 90® , but scarcely ever above 95® . In some parts the soil is good, and very productive, but a great pro- portion is light and sandy ; however, the great scarcity of water in sum- mer, is much more unfavorable to an extended cultivation than either the soil or the climate. The returns of grain and pulse are from ten to se- renty, according to the nature of the soil and the supply of w ater. Bar- ley is very productive, and is used only for feeding horses ; rye and oats run much to straw, and are chiefly used as green fodder. Indian corn thrives well, and 1,-. ery productive ; various kinds of millet, kidney- beans, and other peas, are extensively cultivated. The wheat is gene- rally heavier, and yields a finer flour than that of England. It is all spring wheat, bemg sowed from the month of April to June. Some far- mers declare they have reaped sixty and eighty for one ; the average may be from twenty to thirty. The crops are very precarious, failing some- times for three or four years in succession. The vine is considered the staple article of culture, and better grapes are not produced in any part of the world ; but the art of making wine and brandy from them admits of improvement. The almond^ is a very productive tree at the Cape, and thrives in the driest and worst soil. The aloe species covers large tracts of ground, which aflTords the juice or raisin of the apothecaries. Tobacco grown at the Cape is equally good as that of Virginia. The live stock of the Cape are not remarkable for their excellent qua- lities. The tails of the sheep have more fat than the rest of the carcass, weighing from six to twelve pounds. The Cape horse, originally from Java, is a small, active, spirited animal, a mixture of the Spanish and Ara- bian, capable of undergoing great fatigue ; and, as a saddle horse, ex- cellently adapted to the country. Pigs are scarce : it is difficult to un- derstand why. They have waggons, which carry about thirty Winches- ter bushels, or a ton weight, and aie generally drawn by sixteen or twen- ty oxen, of a small size. The agriculture of iho Cape is doubtless capable of great improve- s, but not to jricullure, is supposed to ely hot, and nown. The country in c to, having ment, were the farmers less indolent, and more ambitious of enjoying for themselves and their families more of the comforts and luxuries of exis- tence. It is the opinion of Barrow, that there might be produced an ahiuidance of corn, cattle, and wine, for exportation; but that to Qtiectthis, it will be necessary to procure a new race of inhabitants, or to change the nature of the old ones. An attempt was recently made by govern- ment to settle a number of British families in the district of the Albany, but the experiment did not succeed well, from the unsuitableness of the land for arable culture, and the reported unjustifiable partiality of those who were in power, and who superintended the settlement. AGRICULTURE IN NORTH AMERICA. ij.w 'lii ■'Vl i to vegeta- torrents of r generally Ll90«,bul great pro- ter in suin- n either tho n ten to se- ater. Bar- /e and oats ndian corn ?t, kidney- ; is gene- It is all Some far- erage may ing some- iidered the n any part em admits the Cape, vers large >thecaries. Uent qua- 3 carcass, ally from and Ara- orse, ex- ult to un- Winches- or twen- improve- Tho climate of this region, which extends from the vicinity of the equa- tor to the arctic circle, is naturally extremely various. The heat of sum- mer, and the cold of winter is more intense, than in most parts of the old world. In the middle provinces, the weather is remarkably unsteady. Snow falls plentifully in Virginia, but seldom lies above a day or two. Carolina, and Florida are subject to insufierable heat, furious whirlwinds, hurricanes, thunder, and fatal lightning. The climate in the western parts, or of California, is said to be moderate and pleasant. !ZVie surface of JVbr//i Jimerica, is diversified with mountains and ex- tensive plains, generally covered with forest. No part of the world i? so well watered with springs, rivulets, lakes, and rivers. The agriculture of a part of the United States and of British America, is very similar to that of the North of Europe ; but in the Southern States, and in all that part of North America near the equator, the culture of the South of Europe prevails. In the West India Islands, the productions of any part of the world may be brought to perfection. AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. In a country of sudh extent, the climate necessarily must vary consi- derably. In the north-east, the winters are very cold, and the summers hot, changing as yoU proceed to the south. South-east, and along the gulf of Mexico, the summers are very hot, and the winters mild and plea- sant. In the rich valleys of the Ohio, Mississippi, and Missouri, the cH- mate is delightful. In the neighbourhood of the Rocky Mountains, the winters are very cold. West of these mountains the climate changes, becomes temperate and pleasant, and resembles that of the western parts of Europe. The prevailing wine's are from the west. The seasons nearly correspond with those of Europe, but not with that equality of temperature that might be expected on a continent ; dur- ing the summer heats, days will occur which require the warmth of a fire. The latitude of .Canada corresponds with that of France, but the climates are widely different. Humboldt was of opinion that the difference of temj^erature between the old and new continents, in the same latitude, is between 4® and 5® in fUvor of the former ; but it is my opinion, that the difierence is more than double that estimate. The surface of the country, and the soil of the United States, presents 5) 29 every variety. Some spola in Kentucky are deemed too rich for wheal. A great proportion of the soil throughout the Union is extremely fertile, though there are many sandy barrens producing only a few pines, and considerable marshes uncultivated. The inhabitants of the CFnited States being generally of British origin, and the climate adapted for British agriculture, it is the British system that has boea introduced, where possible ; however, there are some pe- culiarities of American agriculture, that it may be well to notice, and I shali do so iu the third part, or practice of agricuUure. In all countries, where there is an abundance of fertile land, and a thin population, the price of labour must be high, and the produce of land low in proportion. The cheapness of land afiords the possession of indepen- dence and comfort at so easy a rate, that strong inducements of profit are required to detain men in the condition of servitude. Hence the high price of commodities not simply agricultural, and the low price of grain, because where three-fourths of the population raise their own grain, the remaining fouth will use only a moderate proportion of the spare produce. The agricultural produce of the United States, include all those of Britain and France. The greatest quantity of wheat is grown, in Penn- sylvania, New- York, and New-England. Maize ripens in all the dis- tricts in great perfection. Rice j cultivated in the southern states. The vine is indigenous but not extensively cultivated ; some French cultiva- tors are of opinion that the climate and soil are unfavorable for its culti- vation. The mulbv-nry, the cotton, the sugar-cane, and tobacco are cul- ' tivated in the States, with the greatest success. The live stock of the United States are generally derived from Eng- lish stock, and are of a very good description. For neat cattle, the cli- mate is favorable, and the herbage may be provided in abundance. Hogs are of an excellent description, and raised in prodigious numbers. Of their sheep, I am not competent to give an opinhn, not having seen any large flocks of them. I believe it is the general opinion that superior mutton is seldom found in very hot climates, though the best of wool may be produced in hot countries. Agricultural operations are skilfully performed by the farmers of capi- tal, who have the best implements of Europe and America. But this is not the case generally, frem many causes, want of stock, of capital, and sometimes from indolence. The American farm labourer is extremely expert in the use of the axe and the scythe, and will do more work with these implements than the generality of labourers from the Old Country. Most of these labourers can build a house, mend a plough, waggon, or harness, and kill and dress an ox, sheep or pig. Field labour in America requires to be performed much more expedi- tiously than in England. The winters are long and severe, and the tran- sition to spring is sudden. This season, in many parts, lasts only a few vrcefcs, when summer commences, and the ground becomes too hard and dry for the operations of tillage ; seed sowing must, therefore, be per- formed with the greatest rapidity. The climate of the State of New- York, may be reckoned as good as any in North America. Snow gene- rally C0VW3 the ground in December, and continues until March, or tho ■ foe H. an I Tl 1 th( 1 coi m tur ^m be( 1 pel Inc tur r ?BBSfPm9l ao lish origin, sh system 3 some pc- ice, and I and a thin f land low findepen- I of profit fence the ' price of their own on of the those of in Penn- II the dis- ss. The 1 cuhiva- its culti- ) are cul- foeglnning of April. Ploughing frequently commeocei early in April, and the sov^ng of spring wheat at the same time. At the end of May, grain crops are generally as forward as in England at the same period. There is much less rain in summer and harvest, than in England ; and therefore, the crops may be harvested with less expense, and in better condition, even though higher wages be paid. The produce ot apicul- ture in the United States, is reported as very great where lands have been well managed. All the cultivated herbage grasses grow in ghai perfection in the northern states. Root crops are also most abundant. Indian corn is very extensively cultivated, and yields ajstonishing re- turns. Wheat is generally sown in the fall. The general improvement of the United States, the unpreoedentad in- crease of her cities and towns, the faciUties of intercourse in all direc- tion throughout their vast extent of country, is the best possible proof of the healthful, and thriving state of their agriculture. I shall, in the third part of this work, the practice of agricultdre, again occasionally refer to the practice of husbandry in the United States, according to the reports that I have in my possession ; but as I cannot speak from personal obiervation, never having been in the United States, should I be found in error in any description I may give of the agricul- ture of that country, I hope I shall be excused. I distinctly disavow any desire on my part, to describe the agriculture of any country to which I may refer, but in the most favorable light, consistent \sith truth. agriculture op MEXICO. tl '! '■! It ■•(■, )m Eng- , the cli- mdance. umbers, ng seen superior of wool of capi- t this is tfJ, and remely rk with Juntry. jon, or xpedi- B tran- a few rdand e per- JVew- gene- or th9 11 The climate of Mexico is greatly diversified ; eome districts hot and unhealty, others mild, with some snow in winter ; but no artificial warmth is necessary, and animals may remain unhoused all the year. Humboldt found that the vale of Mexico is about 6,960 feet above the level of the sea, and even the inland plains are generally about 3,600 feet above the level of the sea. This great elevation tempers the climate with a degree of cold, and causes it to be more healtliful. Much of the soil is deep clay, very fertile, requiring no stimulus except irrigation. In some places the soil is boggy, composed of soft black earth ; there are also barren sands, and in elevated situationL^, the soil is stoney. Their chief grain is maize or Indian corn, which they cultivate well, and to great extent. 3u)lock Travels, (1824,) inform us, they are very cu- rious in rearing and feeding swine ; and that an essential requisite in a Mexican swine-herd is an agreeable voice, in order that he may sing or charm the aairaals into peace when they quarrel and fight, and lull them to sleep at proper times to promote thtir fatting. Wind, and sounds of every kind have been long known to have a powerful effect on this genus of animals. It is «aid that there never has been a nation equal in skill to the Mexicans in the Gtire of so many different species of animals, who had so much knowledge of their disposition, of the food which was rnost proper for each, and of all the means necessary for their preserva- tion and increase. In the gardens of the nobles and priests of Mexico, are to be found all the fruits of Europe, and most of those of the East and West Indioa. f2 •♦•'Mil V V ■•." I V 31 ^f Oflhe agvicultnre of South America^ as practiced in the greater part of that vast continent, I do not think a description necessary, nor would it be very instructive to Canadian farmers. The agriculture of the West India Islands^ would bo equally uninter- esting, as the climate, and consequently the managerncnt of the soil, and species of crop, in these islands, must ever be different from Canada. Every one however, may not be acquainted Avith the general fact, that in the tropical countries alone, beneath a vertical sun, we could see vegeta- tion in all its glory, and magnitude. There, the form, the colour, and the odour of plants are developed. There the majestic palm rears its tow- ering stem, and sends forth its gigantic leaves. There the groves are ever blooming and productive. The plumage of the birds, and the va- riegated adornments of the fishes, and insects are strikingly beautiful. The most splendid exhibition of colours of ever) description, is display- ed on every side. The fruit of the Banana or Plantain, an inhabitant of tropical countries, is often a foot in circumference, and seven or eight inches long ; it is produced in bunches, containing usually from 160 to 180 fruit, and each bunch weighs from 66 to 88 pounds. Hum- boldt remarks, that a small space of 1000 square feet, on which 30 or 40 of these Banana plants may grow, will, on a mode: ate computation, afford in the course of a yera*, 4,000 pounds weight of fruit, a produce 133 times greater than could be obtained from the same space, if covered with wheat, and 44 greater than if occupied with potatoes. It is this ex- treme fruitfulness, that gives sustenance to the immense population of tropical countries in the East. Let us, then, cast our eyes on man. We see him spread over the '.vorld, from the Fror?en Ocean to the Er-r.atcr, and everywhere, by tho eflfects of his industry, and in proportion to his knowledge, assembling round him whatever is useful, and agreeable of his own country, or that of others ; and it may be admitted as a general principle, with very few exceptions, that the more difficulties man has to surmount, the more ra- pidly are developed his moral faculties ; and in all agricultural countries, the less fertile the soil, the more cizilized the people who inhabit it ; and the more civilized the people, the greater will be the demand for the pro- duce of agricu?t e, and for all the comforts and conveniences of life. From the outline given of the field culture of several nations in the different parts of the world, it may be observed that different species of culture,^ are founded on geographical position or climate, difference of physical circumstances or surface, and difference of civilization or hu- man wants. The influence of climate extends not only to the kind of plants and animals to be reared, but also to the mode of rearing. A few useful plants are universal, and but a few. Of those belonging to agriculture, we enumerate most of the annual pasture or hay grasses, and of the cereal garsses, the wheat, rye and barley. The oat, the pea, bean, turnip, pota- toe, and the pirennial pasture grasses, will neither thrive in very hot, nor in very cold climates ; the maize, millet, and rice can only be grown in warm countries, and the oat in temperate regions. The yam, plantain, bread fruit, &c., the mahogany and teak tree, are limited to torrid re- gions, the oak and pine tree to temperate. • .i '»Wil' •*mm 32 ^iiimnlii^ as phDitu, ore afj'cclcd hij cVimate. — The ox uiul switjo are unive'-.sal, unci found in every i-c;^'ion : tlio horsr^ and »ss lire nfaily so ; the shoei) nill iw'vM in hdiii, und also in (»rccnluH', but logics its tis« I'ul character in both countries. In Greenland it requires^ sheiler under ro- ver nine months of the year ; and in India, the wo(ti is cbaujied to ban*, and the carcass is too loan for the butcher. The inanay -t Ji ■i} .;pK,'ll 33 nttalu ft RfHat dzc, nnd iho highest de^rro of perfection, where the vtln^ ters arc lonrr« and tho Hiiminers hot and light ; the reason of which Reeina to bo, that Iho aUcrnate action of heat and cold» rain and ice, melio- rates the soil and prepares it in the best manner tor the nourishment of nnmuilH. All countries that have long and severe winters, have soft soils. The same description of sub-soil, that would in Ireland require \o be worlcod with the pickaxe, can in Canada be dug 'with the spade, except in time of extraordinary drought. Elevation has an absolute influence on agriculture. In Savoy, pota- toes and barley are cultivated 4600 feet above the level of the sea ; but while the harvest is in that country, over in the plains by the end of June, it is not over in the mountains till the end of September. Elevation les- sens temperature in regular gradation, according to the altitude above the sea, and has a corresponding influence on plants and aniUkuls. Three hundred feet in height are considered nearly equal to half a degree of latitude, and is thought to occasion a difference of temperature of nearly twelve degrees of Fahrenheit. I and \| nadir Fr] ly im| duce manui dustrjf forth for rel incrcil cd anl gencrj the ml was pi SinI severe lesser PRESENT STATE OP AGRICULTURE IN THE BRITISH ISLES. From the period of the revolution in 1688, agriculture gradually im- proved. In the seventeenth century, clover and turnips were introduced into England, and though potatoes had been previously introduced (in 1665) it was only in the seventeenth century that they began to attract notice. At this time hops enough were not planted in England for home consumption, but were imported from the Netherlands. A write*, on agri- culture, Blyth, says : " It is not many years since the famous city of London petitioned the parliament of England against two nuisances, or offensive commodities, which were likely to come into great use and es- teem, and they were Newcastle coal, in regard of its stench, &c., and hops, in regard they would spoil the taste of drink, and endanger the people." About the time of the revolution, corn-laws were promulgated, and bounties paid, and duties imposed, on corn exported and imported, ac- cording to a fixed scale of prices ; and it is a remarkble circumstance, that from 1686 to 1765, the price of corn was lower, than it was for the same period previous to 1688. From 1795 to 1821, the price of corn in England was generally double the price it was from 1700 to 1760. According to the Com Laws o/1828, foreign wheat is admitted, when the average price in England is 62s per imperial quarter, at a duty of 34s 8d per quarter, and from 62s to 73s at a graduated scale of duties, being admitted at the latter price at Is per quarter. Barley at 24s, is ad-j mitted at a duty of 25s ICd per quarter, and trom 24s to 41s on a gradu- ated scale of duties ; so that at the latter price it is admitted at Is per quarter. Oats are admitted at 18s per quarter, at a duty of 19s 9d per quarter, and from 18s to 31s on a graduated scale of duties ; so that at the latter price the duty is Is per quarter. In like manner rye, peas and beans, when at 29s per quarter, are admitted at a duty of 25s 9d per quarter, and when at 46s, at Is. The duty on Canadian wheat, when the price in England is 673 per quarter, is only 6d sterling per quarter, '•mmmmmmmmmmmmm^ lore (h« wfn- which seetriH d ice, melio- unshnient of s, have soft id require lo |>ade, except Savoy, pota- le sea ; but !nd of June, levation les- le abo^e the lis. Three a degree of e of nearly 3LES. idually im- introduced educed (in to attract I for home ?'• on agri- is city of ances, or e and es- &c., and nger the ted, and rted, ac- nstance, for the corn in ). i, when duty of duties, isad^ gradu- Is per 9d per that at IS and ?d per when larter, 84 nin\ when tlio prico in Knglniid in I)c1o\t 67s the quarter, tho duty on Ca- nadian wheat is 7|^d tiie bushel or 5s the quarter. From 1786 to tho peace in 1814, tho system of agriculture was great- ly improved in Britain. The gradual advance in the price of land |>r(>- duce occasioned by the increase of j)opulation,and of weiilth derived fronj manufactures and commerce, gave a most powerful stiimilus to rural in- dustry, augmented agricultural capital in a greater degree, and called forth a more skilful and enterprising race of cultivators, than all the laws for regulating the corn trade could ever have efiected. Inventions for increasing produce, and economising labour were introduced, or improv- ed and extended, id by these means produce was greatly increased for general consum|)tion. The gardenlike appearance of the country, gave the most decided proof of the skill and success witli which agriculture was practiced at the close of the War. {Mnce the period of the general peace in 1816, agriculture sustained a severe shock, from the fall in prices of produce occasioned chiefly by the lessened circulation of currency. In this stock, many thousands of far- mers in the British Islea lost all their capital, and were reduced lo insol- vency and pauperism, while some, more fortunate, contrived to retain as much of the wreck of their property, as enabled them to emigrate to other countries. Cleghorn, whose pamphlet on the depressed state of agricul- ture, was honoured with the prize of tiio Highland Society of Scotland, thinks this loss cannot be less than one year's rental of the whole island. " The replies sent to the circular letter of the Board of Agriculture re- garding the agricultural state of the kingdom, in February, March, and April, 1816, furnished a body of evidence which cannot be controverted, and exhibit a picture of widely spread ruin among the agricultural class- es, and distress among all that immediately depend upon them, to which there is probably no parallel." / have been an eye icitnesa to this state of things in Ireland. The total ruin of all farmers who had rented lands during the war, had to pay these rents with peace prices for produce, and a greatly diminished currency. I have seen a statement lately, that appeared to be a correct one, which calculated the loss that had been sustained in Scotland alone since 1816, in agricultural capital, at sixty millions of pounds sierlingy together with much of the lands injured by constant cropping, without rest, though extremely well managed otherwise. A question arises, who has unjustly profited by these losses 1 and to this I answer without hesita- tion, that it was generally the landlords, who would not reduce the rents to that equitable standard that would enable the tenant to preserve his ca- pital untouched, which I think he is ever entitled to do, when he performs . his part, as a husbandman should do. I beheve, however, a more equitable arrangement as regards rents, is now beginning to be estabUshed between landlord and tenant, particular- ly in England. The agriculture of Iieland is still in a backward state, except with far- mers who have capital. The Dublin Society was formed in 1731, when a number of gentlemen, at the head of whom was Prior, of Rathdowney, Queen's County, associated themselves together for the purpose of im- . proving the agriculture and husbandry of their country. In 1749, Prior, ■fV ^. 'it ■'H •<\ffl 35 tln'()ii;^)i th«> interest lu> linil w itii t!ir tlicii luid liiuiti-imiit, 2>r<)(-iir<'(l a ^lunl of.OKi.niK) ]MM' "iiiiiim, Ibr \\iv hcitcr piotiiotioii ot'ttu' viovs of the auci- viy. Tfliss I'ltUMtice cunsidcrH jliiw llic liist nsHociiitidiM \{'r lorux-d in llio Brilisli (Itniiiiiioiis, r\;)i«!M«h(i\vH in Dub- lin, and at the <>i'eat Cattlu Fair ol' llallliiaHluc. At tho.so hIiowm, tho most !slio i'aiincd thoir own instates, no other couhl comiittt', witli the bh^^htait chance ol* fcUCOOSS. The climate of Ireluiid \a nmch more mild than that of Kn<>land, particularly ihe southern and v«'.>(t'rn parts of the Inland ; in these parts snow scMtau lies for any lime, and frost does n(»t continue iuany tkiyfi to- «',ellu'r ; indeed [ilou;ihin«.^ is not oftin interrupted hy fror-t '.r sni;v\ ; and spade, and other Held work is constantly {^oitiL' j)n. Tlu! niildness and humidity of the utmosphorii |)roduces a growth in vegetation .scarcely to he met with in any other country. This ai)p( lus most reuiarkahly m tho ivy, tmd othi r eve!;a'<'< ny, v. ilh which Ireland ahouuds. These are not cidy much more plentilul, hut hu' more luxuriant, and of nnich quicker growth, than in the most favoured jiarts of Great JJritain. It is to tho peculiarity of their climate, that the Irish have to attribute the richness of their pasturage, an advantage >vhieh, (!ou[)Ied with the r(;nmrkahle dry- ness and friahility of the soil, points, in an unetiuivoctd manner, to a ro- tation of crop-!, in which grazing should occupy a principal place. Tho soil of Ireland, is generally a fertile loam, though there arc many other varieties of inferior soil. She possesses a nmch greater propor- tion of fertile land, in portion to her extent, than either England or iScot- laad. iS'ot only is the island blessed witlitiiis extent of cultivable ground, but it is almost all of a quality to yield luxuriant crops, with very mferi- or cultivation. Sand, or tenacious clay is seldom met with. Great part of the land of Ireland throws up a luxuriant herbage, without the aid of the husbandman. There are in some counties, particularly Limerick, a dark, friable, sandy loatn, Avhich if i)reserved in a clean state, will yield crops of corn, several years in succession. I have seen land that gave scvenieen corn crops in succession ivitlioiU manure ; and the last crop, (oats,) was above an average. These lands are equally well adapted for grazing as for arable crops, and do not often experience a winter too wet, or a summer too dry. The bogs of Ireland are estimated at 2,330,000 acres ; these boga are supposed to have originated from the decay of woody tracts ; they • are capable of amelioration, but, alas ! capital is required. I have seen farming in Ireland, with proprietors and farmers of capital carried on in as good style, as judiciously, and scientifically as it Mas possible tor it to be in any country ; but with farmers destitute of capi- tal, it must be otherwise. The landlord seldom lays out one shilling upon buildings or repairs. However necessary, or however small the far- mer's means of doing so, he must find himself in all these conveniences. According to Wakefield, " The worst features of the rural economy of this island are the entire want of capital in the farmers, and the complete mdirtcrcnce of the landlord, to the character, WTalth, and industry of his we| Ub\ on du( ty five 30 .s ol' tlir 80('i- cr foriiMcl in miiif(iS(uit)ty <»w.s in l)nb- ! .show*), the L'.vcitcd ^rtat >slio I'aiiiud at cliancc of L>f Kii«;lHn(l, I lliesi- juirts iin) vill yield that gave last crop, lapied for r too wet, fse boga ;ts ; they • J f capital s it Mas ! of capi- shilling the far- nienceF. nomy of onij)lete v of hia tenant. C&pital i» considered of »o little importonct in Ireland, that ad- vertisemonta constantly appear in newspapcrn, in which it in stated, that the preferencfl will certainly he given to tho higheHt bidder. Bargains are constantly made with a beggar aH a new ttuinnt, who, offering more rent, invariably turns out tho old ones however industrious." From tins picture, coupled with tithes and other taxoii, it may well be supposed what chance there is for a tenant, however industrious and clever ho may be, to accumulate capital, if he wants it, or to preserve it if he has got it. In several counties in Ireland, good wheat is produced. I have known well cultivated fallows to yield from thirty to forty-live bushelH the Eng- lish acre, or from 1800 lbs. to 2800 lbs.; but the latter was only produced on the best managed fallows where lime was applied. The average pro- duce is much under thirty bushels. Darley is inferior to that grown in England. Oats are produced in great abundance, on good land from for- ty-five to seventy bushels tho English acre ; the average is below forty- five bushels. Potatoes aro also produced in great perfection, but not a greater quantity to the acre than I havo seen in Canada. In Ireland, 12,000 lbs. to 21,000 lbs. of potatoes are raii^ed off the English acre ; the latter quantity is seldom exceeded. Potatoes arc cultivated in drills, or lazy beds ; the latter mode is best suited to heavy, deep soiUi from the great humidity of the climate. , The dairy part of Irish husbnndry is well managed. Four good cows will produce 28 lbs. ' " butter in the week. Chaptal observes, that the art of salting butter is better known in IrelanJ than in any other country. In Ireland great tracts of country are exclusively devoted to breeding and feeding neat cattle and sheep. Roscommon, Galway, Clare, Limerick, and Tipperary, are the chief breeding counties for sheep ; and Galway, Clare, Roscommon, Tipperary, and Meath, are the places where sheep, and the best neat cattle are fattened. Tho sheep are of the long woolled kind, and very large and well-formed generally. The fertility of the soil in many parts of Ireland, is greater than in any other country ; and it is a remarkable circumstance, that while she ex- ports cattle, sheep, hogs, wheat, oats, and other agricultural produce, to the amount of many millions of pounds sterling, annually, her a/;f icultu- ral population, and working class enjoy very few of the comforis of life, compared to the inhabitants of England, who purchase these articles from her. In 1823, and other years, when a great number of the labouring classes in Ireland were starving from the failure in the potatoe crop, and subscriptions to a great amount were raising in England, and even on the Continent, for their relief, corn and cattle were constantly exporting from Cork, and other Irish ports, as if nothing had happened, or no want felt by any class. How desirable, that the working classes in Ireland should possess a taste for the comforts of life. If they did, their con- dition would soon improve ; they wo. J not be content with straw, pota- toes, and milk when they can get it, as their portion of the abundance of good things which their country produces. I believe when they leave their own country and come to Canada, they know liow to estimate, and enjoy the comforts of life as well as any other class of people. The agriculture of Scotland was considered to be far behind that of England in improvement, at the middle of the last century, but from thai O > L ' . •if. ■ n*l ■H i. >A It ■'1 '4 37 period it is supposed to have outstripped England in point of arable hus- bandry. The allemate system of tillage, or course of cropping, is gene- rally adopted ; meadows, or what is understood by lands kept under grans permanently for the sake of a hay crop, is little known in the Low- lands of Scotland. On good lands, one half the farm is under different species of corn crops, and the other half under pulse, roots, cultivated herbage, or summer fallow. On the best cultivated farms, grazing is car- ried on only as subservient to tillage. The general arable culture of the Lowlands, the ploughing, manuring, draining, and agricultuial imple- ments are not surpas^jd in excellence in any country. The high rents that are paid for lands have, however, (it is reported) induced, or more properly compelled, farmers to crop the lands without reposing them in pasture for sufficient intervals, which has considerably reduced the strength or staple of these lands, and caused them to become too incohe- sive to produce the most profitable crops, particularly those soils that are not of the first quality. In a large portion of Scotland as well as the Lowlands, arable culture is well conducted. The Duke of Sutherland, (late Marquis of Stafford,) has introduced ^eat improvements on his extensive estates in Scotland, in the county of Sutherland. Few propri- etors have done more for the improvement of agriculture on their estates, than that nobleman, both in England and in Scotland. The ameliora- tion produced in the lands, and in the inhabitants of his Sutherland pro- perty, is almost incredible, and gives a useful example of what can be ef- fected by capital and industry, judiciously applied. I have not any statistical returns of the produce of agriculture, stock, &c., in Scotland, expt under the Low- different ;ultivated ng is car- ire of the il imple- igh rents I or more : them in iced the > incohe- that are ill as the herland, i on his r propri- estates, meliora- md pro- m be ef- !, stock, h is es- a state )n ; and tivation Gotland, /anada. d leave Durable ed loss years, itry for in fee- |ear or- made , at ara- would B soil : srves : ans of other illy to ented .f28i, acres each, are all, except one in fallow, bearing crops of wheat, oats, barley, turnips, potatoes and hay : the cattle kept on the farm are soiled on clover. The average return of crops to the acre, is extremely various in Scotland, and I have no general average ; but on good soils, I believe the returns are fully as great as are obtained in the British Isles, however favourably circumstanced as to soil and climate. The neat cattle of Scotland are not so large as those of England ; they are exported to England in great numbers, where they are very mifch esteemed for fattening, and when fat, the beef sells for a higher price the stone weight, than 3ie large English beef. The Ayreshire breed of cows are much admired for dairy pur|/oses, and are generally of excel- lent form. STATISTICAL NOTES OF ENGLAND AND WALES. I think it may be interesting to Canadian farmers to give the leading features of the statistical returns of England and Wales, as the best means of laying before them, the results of agriculture in that country, the climate, or soil of which, is not superior to that of Canada, except for grazing alone. By the census of 1831, the number of inhabitants was 14,171,689 souls. The superficies in statute acres of England and Wales, 37,084,- 400 ; inhabited houses, 2,000,000 ; rental annually 30,000,000 pounds sterling. Poor rates in 1830, — 8,161,280/. ; assessed value of counties, 61,874,420/. sterling. The imports in 1831, were 46,246,241/. ; exports 69,691,302/. ; revenue, 50,056,016/. ; expenditure, 47,142,943/. ; of this latter, the annual charges in respect to the funded and unfunded debt is 28,349,754/. The population of England and Wales compared to the superficies of 37,084,400 statute acres, gives a ratio of one inhabi- tant to every two and a half acres. The number of depositors in savings banks, 384,120 ; amount in/ested, 13,440,976/. According to returns made to parliament in 1818, there were then in England 4,167 endowed school', 'vith a revenue amounting to 300,525 ; 14,282 unendowed schools ; and 6,162 Sunday schools. By means of these schools 644,282 children, chiefly of the working classes, received instruction, of whom 321- 764 were taught gratuitously, and 321,276 paid for their education. There have not been any official returns on this subject since 1818, but from the answers to the circular letters of Mr. Brougham (the late Lord Chan- cellor,) in 1828, it was estimated that in 1829, the-e could not be less than a million and a half of the children of the humb.jr classes who were then receiving in England the advantages of education. The number of children of both sexes, between the ages of five and twelve, in England are supposed not to exceed two millions ; and, deducting the number that may be presumed to be educated at the higher schools, a reasonable hope may be entertained that no large portion of the children of the working classes are now wanting the means of instruction. I hope I shall be pardoned for this digression from my subject, but I feel that education is so necessary to the promotion of the improvement of agriculture, that I shall not fail, at every opportunity, to recommend it to those who want it, and to those who have it to promote it by every possible means,that no maa g2 "m ,, »i 39 in Canada, who is a landed proprietor, but shall be abi' to read publica- tions on agriculture, and on other subjects, and judge for b*'nself. Then we might expect to sec the people of Canada, in the full enjoyment of all the advantages, which Providence has so bountifully placed at their disposal. A Mr. Comber gives the results of his computation of the extent of land in cultivation in England and Wales.' I cannot answer for its exact- ness, but perhaps it is as nearly correct as estimates of the kind gene- rally are. The extent of hop, nursery, garden, and pleasure grounds, are supposed to be underated : acres. Wheat - 3,300,000 Barley and rye « 1,000,000 Oats and beans m 3,000,000 Clover, rye-grass, &c. • 1,200,000 Roots and cabbages cultivated by the plough 1,200,000 Fallow 2,309,000 Hop grounds 34,000 Nursery grounds 9,000 Fruit and kitchen gardens 41,000 Pleasure grounds • . . 16,000 Land depastured by cattle 17,000,000 Hedge-rows, copses and wood 1,600,000 Ways, water, &c. - 1,300.000 Commons and waste lands • m 5,094,000 Total 37,094,000 The quantity of corn raised per acre varies, of course, according to the soil. The produce of wheat on some spots amounts to 6 quar- ters or 48 bushels, in others to 1^ quarter or 12 bushels the acre ; 2^ quarters or 20 bushels for wheat, 4 quarters or 32 bushels for barley, and 4^ quarters or 34 bushels of oats per acre, is stated by many as a fair average return. The average weight of a bushel of good English wheat is about 58 lbs ; in bad seasons it does not exceed 56 or 57 lbs., but in good years it is found to weigh 60 to 62, and in some spots 64 lbs. It yields 43 lbs. of flour for standard wheaten bread, or 46J lbs. for house- hold bread. The quantity of hops may be computed at an annual aver- age of 20,000,000 lbs. The climate of England is subject to rain, but is exempt from the se- verity of heat or cold that is felt in similar latitudes. The mean tempe- rature for the six winter months, from October to March, is commonly between 40® and 45® of FEihrenheit's thermometer. In July and Au- gust from 60® to 65® . The mean annual temperature, noon and night, of the central part of England, is about 50® . The greatest heat seldom exceeds 80® , and the cold rarely below 20® to 25® . The average rain that falls in the kingdom is from 80 to 40 inches ; and the prevalent winds are the west and south-west. The total length of the paved streets and roads in England and Wales, is estimated at 20,000 miles, and that of all other roads, at about 100,000 miles. The average annual expen- diture thereupon may be taken at a million and a half sterling, being at 12/. 10s per mile. In 1832, the turnpike roads in Great Britain were year, 1 ItisI ending! 40 24,531 miles, whcreor the annual income was 1,214,716/ and the dvht was 6,200,000/. In the same year the total length of canalu in Great Bri- tain was 2,589 miles. The average price of wheat in England from 1760, when she began to import, to 1792, was from 42» to 50» the quarter, and the annual imports of corn was from 200,000 to 600,000 quarters. In 1792, the price of wheat was 2/. 2« lid ; in 1800, 6/. 13« 7d ; in 1812, 6/ 5s 5d; in 1822, 2/ 4a Id, and in 1831, 3/. lOf Sd. The annual consumption of wheat in the united kingdom, including seed, has been estimated at 12,000,000 quarters, or 96,000,000 bushels, and that of other grain at 40,000,000 quarters, or 320,000,000 bushels, making together 52,000,000 quarters, or 486,000,000, bushels, of which not one-twentieth part has, during any year, been imported, and in general a far less proportionate quantity. It is computed that the quantity of corn imported for the three years ending Juno, 1831, was 2,263,184 quarters,or near 18,000,000 bushels, at the rate of 6s Id per quarter, as the mean duty. It is supposed that half the corn produced in England is not brought to market, but is consumed by the agriculturists themselves, or used for seed, &c. In 1828, Mr. Jacob's estimate of the wheat produced in that year was 12,600,000 quarters, or 100,000,000 bushels ; and that the consumption of the pre- sent population was about seven bushels for each person. Contrasting this produce with what it was at the Revolution in 1688, recorded as 1,800,000 quarters or 14,000,000 bushels of wheat, and 8,000,000 quar- ters or 64,000,000 bushels of other grain, making together 9,800,000, or 78,000,000 bushels of grain ; and the consumption of wheat by each per- son was only three bushels. The present produce is about three times (greater than at the former period. The population is increased nearly in the same proportion : but the lands now cultivated and bearing com crops, do not, perhaps, exceed the quantity in cultivation bearing com crops at the Revolution ; nor does the population now employed in agri- cultu. ', over what was employed in 1688, bear any proportion to the in- crease of produce. The expense to cultivate lands in England has much increased of late years, as appears by the returns of the Board of Agriculture, which state that the average expense of cultivating 100 acres of land was, in 1790, 411/. ; in 1803, 647/. ; and in 1813, 771/., including labour, rent, and taxes. Since the latter year, labour, rent, and taxes, have been consi- derably reduced. It is calculated by surveyors, that highly cultivated land ought to produce a three-fold return, viz : one-third of the gross produce to the landlord for rent, another for the expenses, and the re- mainder for the farmer's profit ; the rent of inferior land, should be only a fourth, or even a fifth of the gross produce, by reason of the additional expense of cultivation. In Scotland the tenants have to give a much larger proportion of the gross produce to the landlord as rent, than in England. The consequence is, that they have been obliged to crop the land severe- ly, without resting it in pasture. It is computed that England and Wales now contain at least, 6,000,000 neat cattle, and a million and a half of horses, of which about a million are used in husbandry, two hundred thousand for pleasure, and three hundred thousand are colts^ and breeding mares. The number of sheep are WA 1?;^ ''am 11 \h 41 t! 'i;! about twenty millionR, and eight million of lambs. The number of long wooled sheep, is about five millions, their fleeces averaging from seven to eight pounds ; and of short wooled sheep, fifteen millions, the weight of fleece averaging from three to three and a half pounds. The whole quantity of wool annually shorn in England, ')s from eighty to eight-five million of pounds. The annual amount of profit from farming is not very susceptible of exact calculation, but was estimated some fifteen years since at 30,000,- 000 sterling, being a sum equivalent to the rental of England and Wales. The probable amount of the farming capital of the country was estimated at from two hundred and fifty to three hundred miUions sterling. The total annual produce of the land, is necessarily subject to the fluctuations of the seasons, but taking 'vheat at the medium ( " 60s the quarter, and other corn in proportion, we will find an average produce of about fifty millions sterhng in corn, to which, if p. similar value be added for pastu- rage, and a further allowance for hops, fruit, vegetables, &c. we shall have a total of from one hundred and ten to one hundred and twenty mil- lions sterling. In Scotland the rent bears a higher proportior to the gross produce of the land than in England. These reports conciude by stating, " There are many improvements of which English agriculture ia susceptible, such as in the size of farms in many counties, the length of leases, the coarse of husbandry, the construction of ploughs, and the mis- a{)})!ication of animal strength in labour. With attention iu these points, and the application of further capital, not to wastes, but to fertile land al- ready under culture, there is every hope that our agriculture may be yet considerably advanced in productiveness and in national value." The capital required by a farmer in England is generally estimated according" to the amount of rent ; on ordinary lands, the farmer should possess capital of from three to five times the amount of the annual rent. On fertile grazing land, that feed the best description of stock, a farmer would require from five to ten times the amount of the annual rent as capi- tal. In 1830, the capital necessary to stock a turnip land arable farm, was from 6/. to 6/., and a clay land farm from 71. to 8/. the acre, according to circumstances. From the operation of the poor laws, the rate of wa- ges in England for the summer months is, I believe, about one-third les3 than in Lower Canada. According to the returns in my possession of the produce of English agriculture in 1831, 7,300,000 acres under crop, to which must be added 2,300,000 acres in summer fallow, making together 9,600,000 acres, produced about 206,000,000 bushels of grain, valued that year at from i\i\.y to sixty millions of pounds sterling, giving on an average six pounds sterling per acre. The land depastured by cattb 17,000,000 acres, clover and other hay grasses, 1,200,000 acres ; and allowing 1,000,000 of acres of the root crops for feeding cattle, gives 19,200,000 acres for the support of a stock consisting of 1,500,000 horses, 6,000,000 oxen, and 28,000,000 sheep and lambs. The estimated profit on this stock, together wilfi hops, fruit, and vegetables, is 60,000,000 of pounds sterhng, which will give an average of about three pounds sterling per acre. Thus, calculating the land of England and Wales that is occupied ia agriculture, at 30,000,000 acres, it yielded in 1831, an average pro- EXTR^ WriHi 49 fluce equal to four pounds per acre. I have every reason to PtjppoFe that this estimation cannot be very incorrect, otherAvisc the faiiuers of England would be unable to pay for cultivation, rent, taxes, and other charges. My object in giving these reports of the produce of agriculture in Eng- land, (where it is admitted that the practice of tlie art is still capable of great improvement,) is to stimulate the farmers of this country to exer- tion and 'mprovement, that they may obtain equally favorable results from their own agriculture. The Third Part of this work, will give the practice of agriculture that has been most approved of in the British Isles, and that may be success- fully introduc*^d into Canada. ■'si ■Jk EXTRACTS FROM THE STATISTICAL RETURNS OF THE PROVINCE OP LOWER CANADA IN 1S31. QuanMty of land occupied about 4,000,000 of acres, and of improved land, or that has been cultivated, 2,100,000 acres ; inhabitants 512,000, giving about four acres of improved land for each person ; 86,000 inha- bited houses ; 60,000 proprietors of real property ; 67,000 families sub- sisting by agricultural employment ; 2,500 families subsisting by trade and commerce. Produce of wheat, 3,420,000 niinots ; 995,000 minots peas, 3,150,000 minots oats, 395,000 minots barley, 235,000 minots rye. 340,000 minots Indian corn, 106,000 minots buckwheat, making in all of grain, 8,642,000 minots, and of potatoes 7,360,000 minots. JVumber of neat cattle 390,000, horses 118,000, sheep 550,000, and hogs 300,000. The value of the crop of grain and potatoes I have estimated to be 2,000,000 pounds currency, or 8,000,000 dollars. Of this crop, the farmers did not actually sell over one-third or one- fourth, as I shall presently demonstrate. Import of wheat and flour from Upper-Canada in 1831, was 93,000 barrels of flour ; allowing five bush- els of wheat to the barrel of flour, this would be equal to 465,210 bush- els ; and of wheat 430,000 bushels, making in all 895,000, from Upper Canada. Imported from the United States, same year, 37,000 barrels flour, equal to 185,000 bushels of wheat, making the total imports at Montreal 1,080,000 bushels. The export from Montreal and Quebec in 1831, was 1,700,000 bushels wheat and flour, affording a surplus to Lower-Canada for export of only 620,000 bushels. Of other grain very little was exporied. That year the average price of wheat was about 6g 6d the minot ; and the average produce of grain did not, I behove, ex- ceed ten minots the arpent, or there about. The quantity of v. heat consumed in Lower-Canada in 1831, exclusive of seed, would appear to be 2,500,000 minots, equal to 6 minots for each inhabitant in the province. I cannot answer for the accuracy of this es- timate, but I know it to be correct according to the statistical returns. The produce of pasturage is difficult to estimate. However, making the calculation as accurately as perhaps it is in my power to do, according to the number of animals kept, it would amount to, in milk, butter, cheese, wool, and increase of stock of all description, &c., one million one or iyfo hundred thousand pounds currency, or about five million dollars an- < ■;.*' >' '', I •■m ■■i 'J 43 nnalty. Tlie gardens, fruit, hops, and hay and straw sold for the supply of towns, I estimate at two hundred and fitly thousand pounds currency, or one million of dollars, making the total annual produce of agriculture in Lower-Canada, about three million five hundred thousand pounds cur- rency, or fourteen million of dollars, equal to about 1/. 10s, or six dollars the arpcnt for the land improved in tillage and pasture. The farming capital in live stock, agricultural implements, and all that may be termed working capital, would amount to from four to five million pounds cur- rency, or eighteen or twenty million dollars. Hence it would appear, that the working capital produces 75 per cent, for the payment of labour, and the maintenance of the farmer and his family. From the statistical returns, there are only 7,602 servants employed in agriculture in Lower Canada, so that the farmer and his family do the greatest part of the work, and have very little wages to pay. In England, the working capi- tal does not provluce 50 per cent., for the payment of rent, taxes, labour, and profit. This is to be attributed chiefly to the greater amount of working capital necessary there, from the improved state of the land, and the higher value of stock, and implements of agriculture. It is right to observe that the greatest part of this produce of agricul- ture in Lower-Canada, is consumed by the farmer and his family, on hia farm. This is a circumstance, however, that few have reason to regret. It is well they are not obliged- iike farmers of other countries, to give the largest portion of the produce of their lands to olhors, and be content with the smallest share for themselves. The cities of Montreal and Quebec, and other small towns, are sup- plied with bulky produce, such as hay, straw, and vegetables, by the far- mers in their respective neighbourhoods ; they also partly supply these ci- ties with all other necessary articles of agricultural prodice, but a very considerable proportion of the butcher's meat, cheese and butter, is sup- plied from the United States. The horses and cows kept by the citizens, may perhaps, amount to 2700 horses, and the same numb^ of cows. In winter, there are a very considerable number of horses coming occa- sionally to these cities with produce, &c., which altogether consume a large quantity of hay and oata. There are several breweries that purchase barley and hops to some extent. The number of distilleries are increas- ing in the neighbourhood of Montreal, which must greatly increase the consumption, and consequently the demand for grain. Hitherto Canada whiskey has not been much used, but it is now coming into use, and will, at no distant period be likely to supersede altogether the use of rum, and other foreign spirits. Lest tnese remarks should have a tendency to cause strangers to form an erroneous opinion of the profits that are to be derived from farming here, it may be well to remind them, that they cannot expect such returns from capital invested. Thef will have to purchase land cleared, or if not cleared, to expend capital in clearing it. This will, of course, re- quire a much greater capital to put new settlers on an equal footing with those who have their own farms cleared and built upon already, and con- sequently, they cannot have the same returns on their capital. Never- theless, I am far from discouraging any farmer who is industrious, and understands his business, from purchasing in Canada. I believe there 44 aro few countries where he can do ho with more favorable prospects of suc- ccsis. The farmers already settled in Canada, have their capital chiefly expended in clearing their farins from the forest, and in erecting houses, and other farm buildings. The capital expended in clearing land, cannot be estimated at less than 3/. currency, or 12 dollars the arpent. This, on two million three or four hundred thousand arpents, supposed to bo now in cultivation or improved, would amount to near 10,000,000 pounds currency, or 40,000,000 dollars. The buildings on 60,000 farms may, I believe, be nearly as much in amount as that expended in clearing the land. Hence the total amount of capital invested by the farmers of Lower-Canada, in lands, buildings, stock, and implements, would appear to he about 25,000,000 pounds currency, or 100,000,000 dollars. From my calculations, I find that the working capital in stock and implements, is equal to about 21. currency, or 8 dollars the arpent, of the improved land, and as I stated before, gives an atmual produce of 1/. 10« currency, or 6 dollars the arpent, on an average. This produce is capa- ble of being increased two or three times that amount, with ease and cer- lalnty. Should the farmer require to augment his working capital, which includes hia live stock, implements, and the funds for the employment of labour, having no rent or taxes to pay, he surely may accumulate some savings from his produce in favourable seasons, for this purpose, which, if judiciously expended in the;improvementof his land, ini mproved imple- ments, and if necessary, the increase of his stock, would greatly augment the annual produce of "his farm, and afford the means lor further improve- ments, and the education, and respectable settlement of his family. It is from the increased produce of our lands, we must obtain all the funds for educating, and establishing our families on new farms, not on small portions of the old farms ; and the farmer who finds his present means insufficient to accomplish this his bounden duty^ ought to reflect and endea- vor to discover, if it would be in his power, by adopting a diflerent system of agriculture, and increased industry, to obtain more favourable results. A farmer possessed of one hundred arpents of improved land, of even middling quality, must cultivate and manage it in a very imperfect man- ner, if, under ordinary circumstances, he cannot fidd to his capital, in one year out of two or three, either in stock, improvements, or in money. Comparing, therefore, the relative circumstances of the farmers here, and in England, even as regards capital, they have decidedly tiie advantage here, if they will only improve, and profit by their favourable circum- stances. They are proprietors of the soil, their houses, farm buildings, stock, and implements, are their own, and will, with their improvements, descend to their children. They have scarcely any direct or indirect taxes to pay, consequently, there is no class of farmers in the British Isles, or in Europe, so favourably circumstanced, or who might become so truly independent and respectable. Large fortunes are not to be ac- quired by farming here, or indeed in any other country, at present. The industrious farmer, however, may have the necessaries and conveniences of life in abundahce, and occasionally accumulate something for the em- ployment of labour, and the other necessary purposes before enumerated. By the statistical returns of Lower-Canada, before referred to, it appears there are 38 colleges, 1099 elementary schools, and 48,330 scholars, equal to about half the number of persons between the ages of five and U I. 5'. ft > * ■ 1 .'■ M • A. ; >v . I ;; . i 45 iburteeD years, in the province. 1 hare no mrans of ascertaining whether the number of schools, or of scholars receiving education, have increased since 1831, but there is no doubt that the desire to educate the rising generation is very genei-al throughout the whole province. The soil of Lower-Canada is generally of excellent quality ; scarcely any part can be called barren. High mountains there are none. The hills are covered with timber, that may be reserved Tor firewood and fenc- ing, where the soil is unsuitable for cultivation. All the useful species of grain, pulse, and other vegetables, that are raised in England, can be cultivated here, with equal success, with the exception of turnips. It is not so favourable for pasturage, from the great heat of the bummer months. When the months of July and August are very dry, the pas- tures become dried up, and in such seasons, there is scarcely any later- math, or aflergrass. This is a drawback that Canadian husbandry will always be subject to, and over which man has no controul. The long and severe winters are also complained of ; but all circum- stances considered, the winters are as much in favour of the farmer as otherwise ; and probably there is not a farmer who has been long a resi- dent in Canada, who would not prefer the winters as we have them, to the soft open winters of England. The severe frost and snow fertilizes to a great degree, the ploughed soil, and prepares it in the best manner to receive ihe seed in spring. Without a rigorous winter in the North American provinces, farmers at a great distance could not bring their produce to market : a thin population scattered over a wide extent of country, would, for many years to come, be unable to incur the expense of making roads sufficiently good to travel on in winter, and to accom- modate all. Snow and ice, give roads and bridges, without any cost, and in the greatest perfection, almost equal to railroads, were it not for the evil of cahots, which it is in our own power to prevent, and surely to our credit and interest, to do so without delay. The long winters are an objection with some, to the keeping of a large stock of cattle ; but I by no means admit it as a good objection to keeping that sufficient stock of suitable animals, that are necessary in proDortion to the size of farms. The rapid vegetation of herbage in summer, is proportioned to the wants created by the length and severity of the winter, and on all farms that are well managed, this proportion may always be preserved, except in adverse seasons. I believe it will be found in all countries,, the Creator of all Good, has so ordered the sea- sons, as to be the most suitable to the situation and circumstances of each particular country and its inhabitants, and if any amelioration is re- quired, from the change of inhabitants, the introduction of a different spe- cies of animals, or vegetables, man, by applying the faculties bestow- ed on him by the Almighty, and improved by education, may produce the requisite amelioration. It is not sufficient that our lands produce abundant crops, to insure profitable farming ; it is necessary that we understand perfectly, the kind, and quantity, that ought to be cultivated of each, to supply our own wants, and the wants of others, to the required extent, and shut out if possible, all that would participate in supplying the market that is open to us, and which we are fully compotent to fnrnish, by proper management. 8o long as wc shall require goods of foroif^n growth and manufacture, so 4G long should we cndearor to raise thnt deHcriptton of produce that will suit a foreign market ; and this trado might he carried on profitahly for both countries, to a certain extent, which 1 shall endeavor to point out m ano- ther place. I would wish farmers to be aware that thoy cannot support themselves as respectably here, as in England, or other populous coun- tries, from the produce of a few acres of land, producing however abun- dantly, potatoes, onions, cabbage and cucumbers. There are no custo- mers for such production ; ii appears to be overdone already by the gard- ners in the neighbourhood of our cities. In England, the people residing in cities and towns, amount to about four-fiAhs of her population ; her ci- ties, towns, and villages, are above one thousand in number, of which London alone has a population of one million Ave hundred thousand, and thirty other of her principal towns, have altogether about the same num- ber. This makes it necessary that a large proportion of the soil should be cultivated in a garden-like manner. Other populous countries in Eu- rope are similarly circumstanced. In Canada, until our cities and towns increase immensely in number and extent, there will not be much en- couragement for small farms of a few acres. If our farms in their pre- sent usual extent, are not judiciously cultivated, and that half the quanti ty of land might be brought to yield more produce, it by no means follows that there is any necessity for such a state of things, or that the farmers are not able to bring their farms, at their present extent, into the best and most profitable state of cultivation. Indeed, I am convinced, that were they of less extent, they could not be profitably cultivated, under the pre- sent circumstances of the country. Our agricultural system must em- brace corn and cattle, and we should make it an established maxim, that we cannot have the one profitably, without having the other in due propor- tion. After giving due consideration to the agriculture of Canada, in par- ticular, as it is afiected by the climate, the soil, farming capital, and the habits and skill of the farmers, I have come to the conclusion, that there is no insurmountable obstacle to the improvement and success of agri- culture, that is not in the power of those most interested to remove. If working capital be required, the farmer has only to exert his skill and in- dustry to obtain it ^rom the soil, where it lies dormant, and his own pro- perty. I know whai it is to want capital. When I first came to Cana- da, I had to acquire it, and did succeed in doing so, on a high rented farm, and under other unfavourable circumstances. I cannot, therefore, admit, that farmers in general; long residing upon their own farms, un- der ordinary circumstances, have any reasonable excuse for want of ne- cessary capital. Doubtless extraordinary circumstances, such as ad- verse seasons, loss of cattle, great depression in the price of produce, &c. &c., rnay occur, and prevent the most industrious from adding con- stantly to his capital ; but these extraordinary disappointments will not be frequent or general, and should have no general efiect. Man is ever inclined rather to impute real, and in many cases, imagi- nary evils, and inconveniences, to causes over which he allows himself to believe he has no controul, than take the trouble to examine into them, and endeavor to find means for their removal or remedy. Nine cases in ten of what are looked upon as irremediable evils and inconveniences that we submit to in this life, are suffered, and permitted to continue, in con- sequence of this want of examination, and industrious application. This h2 .\i i ji ■ ;* ,^ ^i^,ii •i'f ff T ■y l\ • ... i' 1 I.'- p. 47 indolence is not only cxtremoly projudirial in itsronspfjnrnoff, lo ihnnr who justly sufilpr undor it, but to those who woiikl, and do, nctdifli rnitly* (though perhaps the latter may not «,'rnerally think ho,) and to tl'o wlin'le community. This world, viewod in all its boundless extent, is bcaiitii'til nnd fatdtless, every Wiiy calculated to produce what is necessary for tlie comfort, enjoyment, nnd temporal happiness ol man, if man will only act in concert, and learn to perform his part rationally and well. I am not an advocate for liphtly introducing innovation or change, and ' shall r^arefuUy abstain from recommending changes, that I nm not con- vinced, from reading, reflection, and experience, will be likely to prove advantageous ; but when we shall discover that any system, custom, or practice, pursued by ourselves or our forefathers, is capable of ameliora- tion, and that the produce v.^ obtain from agriculture under our present system, &c., requires to bo augmented, to afford the means of educating and settling our children, and providing those comforts and conveniencea which a respectable yeomanry should be ambitious to see their families in the enjoyment of ; surely we should not hesitate to adopt with alacrity the necessary improvements. However laudable it may be that certain customs and habits of our ancestors should be cherished, and have attrac- tions for us, in the age and state of society in which we happen to live, no wise man will hesitate to reject any habit, custom or practice, that he discovers to be manifestly at variance with individual or general inter- ests or prosperity. To cherish or retain them afler this conviction, is vo- luntarily to submit to what is injurious, and forego all the advantages that the difliusion of knowledge is rapidly introducing into other countries, by the improvement of every art, and consequently of civilized life. It is necessary, however, before we desire any good, that we know what it is, and how to estimate it ; and it is by education alone, that we can be made acquainted with the good that is attainable. It is impossi- ble that agriculture can be duly improved, until farmers are educated. Though education may not make a good practical farmer, there can be no good practical farmer without it. Let education and knowledge ex- tend, and we may assure ourselves, old customs and practices will be less regarded, particularly, if we perceive that they debar us from attaining advantages, and comforts, that we want, and have not. When education vnW enable m-jn to scrutinize and examine into the cause of things, much of the veneration for old customs, habits, and usages, will be at an end ; and those only will be regarded and retained, that are clearly subservient to some useful or profitable purpose. Farmers here have to direct and superintend, as well as join in the la- bour of agriculture ; and a man who has received a reasonable educa- tion is better qualified to do so, than one who is illiterate. There may be instances of educated men of the middle class being idle, and useless members of society, but surely it cannot be a proper education that would make them so, but because they will not make a proper use of it, in the industrious pursuits of common life. The reader will, perhaps, censure me for wandering from my subject. My object, however, is to make my book useful to the agricultural classes in Canada, and if possible to induce them, and others who are capable of advising tliem, to examine into those causes and efTects, in which them-» selves and the rising generation are deepl) interested. SCIENCE OF AGRICULTURE, PAKT II. Ik The object of the art of agricnllurc is to increase tlie qnaniily, and improve the qiiahfy, of such vegetable and animal productions of Jho earth as are used by civilized man ; and the object of the agriculturist ought to be to do this, with the least expenditure of means', or, in oth- er words, with profit. The result of the experience of mankind as to other objects, may be conveyed to an enquiring mind in two ways : ho may be instructed in the practical operations of the art, and their theory, or the reasons on which they are founded, laid down andex|)lain- ed to him as he goes along ; or he may be first instructed in general principles, and then in the practices which flow from them. The former is the natural and actual mode by which every art is .icquired, (in so far as acquirement is made,) by such as have no iccouise to books, and may be compared to the natural mode of acquiring a language with- out the study of its grammar. The latter mode is by far the most cor- rect and effeelual, and is calculated to enable an instructed agriculturist to pi'oreed with the same kind of confidence and satisfaction in his prac- tice, that a grammarian does in the use of language." Were I to enter fully on the science of agriculture, a volume of this size would not contain one-fourth even of what is interesting in that science. I must, therefore, confine myself to that part that I conceive w ill be useful and necessary for Canadian farmers to be acquainted with, and endeavor to convey a general idea, first, of the compound products of vegetables ; second, germination of seeds ; third, food of vegetable plants, and the nature and properties of various soils, as the different soils are calculated to afford nourishment to plants ; fourth, improvement of soils ; fifth, the principle of rotation of crops ; sixth, of manures, fermentation, &c. ; seventh, mineral manures ; eighth, distribution of plants ; ninth, diseases of plants ; tenth, natural decay of plants ; eleventh, climate and tempe- rature, evaporation, rain, snow, and frost ; twelfth, means of prognosti- cating the weather. COMPOUND PRODUCTS OF VEGETABLES. Plants may be considered as beings endowed with a species of life, absorbing nourishment from the soil in which they groM', and assimilating €1 4D it to their own HiihHtaiicc hy rnoan.^ of tho fiinrtions and oporntlon of their (hflrront organs ; a Hpecitic. knowledge of the primary principles of vh- ^ctiihUH, iuid fh«>ir iiiiitiiiil artion upon one another, in therefore useful if not actually neceHsiiry, to ngriculturistN who would desire to practice tho art sci(Mitificnlly or profitahly. Tho compound products of vegi^tablo analysis obtained I»y chemical processes, aro very numerous ; some of them only arc ncocssury to be introduced in this work, such as sugari starch, ^luten, albumen, extract, tannin, charcoal, sap, ashes and earth. Sugar is produced chielly from the sugar cane, from the juice of the American maple, grapes, common beet, turnips, carrots, parsnips, maize, and from several other vegetables or their productions. Starch, may be obtained from wheat, barley, oats, rice, maize, millet seed, peas, beans, acorns, and many other plants, is an extremely nutri- tive substance, and forms one of the principal ingredients in almost all articles of vegetiible food, used by man, or by inferior animals. Gluten is that part of the paste formed from the flour of wheat, which remains unatreel(^d by the water, after the starch contained in it has been washed ofl*. It is of a tough, elastic substance, of a dull white colour, with- out taste, but of a very peculiar snell ; it is insoluble in water and in al- cohol, but soluble in acids and alkalies. Gluten has l)een detected, in a very considerable number of vegetables, or vegetable substances, as well as in flour of wheat. It is one of the most important of nil vegetable substances, as being the principal that renders the flour of wheat so tit for forming bread by its occasioning the panary fermentation, and making the bread light and porous. It is also used as a cement, and is capable of being used as varnish, and a ground for paint. Albumen, which is a thick, glairy, and tasteless fluid, resembling the white of an unboiled egg, is a substance which has been lately proved to exist in the vegetable kingdom, and is often the most valuable part of a plant ; it is nearly related to animal gluten. In corn, it is that which is ground into flour. Extract : When vegetable substances are macerated in water, a consi- derable portion of them is dissolved ; and if the water is again evaporat- ed, the substance held in solution may be obtained in a separate state. This substance is denominated extract. Tannin may be obtained from a great variety of vegetables, but chiefly from the bark, and of barks, chiefly from those that are astringent in the taste. Sir H. Davy, ascertained the value of the different species of bark, as exhibited in the following table. It gives the average obtained from 480 pounds of the entire bark of a middle sized tree of the different spe- cies, taken in spring when the quantity of tannin is the largest. Oak - - - 29 lbs. liombardy poplar - 15 lbs. Spanish chesnut 21 Birch 8 Leicester willow (large) 33 Hazel , p. - 14 Elm - - - 13 Blackthorn - - - 16 Common willow (large) 11 Coppice oak 32 Ash - - - 16 Inner rind of oak bark 72 Beech - - - 10 Oak cut in autumn 21 Horse chesnut 9 Larch cut in autumn - 8 Sycamore - - 11 50 Tho bark of the oak (rcc, uhirli roiiiiiiriH tnniiin in prrat nliiiiuliuirf, in ttiat which in iiicxit ^ciicruUy iiHtd in tht; Hriti.sh Ihlcn Uy Utc tanner. The \\\i\vH are prepared tor tho prorrHS ol' tannin^', hy .vlri pin^ tiicni in hnif'-watur, and Hcrapin^ oil' the hair and cuticle. 'I'liey nrc then Noakrd, first in the weaker and at'terwardn in u Htrun^er ini'uhion oi'the burk, till at last they are completely impregnated. Thin procewH recpiires a period of from ten to eighteen munthH^ if tlie hides are thick, and four or fivo pounds of bark are necessary on an average to form one pound of lea- ther. Charcoal ; when wood is burned w'th a smothered flame, the volatile parts am driven otf by the heat, and there reniains behind a substance exhibiting the exact forn), and even the several layers of the original mass. This process is denominated charring, and the substHiice obtain- ed, charcoal. lOU parts of the following trees allbrds the following : 23 Kim 22j [ Ash - Birch Scotch pine Norway lir 19i 17 IG 19^ C'hesnut Oak Black birch - - 21 \ "Walnut - - - 20i Beech - - lof Maple - - - 19| Charcoal is insoluble in water, and incapable of putrefaction ; it is of great utility to tho chemist and artist, as fuel for heating furnaces, and i» an excellent fdter for purifying water. The sap is a clear colourless Huid, that may be procured from almost any plant, by cutting an incision in spring, before the leaves begin to ex- pand, particularly from the vine, maple, birch, and walnut tree, by boring a hole in tlie trunk. A small branch of vine has been known to yield from twelve to sixteen ounces in the space of iv*'enty-four hours. A maple tree of moderate size yields about two hundred pints in a season, and a birch tree has bee ; known to yield in the course of the bleeding season a quantity equal to its own weight. Sap is the grand and principal K0t;rce of vegetable aliment, and may be regarded as being somewhat analogous to the blood of animals. The sap of the birch may be manufactured into a very pleasant wine ; and it is well known that the sap of the American maple yields a considerable quantity cf sugar. Ashes, are analyzed with a view to discover the ingredients of which different plants are composed ; very frequently more than one half of the ashes of vegetables consists of carbonate of lime. The other principal substances obtained are potass, and soda. Earths : The only earths which have hitherto been found in plants, aie lime, silicia, magnesia, and alumina. Lime is by far the most abun- dant earth. The phosphate of lime is, next to the alkaline salt, the most abundant ingredient in the ashes of green herbaceous plants, whose parts are all in a state of vegetation. The leaf of a tree, bursting from the bud, contains in its ashes, a greater portion of earthy phosphate than at any other period. Carbonate of lime, is next to phosphate of lime, the most abundant of the earthy salts that are found in vegetables. In green herbaceous plants, whose parts are in a state of increase, there is but little carbonate of lime ; but the ashes of the bark of trees con- tain an enormous quantity of carbonate of lime, and much more than the alburnum, as does also the ashes of the wood. The ashes of most I ■♦? <\ Z i :1. 51 fioods contain no cjnbonato of lime ; but they nbound in phospliatc of po- tass. Iloiico the aohos of plants, at the period of the maturity of tlie fruit, yield less carbonate of lime than at any previous period. Siliciais not found to exist in a great proportion in the ashes of vegeta- bUis. The ashes of sotnc stalks of wheat, gathered a month before tho time of fl;)wering, and having some of the radical leaves withered, con- tahieJ 12 parts of silicia, and 65 of alkaline salts in 100. At the period of the wheat llowcring, and when more of the leaves were withered, the a.^hes contained 32 parts -of silicia, and 54 of alkaline salts. Seeds di- vested of their external covering, contain less silicia than th<^ stem furnish- ed with its leaves ; and it is remarkable that there arc trees of which the bark, alburnum, and wood, contain scarcely any silicia, and the leaves a great deal, particularly in autumn. The greater part of the grasses con- tain a very considerable portion of silicia. Magnesia does not exist so abundantly in the vegetable kingdom, as the two preceding earths. Alumina has been detected ni several plants, but in very small ([uantities. Iron, and even gold, have been discovered in the ashes of vegetables, but in such small quantities as not to be detected except by the most de- licate experiments. Such are the principal ingredients that enter into the vegetable compo- sition ; there are, however, numerous other ingredients which I do not thmk nccesi^ary to allude to. (Jay Lussac, and Therard, have deduced from a series of the most mi- nute and delicate experiments, the three following propositions. First, Vegetable substances ar'? always acid, when the oxygen they contain is to the hydrogen in a greatt^r proportion than the v ater. Second, Vegt table substances are always resinous, or oily, or spiritu- ous, when the oxygen they contain is to the hydrogen in a smaller pro- portion than in water. Third, A'^egetable substances are neither acid nor resinous, but sac- charine, or nuicilaginous, or analogous to woody fibre or starch, when the oxygen and hydrogen they contain are in the same proportion as in water. GERlMIxVATION OF THE SEED. out S up n lion ; has seed Germination is universally the first part of the process of vegetation, for it may be regarded as an indubitable fact that all plants spring origin- ally from seed. The conditions necessary to germination relate either to the internal state of the seed itself i or to the circumstances in which it is jdaced with regard to surrounding substances. The first condition necessary to germination is, that the seed must have reached maturity. Unripe seeds will seldom germinate, because their parts are not yet prepared to form the chemical combinations on which germination depends. Most seeds, perfectly ripe, and guarded from ex-ternal injury, will retain their germinating faculty for a period of many years. This has been proved by the experiment of sowing seeds that have been so kept, as well as the deep ploughing up of fields which have been long left without cultivation. A field which was thus plough- ed in Scotland, after a period of forty years' rest, yielded black juts with- 52 iw- r\ out sowing. This could only have occurred from the plough bringing up near the surface seeds that had been too deeply lodged for germina- tion ; however, the farmer will al" j j find it his interest to sow seed that has not been over one year kept. The second condition is, that the seed sown must be covered, and defended from the action of the rays of light. * A third condition necessary to germination is the access of heat. No seed has ever been known to germinate at or below the freezing point. Seeds will not germinate in winter in Canada, even though lodged in their proper soil ; though the vital principle is not necessarily destroyed in consequence of this exposure, the seed will germinate still on the return of spring, when the ground is thawed, and the ternpeiature raised to the proper degree. This degree varies considerably in different species of seeds, as is obvious from observing the times of their germination, whe- ther in the same climate or in different ones ; for if seeds which naturally sow themselves, germinate in different climates at the same period, or in the same climate at different periods, the temperature necessary to their germination must of consequence be different. These cases are con- stantly occurring and presenting themselves to our notice, and have been made the subject of particular observation. Adanson found that seeds which will germinate in the space of twelve hours, in an ordinary degree of heat, may be made to germinate in the space of three hours by expos- ing them to a greater degree of heat ; and that seeds transported from the climate of Paris to that of Senegal, have their periods of germination accelerated from one to three days. Upon the same ^principle, seeds transported from a warmer to a colder climate, have their periods of ger- mination protracted till the temperature of the latter is raised to that of the former. A fourth condition necessary to germination is, the access of moisture. Seeds will not germinate if they are kept perfectly dry. Water, or some liquid equivalent to it, is essential to germination. Rain should always be acceptable to the farmer, immediately after he has sown his seeds ; and, if no rain falls, recourse ought to be had, if possible, to artificial watering. The quantity of water applied is by no means a mat- ter of indifference. There may be too little, or there may be too much. If there be too little, the seed dies for want of moisture ; if there be too much, it rots. The case is not the same with all seeds. Some can bear but little moisture, while others will germinate when partially immersed, as rice, and some other watered grahis ; but none of the latter is cultivat- ed in Lower-Canada. The period necessary to complete the process of germination is not the same in all seeds, even when all the necessary conditions are furnished. Some species require a shorter, and others a longer period. The grass- es are among the number of those plants the stcds of which are of the most rapid germination. Adanson gives the following table o.s the result of his observation of the periods of the germination of a considerable variety of seeds Wheat and millet seed 1 Beans - - - 3 Melon and cucumber cress 5 Radish and beet-root - 6 days. Barley from 4 to 7 Oats from 2 to 6 Peas from 2 to 6 days. •I'M. ' ■• 'i ■'■' t - '{ ' , «'". ;>/ yd ■ i. ■'■ fmi^. 53 When a seed is committed to the soil under the conditions which have been specified, the first infallible symptom of germination is to be deduc- ed from the prolongation of the radicle bursting through its proper integu- ments, and directing its extremity downwards into the soil. The deve- lopement of the rudiments of a stem, if the species be furnished with one, is the concluding step, and the plant is complete. Whatever way the sued may be deposited, the invincible tendency of the radicle is to descend and fix itself in the earth ; and of (he plumelet, or first real ler f, to as- cend into the air. Many conjectures have been offered to account for this. The only reasonable one that J can discover is, that the Creator has placed a power in the vegetable kingdom, analogous to what we call instinct in the animal subject, infallibly directing it to the situation best suited to the acquisition of nutriment, and consequent developement of its parts. The chemical phenomena of germination consist chiefly in the changes which are eff*ected in the nutriment destined for the support and developement of the embryo till it is converted into a plant. The seed sown contains the food destined for the support of the embryo in its germinating state. This food however, is not yet fitted for the imme- diate nourishment of the embryo ; some previous preparation is necessa- ry ; some change must be effected in its properties. The moisture im- bibed by a seed placed in the earth induces a degree of fermentation pre- cisely similar to the fermentation in the process of converting barley into malt, known by the name of saccharine fermentation, which converts the farina of the seed into a mild and sacchariNC food, fit for the nourishment of the infant plant. The more full and perfect, therefore, the seed sown, the more capable it will be to feed, and producca healthy and perfect plant. The radicle gives the first indication of life, expanding and bursting its integuments, and at length fixing itself in the soil ; the plumelet next unfolds its parts, developing the rudiments of leaf, branch and trunk, and finally, the seminal leaves decay and drop off", and the embryo is con- verted into a plant, capable of abstracting immediately from the soil or atniosphere, the nourishment necessary to its future growth. FOOD OP VEGETATING PLANTS — NATURE SOILS, &C. &C. AND PROPERTIES OF The substance which plants abstract from the soil or atmosphere, or the food of the vegetating plant, has been a matter of anxious inquiry. The discoveries of modern chemists have done much to elucidate this subject. I shall avail myself of what has been written, and submit for the consideration of farmers, the most useful iind practical of the disco- veries. NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS SOILS. When we penetrate the surface of the earth, we generally find that the appearance, texture and colour, vary at different depths. There is a lay- er of earth nearest the surface, of greater or less thickness, which covers the more solid and uniform materials which lie below it. A distinct line, nearly parallel to (he surface, generally marks the depth of the upper soil, 54 and separates it from the Hub-soil. The soil is more or less composed of minute parts of various kinds of earth, mixed with animal and vegetabi© substances, in different states of decomposition ; and to these, in a great measure, it owes its colour, w hich is generally darker than that of the sub-soil. Except where iron, peat, coal or slate, abound in the soil, a dark colour is an indication of corresponding fertility. The rich soil of gar- dens, long cultivated and highly manured, is nearly black. As the soil is the bed in which the vegetables are to be reared, and in which they are to find their proper nourishment, its texture and composition become objects of great importance to the farmer; and, without some knowledge of these, it will be to no good purpose that practical rules should be laid down, nor can they be depended on. All soils are composed of earths, metallic oxides, saline substances, vegetable and animal matter, and water. The earths are chiefly clay or alumina, flint or silicia, and lime. Magnesia barytes, Jind other earth?,, are occasionally met with, but in so few instances, that they may be omit- ed in the list. Of the metals, the most abundant is iron, in the state of peroxide. The other metals are rarely found near the surface. Saline substances form a small part of a sf>il, but a most important one. Potassa exists in almost every vegetable, soda in a few, and ammonia is produced by the decomposition of animal matter, but from its volatile nature it is not long retained in the soil, except when it forms a fixed compound with other substances. The vegetable acids, as a general rule, are perhaps, limited to small portions of acetic acid in combination with some base, as lime or potash. The mineral acids are found united with earths and alkalies, in the state of neutral compounds. These saline substances have a powerful effect on vegetation, and a knowledge of their proportions in the soil, and ' of their various qualities, is very necessary in order to modify or correct their action by other substances to which they have an aflinity. Water, in a state of combination, or of mere mechanical difiusion, is essential to the growth of all plan's ; without it, and atmospheric air, there can be no life, either animal or vegetable. Earths. — Clay or alumina, so called because it is obtained in its purest state from alum, in which it is combined with the sulphuric acid, is the basis of all strong and heavy soils. When it is minutely divided, it is ea- sily suspended in water ; when dried slowly, and stirred while drying, it becomes a fine powder, soft to the touch, and when kneaded with water, a tough, ductile mass, easily moulded into hollow vessels, which retain li- quids. This property, of being imperious to water, gives the specific character to clay as an ingredient of the soil. In a pure and unmixed state, such clay is a!)solutely barren. When clay is heated to a great de- gree, it parts with the water combined with it ; it is then said to be baked, as we see in bricks ; it is no longer diffusible in water, and differs little from silicia, or sands, in its eflects on the soil. Silicia, or the earth of flints, suffer no change in water. It consists of crystals, or fragments of very hard stone, forming gravel or sand accord- ing to their size ; and the finest silicious sand, when examined with a magnifying glass, has the appearance of irregular fragments of stone without any cohesion between them. Silicious eand holds Vtater in its 1^ 'pm ■Mm ,- 1. ':■'] / ,' . ■ t ■ . . ■ _ ' r ;V ; 55 i --<>■- I :■ interstices by simple cohesive attraction in proportion to its fineness. It heats and cools rapidly, letting the water pass through it readily, either by filtration or evaporation. Its use in the soil is to keep it open, to let the air and water, as well as those other substances on which the fjrowth of plants depends, circulate through it. Unmixed, it dries so rapidly that no vegetation can continue in it, unless a constant supply of moisture be given by irrigation. A small portion of clay will much improve light sands ; it takes a large quantity of sand to correct (he t^'nacity of clay. In England it is found that a small quantity of finely divided m.itter is sufficient to fit a soil for the production of turnips and barley ; and a to- lerable crop of turnips have been produced on a soil containing eleven parts out of twelve of sand. A much greater portion than this of sand produces absolute sterility. Bagshot heath contains less than one-twen- tieth of finely divided matter, and is almost entirely devoid of vegetable covering. Plants which have bulbous roots, require a looser and a lighter soil than such as have fibrous roots ; plants possessing only short fibrous radicles, demand a firmer soil than such as have tap-roots or extensive lateral roots ; the latter therefore, is best adapted to sandy soils. Lime, in its pure state, is familiar to every one as the basis of the mor- tar used in building. It is produced by binning marble, chalk, limestone or sh(!lls, in great heat. In the stones which arc formed principally of lime, it is combined with some acid, mopt gij^nerally the carbonic acid, which separates from it by the operation of burnin^ij-, in the form of air or gas, hence called fixed air, from its being thus fixed in a stone. These stones of various degrees of hardness, are now all classed under the name of carbonate of lime. Lime unites readily with water, which it also absorbs from the atmos- phere. It then becomes slacked. By uniting with carbonic acid, it re- turns to its former state of carbonate, with this difference, that unless much water be present, it remains a fine impalpable powder. Pure lime is soluble in water, though sparingly ; a pint of water cannot dissolve more than about twenty grains ; the carbonate is not soluble in water. Carbonate of lime has a powerful effect on the fertility of a soil, and nc soil is very productive without it. It is consequently used extensively as an improver of the soil, otherwise called u manure, ('arbonate of lime, as an earth, is neither so tenacious as clay, nor so loose as sand. In proportion to the fineness of its particles, it approaches to the one or the other, and when the portions are large and hard, it takes the name of limestone gravel. Its distinguishing feature is its solubility in acids, which it neutralizes, depriving them of their noxious qualities in the soil. A proper mixture of those three earths, in a due state of mechanical di- vision, forms a soil well fitted to the growth of every species of plants, especially those which are cultivated for food, and nothing more is re- quired than a proper climate as to heat, a proper degree of moisture, and sutlicient nourishment, to make all ' plants geneially cultivated thrive most luxuriantly in such a mixture, which is usually called a loam. On the dry parts of the globe, the decay of vegetables and animals have r.rmed additions to the outer suiface of the earths, and constitute what may b forme Th( templi barrel Conti produ man. 5(3 ness. It ly, either on, to let growth lidly th.it isture be rve light of clay, matter is md a to- g eleven of sand le-twen- egetable soil than radicles, e lateral he mor- inestone pally of lie acid, of air or These ic name atmos- d, it re- t unless nc lime lissolve water. and nc vely as »f lime, d. In ! or the ime of acids, le soil, ical di- plants, ; is re- e, and thrive may be called soilja, the difterence between which and caifhs is, that the former always contain a portion of vegetable or animal matter. The formation of peaty soils is produced from causes interesting to con- template. The earth, which sj-pplic aJmost all our wants, may become barren alike from the excessive application of art, or the utter neglect of it. Continual pulverization, and cropping without manuring, will certainly produce a hungry, barren soil ; and the total neglect of fertile tracts will, from their accumulated vegetable products, produce peat soils rnd bogs. Where successive generations of vegetables have grown upon a soil, Sir H. Davy observes, unless part of their produce has been carried ofl* by man, or consumed by animals, the vegetable matter increases in siich a p'oportion, that the soil approaches to a pejit in its nnture ; and, if in a situation where it can receive water from a higher district, it becomes s,)ungy and permeated with the fluid, and is generally rendered incapable of supporting the nobler classes of vegetables. The neighbourhood of morasses, in which much aquatic vegetables decompose is usually agueish and unhealthy ; whilst that of the true peat, or peat formed on soils ori- ginally dry, is always salubriou'. There are two grand classes of soils, viz., primitive soils, or those composed entirely of inorganic matter, and secondary soils, or those composed of organic and inorganic matter, in mixtures. These classes have been subdivided into orders, the orders subdivided into ge- nera, the genera subdivided into species, and species into varieties, founded on colour, texture, or moisture, dryness, richness, lightness, &c. In determining the genera of soils, the first thing is to discover the pre- vailing earth or earths ; either the simple earths, as clay, lime, sand, or the particular rocks from which the soil has been produced, as granite, basalt, &c. When one earth prevails, the genera name should be taken from that earth, as clayed soil, calcarious soil, &c. ; when two prevail, to all appearance equally, then their names must be conjoined in naming the genus, as clay and sand, lime and clay, basalt and sand, &c. Sir Humphrey Davy has observed, the term sandy soil should never be ap- plied to any soil that does not contain at least seven-eighths of sand ; sandy soils which eflbrvesce with acids, should be distinguished by the name of calcarious sandy soil, or sandy soil abounding with lime, to dis- tinguish them from those that are silicious, or of the nature of flint. The term clayed soil, should not be applied to any land which contains less than one-sixth of impalpable earthy matter, not considerably efier- vescing with acids. The word loam should be limited to soils containing at least one-third of impalpable earthy matter, copiously effervescing with acids. A soil considered as peaty, ought to contain at least one half of vegetable matter. In general, the soils, the materials of which are the most various and heterogenous, are those called alluvial, or which have been formed from the depositions of rivers, and these deposits may be named silicious, or calcarious, as the materials which compose soils so denominat ;d, are found most to prevail. In naming the species of soils, they are always determined by the mixture of matters, and never by the colour or texture of that mixture, which belongs to the nomenclature of varieties. Thus, a clayed so'' with sand, is a sandy clay ; this is the name of the species ; the colour may be added which will express the ■ t .■■* * » ■•i l.''*.i t • I] m ::3.i; WK fr n : i 57 gnnus, spocios, and vurioty. A soil confaininp equal parts of clay, liirr, and s'dii'l, would, as a generic term, be calU;d clay, lime, and sand ; if it contained no other mixture in consi(]erable <|uantity, tiie term entire nii,'Tlit be added iis a speeilic distinction ; and if notice was to be taken of Its colour in" decree of comminution, it might be termed a brown, a fine, a coarse, a stiti", or a free entire clay, lime, or sand. There are some soils whii;)), bci^idcs a proper mechanical texture and mixture of earths, contain a large proportion of natural manure which ren- ders them extremi'ly fertile. This is a substance produced by the slow de- cay of animal and vvii;ctable matter. It can be separiited from the other parts of the soil, and has been accurately analyzed and described by many of the m*»j;t experienced ciiemists, particularly by Fourcroy, Davy, (Miaptal, and I'heodcire de Saussure. This substance has been called veo'efable moidtl ; but, as this is not a very distinct term, it may be well with Thaer, and otlier eminent writers on agriculture, to adoj)t the name oi" kninm, when speakiu;> of it. Humus, is described, as a dark, unctions, friable sub:^tance, nearly uniform in its appearance. It is said to be a compound of oxy:.rcn, hydrogen, carboji, and nilrogen, which, with the exception of nitrogen, wliich is found only in ^;ome substances, aic really the elements ol'all ani:\:al and vegetable su!)stanccs. It is the result of the slow decomposiiion of organic matter in the earth, and is found in the greatest abundance in rich garden mould, or old neglected dunghills. It varies somewhat in its qualities and compositions, according to the sub- stances from which it has been formed, and the circumstances attending their decay. It is the product of organic power, such as cannot be com- pounded chemically. Besides the four essential elements in its compo- sition, it also contains otlier substances in smaller quantities, viz., phos- phoric and sulpuric acids, combined with some base, and also earths and salts. Humus is the product of living matter and the source of it. Itaf- ■ fords food to organization ; without it nothing material can have life. The greater the number of living creatures in a country, the more humus is formed ; and the more humus, tho greater the supply of nourishment and lite. Every organic being hi life adds to itself the raw materials of nature, and forms humus, which increases as men, animals and plants increase in any portion of the earth. It is diminished by the process of vegetation, and wasted by being carried into the ocean by the waters, or it is carried into the atmosphere by the agency of the oxygen of the air, which converts it into gaseous matter. Humus, in so:bs more oxvjL^en, and btconics onee more nisolublc, in th.e loirn of a fihn, which I'^onrcroy culls vc^jrtahle albumen,, and which containy a small por- tion of nitrogen, readily accounted for. l>y bringing ^re:^h portions of humus to the surface, and permitting tlie access of air to it, more carbo- nic acid, water, extract, aial ulbinrien arc formed, and give a regidar sup- ply to the plants, which by their living powers, produce the various sub- stances found in the vegetable kingdom of nnture. Hence we n)ay see the great importance of frequently stirring the surface of tlie earth be- tween veget;d)Ics. It is to the patience and perseverance of the chemists I have nc*med, that we owe this insight into the wt in a crucible -^■•, stirring it \\ith a piece of the stem of a tobacco pipe, ^ stone, which re- tain moisture, and do not bind hard ; the small proportion of humus i3 of no consequence where manure is to be had in y quantity. A very rich heath or bog earth, found at Meuden, and in great request for flowers and in composts, consists of ^ . r Gritty silicious sand - - 62 parts. , Vegetable fibres partly diecomposed - 20 , Humus - - - - 16 , Carbonate of lime - - - -8 / .. Soluble matter • • - 1-2 • ' * i'm" ■! 1 k :* " ■ i:^^ r • !1 100-0 This soil, like our bog earth, would be very unfit for the growth of corn ; but, from the quantity of humus and vegetable matter, is highly useful in composts and artificial soils ; mixed with lime, it would make an excellent top dressing for moist clay soils. . , : . 'f' ^ l\ m fie for «■ 'J 61 Mr. Thaer has given a classification of soils of known qualities, which may be interesting to farmers. It is as follows : No. ;i f 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 First class of strong soil Rich light sand \ in natural grass j^ Rich barley land Wheat land Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Good barley land Ditto 2nd quality Ditto Oat land Ditto Clay per cent. 74 81 79 40 14 20 68 56 60 48 68 38 33 28 23^ Sand per cent. 10 6 10 22 49 67 36 30 38 60 30 60 65 70 75 80 Carb'te of lime per ct. 4i 4 4 36 10 3 o 12 =-. 22. en g Humus per cent. 27 Value. 100 98 96 90 ? 10 78 4 77 2 75 2 70 2 65 2 60 2 60 2 60 2 40 n 30 H 20 Below this are very poor rye lands. In all these soils the depth is supposed the same, and the quality uni- form to the dopth of at least six inches ; the sub-soil sound, and neither too wet nor too dry. Nos. 1, 2, and 3, are alluvial soils, and from the division and the inti- mate union of the humus, are not so heavy and stiff, as the quantity of clay would indicate. No. 4, is a rich clay loam, such as is fo\jnd in many parts of England, and in Canada, neither too heavy nor too loose ; a soil easily kept in heart by judicious cultivation. No. 6, is very light and rich, best adapted for gardens and orchards, but not for corn ; hence its comparative value can scarcely be given. Nos. 6, 7, and 8, are good soils ; the quantity of carbonate of lime in No. 8, compensates for the smaller portion of humus. This land re- quires manure, as well as the others below. In those from No. 9, down- wards, lime or marl of good quality, would be the greatest improvement. Nos. 15 and 16, are poor light soils, requiring clay and much manure. But even such lands will repay the cost of judicious cultivation, and rise in value. The last column, of comparative value, is the result of several years careful valuation of the returns, after labour and seed have been de- ducted. Few soils in England contain more than four or five per cent, of humus, even when in good heart ; and two per cent, with a good loamy texture will render a soil fit for corn with judicious cultivation. \i ue. 3 6 Q 3 7 5 9 5 5 D d • 9 I The texture is of the most importance, no may bo «oen Wy comparing Nos. 7 and 8, with No. 6. If this bo of good quality, dung will soon give the proper supply of humus. Water and gases constitute a considerable part of vegetable food, but I do not think it M'ould be useful to occupy the reader's time in elucidating how these substances are taken up by plants, or in what proportion. The most important food of plants, is vegetable extract. When plants have attained to the maturity of their species, the principle of decay begins gradually to operate upon them, till they at length die, and are converted into dust or vegetable mould, which, as might be expected, constitutes a considerable portion of the soil. The chance then is, that it is again converted into vegetable nourishment, and again enters the plant. But it cannot wholly enter the plant, because it is not wholly soluble in water. Part of it, however, is soluble, and consequently capable of being absorbed by the root, and that is the substance which has been denominated extract. Saussure filled a large vessel with pure mould of turf, and moistened with distilled or rain water, till it was saturated. At the end of five days, when it was subjected to the actioir of the press, 10,000 in weight of the expressed and filtered fluid yielded, by evaporation to dryness, 26 parts of extract. In a similar experiment upon the mould of a kitchen gar- den, which had been manured with dung, 10,000 parts of fluid yielded 10 of extract ; and in a similar experiment on mould taken from a 'veil cul- tivated corn field, 10,000 parts of fluid, yielded 4 parts of extract. Such was the result in these particular cases. But the quantity of extract which can be separated from the common soil is not very considerable. After eleven decoctions, all that could be separated was about one-ele- venth of its weight ; and yet this seems to be more than suflicicnt for the purposes of vegetation ; for a soil containing this quantity was found by experiment to be less fertile, at least for peas and beans, than a soil con- taining only one-half or two-thirds of the quantity. But if the quantity of extract must not be too much, neither must it be too little. Plants that were put to vegetate on soil deprived of its extract, as far as repeated de- coctions could deprive it, were found to be much less vigorous and luxu- riant than plants vegetating in a soil not deprived of its extract ; and yet the only perceptible difference between them is, that the former can im- bibe and retain a much greater quantity of water than the latter. From this last experiment, as well as from the great proportion in which it ex- ists in the living plant, it evidently follows that exti-act constitutes a vege- table food, and a most essential one. Salts are known to exist in the soil, and found in a certain proportion in most plants, and the root is supposed to absorb them in solution with the water by which the plant is nourished. The depth of the soil and natrre of the sub-soil greatly affect its value. However rich it may be, if the) e is only a thin layer of good soil over a sharp gravel or a wet clay, it cm never be very productive ; in the first case, it will be parched in dry weather ; and in the latter, converted into mud by every continued rain. If the sub-soil be loam, six inches of good soil will be sufficient. With a foot of good soil, the sub-soil is of very lit- tle consequence, provided it be dry, and the water can find a ready out- let. The best alluvial soils are generally deco. j8 mill 1 ( 4 'V . ¥ '1-f r I'l 1 *4 63 The exposuro, with respect to tho sun, and fho declivity of the ground, aro very important circumHtancos, and equivalent to an uctiiul dilUrenco in the climate. A gentle declivity towardo the »oulh, and a nheltor against cold winds, may make as great a dilFerence an several deprcen of latitude ; and in comparing tho value of similar lands in difl'ercnt cli- mates, tho average heat and moisture in each must be accurately known. A soil very valuable in tho south of Kurope, may bo very unproductive ' in Canada ; aa a light soil of some value in the west of Scotland, might bo absolutely barren in Italy or Spain. Soils in a state of culture, though consisting originally of the duo proportion of ingredients, may yet become exhausted of the principle of fertility by means of too frecpient cropping ; whether by repetition of tho same, or rotation of different crops. In this case, it should be tho object of the cultivator to ascertain by what means fertility is to be restored to an exhausted soil, or communicated to a new one. In the breaking up of new soils, if tho ground has been wet or marshy, as is frequently tho case, it is often sufficient to prepare it, merely by means of draining off the superfluous and stagnant water, and of paring and burning the turf upon tho surface. If the soil has been exhausted by too frequent a repeti- tion of the same crop, it will often happen that a change of crop will an- swer the purpose of the cultivator ; for, though a soil may be exhausted for one sort of grain, it does not necessarily follow that it is also exhaust- ed for anothc. Accordingly, tho practice of the farmer is to sow hia crops in rotation, having in the same field a crop, perhaps of wheat, bar- ley, bean? and tares, in succession ; each species selecting in its turn some peculiar nutriment, or requiring perhaps, a smaller supply than the crop which has preceded it. But even upon tho plan of rotation, the soil becomes at length exhaust- ed, and the cultivator is obliged to have recourse to other means of re- storing its fertility. In this case an interval of repose in pasture is con- sidered efficacious, as may be seen from the increased fertility of fields that have not been ploughed up for many years, but used for pasture. Hence also the practice of fallowing and of trenching, or deep ploughing, which in some cases has nearly the same efToct as trenching. The fertility of soil is restored, in the case of draining, by means of its carrying ofT all such superfluous moisture as may be lodged in the soil, which is well known to be prejudicial to plants not naturall}' aquatics, as well as by its rendering the soil more firm and compact. In the cast r>f the rotation of crops, the fertility is not so much restored, as more completely developed and brought into action ; because the soil exhausted from one species of grain, is yet found to be sufficiently fertile for another, the food necessary for each being diflerent, or required in less abundance. In the case of the repose of the soil, the restored fertility may be owing to the decay of vegetable substances which are not now carried off in the annual crop, but left to augment the proportion of vegetable mould. In case of fallowing, it is owing undoubtedly to the action of the atmospheric air upon the soil, in rendering it more friable, and in hastening the putre- faction of noxious plants. In case of trenching or deep ploughing, it is owing to the increased facility with which the roots can now penetrate to the proper depth, by which their sphere of nourishment is increased. U ut pli, tlxro must br ii direct and actual iip- plication made to it of such substancis as are fitted t»; rtstore its fertililv. Jlenco the indiMp<'Usablo necessity of manures, which chictly consist of animal and vegetable remains diat are burieil pre- sents the s'!rne crop for several years in succession, or ei/o*i crop 5 of ; ua- lon;ous spec;^.s. Butt when a crop intervenes on wtii^h these ir^ccts <.?in- noi live, as beaus or turnips after wheat or oats, then tho whole race of these insects perish from the field, for want of proper nourishment for their larvaj. {Alem. de la Societe Roy ale de Cenlrale d'Jlgr, de Paris.) OF MANURES, FERMENTATION, &C. Every species of matter capable of promoting the growth of vegetables, may be considered as manure. Sir If. Davy's Chemical Treatit-o on soils and manures, is a highly satisfactory work. He has explained the manner in which nourishment is derived by the plant from animal and vegetable substances. Vegetable and animal substances deposited in the soil, we know by experience, are consumed during the process of vegetation ; and they can only nourish the })lant by affording solid matter-? capable of being dis- solved by water. The great object, therefore, in the application ot ma- nure should be to make it aflbrd as much soluble matter as possible to the roots of the plants ; and that in a slow and gradual manner, so that it may be entirely consumed in forming its sap and organized parts. Ve- getable manures in general, contain a great excess of fibrous auO insolu- ble matter, which must undergo chemical change before it can become the food of plants. In proportion as there is more gluten, albumen, or matter soluble in water, in the vegetable substances exposed to fermenta- tion, so in proportion, all other circumstances being equal, will the process be more rapid. Animal matters are more liable to decompose llian vegeta- ble substances, and carbonic acid and ammonia is formed in !he process of their putrefaction. Whenever manures consist principally of matter soluble in water, their fermentation or putrefaction should be prevented as much as possible : and the only c^^^^'H in which fermentation and pu- trefaction can be usefu?, are, when . . nanures consist principally of vegetable or animal fibre. To pre oat manures from decomposing, they should be preserved dry, defended from the contact of air, and k'^pt as cool as possible. The properties and nature of manures in common use should be known to every farmer. Different manures contain different proportions of the elements necessary to vegetation, and require a different treatment to ena- ble ihem to produce their full effects in culture. All green plants contain saccharine or mucilaginous matter, with woody fibre, and readily fer- ment. They cannot, therefore, if for nianure, be used too soon after their death. Hence the advantage of digging or ploughing in green crops, whether natural or sown on purpose ; they should not, however, be turned ;n too deep, otherwise fermentation will be prevented by com- pression and exclusion of air. Green crops should be ploughed in, if p')ssif)le, when in fiovver, jr at the time the flower is beginning to appear ; for it 'n similai 70 , which hvo una he has w.f: s>»il pro- 'r>\)i of r na- luc raco of ishnient for de Paris.) vegetables, >eati^o on plained the Einimal and e know by ; and they 'being dis- ion ut ma- sible to the so that it arts. Ve- liic insolu- )M become bumen, or fermenta • le process m vegeta- le process of matter prevented n and pu- ?ipally of >mposing, and kept 3e known ns of the lit to ena- s contain adilv fer- oon after in green however, by corn- ed in, if appear ; y soluble matter, quire no pi-cpnralion to fit tl.ei.i I -i ninmn-r, nor docs any kind of Aosli vopj tabic ;ip;tiu;r. The decomposition p/ocreds slowly beneath tin soil, and the so- juble matters are gradually dissolved. When old pisturoy are brok<'r tip and made arable, not on'; has the soil been enriched by the dt.atli and slow decay of the plants whicii nave left soluble matters in the soil, but the leaves and roots of the grasses living at tiic time, and occupying so large a part of the surface, all'ord saccharine, mucihiiiinous, and extrac- tive matters, which become immediately the food of the crop, and from their gradual decomposition, afford a supply for successive years. Dry straw of wheat, oa.s, barley, b(^ans, and peas, spoiled hay, or any similar kind of dry vegetable matter is, in all cases, usrlid manure. In general, such substances are made to ferment before they are employed. vSir H. ])avy states, " that there can be no doul)t that the straw of ditier- cat crops, immediately ploughed into the ground, ailbrds nourishment to plants ; but there is an objection to this mode of using straw, from the dilliculty of burying long straw, and from its rendering the husbandry foul. When straw is made to ferment, it becomes a more manageable manure ; but there is likewise, on the whole, a great loss of nutritive matter. More manure is, perhaps, supplied for a single crop, but the land is less improved than it would be, supj)osing ihe whoh; of the vege- table matter could be ihiely divided and mixed with the soil. It is usual to carry straw that can be employed for no other pin-pose, to the dunghill, to ferment and decompose : but it is worth experiment, whether it would not be more economically applied when chopped small by a proper ma- chine, and kc{)t dry till it be ploughed in for the use of a crop. In this case, though it would decompose much more slowly, and j)roduce less effect at first, yet its influence would be much more lasting." I am decidedly of opinion that a given quantity of dry straw ploughed into the soil judiciously, will afford more nourishment for |)lants grown on such soil, during a period o!' three years, than an equal quantity < f vStraw applied attv r beirg fermented. Peaty matter, mixed with farm yard dung, after proper fermcntaticif will make good manure. Wood ashes, horn, hair, woollen rags, foi!- thers, the refuse of different raanuiaclures of skin and leather, will all make manure. Horses, cows, or other quadrupeds that die by acci nt or disease, af- ter their skins are separated, are often suffered to remain exposed to the air, till they are destroyed by birds or^beasts of prey, or entirely decom- posed ; and, in this case, most of their organized matter is 2ost for the land on which they lie, und a considerable portion of it employed in giv- ing off noxious gasca to the atmosphere. By overing dead animals with five or six times their bulk of soil, mixed with one part of lime, if possible, and suflcring them to remain for a few months, their decompo- sition would impregnate the soil with soluble matter, so as to render the whole an excellent manure ; and by mixing a little fresh ([uicklime with it at the time of its removal, the disagreeable efiluvia would be in a great measure destroyed, and it might be applied to crops in the same way as any other manure. Fish forms a powerful manure, if plouffhed in fresh, in limited quaoti- ■^stance, nnxed with clay, sand, or common <>■ my oily k2 ^i t \, ' f\ «"3 \'»\ 71 ■w fV "T It is said to contain the essential elenicnts of vegetables in a soil, makes excellent manure, .ind retains its fertilizing powers for Peve- ral successive years. Bones are much used in England, Scotland, and on the Continent of Europe. The more divided they are, the more powerful are their eflccls. They are ground in a mill, and applied in the state of powder. To ap- ply bone manure with ell'ect, it is essential that the soil be dry. It is ge- nerally used for growing tnrni[);^. ■ Urino of animals, mixed with solid matter, will greatly increase ma- nure, state^of solution. Night soil is well known as a most powerful manure, {ind in whatever state it is used, whether recent or fermented, it supplies abundance of Ibod to plants. The disagreeable smell of night soil may be destroyed by mixing it with quicklime. The Chinese, who have more practical knowledge of the use and application of manures than any other peoj)le existing, mix their niglit soil with one-third of its weight of marl, make it into cakes, and dry it by exposure to the sun. The cakes are said to have no disagreeable smell, and form a common article of commerce of the empire. Desi(;cated night soil, in a slate ofpoA\der, forms an article of commerce in France ; and in London, it is mixed whh quickhme, and sold in cakes under the name of desiccated night soil. The dung of horses, cattle, and sheep, has been chemically examined by Thaer, and others, and found to contain matter soluble in water ; and that it gave in fermentation, nearly the same produce as vegetable sub- stances. There seems therefore, no reason why it should be made to fer- ment except in the soil, like the other pure dungs ; or, if sulFered to fer- ment, it should be only in a very slight r!pgiee. Street ar.d road dung, and sweepings of houses, may be regarded as compost manures, and may be applied M'ithout beiiig fermented. Soot is a poweful manure, well fitted to be used in the dry state, thrown into the ground with the seed, and requires no preparation. Liquid manure is carefully collccleri from the stalls and stables in Hol- land, Flanders, Netherlands, Franco and Sv/itzcrland. It is collected into under-ground pits or reservoirs, in which it is allowed to ferment. The manner of collecting it by the agriculturists of Zurich, is as follows : The floor on which the cattle are stalled is formed of boards, with an in- clination of four iiiches from the head to the hinder part of the animal, whose excremems fall into a gutter behind, in the manner of English cow houses ; the depih of tliis gutter is fifteen inches, its width ten inches. It should f;e so foiOii d as to be capable of receiving at pleasure, water to be supplied by a reservoir near it; it communicates with five pits by holes, which are opened fur the passage of the slime, or closed as occasion re- quire^. T!iC pit'=? or reservoirs for manure are covered over with a kind of boarding, placed a little below that on wliich the animals stand. This coverin" is importrnt as facilitating fermentation. The pits or reservoirs are mark in masonry, well cemented, and should be bottomed in clay, well hfifen in order to avoid infiltration. They should be five, in order that the liquid may not be disturbed during the fermentation, which lasts about four weeks. Tiieii dimensioiis should be rnlriilated according to il|e nuuiber of aniuipjs the stable holds, so that each may be filled in ;> week I in orj servol keepf on re watei partsJ 72 i for Bcve- ntinent of ir f'fiects. To ap- It is ge- Tasc ma- ablcs in a whatever idnnce of :iestrojcd practical er people , make it e said to nicrce of fin article lime, and ixamined ter; and il)le sub- de to fer- d to fer- arded as , thrown in IIoI- ollected rerment. bllows : h an in- animal, ish cow inches, -vatcr to y holes, sion re- i a kind This -ervoirs in clay, n order :;h lasts ding lo ed in u week. But whether full or not, (he pit must he closed at the week's end» in order to maintain the regularity of the system of emptyinfj. The re- servoirs are eini)tied by means of portable pumps. Jn the evening, iho keeper of the stai)les lets a proper quantity of water into the putter, and on returning to the stable in the morning, he carefully mixes with the water the excrement that has fallen into it, breaking up the more compact parts, so as to form of the whole an eqtial and flowing liquid. On the per- fect manner in which this process is performed, the quality of the mantiro mainly depends. The liquid ought neither to be thick, for then the fer- mentation would be difficult ; nor too thin, for in that case it would not contain sufhicient nutritive matter. When the mixture is made, ii is al- lowed to run off into the pit beneath, and the stable keeper again lets wa- ter into the gutter. During the day, whenever he conies into the stable, he sweeps whatever excrement may be found under the cattle into the trench, which may be emptied as often as the licjuid it contains is found to be of a due thickness. The best proportion of the mixture is three- fourths of water, to one-fourth of excrement, if the cattle be fed on corn ; if in a course of fattening, one-fifth of excrement to four-fifths of water will be sufficient. (liuU du Comile (VAil, is useful in promotinfr the germination of the seed, and in assisting the plant in the first stnge of its provvlh, when it is most feeble and most liable to disease;. It i.«, I be- ii(!vc, a f>;eneral prificiplc in chemistry, that in nil cases of derornposition, substances combine muclj more 'readily at the moment of tlieir disen- pae fermented to a certain degree, before it is applied for spring crops in light soils ; other- wise if the summer happen to be dry, the manure produces no good ef- fect on the crop. It is not necessary however, that the fermentation should bo carried further than to decompose the woody fibre, and fit it for producing vegetable food. The doctrine of the proper application of manures from organised substances, offers an illustration of an important part of the economy of natur deca cul c seem are fi trefa( procc tions. and is col ness and -•^■w ffi lA w fc ^ 74 nnftiff', nnd of the hftp|)y order in which it in firninfr<'d. " Tlic flrath nnd (Icciiy of animal suhstuncod tend to icsolve orfinniscd forms into chemi- cal constitiicnt.s ; and the pornicious « fHuvia distngajred in the protrsis, seem to point out the propriety of hurying them in the soil, where they are fitted to become the food of vegetablew. The fermentation and pu- trefaction of or{.';anised substances in the free atmosphere, are noxious processes ; beneath the surface of the ground, they are salutary opera- tions. In this case the food of plants is^prepared where it can be used ; and that which would offend the senses and injure the health, if exposed, is converted, by gradual processes, into forms of beauty and of useful- ness : the foitid gas is rendered a constituent of the aroma of the flower, and what might be poison becomes nourishment to animals and to man." MINERAL MANURES. It seems a fair conclusion, that the different earths and saline sub- stances found in the organs of plants, are su[)plicd by the soils in which they grow. The tables of De Saussure shew that the ashes of plants are similar in constitution to the soils in which they are v(!getated. It appears that in vegetation, compound forms are unilbrmly produced from simj)le ones ; and the elements in the soils, the atmosphere, and of the earth absorbed and made parts of beautiful and diversified structures. Fossil manures must produce their effect, either by becoming a consti- tuent part of the plant, or by acting upon its more essential food, so as to render it more fitted for the purposes of vegetable life. It is perhaps in the former of these ways that wheat and some other plants are brought to perfection after lime has been applied upon land that would not bring them to maturity by the most liberal use of dung alone. Davy, in his Agricultural Chemistry, says, " The most common form in which lime is found on the surface of the earth, is in a state of combi- nation with carbonic acid or fixed air, and will efiervesce if thrown into a fluid acid. When limestone is strongly heated, the carbonic acid gas is expelled, and then nothing remains but the pure alkaline earth : in this case, there is a loss of weight, and if the fire has been very high, it ap- proaches to one half the weight of the stone ; but in common cases, lime-stone, well dried before burning, does not lose much more than from 35 to 40 per cent., or from seven to eight parts out of twenty. Slaked lime is a combination of lime with about one-third of its weight of water ; that is, 55 parts of lime absorb 17 parts of water. When lime, whether freshly burned or slaked, is mixed with any moist fibrous vegetable matter, there is a strong action between the lime and the vegetable matter, and they form a kind of compost together, of which a part is usually soluble in water. By this kind of operation, lime renders matter which was before comparatively inert, nutritive : and, as charcoal and oxygen abound in all vegetable matters, it becomes at the same time converted into carbonate of lime. The operation of quick- lime and marl depends upon principles altogether different. Quick-lime in being applied to land, tends to bring any hard vegetable matter that it •contains into a state of more rapid decomposition and solution, so as to render it a proper food for plautd. Marl, or carbonate of lime, will onl|f m i'Aii 75 improve fho trxtiirc of in- k'd iH II neoossary pari of their woody fibr*'. If this bo allowed, it is vii- sy to explain the reason why it o|)f'ratcs in .such small quanfilies ; for the whole of a elover crop, or saintfoin crf)p, on an aicre, aoeordinp |o /i /: •>' '/ ^ Photographic Sciences Coiporalion .S5 \ ^ "<^ 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. )4SS0 (716) 872-4503 '^ ^ 77 i: \y forest trees. The nature of the soil is indicated by the species of timber growing upon it. The walnut, or butter-nut, is found on the best land. Mixed timber of large growth is considered to indicate good land. Soft wood of small size, or hard wood of stunted growth, is a proof of in- ferior or very light or stony land. Unmixed soft wood, however large the trees, will not indicate very good land. From my own experience, I should always prefer wild land producing large trees of various kinds, which I think indicates a fertile soil, and the best adapted to the purposes of agriculture. •By the art of man, plants may be inured to circumstances foreign from their natural habits, and cultivated in climates, soils, and situations, of which they are not indigenous. Herbaceous plants particularly, in going from a hot to a cold climate, are preserved in winter from the inclemency of the atmosphere by a covering of a snow. When the temperature of the atmosphere is below 32 ® , the moisture will be changed, and fall on the earth in snow. Summer being nearly the same thing in most coun- tries, annual plants of the tropics are made to grow in the summers of the temperate zones, and, indeed, in general, the summer plants of any one country will grow in the summer climate of any other. The potatoe and kidney bean, so long cultivated in Europe and North America, there is no reason to suppose are in the least degree more hardy, than when first imported from Asia, or South America. The same slight degree of autumnal frost blackens their leaves, and of spring cold destroys their germinating seeds. Buck-wheat, ond most species of corn and peas, come from the East. Bruce says he found the oat wild in Abyssi- nia. Wheat and millet have been found in a wild state in hilly situations in the East Indies. The plants chiefly employed in human economy differ in different cli- mates and countries : but some, as the cereal grasses may be said tO|be in universal use ; and others as the banana and plantain, only in the countries which produce them. The bread-corn of the temperate climate ischiefly wheat and maize ; of the hot climates, rice ; and of the coldest climates, barley and oats. The edible roots of the Old World are chiefly the yamt sweet potatoe, onion, carrot, and tu.nip ; of the New, the potatoe. In hot climates, pot-herbs are little used. Legumens, as the pea, bean, and kidney bean, are in general use in most parts of the World. The most useful timber trees of temperate climates are of the pine or fir kind ; of warm climates the palm and the bamboo. The total number of species of plants known at present, is supposed to be from 100,000 to 200,000, of which nearly half the number is found on the American Continent. There are of European plants in the artificial Flora of Britain, 4169 — Asiatic, 2365 — African, 2639 — South American, 644 — North American, 2353 — Native Countries unknown, 970. Total, 13,140 species of plants. Of these are grown for food for man and cattle, 43 species, and 90 varieties. Moist and moderately warn, oiimates, and irregular surfaces, are most prolific in species of plants. From observation and experience, the con- clusion may be drawn, that the greater number of plants, native or foreign, will tlirive best in light soils, such as a mixture of 3oft, black, vegetable moi ing 78 mould or peat and fine snnd, kept moderately moist ; and that on receiT> ing unknown plants or seeds, the native sites of which the cultivator m ignorant, he will be on the safe side by placing them in such soils, rather than in any others ; avoiding, most of all, clayey and highly manured soils, as only fit for certain kinds of plants constitutionally robust, or suited to become monstrous by culture. " The final object of all the sciences is their application to purposes subservient to the wants and desires of man." The study of the vege- table kingdom is one of the most important in this point of view, as di- rectly subservient to the arts which supply food, clothing and medicine ; and indirectly subservient to those which supply houses, machines for conveying us by land or by water, and in short almost every comfort and luxury. Without the aid of the vegetable kingdom, few mineral bodies would be employed in the arts, and the great majority of animals, whether used by man as labourers, or as food, could not live. To increase the number and improve the nutritive qualities of plants, it is necessary to facilitate their mode of nutrition, by removing all obstacles to the progress of the plant. These obstacles may exist under or above the surface ; and hence the necessity of draining, clearing from surface incumbrances, and the various operations, as digging, ploughing, &c., for pulverising the soil. By these means, the quantity of vegetables may be ameliorated, because their food is increased, their roots being enabled to fake a more extensive range, more is brought within their reach. Manuring is necessary to 'upply food artificially to plants. All organ- ized matters are capable of being converted into the food of plants ; but the best manure for ameliorating the quality, and yet retaining the pecuh- ar chemical properties of plants, must necessarily be decayed plants of their own species. It is true that plants do not differ greatly in their pri- mary principles, and that a supply of any description of putrescent ma- nure will cause all plants to thrive ; but some plants, as wheat, contain peculiar substances, (as gluten and phosphate of lime,) and some ma- nures, as those of animals, or decayed wheat, containing the same sub- stances, must necessarily be the best food or manure for such plants. Manuring is an obvious imitation of nature, everywhere observeable in the decayed herbage of herbaceous plants, or the fallen leaves of trees, rot- ting into dust or vegetable mould about their roots ; and in the effect of the dung left by pasturing of other animals. Increase in the magnitude of vegetables, without reference to this qua- lity, is to be obtained by an increased supply of all the ingredients of food, distributed in such a body of well pulverized soil as the roots can reach to ; by additional heat and moisture, and by a partial exclusion of the direct rays of the sun, so as to moderate perspiration, and of wind, so as to prevent sudden desiccation. But experience alone can deter- mine what plants are best suited for this, and to what extent the practice can be carried. Nature gives the hint in the occasional luxuriance of plants accidentally placed in favourable situations : man adopts it, and, improving on it, produces cabbages and turnips, of half a hundred weight each, and other fruits proportionably large. To increase the number, improve the quality, and increase the mae- l2 . hi: A' ' 79 nitude of particular parts of vegetables, it is necessary to remove such parts of the vegetable us are not wanted^ as the blooms of bul- bous or tuberous-rooted plants, when the bulbs are to be increased, and the contrary ; the water-shoots, and leaf-buds of fruit trees ; the flow- er stems of tobacco ; and the male-flowers and barren runners of the Ciicumus tribe, &c. Hence the importance of pruning, ringing, cutting of large roots, and other practices for improving fruits, and throwing trees into a bearing state. It may be said that this is not nature but art; but man, though an improving animal, is still in a state of nature, and all his practices, in every stage of civilization, are as natural to him as those of other animals are to them. Cottages and palaces are as much natural objects as the nests of birds, or the burrows of quadrupeds ; and ihe laws and institutions by which social man is guided in his morals and po- litics, are not more artificial than the instinct which congregates sheep and cattle in flocks and herds, and guides them in their choice of pas- turage and shelter. To propagate and preserve from degeneracy, approved varieties of ve- getables, it is in general necessary to have recourse to the diflcrent modes of propagating by extension. Approved varieties of annuals are in general multiplied and preserved by selecting seeds from the flnest specimens, and paying particular attention to supplying suitable culture. Approved varieties of corns and ligumens, no less than other annual pla.its, can only be with certainty preserved by propagating, by cuttings, or layers, which is an absolute prolongation of the individuaf; but as this would be too tedious and laborious for the general purposes of agricul- ture, all that can be done is to select seeds from the best specimens. This part of culture may be said to be the farthest removed from nature, and will depend on the experience, judgment, and industry of the agri- culturist. The preservation of vegetables for future use is effected by destroying or rendering dormant the principle of life, and by warding off*, as far as practi- cable, the progress of chemical decomposition. Drying in the sun, or in o- vens, is one of the most obvious modes of preserving vegetables for food, or for other economic purposes ; but of course not for growth, if the drying process is carried on so far as to destroy the principle of life in seeds, roots or sections of the roots of ligneous plants. Corn may be preserved for many years, by first drying it thoroughly in the sun, and then burying it in dry pits, and closing these so as eflectually to exclude the atmospheric air. In a short time the air within is changed to carbonic acid gas, in which no animal will live, and in which, without an addition of oxygen or atmos- pheric air, no plant or seed will vegetate. The corn is thus preserved from decomposition, from insects, from vermin, and from vegetation, in a far more effectual manner than it courobuble will be his Huccetth U6 u lurmer. DISEASE OF VECETADLES. Diseases are corrupt aflections of the vepetJible body, arising from va- rious causes, and tending to injure the habitual health either of the whole or part of the plant. The diseases which occur most frecjuently among vegetables in Canada, arc the following : Itlight, smut, mildew, and the ear-worm in wheat, thought to be occasioned by the wheat fly. Blight or blast, if taken in the most general acceptation, will include four dis- tinct species ; blight, originating in cold and frosty winds, in a sort of sul- try and pestilential vapour, from want of due nourishment, and the pro- pagation of a sort of small and parasitical fung'is. Blight, originating in cold and frosty winds, is oHen occasioned by the cold winds of spring, which nip and destroy the tender shoots of the plant, by stopping the current of juices. The leaves which are now deprived of their due nf»urishment, wither and fall, and the juices now stopped in their passage, become the food of innumerable insects which soon oAer make their appearance. Hence they are mistaken for the cause of the disease itself, while they are only generated in the stagnant juices as forming a proper nidus for their eggs. Their multiplication will no doubt contribute to the spread 3f the disorder, as they always breed fast where they find plenty of food. Blight, originating in sultry and pestilential vapour, generally happens in summer, when the grain has nearly attained its full growth, and when there are no cold winds or frost to occasion it. Such was the blight that used to damage the vineyards of ancient Italy, and which is yet found to damage the hop plantations and wheat crops in England. The Romans observed that it generally happened after short but heavy showers occur- ring about noon, and followed by clear sun-shine, about the season of the ripening of the grapes, and that the middle of the vineyard sufllered the most. This corresponds pretty nearly with the manner that hops are af- fected in England. Wheat is also affected with a similar sort of blight, and about the same season of the year, which in some instances has been known totally to destroy the crop in England ; but I have never seen it very destructive here. In the summer of 1809, a field of wheat in Eng- land, on rather a light and sandy soil, came up with every appearance of health, and also into ear, with a fair prospect of ripening well. About the beginning of July it was considered as exceeding anything expected from the soil. A week afterwards a portion of the crop on the east side of the field, to the extent of several acres, was totally destroyed, being shrunk and shrivelled up to less than one half the size of what it had for- merly been, and so withered and blasted as not to appear to belong to the same field. The rest of the field produced a fair crop. Blight, for want of due nourishment, may happen to all plants, wild or cultivated ; but it is most commonly met wilh in cornfields, in very dry seasons, in those thin gravelly surfaces, which do not sufficiently relain the moisture. In such spots the plants are prematurely thrown into blos- som, and the ear or sc cd-pod ripens before it is filled. In England, the J.- . ' '■t ^'W 81 fiirincrs r.-ill this the white hhi^ht. 1 hnve seen this blight fie(]uently in CiiimcJa, but nut to great extent. Bhght, originatin|i in fungi, attacks thu leaves and stems ot" herbaceous plants, but more particuhuly our most useful grains, wheat, barley, and oats. It always appi'ars in the least ven- tilated parts of a field, and has generally been preceded by cold, moist weather, which, happening in the warm month of July, suddenly chills, and checks vegetation. It generally assumes the appearance of rusty- looking powder, that soils the fingers when touched. Sickly plants are tiie most subject to be affected, and it is thought that the fungus may ex- ist in the manure or soil, and enter the plant by the pores of ihe root. It is known in England among farmers by the name of red tntsl^ and chielly alFects the stalks and leaves. There is another species of fungus, known by the name o^ red ^um, which attacks the ear only, and is ex- tremely prejudicial. This last is generally accompanied with a maggot of a yellow colour, which preys upon the grain, and increases the injury. The only means of preventing or lessening the eft'ect of an}- of the dif- ferent varieties of blight mentioned, is proper culture. (»risenthwaite con- jectures that in many cases in which the blight and mildew attack corn croj)s, it may be for want of the peculiar food requisite for perfecting the grain ; it being known that the fruit or seeds of many plants contain pri- mitive principles not found in the rest of the plant. Thus, the gniin of wheat contains gluten and phospate of lime, and when they are wanting to the soil, that is, in the manured earths in which the plant grows, it v/ill be unable to perfect its fruit, which of consequence becomes more liable to disease. Smut is a disease incidental to cultivated corn, by which the farina of the grain, together with its proper integuments and even part of the husk, are converted into a black soot-like powder. The disease does not affect the whole body of the crop, but the smutted ears are sometimes very nu- merously dispersed throughout it. Some have attributed it to the soil in which the grain is sown, and others have attributed it to the seed itself, alleging that smutted seed will produce a smutted crop ; but in all this, therf seems to be some doubt. Willdenow regards it as originating in a small timgus, which multiplies and extends till it occupies the whole ear. It is said to be prevented by steeping the grain in a weak solution of ar- senic, before sowing. But besides the disease called smut, there is also a disease analogous to it, or a ditTerent stage of the same disease, known to the farmer by the name of 6ai>-» or smul'balls, in which the nucleus of the seed only is converted into a black powder, whilst the ovary, as well as the husk, remains sound. The ear is not much altered in its external appearance, and the diseased grain contained in it will even bear the op- eration of threshing, and consequently mingle with the bulk ; but it is al- ways readily detected, and fatal to the character of the sample. It is said to be prevented as in the case of smut. That this disease is the most injurious to the wheat crop of Canada, of any that it is subject to in latter years, there can be no doubt : scarcely a field that is not njore or less affected by it ; and if there is a remedy, it should by all means be adopted by every farmer. Two interesting pa- pers have been published in the Penny Magazine, from F. Bauer, Esq. of Kew,, in the county of Kent, England, deservedly celebrated for his valuab commi it x squently in ittackH tliu our most least vcn- r>ld, moist ily chill.s, of lusty- plants are I may ex- root. It 'list J and )rriingUf;, md is ex- a mafrgot le injury, •r the dif- aite con- ick corn cting the itain pri- grnin of wanting s, it v/ill re liable arina of \\e husk, at affect ery nu- e soil in itself, all this, ing in a ole ear. n of ar- is also known leus of as M-ell xlernal the op- it is al- It is ada, of larcely edy, it ngpa- , Esq. or his 82 valuable discoveries connrrtcd with the diseases of grain. From these commimications 1 give the following extracts. " This disease is occasioned by the seed of an extiomelv minute pa- rasitic fungus, of the genus urtdo^ being absorbed by i\\v roots of the ger- minating wheat grains, and propelled by the rising sap, long before tho »vheat blossoms into the y«)ung gormen or ovun), wh<'re the seeds of the fungi vegetate, and rapidly multiply, thereby preventing not only the fe- cimdation of the ovum, but even the developement of the parts of fructifi- cation. In conserpience no embryo is produced in an infected germen, which, however, continues to grow as long as the sound grains do, and, when the sound grains arrive at maturity, the infected ones are general- ly longer than, and are easily distinguished from, the sound grains, by their darker green colour, and from the ova retaining the same shape and form which they had at the time when the infection took p) ice. The name of this disease is also as undecided and various as the hi- therto supposed cause of its existence ; the most prevailing names in England, being smut-ball, pepper-brand, and brand-bladders ; and many others have been given to it, not only by the farmers in almost every county, but also by scientific naturalists. No author has yet been found who mentions or describes this species of wrcrfo, the distinguishing cha- racteristic of which being its extremely offensive smell, I ihink the most proper specific name of it would be that oiwiedojktida. The earliest period at wnich I discovered ihe parasite within the cavi- ty of the ovula of a young plant of wheat, (the seed grain of which had been inoculated with the fungi oi'uredo fatida, and sown the 14th No- vember, 1805,) was the 5th of June 1606, being sixteen days before the ear emerged from the hose, and about twenty days before the sound ears, springing from the same root, were in bloom. At that early stage, the inner cavity of the ovum is very small, and, after fecundation, is filled with the albumen or farinacious substance of the seed, and already oc- cupied by many young fungi, which, from their jelly-like root or spawn, adhere to the membrane which lines the cavity, and from which they can be easily detached in small flakes with that spawn ; in that state their very short pedicles may be distinctly seen. At first the fungi are of a pure ^vhite colour, and when the ear emerges from the hose, the ovum is much enlarged, but still retains its original shape, and the fungi rapidly muhiplying, many have then nearly come to maturity, assumed a darker colour, and having separated from the spawn, lie loose in the cavity of the ovum ; the infected grains continue growing, and the fungi continue to multiply till the sound grains have attained their full size and maturity, when the infected grains are easily distinguished from the sound ones by being generally larger, and of a darker green colour ; and if opened, they appear to be filled to excess with these dark-coloured fungi ; but the grains infected with the uredo fatida very rarely burst, and these fungi are seldom found on the outside of the grain ; but if the grain be bruised they readily emit their offensive smell, which is worse than that from pu- trid fish. When the sound grains are perfectly ripe and dry, and assume their light brown colour, the infected grains also change, but to a some- what darker brown, retaining, however, the same shape which the ovum bad at its forniatic ; the rudiments of the stigma also remaining unaltcr- ii ii ' , ? K- 83 rd. If tho infocfod prnin l)o rut in two, it will l)f fonnrl to consist foIcIv oCtlio outermost into<;iim('rit of the ovum, filled with the ripe hliirk fnn^i, without uiiy trace of the cmhryo or alhumeti. Plants of wheat infected with smut balls may be easily diHim^uished in the li<^ld, by their size, be. ing generally hi*rher than plants not infected, and larjjer in bulk ; and 1 have found in all instances a {greater number of stems produced from the same root, the ears containinj; more spickets, and those spickets more perfect p:rains, than were contained in those of sound plants, of the same •seed, and growing in the same tield. One plant, produced from seed vthich I had inoculated, had 24 complete stems and ears. Some of the stems with ears, meayiired above five feet, every part ol the plant propor- tionately large, and all the ears entirely infected. Another s[)ecinu n hud eight stems from the same root, five of them were above six feet high, and the ears entirely infected ; the other three stems were considerably shorter, their ears smaller, and their grains perfectly sound. This en- largenient of the plant, however, is not to be attributed to the infection, l)ut is undoubtedly the consequence of a luxurious vegetation, produced by a rich or moist soil, which secures and promotes the infection more than a dry or a moderately rich soil. Neither does this disease always affect the entire ear. I found some ears having one side infected, >vhilst the opposite side was perfectly sound. Sometimes five or six perfectly sound grains are found in an infected ear, and a few thoroughly infected grains are found in an 'otherwise sound ear. I'he infected grains are always in the last spicket at the apex of the ear, from whic'.i it appears that the infecting seed of the fungi did not reach the ovum before fecundation. In some of these grains a portion of the albumen was formed, but no trace of an embryo existed ; but, in others there was a considerable portion of albumen, and a perfect embryo formed. tt the time when the sound grains change their colour, the fungi being ripe, cease to multiply ; they are all of a globular form, and nearly of equal size, viz., one sixteen-hundredth part of an inch in diameter. I uould never yet see the seeds of these fungi in a ury state, for they then appear to be mixed v/ith some mucous fluid, wliich causes them to ad- here tog^thGr in hard lumps. That the seeds of the fungi ofuredo fatida are the sole cause of that destructive disease in wheat, the smut-ball or pepper-brand, I think I have fully a!icertained by numerous experiments of inoculating even the finest and purest samples of seed wheat ; and if that fact he admitted, it becomes evident that the prevention of it can only be effected by cleans- ing the seed-wheat Sv> effectually, that every particle of the fungi and their seed be entirely removed from the grains. But as these extreme- ly minute fungi, when once mixed with the seed -wheat, insinuate them- selves into the grooves at the backs and the beards at the tops of the wheat grains, I think it almost impossible to dislodge them by the mere process of washing. I once received some samples which had been so prepared, and was^hed in salt water, and declared to be perfectly clean, but on my putting some of these purified grains into water, in a watch- glass, and leaving them to soak about twelve hours, on then bringing them under the microf^ope, I found many of the fungi floating on the wa- 84 ist solely 'k ruiif^i, iiift'fted si '/.«', lir- : ; uiui I from lliH ts more the name )ni st'vd le of the t propor- nu n hud (!;et liijih, *i(h'rubly rhi.s cii- nt'ectian, )roduced on more 3me ears y sound, cted oar, e sound ! apex of ;i did not 1 portion ^ but, in embryo gi being learly of eter. I ley then to ad- ofthat think I iven the mitted, cleans- ngi and Ktreme- e them- of the le mere jeen so clean, watch- ringing he wa- ter. This fact convinces me that mere cleansing is no secure preven- tive of tltis disease ; and that the most eflicacious, and perhaps the only remet'y for preventing it, in that <»f depriving the fungi of their vitality. To oflfuct thii(, innumerable remedies have been recommended, and 1 believe, applied by the farmers, but have seldom proved entirely success- ful. From my own often repeated experiments, though on a limited scale, I am convinced that the host and surest remedy is, to fcteep the seed wheat in properly prepared lime-water, leaving it to souk at least twelve hours, and then to dry it well in the air, before sowing it ; but, I fear that it will be found very dilliciilt, if not impossible, even by this me- tliod, to kill the seeds of the tungi entirely, when the quantity of seed- corn is great, and consequently some infected phuils n.ight still be found in large fields. Steeping and pr(>pirly drying the seed-corn in the above manner, not only prevents the disease arisnig from tl. J inl'eeltd seed- corn, but does also etlectually prevent the clean seed from being infect- ed by the seed of the fungi, which might exist in the soil of the field on which diseased wheat has been growing before ; and consequently the cleanest samples of seed- wheat should be steeped, as wed as the most notoriously infected. These facts I have ascertained by repeated expe- riments, of strongly inoculating with the fungi, seed-corn which before had been jiroperly steeped and dried, and the result has always proved satis- factory, for the infection never took place, a^j in the case of inoculating clean seed, that was not previously steeped and dried. ^Vheat is the only plant that is liable to be infected by the smut-ball or pepper-brandy which is occasioned by the urcdo fmiida. The smut or dust-brand, ia also occasioned by an urcdo^ but of a decidedly diflerent species of para- sitic fungus, the genus uredo 8e.i<^elum. It is distinguished from uredo fcBtidot not being more than half the size, and oy being perfectly scent- less, whilst uredo falida is characterized by an extremely oilensivo smell. The manner in which uredo sef^etum^ acts upon the plants which it attacks is also very different, and the effect much more destructive than that o^ uredo fmlida^ which only attacks the grains in which it vege- tates, but seldom bursts, whereas the urcdo sefreium not only generally' destroys the whole ear, but even the leaves and stem. Furdier, uredo aegetuin attacks not only barle) , but wheat and oats. I have ascertained by repeated experiments of inoculation, that the seed of the fungi of ure- do segelum, like that of uredo f(ctidu, is absorbed by the roots of the ger- minating seed-corn, and, being so extremely minute., is mixed >vith, and propelled with the circulating sap, and deposited in almost every part, even in the cellular tissue of the plant, wher& these seeds contii.UiJ to vegetate and multiply rapidly, as well as in every part of the plant where there remains the least vitality. The whole ear is found entirely de- stroyed many weeks before even the individual florets are quite develop- ed, or the sound ears emerge from the hose. Sometimes, but rarely, the mfection takes place after the parts of fructification have been formed, and even after fecundation has taken place ; in that case the pi ogress of the disease can easily be observed. The germen is generally tlie first attacked, and found partially or half filled with the fungi ; then the pis- tils, the stigmas, the anthars, and even the extremely tender filaments appear full of black spots, which i\re occasioned by Siiiall clusters of M t". ■li' n Bi K I': H-'^i ' \- H j| ;.' K Jw * ■■ 1 11 :!■■ li ■:m r>.i' theso fungi, which vegetate nnd multiply so rapidly that in a few days the whole ear is completely filled. In oat plants such late infection occurs more frequently than in barley or wheat, and the whole panicle often emrrpes from its hose, to all ap- pearance in 1 perfectly sound state, or perhaps with only a few infectf d Apikets at its base, but the infection soon spreads visibly through the whole panicle, and every other part of the plant ; and even when such a partially infected ear is separated from the growing plant, the vegetating and muhiplying of the fun rust and mildew, when growing near cornfields." i> 31 '> ^■/■J•.■ -■' ,, Ifi' 87 ;♦ , Th« wheal JJy^ in clo«criI)pd, ns of Into ycnrs, being one of the '7Pn(o«t fn«inicfl to the wheat crop in Scotland, nnii nn there in every retvon to fluppoHo, that the same npeciefl of fly has injured the wheat crop in C'a- nmhi la8t year, it may bo useful to give a description of this fly, and its destructive ravages. " In North America, this insect, or one of the same family, has been known for many years, more eHpccially in New-Knpland, and its alarm- ing ravages are depicted ♦rom time to time in the newspapers, imder the nome of the Ifessinn Fhj. In the modern nomenclnnue, the Key. \V. Kirby informs nH,that the wheat-fly, formerly the /n/>v/a iriciti^ (Lin.) is now the recidomiiin tntici, and the I lessiaa fly, the C. distntcior. The wheat-fly generally makes it3 oppearance nboiit the end of June ; and, according to the cbser\'ations of Mr. Shirrefl, they exist throughout a pe- riod of thidy-nine days. The I n of the fly is orange, the wings trans- parent, and changing coIo.t according to the light in which they are viewed. It lays its eggs within the ghunes of the florets, in clusters, va- rying in number from two to ten, or even fifteen ; and the larvte feed upon the grain. They are produced from the eggs in the cotirse of eight or ten days ; they are at first perfectly transparent, and assume a yellow colour in a few days afterwards. They travel not from one plant to another, and forty-seven have been numbered in one. Occasionally there are found in the same floret, larvcc and a grain, which is generally shrivelled, as if deprived of nourishment ; and although the pollen may furnish the larva? with food in the first instance, they soon crowd around the lower part of the germen, and there, in all probability, subsist on the matter destined to form the grain. The larvrc are preyed on by the c^- raphron distruclor^ an ichneumon fly, which deposits its eggs in the body of the larva; of the wheat-fly ; and this is the only check hitherto discovered for preventing the total destruction of the wheat crops attack- ed by tho cecidomyia. Mr. Shircfl', speaking of the ichneumon, says, •* I could not determine if it actually deposits its eggg in the maggot's body, but there can bo no doubt, however, of the ichneumon piercing the maggots with a sting, and, from stinging the same maggots repeatedly, it is probable the fly delights to destroy the maggots, as well as to deposit eggs in their bodies. The earwig also devours the maggots as food. Mr. Gorrie estimates the loss sustained by the farming interest in the Carse of Gowrie dictrict alone, by the wheat fly, at 20,000/. in 1827, at 30,000/. in 1828, and at 36,000/. in 1829. The same writer in 1830, thus depicts the prospect of the wheat crop in the Carse of Gowrie. The cecidomyia are still alive in considerable legions ; that the flies will in this season be in as great plenty as ever, is now quite certain ; that they will lay their egg on no other plant than those of the wheat genus, is also true ; the only chance of escape is in the time the pupx appear in the fly state. Should this sunny weather bring them forward within a fort- night or three weeks of this date, the greater part will have perished be- fore the wheat is in the ear ; or should the earing take place betbre tho fle appear, then only the Nte, or spring sown wheat, will suffer ; but hiese appear slender chances. We know the history and the habits of the insect too well to believe that either mist, or rain, or dew, or drought, will cither forward or retard their operations, if the main body appear gni dal M he '7on(ort r rei^von to rop in C'r- fly, and its , hafl been its alarm- iinder the ; Hoy. W. (Lin.) 18 or. Tho inn ; and, hout a pc- nps trnns- thny aro jsterp, vn- nrvtr feed e of eight assume a one plant ;asionally ponerally jllcn may ^d around ist on the jy the ce- gs in the L hitherto >s attack- on, sayp, maggot's rcing the atcdiy, it D deposit OS food. St in the 1827, at in 1830, rie. The 's will in that they , is also ar in the a fort- 'ihed be- Ibre the 'er ; but labits of drought, appear as alKMit the time the wheat cc»mrs into tho ear. In additioi. to (imt vilo gniit. our ncighboiirH in (be LotUinii.s are thrrntcncMl with a no Iomh foriiii- dable iiiviulor in the anrict» pumilariua^ which, an ue are iufoiiticd on respectable authority, have already commenced tb«'ir dc|) « 'laiiopy, and are thiuninir the wheat |>lnnt:4 rather liberally in that (|tiiirtcr. It, like tho HesHian tly in America, attuck.M the under i«)intH, which become habita- tir the young liirvtc. In it not probable that it is the Hnnic spe- cies of insect which in spring, thins the wheat croj) no fieipK iitl^ in Canada. Mr. l c cr (g ^« w ^ < B » ^ y 46,33 04,67 22,49 38,66 24,33 11,26 3 o ^ cr ?> J and 90 Humboldt gives ft iummary sketch of the nctual distribution of trmpe- rature over the northern hemisphere, in the following words : ♦• 'J he whole of Europe compared with the eastern parts of Amorica an»l Asia, has an insular climate ; and the summers become warmer, and th< win- ters colder, as we advance from the meridian of Mont Blanc towards tho east or the west. Europe may be considered, as the western parts of all continents are, not only warmer at equal latitudes than the eastern parts, but even ir le zones of equal annual temperature, the winters are more rigorous, and the summers hotter on the eastern coasts than on the wes- tern coasts of the two continents. The northern part of China, like the Atlantic region of the United States, exhibits seasons strongly contrast- ed ; while the coast of ^ew California and the embouchure of the Co- lumbia have winters and summers almost equally temperate. The me- teori>logical constitution of those cotmtries in the northwest, resembles that of Europe as far as 50® or 62® of latitude, ^n comparing the two systems of climates, the concave and the convex summits of the same isothermal Hnes, we find at New-York, the summer of Rome and the winter of Copenhagen ; at Quebec, the summer of Paris and the win- ters of St. Pctersburgh. At Pekin, also, when the mean temperature of the year is that of the coasts of Britanny, the scorching heats of summer are greater than at Cairo, and the winters are as rigorous as at Upsal. So also the same summer temperature prevails at Moscow, in the centre of Russia, as towards the mouth of the Loire, notwithstanding the differ- ence of 11 degrees of latitude ; a fact that strikingly illustrates the eff'ects of the earth's radiation on a vast continent deprived of mountains. This analogy between the eastern coasts of Asia and America, sufficiently proves, continues Humboldt, that the inequalities of the seasons depend on the prolongation and enlargement of continents towards the pole ; on the size of seas in relation to their coasts ; and on the frequency of the north-west winds, and not on the proximity of some plateau or elevation of the adjacent lands. The great table lands of Asia do not stretch be- yond 52 degrees of latitude ; and in the interior of the new continent, all the immense basin bounded by the Alleghany range, and the Rocky Mountains, is not more than from 656 to 920 feet above the level uf the ocean. :1^ . •*; i \ u ■' ^ . 1 .' * t' ■ ! M i ':t 91 TABLE OP TEMPERATURE. Names of Position. Lati- tude. North Lonjri- tude. r - S 3 s =^5 I Distribution of iicjil in the different seasons. Nain ' EnonteUies Hospice tU"! St. Gothurd North (>ape St, Petersburg Moscow S^t()(kliolin Quebec Christiana (vopenhagen Kendal Zurich Edinburgh War.*iaw Dublin Bern Vienna Paris London Pliiladel|)hia New-York Pckin Milan Rome Algiers Cairo Montreal oil o I r)7,8 I6I.20W 68,3020.47 E 1350 40,30 71,0 50,56 55,45 oO.'^O 46.47 59.55 55.41 54,17 47,22 55.57 52,14 53.21 40.5 48,12 48.50 51,30 39„i6 40,4 39.45 45,28 41,.-3 30,4 30,20 45,30 8,23 E 6390 2-),50 E 30,19 E 37,32 E 18.3 E 71,I0W 10,48 E 12,35 E 2,46VV 8.32 E 3,10VV 21,2 E 6,19W 7,26 E 16,22 El 2.20 E 0,5 W 75,I6W :3,58\7 116.27E 9,11 E 12,27 E 3,1 E 31,18 E 73,22\V 970 1350 1050 420 39i o I 26,42 26,96 30,38 32,00 38,84 40,10 42,26 41,74 42.08 45,68 46,22 47.84 48,84 48.56 49. iO 49,28 50, .54 51.08 50.36 53.42 53,78 54.86 55,76 60,44 69.98 72,32 50,10 ^ re 2,2 » a c ^ 3 3 3 -a Maxiniuia and Minimum. c V 3 5- tc 3 " = ^^ - 5^ Si 2 2i o 0.6023,90 68 24,98 18,'3226,42 48,38 33,44 '51,80 .54,86 27,32 59,&4 11,28 -0,58 41,90 31,82,16,22 15,08 22,10 23,72i29,0{)' 43,34:32,08146.58 17,06,38, 12j62.00 38,(i6 62.60 1 1,48 10,78j44,06 67, 10,38.30,64.94 19,58 25,52 38,30i61.88 43,16104,04122,82 I4,18'3S.84'68,00!46,04|73.40 13,81 •28,78:39 02 H2.60;4 1 , 18:56,74 28,4 1 30,74|41,l862,60i48,38'65,6627,14 30.86 45, 1456.84 |x6,22 58,10 34,88 29.66 4S.20i64,04 48.92165.6626,78 38,66 46.40:58.28 48,56|59,36|38.30 28,76:47.48 09.0'J!49.46|70,34|27, 14 39,20 47.30!59..54'50,00 6 1 . 1 6 35,42 32,lX)l48,92i66,56l49,82;67,28|30,56 32,72i51 .26 69,26;50,54!70,52 26.60 38,66;49.28!6^4,38i51,44|a5r30 36,14 39,56]48,50;6;i. 14,50, 18|(>4.40 37.76 32,18 51,44,73.94j56.48i77,00|32.72 80,78125,34 84,3824,62 I _ ^9,8451,2679,16,54,50 26,42 56,3a|82..58;54,32 36,32 45,86 61,52 56,1273,(14 56.84 57,74 7 ,30 62,78 65.66180.24 58,46i73.5885,10 21,30 44,40j70, 15 72,50 71,42 51,10 74,66 77.0(J 82.76 85,82 80,20 30,14 42,26 60.08 50,12 15,30 soul The the two I latitil by ut deirij Moi 01 ally Continents have a colder atmosphere than islands situated in the same degree of latitude ; and countries lying to the windward of the superior classes of mountains or forests, are wanner than those which are to the leeward. Earth always possessing a certain degree of moisture has a greater capacity to receive and retain heat, than sand or stones ; it is from this circumstance that the intense heats of Africa and Arabia, and the cold of Terra c ' . Fuego, are derived. The teniperature of growing vegetables changes very gradually ; but there is a considerable evapo- ration from them ; if those exist in great numbers, as in forests, their fo- liage preventing the rays of the sun from reaching the earth, it is perfect- ly natural that the immediate atmosphere must be greatly affected by the ascenl ^f chilled vapours. '■«• ^ H- a '» ? tt p3 re -P ^ o »« - "-^ -c a "* "i 10] 11,28 4- it 1 -0.58 22.10 11,48 19,58 22,82 13,81 e same iperior to the has a ; it is ia, and owing 3vapo- leir Ib- Jifect- jy tho 92 The northern ice extends during summer, about U® from the pole, the southern 18P or 20*^ , and in sonic parts eyen 30^ . In south latitude between 54® and 60® , snow lies on the ground throughout summer. The line of perpetual congealation is three mihs above the surface at the equator, where the mean heat is 84® . At Teneriile latitude 28® , two miles ; the latitude of London, a little more than one mile ; and in latitude 80® north only 250 feet. At the Pole the mean temperature, by Kirwan, should be 31® . In London the mean temperature is 50^® ; at Rome and Montpellier, a little more than 60 ® ; in the Island of Ma- deira 70® , and Jamaica 80® New- York 53 a® Quebec 41|® , and Montreal 60® Of the distribution of solar heat and light, and the proportion that actu- ally arrives at flic siirKico of the eartli, at dilferent latitudes, it may be in- ((^rostiiig to give .some of tho estimates that have been made. M. Ponil- l(;t has attempted to show that the amount of heat annually received by the earth from tho sun, is equal to that which would be required to melt a stratum of ice nearly 46 feet thick, and covering its whole surface. A vertical ray of light, in its passage through the clearest air, has been calculated to lose at least a fifth part of its intensity before it reaches the earth's surface. From this cause, and from the actual condition of the atmosphere, it has been estimated that under the most favourable cir- cumstances, of a thousand rays emanating from the sun, only 378, on a medium, can penetrate to the surface of the earth at the equator, 228 at the latitude of 45® , and 110 at the poles, v.^hile in cloudy weather these several proportions are a great deal less. In consequence, natural ob- jects generally speaking, become sad and faded as we approach the cold- er regions, till they merge into the white of the polar snow. While the light and heat of tropical countries, produce decided dark and beautiful colours, the abstraction of light in cold climates causes plants and ani- mals to become more or less white or etiolated, particularly in the cold seasons ; and in the polar regions the natural covering of the earth, the snow, is the whitest body in nature. Different colours have a very considerable influence on the absorption and reflection of heat and light ; black and dark colours reflect most and absorb least. Why does whiteness prevail in the polar regions ? W'hy, for instance, is snow white ? On the contrary, why are all sorts of dark and decided colours met with in the tropical climates, except whiteness, which is comparatively rare ? Might not snow have been black instead of white, which was just as hkely if its colours had been the result of ac- cident, or might not whiteness be predominant under the equator ? Per- haps the best mode of answering these questions, and placing the subject in a striking view, is to examine what would have been the consequence if whiteness had prevailed under the equator, and blackness at the poles. As heat and light are supposed to obey nearly the same laws, as far as absorption, radiation, and reflection arc concerned, it is obvious that if white had prevailed in tho tropical climates, almost all the solar heat and light instead of being absorbed, would have been reflected. The consequence of this reflection would have been, that the accumulation of heat and glare of light in the lower regions of the atmosphere near the surface of the earth, would have been intolerable, and would have ren- ■ N ■ ^^■■B : ; '..• : •■• ^i , ^- ! - ■ h i ' • ,; i|.,;-»j ¥0 0$ dered these regions quite uninhabitable, at least by the present race of beings. On the other, what would have been the consequence had the snow been black, or if black or dark colours had prevailed io the polar regions. In this case, all the light and heat that reach them would have been absorbed, and the effect would have been darkness more or less complete. Thus the polar regions would have been one dark and drea- ry void, inaccessible to organic life. The soil, from a few inches to a foot below the surface, participates ▼ery much in the fluctuations of the surface temperature. In general, perhaps it may be stated, that the temperature of the surface of the earth is a little above that of the incumbent atmosphere by day, and below it by night, though much will depend in this respect upon the nature of the soil, and many other conditions that will readily occur to the reader. At a certain distance below the surface, there are instances of a uni- formity of temperature, particularly in the caves under the observatory in Paris, at a depth of about eighty*five feet below the surface ; a ther- mometer placed in these caves has, during fifty years, scarcely varied more than a quarter of a degree, and has been at 63;J® of Fahrenheit. In this climate, we owe as much to the lightness of snow, as to its whiteness. By the low conducting properties and lightness of snow, it shields vegetation from the rigorous cold that would destroy everything herbaceous during the winter, were it not from the protecting influence of snow. Again, if the water which in winter descends to the earth in snow, were to be precipitated in the form of solid masses of ice or hail, vegetation would be ultimately destroyed, and the whole of the colder parts of M I ^ rain in the two countries may, perhaps, differ very little from the usual average, while the two countries may have the benefit of variety in the general amount of their rain, which variety may be salutary at particular periods, and may even be necossary to their well-being. The portion of water deposited as dew, in England, in the course of a year is computed to be equal to about four inches. The proportion of dew in Canada must bo much greater, from being more copious. In tcmpernte climates, and with us particularly, wet summers are usu- aby cold. This diminutioii of temperature is supposed to be the cause, and not the etiect, of an extraordinary precipitation of moisture in any particular locality. From north latitude 12® to 43*^ , the mean number of rainy days is 78 ; from 43® to 46® the mean number is 103 ; from 40® to 52® , 134 ; and from 51® to 60®, 161. The vhole quantity of water in the atmosp1vv;re in January is usually supi^oscd lO be about four inches. In the month of July it is equal to seven i.uches ; thus the atmosphere contains three inches of water morj in the latter montli than in the former j and the tain or moisture precipitated to the earth in July is generally double what there is in January. Dulton's table gives an average for many years of the quantity of rain that falls at various places in Britain, and it up[)ears that one-third more rain fell the last six months than the first six months of the year. I think it is generally so in Ca- nada. tak< exei and disti twe« thirc oftl the MEANS OF PROGNOSTICATING THE VEATHER. The study of atmospherical changes has, in all ages, been more or less attended to by agriculturists ; the study in England, an island si- tuated as it is, is a very diilerent thing from the study of it in our climate, on the Continent of North America. There is a much greater variety of weather in England than with us, particularly as regards rain and drought. The natural data for this study are the v egetable kingdom. Ma- ny plants shutting or opening their flov irs, contracting or expanding their parts, &c., depend on the state of the atmosphere. Thus, if the Sibe- rian sow-thistle shuts at night, the ensuing day will be fine ; and if it opens, it will be cloudy and rainy. If the African Marigold continues shut after seven o'clock in the morning, rain is near at hand. The ani- mal kingdom exhibit signs of approaching changes, especially cattle and sheep, and hence shepherds are generally, of all others, the most correct in their estimate of weather. The mineral kingdom, stones, earths, metals, &c., often show indi- cations of approaching changes. The appearance of the atmosphere, the moon, and general character of the season, the prevalence of parti- cular winds, all these signs may be attended to. The influence of the moon on the weather has in all ages been believ- ed by th<) generality of mankind. The following are the principles on which learned men have grounded their reasons for embracing the re- ceived notions en this interesting topic : There are ten situations in the moon's orbit where she must particularly exert her influence on the at- mosphere ; and when, consequently, changes of the weather most readily m the usual Jly in the )articular urse of a •ortion of ■ are usu- le cause, e in any i number 3 ; from quantity )e about thus the >ntli than b in July gives an IS places : months ) in Ca- more or sland si- climpte, variety Eiin and n. Ma- r.g their le Sibe- ind if it ntinues he ani- tle and correct w indi- iphere, "parti- )eUev- les on he re- in the le at- cadily take placp : These are — let, tlio new ; and 9(1, the full moon, uhcn nhe exerts her influence in conjunction with or in opposition to the sun. 3rd and 4th — the quadratures, or those aspects of the moon when she is 90 '^ distant from the sun ; or when shv is in the middle point of her orbit, be- tween the points of conjunction and opposition, namely, in the first and third quarters. 6th — the perigee ; and 6th, the apogee, for those points of the moon's orbit in which she is' at the least and greatest distance from the earth. 7th and 8th — the two passages of the moon over the equator, one of which Toaldo calls the moon's ascending, and the other tho moon's descending, equinox ; or the two lunisticcs, as De la Lande terms them ; 9th, — the boreal lunistice, when the moon approaches as near as she can in each lunation (or period between one new moon and another) to our zenith, (that point in the horizon which is directly over our heads). 10th — the Austral lunistice, when she is at the greatest dis- tance ^rom our zenith ; for the action varies greatly according to her ob- liquity. V«^ith these ten points Toaldo compared a table of forty-eight years observations ; the result is, that the probabilities that the weather will change at a certain period of the moon, arc in the following propor- tions : — New moon, 6 to 1 ; first quarter, 6 to 2 ; full moon, 5 to 2 ; last quarter, 5 to 4 ; Perigee, 7 to 1 ; Apogee, 4 to 1 ; ascending equi- nox, 13 to 4; northern lunistice, 11 to 4; descending equinox, 11 to 4 ; southern lunistice, 3 to 1. That the new moon will bring with it a change, is in the doctrine of chances as 6 to 1. Each situation of the moon alters that state of the atmosphere which has been occasioned by the preceding one ; and it sel- dom happens that any change in the weather takes place without a change in the lunar situations. These situations are combined on ac- count of the inequality of their revolutions ; and the greatest effect is produced by the union of the syzigies, or the conjunction and opposi- tion of a planet with tho sun, with the apsides or points in the orbits of planets, in whiqh they are in the greatest and least distance from the sun or earth. The proportion of their power to produce variations is as follows : New moon coinciding with the perigee, 33 to 1 ; ditto, with the apogee, 7 to 1. Full moon coincidiiig with the perigee, 10 to 1 ; ditto with the apogee, 8 to 1. The combination of these situations ge- nerally occasions storms and tempests ; and this perturbing power will always have the greatest effect, the nearer these situations are to the moon's passage over the equator, particularly in the months of March and September. •« At the new and full moons, in the months of March and September, and even ipt the solstices, especially the winter solstices, the atmos- phere assumes a certain character, by which it is distinguished for three, and sometimes for six months. The new moons which produce no change in the weather, are those that happen at a distance from the ap- sides. As it is perfectly true that each situation of the moon alters that state of the atmosphere which has been ^produced by another, it is also observed, that many situations of the moon are favourable to good and others to bad weather. The situations of the moon favourable to bad weather are the perigee, new and full moon, passage of the equator, and the northern lunistice. Those belonging to the former are the apogee, i I til .•i i» 09 qiindraturos, and tho southoni lunisticu. Changes of tho woaUier sohluiii UikiMi \}\aco on tho very dayH of Iho nioon'u Hituution, but either precede or fotio\» them. It huH been ionnd by ubMcrvation, that tho chunf;c8 ei'- i< ^ I ill 103 ail animal will fatten Rpeedilj at any ader period of its life. Tameness and docility of temper are desirable properties in most of the domesticat- ed animals. The quantity of the flesh, and the proportions which the fine akid coarse parts bear to each other, and the weight of both to that of the offal, constitute the comparative value of two animals of equal weight. The first of these properties seems to be determined by the breed and food ; the second, by the form and proportions of the animal ; and a Ihird, by all these and its degree of fatness. The flesh of well-formed small animals, both of cattle and sheep, is well known to be finer grained, of a better flavour, more intermixed with fat, and to afford a rich- er gravy than that of the large animals, and it brings a higher price ac- cordingly, (by nearly a penny per pound,) in all the principal markets of England and Ireland. The desirable properties of animals are different according to the pur- poses to which they are applied. The principal productions of live stock are meat, milk, labour, and wool. A breed of cattle equally well adapt- ed to the butcher, the dairy-maid, and the plough, would be very desira- ble, but are scarcely to be found. These properties are by most judges, considered to be inconsistent with one another, and to belong to animals of different forms and proportions. With regard to sheep, I believe that very fine wool cannot be produced by such as have the greatest propen- sity to fatten, and will return the most meat for the food they consume. In Canada, the wool of the sheep is a very great object to the farmer, and bears a much higher proportionate value to the carcass than in Eng- land ; therefore, a good description of sheep, producing long wool, of reasonable fineness, are the best adapted to this country. The shapes which indicate a propensity to fatten in the shortest time, and with the least consumption of food, and lay the fat upon the most va- luable parts of the carcass, are considered to be the following. The head, bones, and less valuable parts, ought to be fine, clean, and as small as possible. The collar full at the breast and shoulders, and tapering gradually to where the neck and head join. The bosom broad, and the chest deep. The carcass should be large, and the ribs standing out from the spine, both to give strength of frame and constitution, and likewise to admit of the intestines being lodged within the ribs, but yet not to be what is called high-ribbed. The shoulders ought not only to be light of bone, and rounded off at the lower point, but also broad, to impart strength, and well covered with flesh. The back, from the shoul- ders to the tail should be broad, flat, and neaily level ; the quarters long, and the flank, full and large. Round bodied, and barrel-shaped animals, with clean heads, necks, and throats, small legs, and the least appearance of oflal, will be easiest fattened, and pay most for the food they consume. A breed may be said to be improved when some desirable property, which it did not possess beforje, has been imparted to it, and also when its defects have been removed or diminished, and its valuable properties enhanced. Improvement, in its most extensive application to the live stock of a country may also be effected when, by a total or partial change of live stock, the value of the natural produce of the soil is augmented. and obtal -whic degf shall neve mayl Tl gene the breel has instc femi dispj ing sivei 104 Taimeness lomesticat- which tho oth to that Is of equal breed and lal ; and a ell-formed be finer ird a rich- r price ac- narkets of o the pur- live stock 'ell adapt- ry desira- st judges, animals ilieve that t propen- consume. e farmer, 1 in Eng- wool, of est time, most va- ean, and lers, and 11 broad, standing ion, and but yet only to •road, to e shoul- quarters -shaped le least he food roperty, o when jpertiea the live change fiented. and a greater quantity of human food and other desirable commodities obtained from it. Whatever may be the merit of that skilful management -which is necessary to the formation of a vahiable breed, a considciablo degree of the same kind of merit may be justly claimed by those who shall introduce and establish it in situations where its advaiitngos have never been contemplated, and in which the obstacles to its success may appear almost insurmountable. That the breed of animals is improved by the largest males, is a very general opinion ; but this opinion, according to some, is the reverse of the truth, and has done considerable mischief. The great object of breeding, by whatever mode, is the improvement of form, and experience has proved that this has only been produced in a eminent degree in those instances in which the females were larger than in the usual proportion of females to males ; and that it has generally failed where the males were disproportionately large. The following epitome of the science of breed- ing is by the late eminent surgeon, Henry Cline, who practised it exten- sively on his own farm at Southgate. Though some breeders have dis- approved of Mr. C line's system, yet it has been translated into most of tho Continental languages, and has lately been illustrated by M. De Dom- basle in France, and by others. On the size, soundness, and strength of the lungs, the health of ani- mals principally depends. The power of converting food into nourish- ment, is in proportion to this size. An animal with large lungs is capa- ble of converting a given quantity of food into more nourishment than one with smaller lungs, and therefore has a greater aptitude to fatten. The size of the chest indicates the size of the lungs, and its capacity de- pends on its form more than on the extent of its circumference ; for when the girth is equal in animals, one may have much larger lungs (I an the other. A circle contains more than an ellipsis of equal circumference. A deep chest, therefore, is not capacious unless it is proportionately broad. The head being small generally indicates that the animal is of a good breed. Horns are particularly injurious to sheep. The skull of a ram, with its horns, weighed five times more than a skull that was hornless, both the skulls behig taken from sheep of the same age, four years old. The natural size of the head was the same in both, independent of the horns. A mode of breeding which would prevent the production of horns, would afford a considerable profit in the increase of meat, wool, and oth- er valuable parts in sheep. To obtain the most improved form, the two modes of breeding de- scribed as the in-and-in and crossing modes have been practiced. The first mode may be the better practice, when a particular variety approach- es perfection in form, especially for those who may not be acquainted with the principles on which improvement depends. When the male is much larger than the female, the offspring is generally of an imperfect form. If the female be proportionately larger than the male, the ofi- spring is of an improved form. For instance, if a well formed large ram be put to ewes proportionately smaller, the lambs will not be so well shaped as their parents ; but if a small ram be put to larger ewes, the lambs will be of an improved form. The proper method of improving the form of animals consists in 5-© « t 105 iccliiiij; n well foiini'il iViuiilr, iirupoiiioiuitcly lur|.^or ihiuitiie inalr. Tlio iiiiproHMUfiit {nti(i!4 oil ih«i |)ii:i(M|>l<> thai llic po^cr of the I'riniilr to 5ii|)|)ly li«M- oir->|irinir will nuiirisliiiHMt is in |)ro|»ortioii tu \\vr Ni/cMind to tl>i' powci of noiiii>liiiiii lu'iscll' iVom the; t'xcclloni'c of lur mnslitiitiun. 'Vho Hi'/.(* of lli<< r(v:liis is ^^ciicrally in |)t'u|>ortioM to tliiit of \\\v iimiIo pu- reMit ; uihI, tlwMi'lon", \\\\v\\ tlio iViniilo piiicnt is dispiopoilionalrly miiall, tho (piiiiUily <>r 11 xirishiiKMil is (Iclicjciit, auil her oil'spiii^ has all liu^ diH- propoitions of a slaivclin^',. Itiit wIkmi the IcinaU' is hir^t', slir is nioro tlitiii a(!k'(pial(* to \\\v uoinhAuutiil ol'u i'uUiis oi' ti stnulh^' mule than licr- ' »v\t. To obtain anii»i;\N wili\ lar-jc liniaM, crossiujj; is tlio most ('Xj)cditious motliod. \]y sidti iJiij; lai;'C, ui'll-rtirnuMJ lonuvlrs to bo put to a vvcll- loruu'd niulo ot'a variety tliat is nillu»r smaller, will produro this improve* luont, ron;n greatly improved, by crobuing w ilh tho small Chinese boar. Examples of the ellects of crossing the breed are more nnmorous. >Vhen it becan\e the fashion in Lontlon to drive laroe bay horsics, the far- mers in Yorkslnro put their marcs to much Iarjj;er stallions than usual, and thus ditl infmite nnschief to their breed, by producing ii race of small- chested, loni»-lei>;L:;ed, larii;e-boned, worthless animals. A siniilar prac- tice was adopted in Norniandy, to enlarge tho breed of horses there, by the use of stallions from llolstiMU, and, in consequence, the best breed of horses in France would have been spoiled, had not tho farmers disco- vered their mistake in time, by observing the ollspring much inferior in form to that o\' the native stallions. Some graziers in tho Isle of Shop- py, conceived that they coidd improve their she(;p by largo Lincolnshire rams, the produce of whicii, however, was nuich ini'erior in the shape of the carcass ami the quality of tho wool ; and the flocks were great- Iv impaired by this atlem})t to improve them. Attempts to improve the animals of a country by any plan of crossing, should be made with the i^reatest caution ; for by a mistaken practice, extensively pursued, irre[>Jirable mischief may be done. In any country where a particular race of animals has continued for centuries, it may be presumed that tlieir constitution is adapted to the food and climate. The policy of tlie animal economy is such, that an animal will gradu- ally accommodate itself to great vicissitudes of climate, and alterations in ibod, and by degrees undergo great changes in constitution ; but these chanaes can be etVccted only by degrees, and may often require a great number of generations lor their accomphshment. It may be proper to improve the Ibrm of a native race, but at the same time it may be very injudicious to enlarge tlieir size, for the size of animals is commonly It' i'ciniili' to Nl/t', II ud to I'onsiitiitiun. li<> IIMllo pu. iMlrly Nnmll, I nil \\\v (IJH. !^lu' iH nioro It; Ihuii lior- J'xpcditious It !(» ti wi'll- is iinprove- rain bo put kiii^ oftho iwsiiig with ho itiiprov- ovoinent of c stnlliuriH, s into this art-liorsea. iij; M ith tlio nuinoroufi. ^J?, the far- iuin iiNiinl, ' of sinnll- lilar piac- thno, by )ost brood CIS disoo- nfoiior in t)f 8hep- coJnshire shape of re great- improve ade with pursued, artioular lied that I ffradu- orations ut these a great roper to be very nmonly lOG nditptfd to thn noil and clinmto whirh tliry iuiinldt. Wlinr prndurr tn nutritivo and abundant, tliu anirnaU aro lar;^*-, having ^rown pioportion- atoly to tho quantity of food whirh for L'niii'nifion.s tli'-y have boon ao- rUHlomod t(» obtain. >Vhor() the jyrochuto ih Hoaiity, flu; aniiniiU are umall, boinj? proportionod to iho quantity of (ood wlii<;li thoy w fuilaij^O' tho ni/c! of anitnals, by any mmU) of broodinj^, will ovor Huc(M:od without a oorrospondiiif^ chanf^o in tho quantity and quality of thoir food, and thrir n.enns of pro- curing it without much fali^^uo. 'Iho oliuiato also rotpiiroH attention. An improvod whort Irnrn (touid never arrivo at |tortionod in si/<; to tho fomaloH. Th(^ native horses of India are small, but well proportioned. W ith the intention of increasinijf thoir size, tho J'.ast India Comjniny have adopted tho plan of sondinjT large stallions to India. If thf heat, pro- tranquility, to be given 1 according ) have been ither folded r food may lat which is e observed, c, the more a very mo- lt by with- ig, may go An ox pro- froin three than such its vege- icnt which ase of the mastica- )f grains, ith chaff net which the same principle ind could winter,) red pro- nt would mals ; it [id in ge- iring dis- id abun- pure, of her, and 'ith a lit- •d that liquid food tie meal, or other rich matter, it is not supi^^ nerally advantageous for fattening animals, as that which being <((UJ»lIy rich is solid. It is not necessary to give water to animals lor sonit; liiuo after eating ; animals pasturing ir. the field seldom .sec k water after iill- ing themselves ; they generall} lie down first, and after the pioccs.s ol digestion seems to have gone on for some time, they then go in quest ol water. To give water to housed animals, in an liour or an hour and an half, after what may be called their meals, will, 1 believe, be the best time. Cleanliness is favourable to health, by promoting perspiration and cir- culation. Animals in a wild slate nttend to this part of their economy themselves ; but in proportion as they are cultivated, or brought und('r the controul of man, this becomes out of his power ; and to insure their subserviency to his wishes, this part of the culture as well as others, must bo supplied by art. Combing and brushing stall-fed cattle and cows are known to contribute materially to health. Bathing or steeping the feet of stalled anUnals occasionally in warm water, would, no doubt, contri- bute to their health, liathing swine in hot water, as in that used for boil- ing or steaming food, has been found a real advantage. An animal may be well fed, lodged and cleaned, without being com- fortable in every respect ; and in brutes, as well as ir- i- want of com- fort operates on the digestive powers. If the surface ^i a stall in which an ox or a horse stands, deviates much from a level, he will be continual- ly uneasy ; and he will be uneasy during night if its surtiice is rough, or if a proj)er bed of litter is not prepared every evening for him to repose on. The form of racks and mangers is often less commodious than it uight be. It should be a duty as agreeable as it is conducive to our own interest to i)romote as much as possible the comfort of those ani- mals whose lives are shortly to be sacriliced lor ours. A good suite oi health will, in general, be the result of a proper mode of feeding and treatfnent ; but in proportion as our treatment, either of ourselves or oth- er animals, is refined and artiticial, in the same proportion ar»? the func- tions of nature liable to derangement or interruption from atmospheiical changes, and various accidental causes. CHOICE OF LIVE STOCK FOU THE PURPOSES OF BREEDING OK FEEDIMC. The bulk of an animal was the sole criterion of its value before the im- provements introduced by Bakewell ; and if a great si/e could be ob- tained, more regard was paid to the price the animal ultimately fetched, than to the cost of its food. Of late, since breeders began to calculate with more precision, small or moderate sized animals have been gene- rally preferred, for the following rensons : Small sized animals are more easily kept, they thrive on shorter herb- age, they collect food where a large animal could hardly exist, iiud thence are morg profitable. Their meat is liner grained, produces ricli- er gravy, has often a superioi' ilavour, and is commonly more nicely marbled, or veined with fat, especially when thev have been fed for two years. Large animals acp not so well calculated for general consump- tion as the moderate sized, particularly in hot weather ; large animal* 1 'ii 'II -. ■ V ■ < ■ . 1 f . r-' 'I'.^t1 i •'.*. 1 109 poarh postures inort- limn sinuU ones ; they are not bo active, require more rci't, collect their tooil with more labour, and will only consume thb niciir and more delicntc Hort of plants. Small cows of the tr»ie dairy breed jjjive proportionately more milk than larj^e ones. {Small cnltio may bo tUttencd solely on pruss of even moderate quality ; ^Nhereas Iho lar^o require the richest pastures, or to be stall-fed, the expense of which exhausts the profit of the farmer. It is nmeh easier to pr(tvide well- shaped and kindly feeding stoek of a snudl size than of a large one. S.inall sized cattle may hr kept by many persons who cannot alloid eith- i r to purchase or to nuiintain large ones ; and their loss, if any accident should happen to them, ciin be more t>asily borne. The snudl sized sell bolt(M' for a butcher, from a conviction that, in proportion to their respec- tive dimensions, there is a greater superticies of valuable parts in a small than a large animal, and will give more money for two oxen of twelve Btone each per quarter than for one of twenty-four stone equally fat. In favour of the large sized it is, on the other hand, contended, that without debating whether from their birth till they are slaughtered the large or the small one eats most for its size ; yet on the whole, the large one will pay the grazier or the farmer who fattens him as well for his food ; thi\t thotigh some large oxen are coarse grained, yet where attention is paid to the bread, (as is the case with the Herefordshire,) the large ox is us delicate food as the small one ; that if the small sized are belter cal- culated for the consumption of private families, of villages, or of Braall towns, yet that large cattle are litter for the markets of great towns, and in particular of London, tliat where the flesh of the smaller sized ox is better when fresh, yet thenieat of the large sized is unquestionably more calculated for siUting, a most essential object in a maritime and commer- cial country, tht)Ugh not for Canada at present. The thicker the beef, the better it will retain its juices when soiled, and the fitter it is for long voyages; that die hide of the large ox is of yery great consequence in vari- ous manuflictures ; that when the pastures are good, cattle and sheep will increase in size, without any particular attention on the part of the breed- er. Large animals are, therefore, naturally the proper stock for good pastures. Such are the arguments generally made use of on both sides of the question, from which it appears that much must depend upon pastures, taste, mode of consumption, markets, &c., and that both sides have their advantages. The intelligent breeder, however, (unless his pastures Are of a nature peculiarly foicing,) will naturally prefer a moderate size in the stock he rears. Davis, of Longleat, one of the ablest agriculturists Kngland has produced, has given some useful obs^ervations on the sub- ject of size. He laments that the attempts which have been made to im- prove the breed of cows, horses and sheep, have proceeded too much upon tlie princij)le of enlarging the size of the animal ; wliereas, in gene- ral, the only real improvement has been made in the pig, and that was by reducing its size, and introducing a kind that v.ill live hardier, and come to greater perfection at an earher age. Tliough it is extremely desirable to bring the shape of cattle to as much pertection as possible, yet profit and utility ought not to be sacri- ficed for meie beauty which may please tlie eye, but will not fill the pock- no ot ; and whicli, deprnding much upon rnpricr, ntiiNt l»c often rhanfi;in^. Ill n!j;iunl to form, llio most rxprriciicrd bricdi rs Kcom to f;oncur in tlir rollowii)(^ pnrtifMilar.s : Tluit tlio torin.or Hiiiipc hlioidd Ix; comport, ho that no part of thr uniinal hIioijM I)i> diH|)rop(irtioncd to tho other piirtp, and the wiiolo Hhonld ho nvoidnl. Arriving »nnn nf prriootion, not only in point of growth or size, but in r^^'^porl ot'tUtnosM, \h n. nmlcrinl <»l)j«>r( tor tho Ihrni'^r, an hin profit umnt, in II >jr<»iit inciisurr, (lrpon«l npon it. \Vh( tor thoir ronsninpiion, than slow Irccling aniniiilH. ThiH ilcsirnhlc propoiiy prratlv ck jjreatly vary, and it is a mat- ter of MMich consequence to select for difleronl situations, cattle with constitutions suitabh^ to the plaee whore they are to l)e kept. Soe.ie breeds nrv (listinc;ui; lie rullior too iMidir for flu* < Iwiiiitr, uiul «iilii(Milt mid rx|ii'nHiv<- to wiiitrr.*' ThiH fair;) in point >>( moil, iH Naid t(» Im> ft|iial in value to ;iiiy landN in the north of Kn^lniid. 'I'lin iinprovi'd loti^jr-liornrd l»n'< d <»!' catth' \v!' opinion, tlmt lirctd k( |it lli«i\vu at the a/^e of three y(arH and ;i half. I have H«'eM them ho1 i >l I? a f. »: r m • ,*%i ■'>•.' 11.) rvrn r()M« 4 4 do. d<». atid tine short horn, ) liiucoln short horns, 4 do. du* ('oarse, inferior beasts, 3 10 do. do. Sheep, calves, and lambs of niodciate si/e, sell for hi^rlur prices in pro- portion, than those of tlu; largest si/.e. 1 have seen m poits from the Kni^lish markets lust year, that show the diU'erence to Iv fully a penny p(M' pound in most kinds of butcher's meat in favour of the small si/e. This difference itt two animals of 700 pounds weight eiirb, and one ani- mal of 1400 pounds weight, would amount to about 5.'. or 6/. in favour of the small aninuds in .ho JiUglish nuuket ; an amount that would pay for their stall feeding. It may be very possible that two animals of 700 pounds weight each, will consume more food than one animal of 1400 pounsary for animals by their respective live weight and si/e, and from my own ob- servations and experience, 1 believe most animals in periect health, will consume food in proportion to their size and weight, or nearly so, though there may be exceptions. The practice of Canadian farmers here to allow male cattle and sheep to lemain uncut after the proper tinu), is a great injury to the (piality of the beef and mutton, and wo need not 'expect to see beef or nujtton in perfection while this practice is allowed to continue ; animal^; will not be kindly feeders, or produce the best meat, if not cut when young ; calves at the age of a week or two, and spring lambs cut about he first or se- cond week in May, or before, if the weather is favouiable. By an experiment I made in 1833, with three cows, one of the middle horned breed, a large well made cow of the kind, and two of Canadian* or nearly full-blooded Cadadian breed, reared by myself, all of the same age, eight years old, had calves in the spring of 1833, were milked to the 1st of August and then dried, and had abundance of clover and timothy after-grass from that time until slaughtered. When the cows were put to fatten, most Old Country farmers would have given a much greater price for the large cow than either of the others ; they were all in excel- lent condition when put to feed. During the period of their giving milk, the small cows gave more milk each, than the large. On the 8th Octo- ber the smallest cow was slaughtered, the other Canadian cow was slaughtered on the 7th of November, and the larger American middle- horned cow on the 21st of November ; all continued to improve till slaughtered. 'i?lH' .J Weight of 4 qrs. tallow taken out. Tallow. Hide. Offal. Total. 1 •:'. > No. 1 2 3 362 lbs. 410 473 72| 97 58 48 48 63 58 63 86 641 619 683 oHdl consisted of head heart, tongue, liver, skirt.<, kidneys Sifeet. • '.a.T: Inn . n ^# i ■4' ♦ ' ) ■• ':^ j'i. 115 Utn\ N»>. 1 lurii k«pl «m the j^rnHg until No. 2 wiw nlnn^htorrd, I i»olii-v(! :.ii(! would liuvr iuid im iiiiich tidlow um No. 2. If No. 3 imd lii't'ii tM|UHlly tilt us No. 2, mIic woidd, troiii her size nnd Hppturnfice hu\o w«!i;^lu'd 1)00 pounds ut Ica.st, when kilU-d. WIu-m l\\v cown wrrc put to (VumI, I did not think it pos.sildc that (.ithcr of the Hniull cowh could, on the Humv ^rus.s, and in th(^ sunic time, be Icii to W(i<;h within 2U0 pounds of tht) lur^e cow. No. 1 had ticaily a s«v«'nth of her whole weight in tal- low, while her oll'al did not uniountto a nindi. No. 2 had nearly a iiixth vf her own woijjjht in tallow, whih- her offal was not nnich ovj-r a tenth. No. 3 had only about n twelllh of her own weight in tallow, while kIio had over an eighth in offid. The feet of the large cow, 'No. 3, weighed IH^ pounds ; those of No. 2, only 13 pounds ; no much for large and »uiuU bono. It was impossible that any e.xpcrimrnt could be miido with prass-fed cattle more fairly than this was, as regarded thfi health and condition of the cattle, their feed the samc^ and being the best animals «)f the dillerent breeds in my possession. These animals having been fed in winter in fioparate stalls, I had an opportunity of ascertaining the usual quantity consumed by each for years, and 1 observed the large cow to be the greatest feedi'r of any cow in my possession. I stall-led cows on one occasion of dillerent breeds, with the same results in favour of the small fiized. What I mean by small or moderate sized cows would be such as could bo grass-fed to weigh near or about the same as No. 1 and 2, in tln' above experiment, at four years old ; and as tliese cows were, at all times from their birth, regularly fed with suitable food. Canadian, or Old Country farmers, should not judge of the qualities of Canadian neat cattle, by the present general condition of that stock. The breeding, rearing, and feeding, has been too much neglected, to allow a fair estimate being made of their value by their present appearance, exce|)t by such farmers as have given the breed a fair trial. It cannot surely be patriot- ism, and will not increase national or individual wealth, thut we should seek from abroad, what ve oossess at home in equal, (and 1 conceive in greater,) perfection ; and even though in their present state they should be inferior, it ought to be our pride and ambition by care and feeding to advance them to that full degree of excellence they are capable of attain- ing. Those, however, who will prefer large stock, and are determin- ed to feed them abundantly and carefully, I do not presume to advise to change them for any other. They may find their profits perfectly sa- tisfactory, and while that is the case, it would be inexpedient to reduce the size of their animals. I am more particularly desirous by what I liave said to recommend to those who have small animals, and may be anxious to enlarge their size, to seek to accomplish their object, rather by superior care and feeding, than by any other means, this being the only method to do so profitably, or permanently. The native or Canadian sheep require amelioialion, and their improve- ment might be easy to accomplish, as theie are several flocks increasing in the province from imported sheep of a very good description that might be crossed with the native sheep to great advantage. In producing the requisite improvement, profit should be duly attended to, and that dc- b No. 3 Imd innce liinr wvTv put to iiild, oil thi; ) pounds of i^ht ill tal- iirly 11 dixtli er H tt'iiih. , whiles sIh; 3, wi'I^IumI • lurgf and h grusH-ft'd oiidition ot' he diin'iciit II winter in ul quantily V to be tlie Dws on oue >i'the Hntull ch as could id 2, in th(^ ere, at all madian, or iidian neat breedini;, ir estimate ,)t by MUch |bc patriol- we tliiipe uf a sheep may be, he should be rejected as a ram to breed from, if he bus not a good Meece of wool covering «'very part of his body. It is siippoM- ed that the wool of imported sheep bci'onic*', after two or tliiee y« nrs, de- teriorated and coarser in cpiality. I cannot say thut siich is the lii'f, or wliy it should be so. 'i'houjih sh"r|» will lejiiiir more care here than in Kiigland, a.<> they must bc^ housed in winter, and U d oii dry food four or p<'rliaps five mouths in the year, yet they may be n very profilablo Ntocic, if carefully attended to. The rot, so destructive to sheep in tho IJriti"!jh Isles, they are entirely free from in Canada. Chey cannot attain pertection however if restrained by yokes, or ti(!s in Huinmer to prevent them trespassing on the crops. They should bo confined by suiruicnt fences to keep thcui from trespassing, without recp iring yokes or any other injurious n'siniuit. Iletter not keep sheep, if not kept as they ought. Sheep r<'iiui!<' shade to retire to occasionally in the heat of sum- mer, as they are much annoyed by flien. The varieties of sheep in England are numerous. The Lincolns or old Leicesters, are a large breed, that arc said to pr duce wool from ten to eighteen inches long, and weighing from eifiht to fourteen pounds the rtccce. They arn sa.d to be s'ovv fe ders, ex( ept on the richest lands. The New Leicesters or Dishely breed are niU( h approved of in Kiig- land, when well woolled, which they are not considered to be, unless tho fleeces average seven pounds each, on a full grown Hock. The wool should be long, fine and silky, not course or inclined to curl. The forms of these sheep arc very handsome. 'J'heir heads aie clean and snail, their necks short, and their breasts full : their bodies are round, with broad, straight backs, but the bellies rather light or tucked up ; their legs and the whole bone are fine, and particularly small in proportion to their size. They are of a quiet disposition and fatten early and kindly, and the flesh is fine gramed and well liavoured, but too fat in England to please most palates. I would expect very great improvement from crossing Lec( istcrs two or three times with Canadian sheep. I have seen good sheep produced in Ireland from a cross between them and the Merino. The South Down sheep are much esteemed in England ; their mut- ton above all other. The wool is excellent, but the quantity is sr all. I think they might by a useful cross here, and by careful breeding, be tho means of introducing a hardy breed of sheep, with heavier fleeces than the South Down generally have in England. The Canadian breed of swine are of a description that cannot be very profitable. They require a large quantity of food to tatten them, and have not one characteristic mark of the most approved kind of swine. In England, the Woburn breed, a new variety of swine introduced by the Duke of Bedford, are the most perfect animals of the pig kind I have seen. They are well formed, very thick in the bod) , legs short, and \q- ry small, hardy constitution, very prolillc, kindly dippoicd to fatten, and 5 ♦ * « .: k. ■■:>( 1 , ■■ .» ^.v I II, .-•■5.1 117 attain to nearly twice the weight of some other hogs within the same giv- en period of time. A cross with these, or the Chinese breed of swine, with the Canadian breed, would be productive of improvement. Our neighbours of the United States have a very good description of swine, brought into this province every day. There is no difficulty whatever in producing the improvement required in our stock of swine, if we only choose to pay due attention to it, and it may be accomplished with very little expenditure. There are several good breeds of swine in the pro- vi^nce that are to be had at moderate prices. In making choice of swine, small, tine bone will be the best recom- mendation they can have. This quality is more essential in swine than in any other animal. Swine do not, like beasts of burden, or draught, re- quire great limbs to carry them about ; indeed the more confined they are the better for the farmer, and I have ever found those of the smallest bone, the most inclined to flesh, the easiest fatted, and pay most for the food they consume, whatever their weight may be. The Woburn, and Chinese breed are finest of bone in proportion to their size, of any swine I have seen, and would, I am convinced, be the best description of swine that could be introduced into these provinces. Swine are, or ought to be, a most valuable part of our live stock, and might be increased four fold what they are at present without any difficulty. CHOICE OF LIVE STOCK FOR FURFOSES OP LABOUR. The animals of labour used in Canadian farming are exclusively the horse and the ox. Much difference of opinion prevailed in Englend, as to which of these animals should be preferred, and the preference has been given by many to the ox, and by others to the horse. One of the greatest objections to the ox in England is, that they will not bear con- stant work, but require very frequent intervals of rest. This is a mate- rial objection, where ploughing is going on nine months in the year. The same objection, however, does not apply in Canada. The greater part of the ploughing is confined to three months, and in the cool season of the year, when the oxen are best able to perform their work, and do so, at a very trifling expense for their maintenance. The strong lands of Canada, in the fall, require in general a greater power of draught than two ordinary horses are able to give, in ploughing. By keeping a regu- lar succession of oxen, two might be disposed of annually at five years old, stall-fed afler the ploughing was finished, and sold during the winter or spring. By this management, I am convinced farmers might execute their ploughing at a very trifling expense. Oxen, moderately worked, two or three months in the year, would not be injuriously affected in their growth, if provided with reasonable keep, and keep will not amount to half the expense of keeping a horse. The ox may be worked for three seasons, the first very moderately, and be increasing in size and value to the end, while the horse will decrease in value. The succession of oxen necessary for one plough would be two of one years old, two of two years old, two of three years, and two of four years old; selling ofl' two annually in tht^ latter part of the winter or in spring, fat, that would i>riiig ihefarnur from CO to 100 tlollars. 118 I » In .'England, allowing 60 acres as the avferagc extent of land that may be cultivated by two horses in the best manner, the horses are said to consume the produce of one acre out of every six which he cultivates, and sometimes one out qf every five which he ploughs. A second objection to oxen is, their slow movement. In Canada, they generally plough with one or two horses before the oxen, which gives the oxen a much quicker step than when worked alone. In Sussex, England, four oxen to one plough ploughed an acre of land in four hours and ten minutes. I have seen a pair of spayed heifers worked at a ploughing match in Ireland, without a driver, and completed their work in less time than some horse teams did. In Portugal, oxen are harnessed in the following manner : a long lea- ther strap is wrapped round the yoke, whence it passes round the lower part of the horns, and is again fastened to the yoke. By this contriv- ance, the heads of the oxen become more steady while performing their work, and these useful animals are rendered more tractable. In France and Spain, oxen are in general worked by the head and yoke, as they are in Canada, or nearly so. The method of working them in Portugal was very much approved of by Lord Sommerville. The Ca- nadian mode might ver}' readily be assimilated to that of Portugal, and would be an improvement. Those who prefer horses to oxen, I would not by any means attempt to persuade against that preference. Of course, they have decided on their choice, aAer calculating its advantages. On light soils a pair of good horses are very well able to plough sufficiently deep, but there is a great proportion of the lands of Lower-Canada which two horses are not able to plough in a proper manner. It is said that the farm-horses in most parts of England are much too cumbrous and heavy, and are more fitted for drawing heavy drays or waggons in towns, than for the operations of agriculture. The objec- tions of the celebrated Davis, of Longleat, to the using of large, heavy- heeled horses, in preference to the smart, the active-, and the really useful breeds, merit particular attention. In some situations the heaviness of the soil requires more than ordinary strength ; but, in such cases he main- tains, that it would be better to add to the number of horses than to in- crease their size. Great horses not only cost proportionately more at first than small ones, but require much more food, and of a better quality to keep them in flesh. In many instances, indeed, the expense of keep- ing a fine team of horses in England, amounts nearly to the rent of the farm on which they ar^j worked. In ploughing light soils, the strength of a great dray-horse is not wanted ; and in heavy soils, the weight of the animal does injury to the land. If large heavy horses are considered unfit for the operations of agri- culture in England, where the climate is moderate and the roads excel- lent at all seasons of the year, how much more unsuitable must such horses be for Canada ? The farmer must use his plough horses here in winter to take his produce to market. What would become of him on a long journey with the temperature tvCcnty degrees below zero, having a large English horse, that should never be drove out of a walk, and scarcely ever are drove faster in England ? The horse best calculated q2 .■ hi f ' «. 119 »or agricultural purposes here in summer and winter* is one of: lodcrate size, strong, active, spirited and of hardy constitution. Can any horse more nearly come up to this description than a well shaped, good sized Canadian horse ? I have seen Canadian horses possess more perfec- tion of form and size, for agricultural purposes in Canada, than could be found in any other horses here. The breed is certaiidy deteriorated by the mixtures that have been introduced, and the great want of attention in .the farmers in not breeding from the best males and females ; and in suffering to go at large uncut horses, unfit to breed from. To this cause principally, is to be attributed the deterioration, and reduced size of most Canadian horses ; but it is easy to remedy the defect, by first putting an end to the chief cause, and then making selections, and giving due attention to the breeding, and increasing the size gradually, where necessary. In neat cattle, it is a similar neglect, and inattention in breeding, as regards age, size, or good shape, that has deteriorated the breed, and lessened their size and usefulness. The people of the United States come to Canada to purchase our best Canadian horses 5 and I know several of the most superior stallions of that breed, that have been so purchased, and taken away, while we pur- chase and breed from their horses, which, I maintain, are every way in- ferior to the Canadian horses for agricultural purposes. TV hat farmer of judgment would prefer for use on a farm a slender carcassed,long-legged horse, to one of a shape exactly the reverse 1 A tall, slender horse, well fed and groomed, and splendidly harnessed, nay be very showy, and an- swer very well- for pleasure about town, but will not be the most suitable or profitable for a farmer. The SuflTolk punch is considered r very useful animal for labour in England, and is particularly esteemed by farmers in Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex. The merit of this breed chiefly consists in hardiness of constitution. Their colour is mostly sorrel, with a white blaze on the foce, backs very straight, legs round and short in the pasterns, deep-bel- lied, and full in the flanks. Experience proves, that deep-bellied horses carry their food long, and consequently are enabled to stand longer and harder days work thaii slender-bellied horses. It is said that farmers in SuflJbJk and Norfolk plough more land in a day with these horses than any other people in Britain ; and these are the kind of horses everywhere used in these counties. Much pains have been taken latterly in Eng- land to improve this breed, and to render them by cultivation fitted, not only for heavy, but for light work. It is no uncommon thing for a Suf- folk stallion to fetch from 200/. to 300/. The, best show of these stal- lions in England is at Woodbridge Lady-day fair, where Suffolk cart- mares have brought from 100/. to 150/. and one mare and her offspring, a few years ago at this fair brought 1000/. This breed was introduced into Ireland, and greatly approved of. I saw one of them, exhibited at a cattle show, draw a weight of forty-two quintals, or 4,704 pounds, in a Scotch cart ; and I heard of another horse of the same breed, draw a heavier load in the city of Dublin. "A quirk even step, an easy movement, and a good temper, (which Ca- nadian horses possefis in a greater degree than any horses I have seen,) ai!? qiHiitif s of the ^reatrst importance to a working horse ; and the pes- 120 session of them is of more avail than big bones, long legs, a very slen- der, or very lumpy carcass. The horses of Russia are said to be small and hardy, and capable of enduring great fatigue. Great attention is paid to such as are fast in their trot; and such a breed is much encouraged for tiotting matches on the snow and ice. The Calmuck horses are somewhat higher than the Russian common horses, and are so lasting and constitutionally strong as to be able to run three or four hundred English miles in three days. They are said to subsist, summer and winter, solely upon grass in the great departs which are between the Rivers Don, Volga, and Yaik. The climate of Russia is very similar to that of Canada. The horses of Poland and Sweden, are of moderate size, but strong, hardy and active. Those who breed horses should be very particular that the stallion has no defect of any kind in body or temper. That the mare should have a good shape, a gentle disposition, a large carcass, conformable to her height, and belly well let down, and be perfectly free from all sorts of blemishes and defects, either hereditary or acquired. - • - -t I do not think it necessary to allude to any other description of horses but those used in agriculture. Farmers who find it profitable to breed horses for other purposes, and for sale, will not of course embark in this kind of speculation without being well acquainted with all that belongs to the breeding and management. The expenst< of keeping horses in England is variously stated. A work horse is supposed to require about 28 pounds of hay daily, and when worked, three feeds of oats per day,at about eight feeds to the bush- el, or nine feeds to our bushel. Potatoes, Swedish turnips, or carrots, are sometimes substituted for oats or beans. The produce of from fire to seven acres is considered necessary for the support of one horse, for pasture, hay, and oats, and I am well convinced it cannot be much short of this. By the statistical returns of Lower-Canada, refered to in the first part of this work, there are about 120,000 horses. Allowing 100,000 to be fit for work, the whole of the oats raised in the province, (if the returns be correct,) after allowing for seed, would not give more than 24 bushels for each working horse, a quantity not half sufficient, and not more than one- fourth of what would be required for horses constantly worked. This number of horses would, on a moderate estimate take from 300 to 400 bundles of hay each in the year, together with pasture in summer. Al- lowing 200 bundles of hay to the acre, this would take 240,000 acres of meadow to support our horses. I know that some horses are supported on ^ea-straw occasionally, which maybe a considerable saving of hay, but on the other hand, many horses are fed on hay for the whole year. Two or three acres of oats, say two, would be required for each horse ; this would make 240,000 acres for oats ; hence, near 500,000 acres of our improved land, or near one-fourth of the whole, would be necessary to support our present stock of horses, besides what would be required for their pasture. I do not say that our horses actually do consume the produce of so much land now, but they certainly would require so much V.I ri' I I '^m J. 11, 121 to keep them in working condition, and if they are not wanted for work, we should have some other stock in their place. Much saving might he made in supporting horses by growing carrots, Swedish turnips, or potatoes, for their keep, as a substitute for oats. I have tried carrots, and I know them to be excellent food for horses. Every farmer in Canada should grow some of this root ; they may be cultivated with less expense than potatoes, and will produce a greater quantity to the acre, on suitable soil well managed. From what calculations I have been able to make, to keep horses as well as they are kept in England, seven acres of land will not be too much for the nupport of each horse. Farmers may draw their own con- clusions from these facts whether oxen or horses will be the most profit- able for farm labour. Every farmer must have some horses for certain purposes, going to market, &c. ; but I believe some oxen ought to be kept by all farmers who require more than two horses to plough, or do the work of his farm. AGE OF ANIMALS. The criteria of a horse's age are determined from the appearance of the teeth. According to La Fosse, the younger, there are these appear- ances : The horse is foaled with six molar or grinding teeth in each jaw ; the tenth or twelfth day after, the two front nippers appear above and be- low, and in fourteen or fifteen days from this, the two intermediate are pushed out ; the corner ones are not cut till three months after. At ten months the incisors or nippers are on a level with each other, the front less than the middle, and these than the comers ; they at this t^me have a very sensible cavity. At twelve months this cavity becomes smaller, and the animal appears with four molar teeth on each side, above and be- low, \hose of temporaneous or colts, and one permanent or horse tooth. At eighteen the cavity in the nippers is filled up, and there are five grind- ers, two of the horse, and three temporaneous ; at two years, the first of the colt's molar teeth in each jaw, above and below, are displaced ; at two years and a half, or three years, the front nippers fall and give place to the permanent ones ; at three and a half the middle nippers are like- wise removed, at which period the second milk-molar falls ; at four years the horse is found with six molar teeth, five of his new set, and one of his last ; at four years and a half the corner nippers of the colt fall and give place to the permanent set, and the last temporaneous grinder dis- appears ; at five years old, the tusks in the horse usually appear ; at five and a half ;,hey are completely out, and the internal wall of the upper nippers, which before was incompletely formed, is now on a level with the rest ; at this period the incisors or nippers have all of them a cavity formed in the substance between the inner and the outer walls, and it is the disappearance of this that marks the age ; at six years, those in the front nippers below are filled up, the tusks are likewise slightly blunted ; at seven years the mark or cavity in the middle nippers is filled up, and the tusks are little more worn ; at eight years old, the corner nippers ere likewise plain, and the tusks are round and shortened. In mares, the in- cisors or nippers only present a criterion ; at this period the horse is said to be aged, and to have lost his mark ; but among good judges, the uarance of 122 teeth still exhibit sufficient indications. At nine, the groove in the tusks is worn away nearly, and the nippers become rather rounded ; at ten, the appearances are still stronger ; at twelve, the tusks only exhibit a rounded stump, the nippers push forward, become yellow, and as the age advances, appear triangular and usually uneven. To make a horse look younger than he really is, dealers perform ope- rations on the teeth, called bishopping, from the name of a noted opera- tor, which consists in making an artificial cavity in the nippers, after the natural one has been worn out by age, by means of a hard, sharp tool, which cavity is then burned black by a heated instrument. But no art can restore the tusks to their form and height, as well as their internal grooves. It is, therefore, common to see the best judges put their finger into a horse's mouth, contenting themselves with merely feeling the tusk. To less experienced judges other appearances present themselves as aids. Horses, when aged, usually become hollow above the eyes, the hoofs appear rugged, the under lip falls, and if grey, they become white. In this country, where the horses are so early woiked before the frame is consolidated, and where afterwards to be exerted unceasingly, and often on bad roads, it is not uncommon to find a horse at eight years old fee- ble, debilitated, and exhibiting all the marks of old age, except in his mouth. On the contrary, when the animal falls into other hands, at ten or twelve he has all the vigour of youth, and his teeth are the only parts that present an indication of age. It is, therefore, more useful to exa- mine the general appearance of the animal, than to be guided altogether by the marks in the teeth, a too strict adherence to which leads into a great error on the subject of the age of horses. The commonly received marks grant not a criterion of a third of the natural life of the animal, nor of one-half of the time in which he is perfectly useful. Many good judg- es in England will not purchase a horse for hunting, earlier than eight years old, and regard him only in his prime at twelve. A gentleman at Dalwich has a monument to the memory of each of three several horses which died in his possession at the age of thirty-five, thirty-seven, and thirty-nine years, the latter of which was suddenly taken oflf by a fit of colic, having been in harness but a few hours before. Culley mentions a horse of forty-five ; and an instance lately occurred of one which lived to fifty. Blain draws the following comparison between the relative si- tuation of the state of the constitution between the horse and man, under the ordinary circumstances of care towards each : The five years of the horse may by considered as equivalent to the first twenty years of a man ; a horse of ten as a man of forty ; of fifteen as a man of fifty ; of twenty as a man of sixty ; of twenty-five as a man of seventy ; of thirty as a man of eighty ; and of thirty-five as a man of ninety. The criteria of the age in neat cattle are derived from the teeth. At the end of about two years they shed their first four teeth which are re- placed by others, larger, but not so white ; and before five years all the incisive teeth are renewed. These teeth are at first equal, long and pretty white ; but as the animals advance in yt>ars, they weai down, bo- come unequal, and grow black. I r ■■ Ij ( * 1.1 • >1 iiilii ? ,' ii S i.l .1: i23 The manner of grov.ih of the horns is not uniform, nor the shooting of them equal. The first year, that i*?, the fourth year of the animal's age, two small-pointed horns make their appearance, neatly formed, smcoth, and towards the head terminated by a kind of button. The following year this button moves from the head, being impelled by a horny cylm- der, which, lengthening in the same manner, is also terminated by ano- ther button, and so on, for the horns continue growing as long as the animal lives. These buttons become annular joints or rings, which are «asily distinguished in the horn, and by which the age of the creature may be easily known, counting three years for the point of the horn, and one for each of the joints or rings. The cow continues useful for more than twenty years, but the bull loses his vigour much sooner. It is common with dealers to obliterate these rings, by shaving the horns, in order to conceal the age of the beast. The terms applied to diflferent ages are as follows : A young castrated male, after the first year, is c.illed a stirk ; when a year older, a stot or steer ; at four years old an ox. A female after the first year, is called a heifer, when about to bring a calf, she is called a young cow. A castrated female is called a spayed heifer. Certain of the Welsh and Scotch cattle, of rather a coarse and sturdy kind, are denominated runts. Bullock is the general term for any full grown male cattle, fat or lean. Thft natural duration with the bull and cow may be stated at upwards of twenty year*' to nearly the end of which the latter is useful with her milk, but the jU gerterally loses his vigour, and consequently his use, many years sooner, and should not be kept over ten years old. The criteria of a sound, healthy sheep are, a rather wild or lively brisk- nesa, a brilliant clearness in the eye, a florid ruddy colour on the inside on the eyelids, anc what are termed the eye-strings, as well as in the gum, a fastness in the teeth, a sweet fragrance in the breath, a dryness of the nose and eyes, breathing easy and regular, a coolness in the feet, dung properly formed, coat or fleece firmly attached to the skin and unbroken, the skin exhibiting a florid red appearance, especially upon the brisket. Where there are discharges from ihe nose and eyes, it indicates their having taken cold, and should b? attended to by putting them in warm and sheltered situations. The criteria of the age of sheep are the state of their teeth by their hav- ing, in their second year, two broad teeth ; in their third year, four broad teeth ; in their fourth year, six broad teeth ; and in their fifth year, eight broad teeth before, after which none can tell how old a sheep is while their teeth remain, except by their being worn down. About the end of one year, rams, wethers, and iM young sheep lose the two fore teeth o{ the lower jaw, and they are known to want the incisive teeth in the up- per jaw. At eighteen months, the two teeth joining to the forhicr also fall out ; and three years, being all replaced, they are even, and pretty white. But as these animals advance in awe, the teeth become loose, blunt, and aflerwards black. The age of all horned sheep may also be known by their horns, which show themselves in the very first year, and often at the birth, and coiitiaue to grow a ring annually to the last period of their Uves. The different ages and conditions of sheep, have difterent names iu 124 ihooting of maps age, d, smooth, f()llowing uny cylin- ed by ano- ong as the which are B creature horn, and I for more having the applied to ?r the first four years r'hen about e is called )f rather a le general it upwards jI with her \y his use, • vely brisk- the inside I as in the ryness of feet, dung lunbroken, e brisket. lates their in warm Itheir hav- >ur broad ;ar, eight is while le end of teeth of the up- l-fiier also id pretty le loose, also be I'ear, and it period iames in difierent countries or districts. In Ireland, the lanibfl were generally term- ed ewe or wodder, as the case might be, until one year old ; Ihey were then termed hogget, or one shear ewes or wedders ; when two years old, they were termed two-year-old, or two shear ewes or wedders, and eve- ry subsequent year kept, they were designated by the number of yearn of age, or fleeces produced in the sanw way. Rams were termed hoggets, or one shear, two-year-old, or two shear, &c. Old ewes, and all ewes considered unfit to breed from, when fatted for the shambles, were termed culs. I have now given as correct a description of the animals that are and may be used in agricnlture in Canada, as in my power to give ; also the object and means of improving breeds ; some remarks on the choice of live stock for the purposes of labour, breeding or feeding, and the criteria of the age of animals. The economy of live stock, and the dairy, slmll be considered in succession, after the general process of arable culture, and the management of crops has been treated of. .- • PRACTICE OF AGRICULTURE. In the foregoing part of this work I have endeavored to give a conci§e view of the state of agriculture in several countries in the world, particu- kirly in the British dominions, in order to interest the reader on the sub- ject of agricultural improvement. I have also exhibited a very limited view of the science of agriculture, but only sufficient to induce farmers to make themselves more thoroughly acquainted with the elementary principles of the art they practice. The notice I have taken of the im- provement of the breed of domestic animals used in agriculture, and the choice of these animals for feeding, labour, &c. chiefly belongs to the science of agriculture. Before I enter on the more practical part of husbandry, I shall give a few hints on the personal character which a farmer ought to have, and the expectations he should entertain on embracing this profession, tc give him any reasonable grounds to hope to be successful or happy as an agriculturist. It may be the more necessary in this country where men are continually becoming farmers who were not brought up as agricultu- rists. For all who may belong to thLs class, it may be well, previously to Jeciding on embracing the occupation of a husbandman, to examine a lit- tle into their disposition and talents, their patience and perseverance, in order that they ma;' judge fairly of their fitness for the profession they propose to follow. FERi^ONAL CHARACTEn OF, AND EXPECTATIONS OP A FARMER. Professor Thaer observes that every one who proposes to farm with , success, ought to unite energy and activity to reflection, to experience, . and all necessary knowledge. It is true, he says, farming has long been considered as an occupation fit for a young man incapable for any other, and such has sometimes succeeded ; but this has aJways been chiefly R i .'■i «--i .■n. 1 (,> i| i\ ■ m 125 owing to a fortunate concurrence of circumetances, which it is not now very easy to meet with. The practice of agriculture consists of an infinite number of particular operations, each of which appears easy in itself, but is oHen, for that ve- ry reason, the more difficult to execute to the precise extent required ; one operation so oilen interferes with another. To regulate them ac- cording to the given tim« and strength, and in such a way that none is neglected, or causes the neglect of others, requires at once a great deal of attention and activity, without inquietude, of promptitude without precipitation, of general views, and yet with an extreme attention to de- , tails. To casualties and accidents no business is so much exposed as farm- ing ; and, therefore, to enjoy an ordinary degree of happiness, it is essen- tial that the farmer possess a certain tranquility of mind. This may ei- ther be the result of a naturally phlegmatic habit of body, or of elevated views in religion or philosophy. These will enable him to bear with ev- ery misfortune arising from adverse seasons, or death of live stock, and only permit him to regret accidents which result from his own neglect A good education is essentially necessary in the formation of a good farmer. By education is not meant that portion of knowledge which is obtained at schools only, but every thing or circumstance that affects the body and mind from the earliest period of our existence. Besides reading, writing, and accounts, a farmer should possess some knowledge of history, geography, arts, science, and general literature, not only that he may be fit for good society, and possess the materials of intellectual enjoyment, but also in order that his views may be expanded, and he may acquire the habit of judging correctly on the practices of his profession. A dull, stupid person, with little native activity, will never desire to know more than what enables him to perform the ordinary rou- tine of business. He becomes narrow-minded and jealous, and never can be respected, nor increase his capital by the exercise of talents and industry. In short, his ignorance and selfishness render him incapable of directing profitably {]\e operations of others. ! ' . * Let no young man sit down in despair, because he has not learned at .-school the elements of scientific knowledge. An astonishing progress may be made by regularly devoting a particular portion of time to study. Nor is the assistance of a master necessary where an ardent desire for improvement exists. There is scarcely anything thut a rational person can desire that he may not obtain, by maintaining a powerful impression of the necessity of obtaining it. The progress of all cannot be equal ; some can acquire with less labour than others ; but every one may, on any useful subject, acquire by application, a respectable degree of know- ledge. : : "» • • - - ' A person desirous of becoming an able farmer, should make every other acquirement subservient to that of his profession. The knowledge of agriculture comprehends such an extent and variety of particulars, as to require every portion of disposable time, and to afford sufficient relax- ation to the mind. The knowledge of stock is a most important part of a farmer's education. This knowledge is difficult and tedious in the ac- ^•■i' 12G quirement, requires great accuracy of obKcrvatiuii, and practical experi- ence. It cannot be expected that all farmers, even though proprietorB, can obta'n all these advantages ; however, much may be done in this way, by young men who are industrious and persevering, and who feel that the acquirement of knowledge would enable them to perform their part io life, with satisfaction to themselves and others. In every situation of life, knowledge is always useful ; ignorance is always an evil, and should be so considered by every human being. The prospects of a good farmer very properly include independence, which should always be the grand object of those who are destined to live by the exercise of their labour or talents. He who is skilful and unremitting in the pursuit of his profession will be sure to command a tolerable degree of success. Not that a farmer, even though a proprie- tor, should expect to make a fortune in Canada ; under present circum- stances it is almost impossible. Capital employed judiciously in farm- ing, though it may produce less profit than capital employed in trade, yet it has this advantage, there is less risk attending it. The products of the farmer are in universal demand, at some reasonable rate, what peo- ple in trade are not always sure of. A farmer is sure of a home, of the necessaries of life, and in general, of most vigorous health. He is lord of the soil, has horses, cattle, sheep, and other domestic animals, and ru- ral retirement, the object of every commercial man's ambition. Many trades and professions preclude, (according to general prdudices,) their followers from being gentlemen ; whereas, though every farmer is not a gentleman, yet any gentleman may become a farmer, without in any de- gree lowering his rank and character ; a farmer may, therefore, if he chooses to adopt tiie habits and manners of a gentleman, be reckoned as such, though dressed in plain cloth of home manufacture from the wool of his oTvn sheep. The profits of farming are much exaggerated by people in general, and by none more than those who have described the prospects of agri- cultural settlers in Canada, or the United States. The calculations that have been published of the profits that are attainable by a settler in the , wild forests of North America, are so extremely chimerical, and so infi- nitely exceeds anything that ever has been realized, or ever can be, that it is difficult to account for the motives which have prompted the authors to make such Siatements. A very recent one of them in 1834, endea- vors to make it appear that a settler coming to the country with 600/. and investing it in purchasing and clearing M'ild land in Up|^^r-Canada, might realize about 300 per cent, in four years. These statements, read and credited in the British Isles, ought to be sufficient inducement to all the farmers there to emigrate to Canada. Such statements are, perhaps, made with a view to encourage emigration, but \ think they are calculat- ed to produce ultimately a contrary effect. When persons come out to purchase and settle here, on the strength of these representations, and find how infinitely exaggerated were the prospects of success held out to them, from the reality, they will for ever abandon the country in disgust, and prevent the future emigration of the most useful class of emigrants. Moderate ^xpectdtioiis will be more likely to be successful, \\ ith emi- r2 '<»• i. '■ ,'{: ■4' i' '■I ' 3 '■•• «y m^ 127 grants in promoting Ui«fbT and iiiccet< ful eettlements, than expectotiuns that are wild and chimerical, and inconsititent with all practical cxperr- ence. The British provinces of North America, offer to the industriouv and well conducted, all reasonable prospects of success, and those who do not consider such sufficient inducement, hod better remain in the Old Countries. Whether from habit or not, no man can be more aittached to the pro- fession of a husbandman than I am, but, nevertheless, I feel it my duty to give a just view of the prospects which it affords to those who would choose it as a profession, though not brought up to it. Many persons, tired of a city life, fancy they will find profit and happiness in retiring to the country and commencing farming. To the generality of men such a change will probably be attended witii disappointment, and not unfre- quently with pecuniary losses. The activity required^ and (what such person will consider) privations that must be endured, are too painful to be submitted to patiently, by those not accustomed to that mode of life. There are, and will be however, many exceptions ; men of strong minds^ who can conform themselves to circumstances, and find pleasure and happiness in the laborious occupation of the farmer, and ample compen- sation for the bustle and society of a city life, in the beauties of nature,, and in the resources of their own fire-side. If men were aware of the difficulties that are inseparable from the profession they choose for them- selves, before they have decided on their choice,, they have no reasonable excuse for any subsequent murmurs or complaints at theiv let. It is childish, and worse, if they do not endeavor to act wi^ energy,, and ac- quit themselves like men in the profession they have voluntarily as- sumed. The most likely persons to engage in farming with success are the sons of farmers, or such others as have been regularly brought up to the praotice of every part of agriculture. They must also have an inclination for the profession, as well as a competent understanding of its theory or principles. Books are to be found from which the science of the art- is to be obtained, and a knowledge of this science is not to be despised or neglected by young farmerSf CAPITAL BEaUJRED BY THE FARMER. The importance of capital in every branch of industry is well knownr and in none is it more requisite than in farming. An industrious, frugal and intelligent farmer, who is punctual in his payments, will strive with many difficulties, and get on with less money than a man of different character. But if he has not sufficient live stock to work his lands in the best manner, as well as to raise a sufficient quantity of manure, and purchase the articles required for the farm and the necessary help of la- bour, he cannot, under ordinary circumstances, cultivate his farm to the greatest advantage, or obtain returns from it, adequate to support him comfortably. The amount of capital required must depend upon a variety of circum- stances. Farmers who are already settled on cleared farms of their own, and have the requisite buildings erected, and a reasonable stock of cattle 128 ipectations L-al experr- ndustrioua* those who in the Old to the pro- it my duty ^ho would r persons, retiring to men such not unfre- what such painful to •de of life. >ng minds, asure and 5 compen- of nature,, ire of the for them- easonable let. It is Yr and ac- itarily as- s are the up to th& iclination theory or of the art- despised II knowHr lis, frugal trive with different lands in lure, and elp of la- rm to the port him ' circum- tieir own, of cattle and implements, if they require moro 8t<><'k, or funds fur the om|)l()yment of labour, for further improvement, where there is nu rent to pay, they should be able in the course of three or four years, to augment their working capital, and should re(|uire no assistuncu trom any other source. Farmers hiring or renting a farm of 100 arpcnts or thereabout, would require a capital of from two to three hundred pounds. 1 have known persons succeed with much less, but even with this sum, great nidustry and frugality are requisite. Proiits will generally be increased when ac- compaaied with skill, spirit, and industry, in proportion to the capital em- ployed, if judiciously expended. Prudent farmers will be cautious in laying out money on expensive harness, or implements, more than is ac- tually necessary. For persons who are disposed to purchase, the amount of capital must be in proportion to the situation, ex ent, and many other circumstances of the lands they select, or that are offered for sale. I shall give in the last number the prices that several farms have been sold for, in diticrent parts of both provinces, the situation, extrnt, buildings, soil, &c. ; thij may give some idea of the selling value of Cleared farms ; but the prices depend upon so mony circumstances, that it is difficult to determine on any just scale for the purchase of improved land, or even of wild land. I am not aware that there is any seigniorial forest land to be had at pre- sent less than six pence the arpent annual rent. The amount of capital necessary for the settling in the woods, depends very much on the former habits of the settler. One of the labouring class, who is sober and industrious, with a small family, or with a large family, nho are able to assist him, will not require much capital, except what will support him and his family until he can have a crop. Emi- grants of this class arriving in Canada in summer, should endeavor to get work, until the fall, or month of September. This would prevent them from encroaching on their capital, and in some cases, where there are large families able to work, enable them to add to their capital. They should then fix upon some location and erect a house, barely suffi- cient to shelter them for a year or two, and if they are industrious, they may have sufficient land cleared, or prepared for burning, the ensuing spring, to afford them abundance of potatoes, Indian corn, and other ve- getables, from the first of August. They should have the means of buy- ing a cow and pigs. I think a family might provide themselves with food of sufficiently good quality, for about thirty dollars each grown person, for twelve mo tths, and in some situations for less. From forty io sixty dollars would be sufficient to buy a cow, two small pigs, purchase some of the materials necessary for erf^ctiug a. small house, and some imple- ments. I shall give the particulars in the last number. If the families consist of many working persons, and their capital is in- sufficient to employ them on their own farms, some of the family may go to service, and accumulate capital to take home to their families. The funds that are requisite for settlement in the forest, may from this be rea- dily ascertained. Though there are numerous instances of settlers suc- ceeding with scarcely any funds to begin, yet, 1 could not recommend the experiment. AVith moderate capital, a Jscltler will have sufficient dil- .(' ! 'M hH :»• ■ i-' 129 ficuUieH to contend with for a fow years ; and thcrcAtrc (ho price of wild land, or the annual rent of it, should bo ou little bnrdcnHomo on poor Met- tiers, natives of the country or emigrants, as possible. I shall advert to thit. Hubject a^ain. From what I have stated, settlors of nil classefl may be able to deter- mine the amount of capital neces8ary in each particular case. They will bent know the style of living and other comforts, they will require in the woods. I believe it is unneccNmiry to acquaint them, they will find no comforts there but work, except they pay for them, and all those who will not work themselves, will have to pay others to work for them. The purchase of wild land is various, from 2s. 6d. to three or four dollars the English acre, and the clearing for a crop, leaving in the roots of the trees, may cost from ten to fifteen dollars the acre. Hence settlers may very well understand what capital they will require, after they have determined upon their style of living, the kird of house and furniture they would desire, and whether they can oi will work, or pay for doing it. I shall give a table of prices in the last part, which will assist stran- gers in making their calculations. Whatever class a settler may rank himself in, the more carefully capital is husbanded, the inor« certain will be his chance of future success. Were I to offer an estimate of the capital necessary for those who rank themselves above the working class, it might not suit any two of them ; and those who would find my estimate insufficient to supply what they might consider a very reasonable quantum of comforts and conve- niences, would no doubt be very ready to find fault. I have, therefore, thought it my safest course to allow this class of settlers to estimate for themselves, according to their several desires, and funds for supplying them. I will furnish them with the means of doing so with as mnch ac- curacy as they could well expect under such circumstances. SELECTING A FARM FOR PURCHASE OR HIRING. In selecting a farm for purchase or hiring, it is necessary to attend to a variety of considerations. Those of the greatest importance are the soil, sub-soil, character of surface, aspect, and situation with regard to the market. Soil. — The necessity of paying attention to the nature and quality of the soil need not be dwelt upon. By ascertaining the qualities it possess- es, and by removing its defects, if it has any, the profits of the farmer will be greatly influenced. Such is the importance of soil, and the necessity of adapting a system to its peculiar properties, that no general system of cultivation can be laid down, unless all the circumstances regarding the nature and situation of the soil and sub-soil be known : and such is often the force of habit, that it rarely happens that a farmer who has been long accustomed to one species of soil will be equally successful in the man- agement of another. From inattention to the nature of soils, many fool- ish, fruitless, and expensive attempts have been made to introduce differ- ent kinds of plants, not at all suited to them ; and manures have often been improperly applied. This ignorance may likewise prevent many from employing the means ol' improvement, though the expense might be >ricoofwild ^ti poor Met- 11 udvcrt to lo to deter- ISO. They 1 require in will Hnd no *e who will •cm. The dollarfl the )ot8 of the ittleru may they have i furniture ^ for doing isist stran- may rank certain will Jiose who my two of pply what fid conve- therefore, timate for supplying mnch ac- attend to are the egard to uality of )0SSe88- mer will ecessity stem of iing the is often en long e man- ly fool- differ- often many ight be 130 trifling, and w.thiti thoir reach. From ignorance aUo of t)ie means ciiU culated for the proper cultivation of dilTercnt HoilH, many unNUcceHHful practicen may bu adopted. Soilii may be considered under the tollowing general headH : Sandy, gravelly, clayey, stony, peaty, alluvial and loamy. Though sandy soils are not naturally valuable, yet being easily culti- vated, and well calculated for sheep, a most proHtablo species of stock, under good management, they might be farmed with considerable advan- tage, and when of a good quality, under a regular course of husbandry, they might be invaluable. They are easily worked, and at all seasons, at a moderate expense ; are not so liable to injury from the vicissitudes of the weather ; and in general they are retentive of moisture, which se- cures excellent crops even in the driest summers. The crops raised on sandy soils are numerous, such as potatoes, carrot?, barley, rye, oats, buckwheat, peas, Indian corn, clover, saintfoin, timothy, and other grass- es. This species of soil has not in general strength enough for the pro- duction of wheat or beans, in great perfection, without much improve- ipent in its texture, by the addition of great quantities of enriching ma- nure and the most skilful management ; it will, therefore, be more profit- able to grow such crops on sandy soil as can be raised with the greatest perfection at the least expense, consistent with good farming. The fertility of sandy soils is, in a great measure, proportioned to the quan- tity of rain that falls, combined with the frequency of its recurrence. The cli late of Canada is, in general, sufficiently favourable for sandy soils under judicious cultivation. Gravelly soils differ materially from sandy, in their texture. They are frequently composed of small stones of various kinds, and of)en contain granite, limestone, and other rocky substances, partially, but not very minutely decomposed. Gravel is generally what is called a hungry soil, especially when the parts of which it consists are hard in substance, and rounded in form. Gravelly soils are easily ex- hausted ; for the animal and vegetable matter they contain, not being thoroughly incorporated with the earthy constituent parts of the soil, (which are seldom sufficiently abundant for the purpose,) are more liable to be decomposed by the action of the atmosphere, and carried off by wa- ter. A gravelly soil may be profitably cultivated vith potatoes, provided they are early planted, and the season moderaiely moist. Indian com will grow in perfection io such soils, in favourable seasons. Stony soils, when cleared of all the large stones over a certain size, will in general produce good crops of every kind. It is by no means ne- cessary or useful to remove any stones but such as will greatly impede the ploughing and harrowing, while in a state of tillage. TYhen laid down under grass, of course, all the stones on the surface that would prevent the operation of mowing, must be gathered off. A clayey soil is oflte' of so adhesive a nature, that in a dry sea- son the plough turns it up in great clods, scarcely to be broken or se- parated by the heaviest roller. It requires, therefore, much labour to put it in a state fit for producing either corn or grass, and it can only be cul- tivated in a particular state, and in favourable weather. There is much of this kind of land in Canada, that would yield great crops under a pro- if« k' } .p>' Si % t f 131 per system of management, yet, as it must be cultivated under a heavy expense, requiring strong instruments and a powerful team, the profits of Buch land are not so great, unless occupied by an attentive and skilful farmer. These soils are well calculated to grow beans, wheat, oats, clo- ver, and timothy, but are not adapted for barley or potatoes, unless un- der very particular management. Clays become good meadow lands, and answer well for hay. A stiff clay, when not cold or wet, is prefer- red in Cheshire, and other parts of England, for the dairy. On reclaimed peaty soils, oats, rye, potatoes, turnips, carrots, clover and timothy, may be cultivated in great perfection. Wheat and barley might 'succeed on such soils, were they supplied with abundance of lime, or calcareous earth ; and the fiorin grass is well adapted to that descrip- tion of soil in the warm climate of Canada. I have seen it produced na- turally a\id most luxuriantly on such soils. The fens in Cambridge- shire, and Lincolnshire, England, consist of peat and sediment, and are most productive. Alluvial soils are derived from the sediment of water. Along the sides of rivers, and other situations, water-formed soils are to be met with, consnsting of the decomposed matter of decayed vegetables, with the se- diments of streams. They are in general deep and fertile, and not apt to be injured by rain, as they usually lie upon a bed of open gravel. They will produce good crops, if well drained, and secure from floods. The term loamy soil is applied to such as are less tenacious than clay, and more so than sand. Loams are the most desirable of all soils to oc- cupy. They are friable ; can in general be cultivated at the suitable sea- Bon of the year ; are ploughed with greater facihty, and less strength of team than clay ; bear better the vicissitudes of the seasons, and seldom reqi'ire any change in the rotation of crops adopted. Above all they are particularly '"eU adapted for the convertible husbandry, bo suitable for Canada, for ;.iey can be changed, not only without injury, but generally with beL'sfii, from g*ass to tillage, and from tillage to grass. As to tiie comparative value of soil, it has been justly remarked, that too much can hardly be paid for a good one, while a bad one is not profitable at any price, however low. The labour of cultivating a rich and a poor soil, is nearly the same, while the latter requires more manure, and consequent- ly is more expensive. On whatever kind of soil a farmer happens to be settled, he will find it a wise maxim, that the soil, like the cattle by which it is cultivated, should always be kept up in good condition, and never be suffered to fall below the work it may be expected to perform. Sub-soil. — On the nature of the sub-soil depends much of the value of the surface soil. The sub-soil may in many cases be of great use to the surface soil, by supplying its deficiencies and correcting its defects. The hazard and expense of cultivating the surface is oflen considerably augmented by defects in the under stratum, but which, in some cases , may be remedied. Disorders in the roots of plants are generally owing to a wet or noxious sub-soil. A stony sub-soil is generally prejudicial, unless it is of limestone rock. In that case, if there is a reasonable covering of soil, it may be converted into healthy pasture, and in favourable seasons will, if stocked %vith dairy cows, produce more milk and butter than any other kind of lane grail CIIAl 132 ler a heavy le profits of and skilful N oats, clo- unless un- dow lands, , is prefer- 'ots, clover ind barley ce of lime, it descrip- >duced na- ambridge- lU and are 5 the sides met with, ith the se- id not apt en gravel. n floods, than clay, oils to oc- itable sea- 3trengfh of bd seldom 1 they are jitable for generally d, that too profitable poor soil, isequent- ens to be cattle by tion, and ►erform. the value )at use to i defects. ?iderably ne cases ly owing mestone may be stocked kind of land. It is very good fur mutton and wool. It will also produce good grain and green crops, but is subject to the wire-worm. A porous sub-soil is attended with this advantage, that by its meana all superfluous moisture may be absorbed. Below clay, and all the va- riety of loums, an open sub-soil is particularly desirable. It is favoura- ble to all the operations of husbandry ; it tends to correct the imperfec- tions of too great a degree of absorbent power in the soil above ; it pro- motes the beneficial effects of manures ; it contributes to the preserva- tion and growth of the seeds, and insures the future prosperity of the plants. Hence it is, that a thinner soil, with a favourable sub-soil, will produce better crops than a more fertile one incumbent on wet clay, or on cold, and non-absorbent rock. The sub-soil in Canada is generally favourable, if properly drained. CHARACTER OF SURFACE, ASPECT, AND SITUATION IN REGARD TO MARKET. A hilly, irregular surface, is considered unfavourable to arable fanning. The labour of ploughing, carrying home produce, and carrying out ma- nure, is greatly increased, while the soil on the summit of steep hills, or declivities, is unavoidably deteriorated. On the sides of slopes the finer parts of the clay and mould are washed away, while the sand and gravel remain. Much of Lower-Canada has scarcely any perceptible rise. In other districts, the eastern townships, and the neighbourhood of Quebec, the surface is less level, which contributes very much to the ornament of these districts, without being particularly prejudicial to agriculture, as the elevations are not very great in any part of the country. I have ever found an irregular surface, of moderate hills and valleys, the most valua- ble land for grazing, affording land shelter the best of all for stock. These kinds of land will be found better for pasture in Canada, than such as are perfectly level. The valleys affording excellent pasture in very dry weather, when pasture on the higher, level and more exposed lands is entirely burned up. Upper-Canada is represented to be a level country, beautifully undu- lated, but no where attaining an elevation exceeding from 300 to 600 feet above the level of the waters of the great chain of lakes. A ridge of mountains, or rather a chain of broken hills, skirts the northern boun- daricii of both provinces from the 74th to the 98th degree of west longi- tude. The geographical and physical circumstances of Upper-Canada are most favourable for agriculture. In some situations, however, the lake fever, and ague, or intermitting fevers, are very prevalent. In England, the" situation of farms with regard to markets, has a great influence on the value of land ; so it should have here, but not so great as in England. There the advantage resulting from vicinity to a large town is very great. Some crops, as those of potatoes, turnips, and clo- ver, are frequently sold on the ground, without any further trouble or ex- pense to the farmer ; and great quantities of manure are to be had. In such situations there is a ready sale for every article the farm can produce, and the expense of bringing to market, from the excellence of the roadf, very trifling. Here our system of agrical*ure must necessarily be quite dil- lit 1 .1" .,f . «' 133 ferent from that of England. In a population of about 300,000 in the dis- trict of Montreal, the only city or town ^ /any consequence is Montreal, with a population of less than 30,000, bei'^g only one-tenth of the popu- lation of the district ; while in England, the population residing in cities towns and villages, are about as two or three to one, of those residing in the country. It almost surpasses belief that the farmers of Canada do not supply the email proportion of the population resident in her cities and towns with agricultural produce of the first necessity, namely, butchers' meat, cheese and butter, but allow foreigners to furnish a large proportion of these commodities. We may have this hume market which is very con- siderable, at any time we choose to avail ourselves of it, turn our attention to supplying it, and demand of the Legislature such reasonable protec- tion against foreign competition as agricultural interests have a right to. I shall in the last number advert to this subject. In a country like this, where markets are not at hand, the farmer ought to take into consideration what articles will best suit those at a distance, to which his produce must be sent. Bulky articles will not pay the ex- pense of carrying them a great distance to market, and except wheat alone, on farms at a considerable distance from market, say thirty or for- ty miles, all the produce ought to be consumed, or manufactured on the farms, into butchers' meat, cheese and butter. The carriage of vegeta- bles and hay, should be confined to a much narrower circle. If breed- ing, rearing, and feeding stock be the object of the farmer, that system of farming may be as profitably carried on at a disteuice from market as in the immediate vicinity ; and I believe this kind of husbandry, toge- ther with the dairy, will yield more nett profit than arable culture. For manure, farmers in general must depend upon the resources afforded them by their own farms and stock. Old Country farmers making a purchase need not in future speculate on the chance of purchasing manure from the farmers in their neighbour- hood, who might heretofore have been so foolish and ignorant, as to offer for sale, or be persuaded to sell what was so requisite for their own lands. I hope this practice, so discreditable, is at an end in Canada. Canu ^*an farmers in general are become well aware of the value of paanure, and the necessity of applying it to their own crops. EXTENT OF LAND SUITABLE FOR A FARM. The extent of a farm should very much depend upon the farmer's ca- pital, but farms should never be of less extent than 100 arpents in this country, even though the farmer's capital might be insufficient to bring it all into the best state of cultivation at once. The profits of a smaller sized farm are not sufficient, with the utmost frugality, or even parsimony, to maintain the family of a yeoman, with a reasonable degree of comfort. These remarks, however, more particularly apply to cultivators who are proprietors. Those who rent farms will do well to prefer farms rather under their capital, than such as they would be unable to stock, and cul- tivate in a proper manner. It would be unwise to pay rent for land that cannot be occupied profitably, for the want of nectMary means, and it 134 lers' meat, might also induce a slovenly cultivation, that could not be profitable for landlord or tenant. But as hiring land is not practiced to any great ex- tent in Canada, it is unnecessary to dwell mueh on the subject of leases, or rents, Farmers from the Old Country who have families, with any reasonable capital, will find it their interest to purchase wood-land rather than rent a worn out farm, on a short lease. The improvements that are necessary, cannot be prudently made by any one, who is not a proprie- tor. To strangers coming here, it may appear very plausible, to be offered cleared land at from five to twenty shillings the acre annual rent, not many miles from Montreal or Quebec, and this land free from tithes and taxes ; nevertheless, the profits which can be realized, will be by no means equal to what is generally anticipated from calculations made of rent, produce and prices. BUILDINGS NECESSARY FOR A FARMER. .;•♦•': A variety of buildings are necessary for carrying on the business of agri- culture. Suitable buildings are not less necessary to the husbandman than suitable improvements ; and there is nothing which will mark more decidedly the state of agriculture in a country, Sian the plan and execu- tion of these buildings, v* From the manner that farms are laid out generally in Canada, and the access to them, a choice of situation for farm buildings is scarcely in the power of the farmer, and in place of such buildings being set down at nearly an equal distance from the extremities of the farm, they have to be placed at the extremity. This is a great disadvantage, and the more so as it is difficult of remed) . The form that ought to be adopted for a set of offices, is a square, or rather a rectangular parallelogram ; the houses and sheds being arrang- ed on the north, east and west sides, and the south side fenced, to which low buildings for calves, pigs, poultry, &c. might be attached. The space thus enclosed might be separated by one or more partition fences, for different kinds of stock. The farmer's dwelling house should stand at a short distance from the offices, but if possible command a view of the inside of the square. The distance between the dwelling house and offices, I would recommend to be sufficient to prevent fire communicat- ing from one to the other, in case of any accident. The principal buildings required for the occupation of land, are barns, stable, cow-house, cattle sheds, cart sheds, &c. and farm house, dairy, &c. The barn should be in proportion to the size of the farm, and in- deed all the buildings should be in the same proportion, never over large. Hay or grain will keep well in stacks properly made, and thatched, if the farmer should occasionally want room for an extra quantity of produce. The most convenient width for a barn is about thirty feet, and side wall twelve feet high. In situations where the land would be favourable, cow houses, or houses for sheep or pigs, might be very conveniently placed under the barn. This would save much roofing, and afford very warm houses for stock, but there are not many situations perfectly suita- ble. When barns exceed sixty feet in length, they require a second door of entrance, as the space to be filled will be at an inconvenient distance s2 ■ 1 ''lb IS I ■; ; .J I* J-.'.» 185 from the loaded carts. If the barn is not Butuciently long to form tlie iK>rth side of the square, the cow house might be attached to it on Iho end nearest to the dwelling house. The cow house, the width of the barn thirty feet and twenty-eight feet long, would afford stalls lor sixteen cows, and a single or a double row may be added, on the same plan, if required. (See plan of the farm yard in the last part.) The following is a plan of one of my own cow houses. It is fifty feet long, twenty-eight feet wide, and eight i'eet in height. Four rows of posts are placed throughout the length ; first row seven feet from the outside wail, next row, four feet froni the first 5, third row, six feet from the second, and fourth row, four feet from the third, iind seven feet from the other outside wall. These posts are distant one from the other in each row, abo!?t four feet, including the posts, which are five inches square. The space in the middle be^ 3en the rows of posts that are six feet apart, forms an alley from which the cattle are fed, and on each side of this alley, the cows stand in separate stalls, with their heads towards each other. The stalls are formed by the posts above described, into which two inch planks are giooved from one to the other, to the height of four feet. There are thirteen stalls in a row, allow ,g a space for each animal of three feet ten inches. The partitions dividing the stalls are only four feet long, and therefore do not extend so far back as to prevent the milker from sitting to the cow with perfect ease. Each stall has a manger the width of the stall, and one foot tcti inches the other way, se- parated from where the animal stands by a plank only one foot in heir^ht. From the manger to the gutter, where the dung falls, is six feet ; on this space the animal stands ; the gutter is one foot wide and three inches deep ; on the other side, this gutter next the outer wall is a raised walk two feet two inches wide. The stalls are arranged in the same manner on the other side of the hou^e. The cows are secured by chains round the necks, and rings which run on upright iron rods eighteen inches long, rivetted in the partitions in the corners of the stalls. In front of the stalls, boards are nailed to the post, on each side of tho feeding alley, to the height of about three feet and a half, leaving an opening near the floor of one foot in height, for feeding the cattle in moveable boxes, which are passed through these openings, and removed again when the animals are done feeding ; they are fed with hay or straw through the same opening. The cattle can be kept much cleaner by feeding them in moveable boxes than when fed in immoveable troughs. Over the cows is a hay lof\, from which the hay can be let down iato the feeding alley at the cows' heads. In a building adjoining, is a room for grains, chaff, and straw- cutting machine ; from this there is a passage to the feeding alley, which takes up the place of one stall. The calf house is adjoining the cow house; one is in six divisions for calves that are fattening, the other is suf- ficiently large for ten or twelve calves that may be intended for rearing, with troughs for feeding them with milk, and a rack for hay. From the farm yard, there are three doors into the cow house, one at each end for the cattle to enter, and one in the middle into the feeding alley ; on the opposite end of the alley is a glazed window for lighting the house, and in the outer wall are three small openings for putting out the dung from the cattle. I have found this kind of cow house, or feeding house, the be th( the or an stn of hoi of 13G heat of any I eyer had ; each animal can he fc;d soparat< ly, and fiom the nrianner they are fastened, they are perfectly at their ense ; and B\t\< e the house was erected, a period of five years, no accident Ivxa ccc urn d, or animal got loose, except when let loose by the person in charge. The horse stable might form a part of the east or west side of the square, and whatever may be the width of the building, the horses should all stand on one side. Fifteen feet in width will be sufficient for one row of horses, and the stalls should be from five to six feet wide for each horse. The following plan of rack and manger is very much approved of in England, and is very similar to that of Canada. The rack is on the ground, rising three feet high, eighteen inches deep from front to back, and four feet long, the back part of the rack an inclin- ed plane, gradually sloped towards the front, and terminating about two feet down. The front is generally closed, though some prefer having theiii open. Suci. a rack will hold more hay than ever ought to be put before one horse, and all the hay that is put into this manger will be eat- en ; but in the common rack it is well known a large portion of the hay is pulled down upon the litter, and wasted in the dung. It prevents the hay seed and dust f.om falling upon the horse, or into his eyes, and what is of considerable importance, though seldom attended to, the hay will be given to the horse in small quantities at a time. The manger for oats, or water, may be placed over the rack sufficiently high not to inter- fere with the manger or rack for the hay. The stable should be lofty, never under eight feet high to the loft, and should be lighted by windows placed as high as the loft will admit. Dark stables are considered injurious to horses' eyes. Stables should if possi- ble be kept at a temperature above the freezing point in winter, and the heat ought to be moderated in summer, by open windows, and doors con- structed of rails, that would admit a free current of air. These kind of railed doors are in very general use with Canadians to their stables in summer. Convenient to the stable should be a harness room, and house for agri- cultural implements, old iron, &c. &c., one for summer and winter car- riages, and over the last might be a place for keeping corn, and next to this a fowl house. On the opposite side of the square, may be an open shed for cattle, with racks to hold hay or straw for them during the time they may be at large in the day. A part of this shed might be appropri- ated for carts. A sheep house may be constructed in one o^' the sheds, proportioned to the flock, with a part of the yard fenced off for the use of the sheep alone, not allowing them to mix with horned cattle or horses, in the farm yard. The sheep house should be divided into one large, and two or more small apartments, to separate the sheer , particularly at lambing time. The sheep house and yards should be furnished with racks for hay, and with small troughs, for drink and other food. The profit of sheep will depend in a great degree on a good sheep house, suit- able yards attached, and on careful attendance and feeding. A straw house might be constructed at a trifling expense, by erecting a shed to the side of the barn. On the south side of the yard, hog-sties or piggeries, may be placed. Hogs require only warm dry places to be in, and therefore the stye may be built in a very simple manner. Con- !■■ ; ' i it.,, I 137 renient to the barn and straw yard, in order that they may be constantly and abundantly supplied with litter, is the best situation tor them, as it is also most desirable to Lave all the farm buildings in one square if possi- ble. The hog sty should have several divisions to keep the different sorts of swine separate ; and it will be found advantageous not to have more than two in one division when fiittentng. The sty may be con- structed with shed roofs, about eight or nine feet wide, the back wall five feet, and front wall eight or nine feet high. The feeding troughs may be placed about five feet from the back wall, and separated from the hogs by upright rails six inches broad and two inches thick, placed sufficiently apart for the hogs to put their heads through to get at their food in the troughs. Over the troughs should be a cover with hinges to rise up and down. The troughs would occupy about a foot in width, and leave a space, or alley between the troughs and front wall, of two feet for the convenience of giving food, and in this space, food might be kept in bar- rels, for supplying the hogs at very frequent intervals. The sties may be scpanued into such divisions as the farmer may think most suitable. The front wall of the sty should face the south, and the back of the sty be to the farm yard, the enlratice to the feeding alley being outside the gate to the farm yard. In rear of the sty, to the distance of six or eight feet, should be another fence for the purpose of affording a small uncovered yard to each sty ; from these yards the dung can F;e removed into the ftirm yard. These kind of sties are already very general in Canada, but are not placed judiciously. / • .'• ' Poultry houses should be spacious and airy places properly constucted for them, with a number of spars reaching across the building at different heights, or at the same height, with a gangway attached for the fowls to ascend ; or there might be a sloping stage of spars for the poultry to sit with ranges of boxes beneath for nests. The spars on which the clawed birds are to roost, should not be smooth, but roundish or roughish, like the branches of a tree. When situations are favourable, root houses for storing up potatoes, carrots, Swedish turnips, or any other vegetables for the use of stock, might be constructed under the hay barn ; but they must be proof against frost. Steaming houses cannot be safely placed in the square of farm buildings, however necessary they are, or conveniently they might be si- tuated there, in preference to any other place. The danger from fire would be too great to be risked. Racks for straw, or other fodder should be fixed in the yard. The dung pit should be placed in the centre of the farm yard. A pave- ment or causeway ought to be carried round the yard, next to the buildings, from nine to fifteen feet in width, according to the scale of the whole ; the remaining part of the yard should be excavated so as to form a hol- low, deepest at the centre, but not as deep as to prevent carts from taking away the dung without difficulty. From the lowest part of this hollow should be conducted a drain to a reservoir for liquid manure, or to where it may be mixed with earth, which can be occasionally removed for top dressing, replacing it with other poor earth or soil, which can be again applied in the same way. It would be very desirable to remove the greater part of the snow that may fall, or collect in the yard, during th^ spri to 138 winter. It has an injurious effect on the manure, when a larpe quantity is suffered to thaw in the yard. When the fieUKs that are to he tnaaured are not very convenient to the farm yard, the farmer will lind it to be his in- terest to take out all the manure as it is made from his stables during the winter, and form it in heaps in the field where it will be required in the spring. The heaps should be made high so as not to allow much snow to mix with them- The dung will suffer less by washing there than in the yard, and if it is washed, it will run over the soil and not be lost. It is also a very great advantage in spring, when roads may be soft and bad to a late period of the spring, and greatly delay sowing and planting. Cattle should not be sufi'ered to leave the yard in winter. If the m ater is sup- plied from a draw well, it can, in most places, be conveyed into the yard by a long trough, so placed as to allow all the cattle to drink from it. Cattle waste much manure in winter when suflfered to wander about on roads or fields. There is a very convenient sort of gate call: d the window-sash gate, of recent invention, which is extremely well adapted to farm yards, and places where snow is subject to accumulate. It is suspended by two weights between two posts, where it moves up and down in grooves in the posts, exactly on the principle of the window sash. The weights may be of stone or cast iron, and the pulleys are of iron, and nine inches in diameter. The inventor recommends it in the following terms : — " It is easy to shut or open ; remains in whatever situation it is placed; is not hable to be beaten to pieces by the action of the wind ; shuts al- ways perfectly close, whatever be the height of the straw, dung, or snow, in the gate way ; a cart may be drawn quite close either side before opening ; is perfectly out of the way when fully open, and not liable to shut on what is passing ; not liable to get out of order ; may be erected in a hollow place, where a swing gate could not open either outwardly or inwardly, and is likely to be more durable than ordinary gates." A small gate of this description is said to be long in use with the Dutch. The dwelling house will be constructed according to the taste of the farmer. I do not, therefore, think it necessary to give any particular plan. I would recommend q\\ who build a house, above all things to endeavor to have a good cellar ; it will be found a most useful part of a farm house. The dairy or milk house, would require to be cool in summer, and moderately warm in winter, so as to pr'^serve if possible, a tempera- ture nearly the same throughout the year, of about 60 degrees. It should be dry, to admit of its being kept clean and sweet at all times. A milk house must be partly below the surface of the ground in this climate, or it cannot be kept at the proper temperature, at any season of the year. It may be formed in a dry cellar, so situated as to have windows on two sides, the north and east, and these windows should be furnished with double sashes, to exclude the cold in winter, and the heat in summer, and on the outside of the sashes should be a fixed frame of close wire netting, to exclude flies and other insects. If the dairy is in a detached building, it would be a good plan to build the walls double, the inner of brick or stone, nine inches or a foot in thickness, and the outer about two feet distance, built of stor.e, and surround the whole with a bank of ■If' ■ i n ill ll 139 earth faced with green turf. Over this dairy might be a cheese room, and a room for dairy utensils. For twenty or thirty cows, a dairy twenty feet by fourteen might be sufficient, with a cheese room and place for utensils adjoining. The floor should be of brick, or smooth flogs, with an open gutter formed of draining tiles, or of wood, in the floor, a foot or eigtheen inches from the wall, on all sides, for the purpose of carrying off" the water that may be occasionally used m washing, or cooling the floor in summer. After washing or wetting the floor, it should be dried up immediately, as damp promotes the putrefaction or turning of milk. It would be a great ad- vantage to have a well or pump in the dairy, and to have an ice house attached to it. It is said that an ice house surrounded with a double wall, with an interval between them like the dairy, and banked >vith earth and turf on the outside, will keep ice better than a cellar under grounf*. The place for holding the ice should be formed of upright posts, lined with wattled work, or close rail work, having a path all round of two feet and a half in width ; round this to be formed a gutter to carry off the water dropping from the ice. The utiHty of an ice house attached to a dairy, would amply compensate for the cost. In Canada, it will generally be found necessary to have a summer and winter dairy ; if the dairy be in a detached building particularly, it will be diflicult to keep it at the proper temperature in winter. In that case, it will be more advantageous to have a small room in the dwelling house, appropriated to milk in winter, that will not be too hot or too cold. Where large dairies are kept, it would be most convenient to have a fire place attached, to be used in winter, and make it unnecessary to change the dairy, but at present there are tew dairies so extensive as to require this* The shade of trees would be very useful for the dairy and ice house. r, M TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES. The fundamental implements of agriculture are the plough, the har- row, and the cart ; these are common to every civilized country, howe- ver rude of construction they may be in some.. The plough is common to all ages and countries, and its primitive form almost everywhere the same ; various changes have, however, been made in its form from the 16th century to the present time, in the British Isle; particularly. As the operations of ploughing, like many other operations in practical husband- ry, must often vary in the manner of its being performed, it is evident that no one particular sort of plough can be superior to all others, in eve- ry season, and under every variety of soil or inclination of surface. Ploughs are of two kinds ; those fitted up with wheels, and called wheel-ploughs, and those without wheels, called swing-ploughs. The latter are the lightest of draught, but require an experienced and attentive ploughman to use them ; the former work with greater steadiness, and require much less skill in the manager ; some sorts indeed do not re- quire holding at all, except at cnteting in, and tuniing on and ofl' the work at the ends of the ridges. On the whole, taking ploughmen as they ai-e, and ploughs as they are generally constructed, it will be found that a Iiecee room, ■n might be ining. The er formed of les from the that may be Tier. After ly, as damp a great ad- I ice house th a double i with earth der grounr*. posts, lined of two feet iry off the tached to a immer and rly, it will that case, ling house, too cold, have a fire to change to require Y and ice im U the har- ry, howe- ! common where the I from the • As the husband- 5 evident s, in eve- ace. nd called IS. The attentive less, and ) not re- i ofl* the I as they nd that a I'l- .•itf^ffW^w **^-^ 1. .'ill >-^-i. /ih'u nrrKsjft/if:ji i av/^v n RjKi: iifiiuifmn oTi^EVELUis^i"; UABftinv %^ ••<>. ?^^2£:-_:r% J>rOJfFOLhB[ORSE RAKE. B' fc'ji TIRyjp UAJiiiOW lUHLr.. "E5 •™ ^ — i— ..A ^ /?// «EJ ' < VI k /: ■'*■■■ -"^ ■'-/,, '^^ ^ i-i •1 * t ■I ^»p»c™«?rE' m^ lliiinl a (iii- thfl [I in a' wh c«i few b call forml tho i| only I turniil be s( the il 140 district ploughed with whool pIodghM, will nhow greater ncntnrsfl of work ttiiin ono ploughed with nwing ploughs ; but, on thn other hand, taking 41 diMtrict where the improved form of swing plough is genernlly julopted, the ploughmen will be Ibund superior workmen, nnd the work porformed in a hctt'T manner, and with \caa ox{)cn80 oi labour, than in Uve cu«e of wheel ploughs. In the construction of ploughs, whate\'cr l)o the sort usetl, there are a few general principles that ought invariably to bo attended to, sroh as the giving the throat and breast, or that part which enters, perforates, and b eaks up the ground, that sort of long, narrow, clean, tapering, sharpened form, that affords least resistance in passing through (he land, and to the mould board, that kind of hollowcd-out and twisted form, which not only tends to lessen friction, but also contributes greatly to tho perfect turning over of the furrow slice. The beam arwl muzzle should likewise be so contrived as that tho moving power, or team, may be attached in the most advantageous line of draught. This is particularly necessary where a number of animals are employed together, in order that the draught of tho whole may coincide. Land, when properly ploughed, must be removed from a horizontal position, and twisted over to a certain angle, so that it may be \el\ in that inclining state, one furrow leaning upon another, till the whole field be completely ploughed. Tho depth and width of the furrows, which is most approved of by farmers, and commonly to be met with in the best ploughed fields are in the proportion of two to three ; or if tho furrow be six inches deep, it ought to be nine inches wide, and left at an angle of 45 degrees. To have the line of draught at right angles to the horses' shoulders, is of great importance in the formation of a plough, a circumstance of which many plough-makers are totally ignorant, although it is well known to ever; one who has the least knowledge of mechanics. If we take the angle that the horses' shoulders make with a pcrpendicubii from the ho- rizon, and continue another line at right angles to it, or parallel to the draught chain, the length of this line from the horses' shoulders to where it meets or crosses the coulter, at half tho depth of the furrow, will be thirteen feet two inches for ordinary sized horses. If the plough be properly made, the line of draiight should pass through the middle hole of the plough bridle at the point of th« be^im. This re- quires the beam to be seven feet long, to give it a proper height at the bridle. That part of the plough next the solid land should be a perfect plane, and run parallel to the line of draught. The coulter ought not to deviate much from an angle of 45 degrees. The mould board, for free soils, and for summer fallows, is generally most effective when it has a considerable concavity ; but for breaking up pasture or any firm surface, and also for clayey soils, it is found to clean itself better, and make neater work when it approaches nearer to a plane, and in very stift' clays, if formed with a concave surface. The lower edge of the mould-board, on the most improved forms, is in a c-e- parate piece, which, when it wears, can be taken off and renewed. This slip of iron is called the wearing piece. The sowing plough, is almost the only onq used in Scotland* and in T ^1 lil k.^ W'f WI'*..-^"^ ^'? J" ' k;. ~ 141 miuiy pnrtis of Kn^lund; but in twotiiy-'ii^ht counticH in ICn^liind, ti o wheel plough 18 in fa;(morul ii.s(i at tliis iluy, mid in houw ol' tho lineHt (uiunticH iur crops, Devon, Kent, and Kerliord, pr<>ducin|j; corn (M|UuI to any in Kiigland ; Norfolk, tho best county for liirnipH and barley ; HcrkH, tbi; county in which (teorge tlu! 3rd bad lar^e iiutiiH, and U8ud Uio wheel plou^liH ; urpose of regulating the articularly in those that are of a stony and stubborn quality, they aifurd great assistance to such ploughmen, enabling them to perform their work with grt^iter regularity in resnect to de|ith, and with much more neatness in regard to s (jiiality of surface. From the friction caused by the wheels, they are generally considered as giving rrmch greater resistance, and consequently (htmand more strength in the team that is employed ; and besi«les, are more expensive in their construction, and more liable to bo put out of order, as well as more apt to la; disturi)- ed in their progress hy clods, stones, and oth(^r inequalities that may be on the surface of the ground, than those of the swing kind. It is also observed, that with ploughs of the wheel kind, workmen are a])t to svi the points of their shares too low, so as by their inclined direclission of the share from any sialden obstruction, as well as bringing it quickly int«) work again, when thrown out towards the sur- lace." — Covvmunications to the Hoard of.ftt to .set ction to oc- lorizontally. it, iniinit(!ly eel is to be ; hut puss- kin^- up old md coirect- 1, as well as rds the Hur- Iwo wheels, •y li^ht, and y little time 3S very well re are lew The Heveruton wh«!ei plon^h in couHidorcd uii excellent implement. In a report of farmH Helected in Kn^land, Tor Huperior management, pub- liHhed in 1H32, in one" engaging the wheels. An eminent English author on agriculture in 1630, observes : " On stiff and tenacious soils, no implement is, perhaps, better adapted than the Herefordshire wheel plough^ notwithstanding the obstacles presented by their weight and increased difficulty of draught ; as they are not ea- sily thrown out of the ground, and at the same time compensate for the additional expense of their cost by their great expedition in work. " In Dorsetshire, wheels are considered an indispensable appendage to all sorts of ploughs used there, from the nature of the soil being difficult to plough. There are many varieties of draining ploughs, generjilly with wheels, which regulate the depth of the drains. Some of them might be useful- ly introduced into Canada for cutting small drains. The most approved are the Duke of Bridge water's, and those invented by Clark and Gray. Drawings of several kinds of patent wheel-ploughs have been sent out to the Agricultural Society here, from Ransom's iron foundry, Ipswich, England, with the following advertisement : " The advantages of these ploughs over common ones are, they are more durable, less troublesome and expensive to keep in repair, and so simple in their construction, that every part subject to wear nmy be easily repaired by the ploughman with- out the inconvenience of sending them from the field. They are so formed as to turn their work with the least resistance, and by varying the breast or mould board which A'ill shifl to any width of furrow, may be suited to any lauds." The draught is exceedingly well applied to these ploughs, and must be most effectual. The point of draft is perpendicular above the point of traction, or breast, where the share fits on, and prevents entirely any pressure on the wheels, the greatest objection to wheel ploughs. Plenty's improved Flemish plough, with one wheel and skim coulter, is recommended. This plough differs from the common swing plough, in having a small wheel, by which the depth of the furrow is more easily regulated, and a skim coulter which pares off the grass and weeds and turns them into the bottom of the furrow ; it is also broader in the point. It is said to be suitable to light friable soils. I have now given the opinion of many agricultural authors, on the me- rits of wheel ploughs. I have not introduced these selections by way of recommending wheel ploughs, or as an inducement to those who use swing ploughs, to adopt wheel ploughs instead. Farmers who have the swing plough, and who can execute the operation of ploughing in a per- fect manner with that implement, «vould be unwise to make any change. In England, agriculture is said to have arrived at the greatest possible improvement that it is capable of. Improved implements and machinery are brought to greater perfection there, than in any other country in the world, yet the wheel plough is still in very general use, though all the merits that the swing plough possesses, are known there to farmers and proprietors, by practical demonstration. If the wheel plough is in reali- ty infinitely inferior to the swing plough, it appears an unaccountable species of obstinacy to continue its use in that country. Canadian farmers may well be excused for not immedietely putting 144 away the plough they can work with, and adopting , the swing pIotig:h which they cannot manage perfectly well, when a majority oi" their ieliow subjects in England, from the educated peer to the poorest farmer, per- sist in rejecting it, notwithstanding all that has been written and said, by theorists and others, and the practical experience they have constantly before them of any superior excellence it can have. Much of the land in England is a very strong clay, and difRcult to plough well. A great part of the land of Lower-Canada is strong land, and extremely difficult to plough at the particular season of the year it has to be ploughed. These circumstances make the wheel plough the more suitable in both countries in certain situations. There can be no doubt that the wheel plough of Lower-Canada is susceptible of improvement in its construction, and the manner of apply- ing the draught. I am persuaded, however, that a well constructed wheel plough is better adapted to a large portion of the strong and rough lands of the province, and the present skill and habits of the ploughman, than any swing plough that ever was invented. 1 have seen good work done with wheel ploughs, and in most cases where it is not done, the fault is more to be attributed to the inattention of the ploughman, than to the imperfections of the plough. Where the furrow slice is cut of unequal proportions, it must make bad work ; when the ridges are not straigifit, and the furrows not properly cleaned out, the work must be still worse ; but these defects are not solely occasioned by the wheel plough ; with the best swing plough in the world, in the hands of an unskilful or inattentive ploughman, all these imperfections may occur in the execution of the work. When agricultural improvement has advanced, the skill and experience of farmers and ploughmen will be increased, and farmers will adopt the sort of ploughs and other implements, that will be most suitable for their purpose. Those who have light lands that can be ploughed with two horses, and who are capable of managing the swing plough, should by all means use that implement ; but in other circumstances, I believe it will be more prudent to improve the Canadian wheel plough than to reject it altogether ; and I think it my duty to avow this opinion, however it may be at variance with that of most Old Country farmers. There are many implements used in England, such as scarifiers, scufflers, cultivators, grubbers, brakes, &c. which probably will not be introduced here for some time, therefore, I do not think it necessary to describe them all. Drawings of some of the most useful implements will be given in the last number. The brake, grubber, or levelling harrow, is a valuable implement on strong clayey soils. It consists of two frames, the one triangular and the other oblong. By means of the handles, the oblong part of this brake can be either raised up or depressed, so that when the ground is cut in small pieces by the teeth of the triangular harrow, then the oblong har- row following, its teeth being pressed down into the higher parts, carry or drag part of the soil off from the heights ; and when they are raised up by the handles, leave that soil in the hollow or low parts ; by this means the ground is brought nearly to one plain surface, whether that surface bo horizontal or sloping. Somtimcs it may be found necessary •^:'^l:'' ;v|i #; '"^4 1 1 "l. . m 5' !- "V fl^ •^asSS^SSS^S!^^ vwm . ' ju L 145 to place a greater number of teeth in the oblong part ot the brake, so that they may be nearer to one another, and perform the operation more efiec- tually. The teeth are made sharp or thin on the fore edge, for cutting ; broad and thick on the back, for strength ; and tapering from a little be- low the butts to their joints. A triangular harrow, properly made, and furnished with iron teeth, will answer best on all rough lands where stones and stumps are suffered to remain. ' This harrow is well known in Lower-Canada. The Berwickshire harrow is a perfect implement ; it consists of two parts joined together by iron rods, having hasps and hooks ; each part consists of four bars of wood, technically termed bulls, and connected together by an equal number of cross bars, of smaller dimensions, mor- tised through them. The former of these bars may be two inches and a half in width, by three inches in depth, and the latter two inches in width by one inch in depth. The longer bars are inclined at a certain angle to the smaller, so as to form the figure of a rhomboid, and they have insert- ed into them the teeth at equal distances from each other. This inclina- tion of the longer bars is made to be such, that perpendiculars from each of the teeth, falling from a line drawn at right angles to the line of the harrow's motion, shall divide the space between each bar into equal parts, so that the various teeth, when the instrument is moved forward, shall equally indent the surface of the groun J over which they pass. This harrow will be the best for all lands clear of stamps and stones. A harrow for sowing grass seed, need be nothing more than the Ber- wickshire harrow on a smaller scale. The brush harrow is used for harrowing grass lands to disperse rough- ness and decaying matter ; and it is also sometimes used for covering grass Ok* clover seeds. Small, rigid branches of spray are interwoven in a frame, consisting of three or more cross bars, fixed into two end-pieces in such a manner as to be very rough and bushy underneath. To the extremities of the frame before, are sometimes attached two wheels, about twelve inches in diameter, upon which it moves ; sometimes, however, wheels are not employed, but the whole rough surface is applied to, and dragged on the ground. The Norfolk horse rake, a figure of which is given, may be employed for barley and oat crops, and for hay. One man, and a horse driven by means of a rein, are said to be capable of raking from twenty to thirty acres in a moderate day's work. The grain or hay being deposited in regular rows or lines across the field, by simply lifting up the tool and dropping it from the teeth, without the horse being stopped. This im- plement will be found easier managed, and more effectual on lands of uneven surface, than the American horse rake. The hand corn rake is, in England, of different dimensions and constructions. In general the length of the rake is about four feet, and the teeth of iron about four inch- es long, and set from one to two inches apart. Young, mentions one of these dimensions whici ^d two wheeb of nine inches diameter, for the purpose of rendering it easier to draw ; the wheels were so fixed that the teeth might be kept in any posture by the holder. It was used for hay and corn, and answered the purpose well. The hand hay rake ought to be made of light, seasoned wood, and 146 may be fror.i three, to three and a half feet long, and be perfectly nianap*'- able, if properly made. The teeth need not exceed tHo or ihrcc inclu.s in length. Some farmers use a rake five feet long, or more, with strong teeth of wood four ir jhes long, whi,ch is dragged over the surface by one man, and is said to answer the purpose efl'ectually. The one row turnip drill-barrow, is a very useful implement ; it has two wheels which run in the hollows on each side of the drill or ridgelet to be sown, by which means the man who uses it is enabled to keep the row exactly in the centre of the drill ; a small roller is fixed in the ma- chine which covers and presses in the seed. In sowing large fields, it may be attached to a light roller drawn by a horse. Wheel carriages, of a variety of construction, are used in agriculture. To employ carriages that are calculated to execute the required opera- tions with the greatest facility, and at the least possible expense, is a matter of rural economy, highly deserving of serious consideration. In Lower-Canada, wheel carriages are not so much used in agriculture, as in £ngland. The wheel carriages in common use here are simple in their construction, a.-l answer a very good purpose. At a considerable distance from towns, they are not much used ofi' the farms, as it is in winter the produce is generally carried to market. The wood cart is very well adapted to the work to be executed, and the Canadian dung cart, though not a very splendid machine, answers the purpose very well, and the cost of their carts is trifling. The English and Scotch carts are coming into very general use in the neighbourhood of towns, particularly with all Old Country farmers, who scarcely use any other, except for hay or corn. The Canadian hay carts are the most convenient machines for the pur- pose of carrying hay, and corn in the sheaf, of any I have ever seen. They are light, and easy to be loaded, and the load can be securely tied, by means of a roller fLxed between the ends of the shafts of the cart, to which the cord that ties the load is attached, and may be wound up to the requisite degree of tightness, by a boy of ten years old. The same wheels that are used for the wood and dung carts, are generally changed to the hay carts, when wanted. Single horse carts are the most useful on a farm. Whenever the lands or roads are fit to draw upon, two horses and two carts will be able to do more work, than two horses with one cart, allowing that in each case, the horses have the carts that are most suitable. This rule does not, however, apply to winter carriages employed in carrying agricultural produce. Winter carriages construct- ed on the same principle as those in tht 'nited States, and in Upper- Canada, and drafted in the same way, by ivvo horses abreast, should at once be adopted in Lower-Canada. I do not know of any improvement more necessary to be introduced. There is not a farmer in the province but is sensible of the fact, that the winter roads are generally bad, though he may not be aware, that with our neighbours of the United States, of Upper-Canada, and even of the eastern townships, the winter roads are good, and that the cause of this difference is to be attributed solely to their using a different description of winter carriages, a-id mode of drafl. The common traine of Lower- Canada, may be v. very convenient machine on a farm, and in the woods, ."4 '«<% hi ■"<■ -i'ti •■J*' i.; ► 'v: . ,. ■ ;• ■ iiw' ■ III iM 4 147 but should never go ofT the farm, I do not think it possible to construct any machine better calculated to form cahots in deep snow, than the common traine, particularly when loaded with wood, hay, or any other commodity that will overhang the runners, or form a high load ; and I do not see how any change in the manner of attaching the shafts can prevent it from making cahots, though possibly it might not make so many. The runners are so short and low, that they must necessarily collect thp snow, press it forward, and form a heap. When the traine has to rise over this, or any other inequality in the road, it is raised off the perpendicular, and in coming down to its level again, the whole weight of the load boai's upon the front, or fore part of the runners, and must commence forming hollows, or cahots. The effect is most inju- rious when the load overhangs the runners, or stands high over them. The draft being applied very low is apt to raise the fore pai t of the run- ners off the level, and in coming to the level again in soft snow, it must make the surface uneven, and every carriage of whatever make, that fol- lows upon the same track, will increase these inequalities, and add to their number. The winter carriages of our neighbours, are high, open, and long in the runners. There is a pole firmly attached to the front, as in tour wheel carriages, which, passing between the horses and secured to their collars, keeps the machine perfectly steady, and the draft being applied over the runners, the carriage moves steadily on the road, free from that jerking motion, which traines constantly have. These carriages sel- dom carry a load that overhangs, and the horses travelling before the runners, track the snow, and make it impossible to form cahots on any • road that was (wiginally nearly level. In some situations traines do not form cahots, and I cannot always account for this circumstance. It has been said that bad roads with us, are owing in a great m'^asure to there being more snow in Lower-Cane ' in winter than in Upper Canada, or the United States. I admit there could not be deep cahots, without deep snow ; nevertheless, I ani fully convinced that the construction of our winter carriages, and the manner of draft, is the main cause of bad winter roads in this province ; and if by introducing carriages similar to those in use with our neighbours, we would insure good winter roads, there is not a farmer in the province but should feel interested in introducing them before another winter ; ev'^n the experiment is worth making. Were the winter roads good, two horses would bring as much produce to market, as four can do now, and in half the time ; the carriages and harness would last much longer, and all who would travel for business or pleasure would have cause for con- gratulation at a change that would enable them to perform a journey with nearly the ease and expedition they could do on a rail-road. It may be very pleasant on a fine summer day to travel leisurely through a beauti- ful country, but for any person acquainted with the cold of twenty de- grees below zero, slow winter trt veiling in Canada can have no great charms ; particularly if occasioned by a bad road. The farmers of Lower-Canada have the means of providing for the necessary change at once. They have more horses in proportion than Jh« farmers of Upper-Canada, and during a period of seven years, the 148 construct , than the any other td ; and I shafts can niake so ecessarily the traine raised off he whole ners, and lost inju- ver them, f the run- Vf it must , that fol- id add to d long in in lour d to their applied rom that iges sel- fore the on any t always with us, -Cane ' nit there am fully manner ; and if Durs, we arovince winter ; )od, two ow, and 2;er, and for con- ley with may be beauti- nty de- lO great for the 3n than irs, the expense c f improved winter carriages and harness, would not exceed that of the description of carriage and harness at present in use, and the ad- vantage that will be gained by themselves, and the whole community, will be greater than they have any idea of. Under existing circumstances, keeping the winter roads in repair, even in an imperfect manner at best, is considerable expense of labour, that with a properly constructed winter carriage, would, it is supposed, be un- necessary. A waste of labour, or labour unnecessarily applied, is an inju- rious waste of capital. I am aware that it is the opinion of several intelli- gent farmers, that two horses with traines will be able to carry more than two horses could do with the double sleigh. This, I believe, would prove to be perfectly correct could the experiment be made on good roads ; but of what consequence can it be to us, while we have practical experience that we cannot have good roads so long as we continue to use the traine, and that the traine or any other description of winter carriage cannot, un- der present circumstances, carry more than half loads. If the traine is the true and only cause of caliois, I admit it is the very best description of winter carriage for using on bad roads ; but if the first fact be clearly demonstrated, our duty is plain, to put an end to the cause, and thus pre- vent the effects so long complained of, at once and forever. A reaping machine has been lately invented in Britain, by a Mr. Bell, that is said to answer the purpose extremely well, worked by two horses. It has been tried in Scotland before several landed proprietors, and, mov- ed by a single horse, cut down a breadth of five feet at once, and attend- ed by six or eight persons to tie up the corn, a field was reaped at the rate of an imperial acre per hour. A schoolmaster in Northumberland, a Mr. Henry Ogle, has invented a machine for reaping, and at the same time making sheaves of the corn. The operation of this machine has proved satisfactory, and was esti- mated to cut fourteen acres per day. A Mr. Baily of the United States, invented a mowing machine, which is said to answer well, and to be extensively used. Threshing machines are in very general use in Britain, and are coming much into use in the United States. They are not so necessary for Lower-Canada until her agriculture is in a more forward state of im- provement, and her disposable capital considerably augmented. A threshing machine capable of executing the work perfectly, cannot be purchased much under fifty pounds currency, besides the cost of the building in which it would be erected. There are very few farmers who would not find an opportunity of applying this money more advantage- ously in clearing a new farm, or improving an old one. The winters prevent every field operation for four months of the year, and in the old settled parts of the country particularly, farmers, their families, and ser- vants have not much other work to do, except threshing in the winter. Those who are independent, and have their farms in a high state of im- provement, producing abundant corn crops, and who have capital unem- ployed, may, by all means erect threshing mills, but under any other cir- cumstances, I believe it would be imprudent. In England, field work is seldom interrupted in winter, and consequently the labourers' time is more valuably applied in the field, than in the barn, and the threshing i • y. }. I. 'I •H i X 3«: 1^:^:^. 149 machine enables the farmer who has a large quantity of grain, to lake ad* vantage of any sudden rise in the market. Here, we seldom have any such fluctuations in the market, particularly in winter. It is only where water power can be applied, that threshing mills are considered a great saving in Britain. When the interest on the first cost, repairs, labour of horses, and hands attending, is calculated, it will be found that the cost of threshing by hand would not bo much more, except on most extensive ara- ble farms. Portable threshing machines would, I am convmced, cost ihe farmer more labour and expense in moving them from one place to ano- ther, erecting them, and taking them down, than to thresh his grain with the flail. To carry grain to a threshing mill off* the farmer's premises, is wasteful and expensive. There are some hand threshing machines wor rd by t vo men and a woman, that completely separate the grain fron. ---''.' rtriw, but do not save human labour. Ti> anj . .achines used in agriculture in Canada are few in number Compaq li witl '.. "»se used in England. The scythe, cradle-scythe, reap- ing-hook or sickle, smooth reaping-hook or scythe-hook, the hay-knife, wool-shears, the bill-hook, axe, hay-fork, dung-fork, spade, shovel, hand pick, turnip-hoe, potatoe-hoe, weed-hoe, thistle extirpator, dung- drag, mattock, grubber, wheel-barrow, hand-barrow, winnowing machine and chaff cutter, are the principal hand implements and machines neces- sary, and are all to be had in the country, though not of the best quality in every instance, particularly spades of all sorts and sizes, are very infe- rior implements for the farmer ; they are made of bad materials, not of good shape, and too short in the handle by at least six inches. I have seen spades brought out here from Gloucestershire by farmers, that were of the most excellent quality and make, of any I have ever met with. The Flemish spade, is strongly recommended ; it has a long handle^ but no tread for the foot of the operator. The long handle forming a ve- ry powerful lever, when the soil is easily penetrated it may be dug with greater ease with the spade than with any of the forms in common use, and carts may be filled, and earth thrown to a greater distance by this implement for the same reason. Add to this, that in no manner of using the spade, is the operator required to stoop so much as with the English one. The Irish shovel is a very good implement for cleaning drains and some otlier purposes, but is unhandy to persons not accustomed to its use. The mattock or grubber, is formed partly like the pick-axe, with this dif- ference, that the ends are wedge shaped in reverse positions. These ends should be made of the best iron and steel, one end shaped like an axe, and the other like an adze. They are the best tools for digging up roots of trees, particularly where there are not many stones, of any I have ever seen in use. A man can do more with this tool, if he is accustomed to its use, in taking out roots of trees, than two men could do with axes. I have proved this by experience. The tool requires to be well made, and from six to nine pounds weight ; the handle from 30 to 36 inches long. Useful machines are never intricate and complicated, nor should they be expensive. The following rules should be observed in purchasing agri- o lake ad- have any nly where id a ^rea/ » labour of the cost of nsive ara- d. cost Iho CO to ano- grain with emises, is machines ' the grain in number y^the, reap- hay-knifc, e, shovel, tor, dung- g machine nes neces- est quality I very infe- als, not of s. I have , that were t with. ng handle) ming a ve- 3 dug with mmon use, ice by this er of using tie English drains and med to its iththisdif- 'hese ends ce an axe, g up roots have ever istomed to li axes. I 'ell made, 36 inches lould they ising agri- 150 cultural implements : — They should be simple in their construcfion, both that their'uses may be more easily understood, and that any common work- man may be able to repair them when they get out of order ; the mate- rials should be of a durable nature, that the labour may be less liable to interruption from their accidental failure ; their form should be firm and compact, that they may not be injured by jolts and shaking, and that they may be more safely worked by country labourers, who are but littK c- customed to the use of delicate tools. In the larger machines, symn:.< try and lightness of shape ought to be particularly attended to, for a hv^ avy carriage, like a great horse, is worn out by its own weight, nearly aa much as by what he carries. The wood should be cut up and placed in a position the best calculated to resist pressure ; and mortises, so likely to weaken the wood, should, as much as possible be avoided. At the same time, implements should be made as light as is consistent with the strength that is necessary. Their price should be such, that farmers in moderate circumstances, can afford to buy them ,* yet, for the sake of a low price, the judicious farmer will not pur asc articles either of a flim- sy fabric, or a faulty form, and implements .^u^- t to be suited to the na- ture of the country, whether hilly or lev 1, a)»Q more especially to the quality of the soil ; for those which are calculated for light land, will not answer equally well in soils that are heav' and adhesive. The heavy wheel carriages of England, are very imfit for the soft bad roads of Ca- nada ; and all hand implements ougb o be as light as is consistent with the strength necessary for the work to be executed, that the workman may not be fatigued by the weight of a heavy implement in executing his work. SUBDIVIDING AND FENCING FARMS. Fencing, next to implements and suitable buildings, is in most situa- tions indispensable to the profitable management of arable land. On all arable farms, on which caitle and sheep are pastured, the ease, security, and comfort, which good fences give, both to the owner and to the ani- mals themselves, are too evident to require particular notice. The situation offences on a farm depends upon a great variety of cir- cumstances, as the extent of the farm, the inequalities of surface, the na- ture of the soil, and on the course of husbandry to be followed. The farms in Lower-Canada are generally of a uniform oblong shape, seldom less than a mile in length, or more than5200 yards in width. For a farm of an hundred arpents, Canadian farmers have almost invariably di- vided the cultivated part of each farm by a fence, through the middle from one extremity to the other, making each division about the square of one arpent and a half in width, the road of communication to the different parts of the farm and pasture, being along this dividing fence. The first change I would propose as to fencing would be, that in every case where the farms would not exceed four or even five acres in width, the middle fence should be removed to the one side or other, and the road of communica- tion to the different fields, and waste lands, if there are any, enclose^ by this fence on the one side of every farm. The rotation that may adopted, should be tJbie rule for divi()ing a faim u2 '■'I'll I \ ) ■■ ^^ ,( \i' 151 into fields. A farm of aupcrior soil, or even of moderoto quality, might be divided into six fields, of nearly equal si/e, if circumstances will ad- mit of doing so advantageously ; but on some farms where the lunds are not of the same quality, and where they are broken by portions uniit for cultivation, it would be well to separate each quality, particularly any part unfit for cultivation, and incapable of profilablo improvement, should be fenced off for pasture, if of an extent to make it worth while to do so. If, in regularly dividing the arable land of a farm, an acre or two of a dif- ferent or inferior soil, should happen to mingle in the same field, it might be readily improved, at a slack time of the year. If such spots be of a light quality, some of the strong soi) contiguf ms, could be carted on it, and if the prevailing soil of the field be light, the plan may be reversed. When small portions of an enclosure are low, the cleaning of drains, or other earth, might be carted on it, in many cases, at an expense that would be repaid by one crop ; but I would by no means recommend the expenditure of one shillinn- in the improvement of lands, where there is any doubt of the expense being refunded. On farms of a light quality of soil, the cultivatible land should be di- vided into nine fiields of equal size, subject to the sam.o exceptions as those above explained. Two or three small enclosures would be neces- sary near the farm buildings for calves, pigs, &c. These fields might, in the first instance, be separated by open ditches for carrying off the sur- face water ; and if thc^e were cedar posts or pickets permanently fixed in each cross line offence, the rails might be removed wherever required, with very little trouble. It would seldom be necessary to keep ui' rnoro than two or three cross fences in summer, as I shall hereafter explain. On the first proposed division of a farm into six fields, three would be under grain and green crops, and if necessary, a part in summer fallow, the other three field*! would be in meadow and pasture. On the second division of nine fields, three would be under grain and green crops, and ferhaps a part in summer fallow, and six fields in meadow and pasture, n each case adhering strictly to the principle of rotation of crops, and convertible husbandry. This division of farms would answer for Upper- Canada. The live hedge fence of England, is a great improvement to the appear- ance of that country, and is the best sort of fence that could be adopted there. Whether it would be equally well adapted to this country, is a matter on which there is some difference of opinion. 1 have very little doubt that hedges might be successfully cultivated here, and become good fences in half the time which they take to come to perfection in England. The native thorn here is very suitable for fences, and there are so many other kinds of trees or shrubs that might be mixed with the thorn, that there could ]fc|no difficulty of rearing good fences in most si- tuations ; and the rapid^owth of these kinds of plants, in this climate, would be very favourable to the introduction of live hedge fences. They might be planted alongside the present rail fences on the level of the soil, not raised over it, and when sufficiently grown, the rail fences could be removed. The principal objection that I see to these fences, would be the danger of their preventing a free current of air to grain crops, and producing too much shade ; but these injurious effects might be prevent- ed by k feet, down 8( in the m ' 152 ed by keeping the hedges trimmed constantly lo the lieight of about four feet. This trimming would also prevent the Know from breaking them down so much as it otherwise would. I have necn very fine hedges in the neighbourhood of Quebec, and they did not appear to sutler from snow or any other cause. Trimming hedges anmtaUij, would not cost more than repairing fences of wood, and it will be necessary, at no dis- tant period, to find a substitute for wood fences. J>ive hedge fences would be a great improvement to the appearance of this country, if they would not produce any injurious eni'ct on corn crops, in the hot, moiwt weather we occasionally have in summer. In order that hedgrs may grow luxuriantly, and soon become fences, it will bo necessary to pre- pare the ground on which the plants are to grow, previously to their be- ing planted. This will be best effected by ploughing or digging deeply, the proposed line of fence, manuring it if necessary, and planting on it a drill of potatoes. After the potatoes arc taken out in the latter end of September, will be the best time to plant the hedge ; and if wild lands be convenient, there can be no want of plants that will form a good hedge, though they may not be all thorn. If hedge fences should bo found to succeed well, thorn plants may be produced from seed, as in England, to supply tho demand, at a cheaper rate than taking up wild thorns. Stone fences might be constructed profitably where the materials arc often to be found encumbering the land ; but they cannot in this country be so constructed as to be a good fence against sheep, without incurring a heavy expense, in sinking a deep foundation, as a security against the influence of the frost, and raising the wall to a considerable height. If stone fences are constructed in the usual way, broad at the foundation and tapering to the top, scarcely ever exceeding four feet in height, sheep will run over such walls without any difiiculty whatever. A light paling on the top of this description of stone fence, where sheep arc kept, would answer a good purpose, and if well executed, would have a handsome appearance. On all new lands where wood is in abundance, the farmer or settler will have ample materials for the construction of fences. DRAINING. Of all operations in agriculture, none is more necessary than draining, and to practice this operation successfully, it is necessary for the farmer to have a proper knowledge of the various strata near the surface of the land which requires draining. Oozing springs, bogs, swamps, or mo- rasses, on level ground near elevated lands, are the most difficult to drain. When the water filters or slides down the porous sides of high grounds, the best method of draining is that of intercepting the descent of the water or spring, and thereby totally remove the cause of wetness. This may be done where the depth of the superficial strata, and conse- quently of the spring, is not great, by making horizontal drains across the declivities of the hills, above where the low grounds of the v;;' oys begin to form, and connecting these with others made for the purpose of con- veying the water thus collected into the brooks that may be near. In Ireland, I have often seen on thin layers of clay, which had under- 153 noath thcin sand, slonn, or other poroufl or fisaurcJ strata, to a considcr- alilc depth, that by perforating tho thin hiyors of clay in ditl'urent placoN, tho wator could ho let down into th(; open porouH niatcriuln that lay beluw them, and the Hiirfacc land be thus completely drained. The j;oneral origin oftho wtnoHS ofhuxl which it is the object of undor- drainin*; to remove, will bo found to be the existence of water in sub-stra- ta of sand, gravel, open rock, or other porous substances, which either huid to tho .surface, or having no natural outlet, become fdled or saturat- ed, while tho pressure of more water cominp; from a higher source, forces that which is in,^the lower part oftho stratum upwards throu}i;h the supe- rior strata to the surface ; thus occasioning either bursts and springs, or a general oozing through tho soil. Any Ihrmer who docs not perfectly understand the general oozing of water through tho soil, from water or moisture, in the inunedinto vicinity, naturally or artificially kept on a liighcr or equal level, may be convinced of the fact by the clearest de- monstration if ho has an opportunity of viewing a canal that may bo so si- tuated, and whose banks have not been secured by puddling, or the leak- age through tho embankment intercepted by proper and sufficient drains. The object of under-draining therefore, is not to catch the surface wa- ter, but that which flows through the inferior strata ; and, for this pur- pose it is necessary to make a sufficient channel, cither at tho lower part oftho porous stratum, or in such part of it as may conveniently carry ofl' the water, so as the pressure referred to may be relieved, or tho water intercej)tcd before it reaches the surface. It must always be kept in mind, then, that under-draining and surface-draining arc operations es- sentially distinct, and every care must be used in practice not to blend them in tho execution. If surface water bo allowed to get into a covered drain, tho sand and mud which it will carry into these subterraneous channels will soon choke them up, and occasion bursts, creating, as may be conceived, new swamps ; while the exppnse of taking up and relay- ing the under drains will be very great, and the execution imperfect, the sides being found never to stand a second time so well as when first formed. In the drainage of wet or boggy grounds, arising from springs of wa- ter beneath them, a great variety of circumstances are necessary to be kept in view. Lands of this description, or such as are of a marshy and boggy nature, from the detention of water beneath the spungy surface materials of which they are composed, and its being absorbed and forced up in'to them, are constantly kept in such state of wetness, as are high- ly improper for the purpose of producing advant?geous crops of any kind, These tracts, if properly reclaimed, would bf, of considerable value in the climate of Canada, and should, therefore, be an object of great inter- est and importance to the industrious farmer who might have such lands. Wet grounds of these kinds, may be arranged under three distinct heads : first, such as may be readily known by the springs rising out of the adjacent more elevated ground, in an exact or regular lino along the higher side of the wet surface ; second, those in which the numerous springs that show themselves are not kept to any exact or regular lirne of direction along the higher or more elevated parts of the land, but break forth promiscuously throughout the whole surface, and pert cularly to- 154 wanU the infrrior partH, constitulinj:; shakinp; qun^Riii every direction, thnt huvu (in clastic i'ticl uiuUt the t'cct, on whirh the li^'liti>.st uninials ciin Bcarcely tread without danger, and which, tor the most part, show thein- Bclvcs by tho hixurianco and verduru of the grasH uhoiit iht ni ; that Hort of wet land, from the oozing of Hprings, whicli is neiiljer of such great ex- tent, nor in the nature of the Hoil so peaty as the other two, uiid to whi( h tho term bog cannot bo strictly applied, but which, in respect to tho modes of draining, is tho same. When on the declivity or slanting surface of tho elevated ground from which the springs break forth, they are observed to burst out at diflVrent levels, according to tho dillerenco of the wetness of the season, and where those that aro tho lowest down continue to run, while the higher ones aro dry, it is in general, a certain indication that the whole are con- nected, and proceed from the same source, and conseqtiently that tho lino of drain should be made along tho level of the lowermost one, which if properly executed may k(!ep all tho rest dry. liut if tho drain were made along the highest of the outlets, or place where the water breaks forth, without being sufliciently deep to reach the level of those below, the overflowing of the springs wovdd merely be carried away, and tho wetness proceeding from that cause be removed, while the main spring still continuing to run, would render tho land below the level of the bot- tom of the drain, still prejudicially wet, from its discharging itself lower down below the surface of tho ground. It is absurd to expect that by cutting drains between the wet and dry grounds where the highest springs show themselves, will take away tho whole of the water liom the land below unless they are cut of sullicicnt depth to command the level of tho land to the bottom of the declivity. In swamps that aro extensive and wet, other drains or cuts than such as convey off the springs must bo made ; as, notwithstanding the higher springs which chiefly cause the wetness, may be intercepted, there may be lower veins of sand, gravel, or other porous materials, from which the water must likewise be drawn off. In cases of this nature, w hen the land is to be divided into enclosures, the ditches may be formed into such di- rections as to pass through and carry off collections of water of this kind as well as those that may bo retained in the hollows and depressions on the surface of the land. There are in many places very extensive tracts of ground that are rendered very wet, and become full of flags and otier coarse plants, from causes of such a nature as cannot be obviated by the making either open or covered drains, however numerous they may be. Lands in this situation are frequently termed swamps, and mostly lie on the sides of such rivers and brooks as, from the frequency of their changing and altering their courses between their opposite banks, leave depositions of sand, gravel, and other porous materials, by which land is formed, that readily admit the water to filtrate and ass through it to the level of the last formed channels, and which \ -^crves it con- stantly in such a state of moisture and wetness, as to ren*..- »' it productive of nothing but flags and other plants ; and if a pit or ditch bo made in lands under these circumstances, it quickly fills with water to the same level as that in the water course. This effect is, howevfe^r, more liable i^ be produced, as well as more complete, where the cunerafeofdae wnUtism f Y 01 V, •?■ ''W'i ■ I- »i -* "■!l 155 slow, and its surface nearly equal with that of the land, than where its de- scent is rapid. Under such circumstances, while the river or brook re- mains at the ordinary height, no advantage can be gained, whatever num- ber of drains be tbrmed, or in whatever direction they may be made. The chief or only means of removing the wetness of land proceeding from this cause is, that of enlarging and sinking the bed of the stream, where it can be effected at a reasonable expense ; where there is only one stream, and it i ' very wiriding__or serpentine in its course, much may, how- ever, be effected by cutting through the different points of land, and ren- dering the course more straight, and thereby less liable to obstruct the passage of the water. A case of straightening the course of a river is given in The Code of Agriculture. The waters which, in their crooked course were almost stagnated, no.v run at the ordinary rate of the declivity given them. They never overflow their banks. Cattle can now pasture upon ihose grounds which formerly have been swamped. The surface of the wa- ter being now in general four, and sometimes six feet below that of the adjacent tields, this cut serves as a general drain to the whole valley, so that three hundred acres of meadow may be converted into arable land ; sixty acres of moss may be improved into meadow, and five hundred acres of arable land are rendered of double their former value. FORMATION OP DRAINS. Drains should be formed with as much truth and exactness as possi- ble, and unless labourers are dexterous in using their tools, and in the habit of making drains, they will not make them well. Open drains are the most suitable for Canada in general. The large quantity of water that has to be disposed of at the melting of the snow in spring, could not be got rid of by means of covered drains, however well made.; they would continue frozen, and the soil over them frozen long after the melted snow water should be run off the land. In heavy rains in summer, covered drains would be inadequate to carry off the water in time to prevent injury to the crops. There is considerable risk in covered drains becoming choked, or filled up, if surface water can get into them, thence it will be very unsafe for the farmer to construct cover- ed drains for any other purpose but that of draining springs, and even in that case, unless they are properly made and abundantly filled with small stones, the frost will very probably injure them. Covered drains require double as much fall as open drains to cause them to run ; and from the ■ level surface of this country, this circumstance is of great consequence. The very same circumstance prevents in a great measure the necessity of covered drains, because in a level country, natural springs do not abound. When a. farmer, on due consideration, has determined on constructing covered drains, if there is sufficient fall, the drain should be at least from three to four feet deep, in the most shallow part, in order to be as much as possible out of the influence of the frost. The drain should be from two to three feet wide at the bottom, and from three to four feet wide at the top. The turf should be cut off, laying it upside down on one side of 156 drain, and the earth cast out on the other. The drain should be well built with dry slone, all laid on the proper bed, (and not set up edge- ways,) from nine to twelve inches thick, by six or eight inches high, forming an aperture of six, by six or eight inches, the covering stones of which must be sufficiently strong to sustain the pressure of the incum- bent weight of stone and earth, and should project at least three inches over the inside of each side-wall ; two feet of stone, or more, should be well packed above the cover of the aperture. The first foot of stone above the cover may be put into the drains of from three to four pounds weight, but the upper part should be broken as small as common road metalt and should be made quite smooth or level, so that every part of the drains may have an equal depth or thickness of stone. The turf sod first taken off should then be put on the stones, the grass side downwards, and if there is no turf, a thin covering of straw should be laid on the top of the stones, to prevent the loose earth from falling through the aperture of the drains. The drains may then be filled with earth, nine inches above the natural level of the surface of the ground, to allow for sinking. I have constructed a drain on the above plan, but of larger dimensions, and it has continued to act perfectly well for three years past. If the farmer is anxious that the labour and expense of such drains shall not be ineffec- tually expended, he will personally attend to the building of the walls, covering of the aperture, and packing with small stones. In case the bottom of the drain is soft, it would be necessary to lay a thin flag on the bottom, to extend on each side an inch or two under the side walls. A drain of this description will be expensive ; but if not properly construct- ed, it will be worse than useless ; and those who will not incur the ex- pense of making covered drains well, should be content with open drains. Draining with tiles is much practised in England, but I would not re- commend it here. The most effectual method of constructing co- vered drains, will be with abundance of small stone, filled in over the aperture in the bottom of the drain, whatever size it may be. Open drains should be carefully made, with sloping sides. In this cli- mate they can scarcely be too much sloped. A drain two feet deep should be at least four feet wide at the top, and the width of the shovel at the bottom. A drain three feet deep, should be sis feet, and in some soils seven fe€t wide at the top, and only one foot wide at the bottom ; and the same proportion may be observed in drains of larger dimensions. When drains are necessary in the middle of fields, (indeed in most situ- ations,) they might be hollowed out, and the earth carted off to low spots, or spread on the surface of the field ; the plough might then cross such drains without difficulty, and they would be more effectual in carrying off water from the furrows of the ploughed land, than when formed in any other way ; they would look well, and grass might grow upon them on each side to the bottom, and there would be no danger of their filling up from the sides falling in. The drains on most farms require improve- ment. The earth taken out of them is suffered to accumulate on the banks of the drain, and hence the edge of the drain being higher, when it ought to be lower, than any part of the field, prevents the water falling xQto the drain, and is the main cause of the sides of the drain falling in* '■i¥ ■ 'A ■■•!'.■ I a. •' ■ " - I. %!>•■■■ .i. ■ ' p ■:■•'. s .-Id , .,i)^ ■:■'■;■ 'mr ,>'"% I:-. 1} fo M ,::il| 157 The earth that has accumiiLted in this way* would repay the farmer nniply for carting it out on his farm, filling up hollows, or mixing it with compost. On most farms in Canada, this improvement is necessary, and the earth so cut away, as well as all high head ridges, if mixed with a little lime, and turned over with a spade once or twice, would make a rich compost for top-dressing the adjoining lands. The sloping of the sides of main drains, and open ditches has, with few exceptions, been greatly ne- glected in Canada, as well as removing high head ridges in almost every field, occasioned by the repeated use of the plough. These sources would afford the means of enriching the adjoining land at a very inconsi- derable expense, and would be a great improvement to the drains, ah- the fields for future culture. The late Mr. Nimmo, in an excellent paper on draining, gives the fol- lowing data on the subject of the relative inclination of streams to in- sure the discharge of their waters : " Large and deep rivers run sufficiently swift with a fall of about one foot per mile, or- - - - --lin 6000 Smaller rivers and brooks run sufficiently swift with a fall of about two feet per mile, or - - - - 1 in 2500 Small brooks hardly keep an open course under fov.r feet per mile, or - - - - - 1 in 1200 Ditches or covered drains, requi'-e at least eight feet per mile, or _ - > . - i in 600 Furrows of ridges,^ and filled drains require much more." I believe this estimate will be found correct in practice. PLOUGHING AND HARROWING. Three different points require particular attention in ploughing ; first, the breadth of the slice to be cut ; second, its depth ; and third, the de- gree in which it is to be turned over ; which last circumstance depends both upon the construction of the plough, particularly the mould board, and the care of the ploughman. The breadth and depth of the furrow slices are, in swing ploughs, re- gulated by judiciously placing the draught on the nozzle or bndle of the j)lough, setting it to go more or less deep, and to take more or less land or breadth of slice, according as may be desired. In wheel ploughs proper construction, the depth of the furrow is regulated by the wheels ; and the breadth of the slice is determined by a rack or muzzle of much the same shape as that of a swing plough. In this last most necessary appendage, the Canadian wheel ploughs are deficient, which is a great cause of^ the irregularity in the breadth of the furrow slice, and requires to be remedied. The degree to which the furrow slice is turned over, is in a great mea- sure determined by the proportion between the breadth and depth, which for general purposes is usually as three is to two : or when the furrow is nine inches broad, it should be six inches in depth. When the slice is cut in this proportion, it will be nearly half turned over, or recline at an angle of forty or forty-five degrees. This is the most approved propor- tion for the furrow slice. But if the slice is much broader in proportion 158 to its depth, it will be almost completely overturned or left nearly flat, \s ith its original surface downwards*, and each successive slice will be somewhat overlapped by that which was turned down immediately before it. And, finally, when the depth materially exceeds the width, each fur- row slice will fall over on its side, leaving all the original surface bare, and only laid somewhat obliquely to the horizon. These ^wo last pro- portions are inconsistent with good ploughing, or preparation for a crop. The furrow slice five inches in depth, and eight or nine inches wide, was considered in the British Isles to answer well for breaking up lays, because it covered up the grass turf, and did not bury the manured soil. Ploughing with a depth of furrow exceeding the width, is considered an unprofitable and slow operation. The most generally useful breadth of a furrow slice is from eight to ten inches, and the depth from five to seven inches, which it cannot often exceed, except in very thick and fertile soils. When it is found neces- sary to go deeper, as for carrots or other deep-rooted ;>iants, a trench ploughing may be given by means of a second plough following in the same furrow. In first ploughing for summer fallows, or green crops, it is adviseable to work as deep as possible ; no great danger is to be apprehended, though a small portion of the sub-soil be at that time brought to the sur- face, particularly in Canada. The furrow slices are generally distributed into beds varying in breadth according to circumstances; these arc called ridges, and are divided from one another by open furrows. Ridges are not only different in breadth, but are raised more or less in the middle, on different soils. On clayey or retentive soils, the great point to be attended to is, the discharge of su- perfluous water. On such soils, I would most strongly recomniend that the ridges should never exceed eight or nine feet wide at most, and per- haps this width will be found most profitable for all kinds of soils. I ne- ver have them wider. It is most essential to have the ridges straight and of uniform breadth, and this necessary improvement should be uni- versally adopted in Canada, if improvement is desirable. No less necessary is it that, in preparing land for a crop, particularly in landa ploughed in the fall for a spring crop, the gutters or open furrows be- tween the ridges should be properly cleared out with the plough, after tho ridges are finished, and that each of ihese furrows should open into the furrow of the head ridge, at each end of the field. In the British Isles, clayey or tenacious soils, if ploughed when in a wet state, are very much injured. In this country, though clayey soils should be ploughed in a wet state in the fall, if the ridges are properly formed, well raised in the centre, and the furrows well cleaned out, the frost will most efiectually pulverize the soil and do away any ill effects of ploughing the land even when very moist In spring, however, clayey or tenacious soils should not be ploughed when wet, particularly if a crop is to be sown without a l 3Cond ploughing. Clayey soil will plough best when in that state, indicated by the phra..se, *' between the wet and tho dry," while the ground is slightly moist, mellow, and the least cohe- sive. The construction of the ridges, particularly ix\ glavt>y ..oils, so that they v2 ' ' h ill' i % 11 .?t. a 159 TAZ.J accord with the declivity, is a matter whi. ■ Tusi oe cr\ef[i\]y kcpi in vtNV. They should in all such cases live n !.uj;,'fee on' elevation or roundness in the middle, sufficient to afford the wftci a i eady fall into the furrows, which likewise should have such a depth and fall tia may take it quickly into the drains. The ridges, besides being well laid up, should have small open drains, formed in a slanting direction across them, in such a manner as to form communications with one another, and v/ith the furrows, by which means they are made to perform the office of draining, the water coming upon the ridges being thus readily conveyed into the furrows along which it proceeds till impeded in its lourse by the rising of the ground or other causes ; it then passes through the open cross drains into others where the descent is greater, and is ultimately conveyed off into the ditch, or other passage, at the bottom of the enclo- sure. The distinguished success of the Flemish husbandry is well known. Soils of tenacious clay they manage most successfully, chiefly by preserv- ing it in a due degree of dryness for the most valuable purposes of agricul- ture. Their general mode of drying land consists of ploughing it up in high broad ridges, from twenty to thirty, and even forty, feet wide, with the centre or crown three or four feet higher than the furrows. By attentive- ly preserving the furrows in good order, and free frorp stagnating water, the land is kept in a dry state, and all kindo of crops f.ourisho This practice is followed in some of the central counties in England. Farmers should carefully attend to the drains and water furrows of their ploughed land in the fall, that they should be well cleared out, that in spring, when the snow melts, the water may free y pass off without any obstruction. The spring sowing of wheat may mainly depend on the furrows and drains being in good order in the fall. This is more neces- sary here, in consequence oi die short spring; the loss of a very few days in the commix: cement oi i ■ season, may prevent the farmer from sow- ing wheat. The season for commencing fall ploughing should be ihejirst day it is Jit for ploughing^ and continue without interruption until all is finished, if possible. The farmer who, by industry and attention to his business, gets all his ploughing finished in the fall, will be much better able to have his work properly executed in spring. Indolence and neglect is often the cause of farmers not finishing their ploughing in the fall, and when this is the case, slovenly, and imperfect culture in spring is sure to be the consequence, because the work of two seasons has to be executed in one, and that one perhaps not favourable ; all must, therefore, be hurry and confusion. On strong lands, that two good horses are able to plough, a pair of sucl;i horses ought to plough three quarters of an acre ivell in nine hours ; on tLe same land, after the first ploughing, or on friable, and on II[!;lit soils, vs o Oie ^jub- soil, the most unfit place for it to vegetate and take rr It w ill be more profitable for a farmer to plough five acres well, than i3n acrt^s im- perfectly. The operation of harrowing is interred both to d.ag on veeds, and cover the seeds when sown. It is ouvious that imple. .ents of dif- ferent sizes are not only necessary, but even these implements should be worked in diflTerent ways, according to the strength and condition of the soil on which they are employed, and the nature of the work to be exe- cuted. On rough soils, harrows ought to be driven as fast as the horses can walk, because their effect is in direct proportion to the degree of ve- locity with which they are driven. In harrowing for covering the seed, the harrow-man's attention should be constantly directed to keep the har- row clear of any impediment, from stones, lumps of earth, or clods, grass or roots, for any of these prevent the implement from working with perfection, and cause a mark or *rail upon the surface, always un- pleasing to the eye, and generally dei.imental to the vegetation of the seed. In the finishing pavt of the process, the harrov should be drawn in a straight line, without suffering the horses to go in \ ?.igzag man- ner, and also that the horses enter fairly upon the ridge, wHaoui making a curve at the outset. Too much harrowing io not good, but it is aU t IGl ways necc-i.stiry t(» hroak the furrow, and level the surface, otherwise the oporatiou is imperfectly perfor.ued. ROTATION OF CROPS SUITABLE TO THE DIFFERENT DESCRIPTIONS OF SOIL. ^^^^t The distribution of crops, and plan of their succession, is one of the first subjects to which all fanners require to direct their attention. What- ever little reoard has been hitherto paid by fanners to a proper rotation of crops in Canada, it is now a point on which their profits depend more than on any other. The kind of crops to be raised, are determined in a great measure by the climate, soil, market, and demand. It has been found by experience, that besides the general exhaustion of humus, or vegetable food produced by vegetation, especially those plants which bear farinacious seed, each kind of crop has a specific ef- fect upon the soil, so that no care or manure, can make the same ground produce equal crops, of the same kind of grain, for any length of time without the intervention of other crops. AVhether this be owing to any peculiar nourishment necessary to each particular kind of plants, or be- cause plants not indigenous degenerate in a foreign soil, the fact is cer- tain with respect to most crops usually raised. This points out the ad- vantage of varying the crops, according as they are found to succeed bpst after each other. In general, all kinds of grain succeed best after a crop which has been cut before the seed has ripened, or the stem is oried up. Those plants whi Ii have a naked stem with few leaves, thrive best after leguminous plants, which have more succulent stems, and which bear their seeds in pods, as peas, beans, tares, or vetches, or after succulent roots, which strike deep into the ground, as carrots, parsnips, beet roots, and even potatoes. From this circumstance, confirmed by universal experience, the diflerent systems of rotation have had their ori- gin, taking the nature of the soil into consideration. In the British Isles, where farmers have to pay heavy rents on short leases, there might be some excuse or justification for farmers deterio- rating hi it ' *,■ Ki. 163 profilnhh improvement of ngriculture. This system of convertible hus- biindry, is the most suitable to the present circumstances of this province, nn<\ of British America. Under this course of husbandry, the hinds wouM be constantly in good heart, capable of producing abundant and excelh nt crops, and though the largest portion may be under cultivated herbage and grass, I am well convinced the gross produce of the land, and the farmer's profit, may be augmented two or three fold, if the prcjduce ho judiciously applied, and the reading and feeding of cattle, for the dairy and the shambles extensively introduced. Peas, beans, tares and roots, may be raised in this rotation in great abundance, for feeding cattle and hogs, and a greater quantity, and better quality of grain produced in ono year, than under the present system of farming can be produced in two. No food, no cattle ; no cattle, no dung ; no dung, no corn, is a max- im that ought to be fixed in every farmer's mind. In a report of select farms in England, one in Cumberland, of excel- lent soil has adopted the following rotation : On clay soils of the best description, first year, summer fallow, sometimes green crop ; in either case, the land thoroughly cleaned, limed, and manured. Second year, wheat, with grass seeds for pasture. Third and fourth years, pasture. Fifth year, pasture, top dressed with lime or compost. Sixth and seventh years, pasture, and ploughed in the fall for oats the succeeding spring, to be followed by summer fallow, or green crop. On gravelly soils : First year, green crops, well manured. Second year, barley, with grass seeds. Third and fourth years, pastured. Fifth year, pastured, and top dressed with compost. Sixth, seventh, and eighth years, pastured. Ninth year, oats, out of lay, and the rotation begins again. It is no wonder that land managed in this way should be constantly in the best condition, producing from 34 to 38 imperial bushels of wheat to the acre, on an average of favourable years ; and I am well persuaded this kind of rotation is more profitable in every way than the scourging one of constant cropping, however well ploughed or manured the soil may be. Not to repeat the same kind of crop at too short intervals, is a rule with regard the succession of crops, that ought to be strictly observe d. Whatever may be the cause, whether it is to be sought for in the nature of the soil or of the plants themselves, experience clearly proves the ad- vantage of introducing a diversity of species into every course of crop- ping. On new land, or land that has been pastured several years, be- fore it is again brought under the plough, there maybe letis need of adhe- ring steadily to this rule ; but the degeneracy of wheat, imd other corn crops recurring upon the same land every second year for a long period, has been generally acknowledged. Wheat it is supposed cannot be grown in perfection, on an average, more frequently than once in every five years on the same land. Beans, peas, potatoes, carrots and red clover, that may be called green crops, become less productive, and much more liable to disease, when they come into the course, upon the same land, every second, third, or fourth year. What the interval ous;hf to be has not yet been ascertained, and from the great number of years that the experiments must be continued. 164 tiblc hiis- provincr, uls wou'd nxcollftit herbage 1 and the vill be found advantageous. However, a stranger settling on a farm in a country with whicii he is little acquaint- ed, will generally find it adviseable to select the best seed he can find in the neighbourhood, freeing it from all imperfi et grains, and seeds ot weeds, previous to sowing it. In England, it is a very general practice for farmers to change th« seed, the species and variety being the same. It is well known, that if two parcels of wheat, for instatice, as much alike in quality as possible, the one which has grown on a soil diflering much from that on which it is to be sown, will yield a better produce than the other that grew in tho same or similar soil and climate. The farmers in Scotland find that wheat from the south, which is usually better than their own, is a very advantageous change. 1 have known \\heat to be carried from Eng- land to Ireland by farmers, as change of seed, and pay amply for tho trouble and coat. Oats, and other grain brought from a clayey to a sandy soil, other things being equal, are more productive than such as have grown on sandy soil. Changing the seed of potatoes from one soil to another, selecting the best, and planting each variety umnixed, will be found very advantageous in increased and excellent produce. As regards wheat, our principal grain, the samples have become in many instan- ces very much deteriorated by being piixed with the seeds of wild pea, and other weeds, and are generally infected with smut. The varieties of wheat in the country are suitable to the climate and soil, but are unfit for seed without first having imperfect grains, and all that is not wheat, se- parated from the samples, and then the seed disinfected of smut by steep- ing in caustics. To accomplish this, is not a matter of much difficulty or expenditure of labour, with a properly constructed wire screen, which farmers ought to have, or even with what is termed a sieve, made of wire or spht wood, sufficiently open to allow imperfect grains of wheat and seeds of weeds to pass through. This implement can be purchased for a few shillings, and it will be found to separate all the imperfect grains and small seeds completely ; but should any of the wild pea remain, it must be taken out with the hand ; a very easy, and if necessary, a very profitable emplyment for the farmer's family in the idle time of winter, to cleanse and prepare the seed wheat for spring sowing. If clean seed is not sown, it cannot be expected to rea^ clean crops, or to sell the pro- duce of crops mixed with wild pea, or infected with smut, for the same price that good clean wheat will bring. In fact, samples of wheat dete- riorated by being mixed with seeds of weeds, and infected by disease, are unfit to be offered to merchants to purchase for exportation, unless at diminished prices, that will remunerate them for the labour and loss of taking out all mixtures that are not wheat. Farmers aware of this fact by experience, will not surely be so indifferent to their own credit and in- w2 * ■' m . ;JJ A*", IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 11.25 m 12.5 U Hi MM U 11.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WfST MAIN STREfT WEBSTM.N.Y. 14SB0 (716) 872-4503 rO^ iV \\ K k. ^M' i\ ^ A. mg 167 tercst as to neglect providing a remedy that is timplo and easy of execu- tion. If, aftei clean seed, properly prepared, is sown, wild peas, and other weeds will grow with the wheat, it will be in consequence of im- proper management of the soil, by severe cropping, without any regard to a judicious rotation or distribution of crops, or reposing the soil in pasture. Were clean seed invariably sown on lands managed as they ought to be, and as they must be to produce profitable crops, T am persuad- ed that farmers would invariabhj reap clean crops, whether the season was wet or dry. Weeds of certain kinds may appear occasionally in the growing corn, but it is a part of good management to remove these weeds before they come to seed. Disease may also affect the crop, j)ro- duced by the state of the weather, and this the farmer cannot prevent ; but many of the diseases of whea* are produced in consequence of sow- ing infected seed, imperfect culture, or the want of some necessary in- gredient in the soil. The difference of produce arising from sowing clean seed, and of a good and bad variety of plant is so great, that it does not seem inconsistent with probability to state, that the gross agricultu- ral produce might be augmented in value through the agency of clean and good seeds of all descriptions, to the amount of twenty-five per cent, or more, particularly if a judicious rotation of crops were introduced at the same time. One remarkable feature of such improvement is, that it may be carried into effect at once without any additional investment of capital, or much expenditure of labour, and the little labour that is re- quired to clean the seed can be applied in the idle time of winter. Were the seed once perfectly cleansed, and a good system of management adopted, it would not require much trouble afterwards to keep the seed and crops clean. It would be a very laudable ambition in farmers to de- sire to excel in produqing clean and excellent crops, and would be found as profitable as it would be creditable. The nutritive products of the following plants, are thus given by Sir H. Davy. The quantity ana'/zed of each sort of 1000 parts. 3. «^-!f Mucilag Starch. 1 English Names. hole qu soluble live ma Saccha matter Sugar. Gluten Album) antity or nu- tter. o O 2. f3 ? 5 Middlesex wheat, average crop. 955 765 190 Spring wheat, . - . 940 700 240 Mildewed wheat of 1806, 210 170 32 Blighted wheat of 1804, 650 520 130 Thick skinned Sicilian v/tu at of 1810 955 725 230 Thin skinned Sicilian wiicat of 1810, 961 722 « 239 Wheat from Poland, 950 760 200 North American wheat, 955 730 225 Norfolk barley, _ . - 920 790 70 60 Oats of Scotland, - - . 743 641 16 87 Rye of Yorkshire, - . . 792 645 38 109 m 1G8 of CXPCU- pcas, and ice of im- iny regard the soil in ed as they n persuad- tho season lally in the love these crop, pro- t prevent ; ce of sow- essary in- im sowing hat it does agricultii- y of clean D per cent, reduced at t is, that it estment of that is re- ar. Were inagement Ip the seed ners to de- d be found 'en by Sir o a o 190 240 32 130 230 239 200 225 60 87 109 Botanists reckon seven species of wheat which are or may b»5 cultivat- ed. Summer wheat, or spring wheat, lammas wheat, Egvptian wheat, tur- gid or cone wheat, PoHsh wheat, spelt wheat, and one grained wheat. The first, second, fourth and fifth sorts are by many botanists con- sidered as only varieties, and it is doubtful whether the third and sixth may not be the same ; the seventh has all the marks of a dis- tinct species, but it is very questionable whether if much cultivated, it would always continue to produce one row of grains. Professor Martin has described forty-nine varieties of wheat. Thaer speaks of their be- ing a hundred varieties. The spring or summer wheat, is distinguished from fall or winter wheat by its narrow ears, and shorter and more slen- der straw. It is commonly sown in April, or even so late as the begin- ning of May. The varieties of spring wheat, known here and usuallv cultivated, are the bald, and the bearded. The bald wheat is shorter and plumper in the grain, of a lighter colour, thinner in the chafi', grows shorter and more slender in the straw, than the bearded wheat, and is the best variety for rich soils, but only for rich soils, not being so apt to lodge as the bearded wheat. The red or brown wheats, are considered more hardy than the white, but as yielding an inferior flour ; this applies both to winter and spring varieties. The common Canadian bearded spring wheat is a good variety, and very productive, well suited to the soil of Lower-Canada, and better adapted for inferior soils, or those of middling quality, than the white wheat. Egyptian, Talavcra, and Vittoria wheat have been partially in- troduced, but I am unable to say with what success. Spell wheat, the epeautre of the French, is much cultivated in France and the south of Europe ; is the principal wheat sown in Suabia, the north of Switzerland, and is a good deal sown in Spain. P is known by its stout straw which is almost solid, and by its strong spikes, with chaflf partially awned, the awns long and stiff. The chaff adheres so closely to the grain as not to be separated without great difficulty. In France it is sown in spring on land too coarse for common wheat, and ripens in July and August. The grain is light and yields but little flour ; but it is s^aid to contain a larger portion of gluten than common wheat, and for that reason is recommend- ed as superior to any other in pastry and confectionary. It might be well to try it in this province. The variety turgid, or cone wheat, a coarse but very producti /e species, is said to be proof against the ravages of the wheat fly. I believe it is a winter wheit. In Yorkshire, a cus- tom prevails of sowing a small quantity of rye with the wheat crop on all the lighter descriptions of soil, about one quart of rye mixed with a bush- el of seed wheat. It is said that much advantage arises from this mix- ture of grain, the wheat being more plump, and a greater quantity of pro- duce to the acre than when sowed alone, and effectually prevents the crop from being diseased by mildew. This mixture cannot be adopted here, except by farmers who only raise wheat for their own consumption, or with such portions of the crop as may be wanting tor his own family. The mixture of rye would spoil the sample for sale, but would make ex- cellent household bread. To procure new varieties of wheat, the ordinary mode is to select from a field a spike, or spikes from the same stalk which has the qualities i i .1 % 169 f • Konght for, such as larger grains, thinner chaff, stifTer straw, a tendency 4u earliness or lateness, &c. and picking out the best grains from the ear or ears, to sow them in suitable soils in an open airy part of a field or garden. When the produce is ripe, select the best cars, and from these the best grains, and sow on till a bushel or more be obtained, which may then be sown in a field apart from any other wheat. Marshall, of Yorkshire, mentions a case in which a man of accurate observation, having in a piece of wheat perceived a plant of uncommon strength and luxuriance, diffusing its branches on every side^ and setting its closely surrounding neighbours at defiance, marked it, and at the har- vest removed it separately. The produce was 16 ears, yielding 604 grains of a strong-bodied lever coloured wheat, differing in general appearance, from every other variety he had seen. The chaff was smooth, without awns, and of the colour of the grain, the straws stout and reedy. These 604 grains were planted singly, nine inches asunder, fdling about 40 square yards of ground, the remainder of the ground being sown with wheat in the ordinary way, by which means extraordinary trouble and destruction by birds were avoided. The produce was 2 J gallons, weigh- ing 20^ pounds, of prime grain for seed, besides some pounds for se- conds. One grain produced 35 ears, yielding 1235 grains, so that the second year's produce was sufficient to plant an acre of ground. A very excellent mode of procuring good and unmixed varieties of seed wheat, is to separate in the sheaf all the ears of a different variety, as well as all small and imperfect ears of the same variety, leaving only the best and fullest ears to be threshed for seed. This mode is easy of execution, and the only one, except the above, for obtaining unmixed seed of one variety, which is very essential to the production of good wheat. In making a choice of species of wheat for sowing in the fall, the thin- skinned white wheats are preferred by most good farmers for good soil. For less favourable soils, the red varieties are generally preferred, and those are also generally preferred for sowing in spring. In England, however, red wheats are considered as at least fifteen per cent, less va- luable than the white varieties. The only recommendation that can well be given to farmers, as *o the choice of varieties is, to select the best from among those in use by the best farmers, in well cultivated districts, and to change often to prevent degeneracy. Of bailey there are several varieties, but only one, the square, or four- rowed, is much cultivated here, as it is found to be more productive than the two-rowed, or long-eared barley ; and as the brewers make no ob- jection to this kind for malting, the farmer will be right to continue to cultivate .v'hat they find most productive and profitable. Some farmers cultivate the two-rowed or long-eared barley, and produce fine samples. We have in Canada almost all the varieties of oats known in England, and the farmer has ample means of choice. The white Poland oats are a very good kind, and produce abundantly in grain and straw, on soils of middling fertility. The potatoe oat, though much esteemed in Ireland And England, is not so productive in this country, in straw or grain, as the Poland oat, and is much inclined to smut. The Georgian oat, is a ii'f 17v> large grain, and remarkably prolific in rich soil ; it will yield more grain per acre than any other variety whatever, when sown in rich soil. The Siberian or Tatarian oat, a variety that has the grains mostly turned to one side of the panicle, is a coarse k\nd of oat, but is very suitable for poor soils, and exposed situations. It is said to yield well in meal. The common white oat, is very productive, and though not so large or full in the grain, is suited to the climate and soil. The black oat is also very productive, and adapted to the country, but if grown by farmers who grow the white species, it is very difficult to keep them from mixing, and from this circumstance, perhaps, the farmer whose lands are best suited for the black oat, should not sow any other variety. Several varieties of the pea, suited to the soil and climate of Canada, are to be had in the province. The English horse bean is wanted, and might be cultivated to great advantage. I have seen a few grains pro- duce abundantly here, and I believe they would be a more certain and productive crop on an average, than in England. The small French bean, ought to be more extensively cultivated for various purpose? ; there is no want of seed, and the climate and soil are most favourable. The tare or vetch, is a plant that might be advantageously introduced. This climate is more favourable for the summer species of tare, than the cli- mate of England. There are many good varieties of the potato in Cannda, from which farmers have ample means cf choice. The common red potato is not many years known in the country, but extensively cultivated now, and are productive and of good quality when grown on suitable soil. The com- mon white potato are long cultivated in the country ; they are produc- tive, but not so much so, or of so good quality aa the common red. The seed of these two varieties should be chosen from the smoothest and roundest, rejecting those of a long shape, and full of eyes or seed buds. These two are the most useful varieties of the potato, cultivated by farmers in Lower-Canada. A variety of the potato, suitable for feeding cattle has been lately im- ported from Ghent, by the Horticultural Society of London, called the Lancktnan potato. It is red outside, very solid, of prodigious produce, and an excellent keeper. I have grown these potatoes here, but unfortu- nately lost the seed by a flood, in August/ 1833. I believe, however, that some seed may yet be had in tiie neighbourhood of Montreal. These potatoes will produce more to the acre than any potatoes general- ly cultivated in Canada. The yam, or Surinam potato, large, red and white skinned, and inte- rior veined with red, flavour disagreeable, and not such as to admit of its being used as human food, is greatly esteemed in England for feed- ing stock. It succeeds best on heavy lands, and produces very abun- dantly. Red and white clover and timothy seeds, of excellent qual'ty are to be had generally at a moderate price. The seed of saint-foin should be in- troduced, it is consiuercd ab one of the best and most productive of herb- age plants. Lucern is also highly spoken of in the United States. < ' i% ■i>,i t' m m h .' ).• 171 With those Beed.^ of herbage plants, wo might, perhaps, rest satisfied ; no country can possess better, whatever may bo the variety. Carrot, pars- nip, turni|), and other small seeds aro to be had to purchase. Turnip seed is not Always of the best quality. The farmer will find it his interest in every case, to choose the best and purest seed of whatever species, and not to sow any seed that is not perfectly clean and unmixed ; to adop* every reasonable precaution in preparing seed that may be likely to preserve the future crop from dis- ease or the ravages of vermin. If he has to buy seed, the diflerence in the first cost between good, clean seed, and that which is foul, infected, and often spurious, should not influence his choice in the slightest de- gree, or prevent hiui from buying the b«st, and rejecting the inferior. .f . ?. rtr 1 • f * >■ » *. r . • I ill r.l ^ : f PART IV. I •., ., } CULTURE OF CEREAL GRASSES, OR CORN CROPS. The corn crops cultivated in Canada are wheat, barley, oats, rye, and Indian corn. On the culture of these plants, a fjw generol remarks may be of use. Culmiferous, or com plants, particularly wheat and rye, like most others, have two sets of roots. The first originate with the germi- nation of the grain, are always under the soil, and are called the seminal roots ; the second spring from the first joint, which is formed near the Ciuriucc of the soil, and from that joint strike down into the soil ; these are called coronal roots. The coronal roots appear chiefly intended for drawing nourishment from the soil ; and, as Professor Martin has ob- served, are judiciously placed for this purpose, the richest part of all soils being on or near the surface. These fibres are of larger diameter, more succulent, and never so long as the seminal. From these facts, as to the roots of corn plants, some important hints may be derived regarding their culture. The use of stirring the surface, to facilitate the extension of the coronal roots is obvious ; the immediate effects of a top-dressing for corn crops, is also apparent ; and also, that the manures may be ploughed in too deep, to give the full amount of their beneficMil effects to corn crops or grasses. Sageret, a scientific French agriculturist, prov- ed experimentally, that where any of the grains or grasses are etiolated immediately after germination, by growing too rapidly, or by being sown too thick, or in too warm a season, the first joint from which the coronal or nourishing roots spring, is raised above the ground, and in conse- quence either throws out no roots at all, or so few, as to nourish it imper- fectly, in which case it eitlier dies before it comes into flower, or before the seed is matured. The uses to which the straw of corn may be applied, are various. Be- sides food for cattle, litter for animals, thatch, &c., it is bleached and plaited into ribands for forming: hats ; and in other countries, it is used for a great variety of works, useful and ornamental. Paper is also made from straw, an'' *he same pulp which forms the paper may be moulded into all the forms given to papier machdt medallion portraits, embossed works, &c. „ I ■ i. , :':*.■ '^: ■■'::^<-i '.'J ;-• -fja ■4 I u M m *i ■% 173 The practice of reaping corn before it is perfectly ripe, originated in France, and has been lately recommended by M. Cadet de Voux. Corn reaped eight days beforo the usual time, this author says, has the grain fuller, larger, finer, and beiter calculated to resist the attacks of the wee- vil. An equal quantity of the corn thus reaped, with coru reaped at the period of maturity, gave more bread, and of belter quality. The proper time for reaping is that when the grain, on being pressed between the fingers, has a doughy appearance, like the crumb of bread just hot from the oven, when pressed in the same manner. The farmer's own judg- ment and experience must direct him in this part of his work, better than any ^vritten instructions. I believe it will always be found the safist and best plan to cut the grain crops rather before, than when at full ma- turity. The most general mode of reaping in Lower-Canada is by the sickle, and is certainly the best mode, for wheat particularly, and for all other grains that are heavy and good. The cradle scythe is very much used in Upper-Canada and the United States, and a good workman is said to cut from two to three acres a day. In England the cradle scyJhc is used differently from the bow and grass scythe, and has only one short handle or nib on the sned or long handle, for the right hand ; the left grasps the. sned with ths palm upwards ; this enables the mower, who gene- rally mows frorr the corn, to bring the back of the scythe and cradle to the ground, and have the cut corn in a regular state for being put into sheaves. Whatever be the mode the farmer adopts for reapinp^ his crops, they cliould be carefully cut down and gathered. If crops are worth sowing, they should be worth gathering, without waste ; and those who have hot help in their own family, or the means of paying for labour, should only cultivate so much land as they are able to cultivate and manage in a proper manner. Slovenly culture, or harvesting, will never be profit- able. WHEAT. "Wheat if; by far the most important of the cereal grasses ; the flour made from its grains or seeds, from the quantity of gluten they conl'iin, making the best bread in the world. A greater proportion of mankind are nourished by riee than by wheat, but there is no grain which comes 80 near wheat in its qualities for bread-making. Rice and maize are comparatively unfit for it, and oats, barley, and rye, but imperfectly adapt- ed. Rye, however, comes nearer to wheat in its bread-making qualities than any other grain. The soils best adapted for the culture of wheat, are rich clays and hea- vy loams ; but these are by no means the only description of soils on which it is cultivated. I have seen good crops of wheat grown on sandy soils that were well mrnaged, though such soils are not constitutionally disposed to the growth of that grain, nor will they under any manage- ment, bear such a frequent repetition of it as those first mentioned. Crops of equal bulk, grown upon a sandy soil, rich clays, and heavy loams, will not be equally productive in grain ; the product of the sandy soil will bo found deficient. Thin sands may, by dressing them well 174 with clay, ho brought to produce wheat ; but without this kind ofdreifl- iiig, wheat ought not to bo ventured on such soils. A large proportion of the soil of the Canadas is adapted to the production of wheat, under i^ judicious system of rotation, and manuring. According to the plan of rotation I have submitted, for old cultivated farms, wheat would invariably be sown on soils well prepared by green crops or summer fallow, aAer having been reposed under pasture. It is rot in qfiy power to point out any mode for the cultivation of wheat, that I believe would be better or more successful. Wer< it not for the benefi- cial influence of the frost and snow on the soil ploughed in the fall for the spring t owing of wheat, crops of even middling quality would not b§ raised here, from such a mode of culture as is usually practiced. In the British Isles, land cultivated in the manner it is in Canada^ would not produce a crop of wheat that would pay the expense of labour. I allude to the practice of sowing wheat every other year on the BBjm'j land, without any prcporution of the soil by fallowing, manuring or liming, but merely ploughing the land once in the fail. It is no wonder indeed that lands that must be exhausted by such management, should now pro- duce weedy, diseased, and deficient crops, unless where the soil is of ejc- traordinary good quality, and inexhaustible fertility, and even &.en the ear of wheat wants length and fullness. The manures best calculated for wheat, are allowed by all agricultural chemists, to be animal matters and lime. The former has a direct influ- ence in supplying that essential constituent to whe^ten flour, gluten, and the latter azofe and lime, both actually found in the straw of wheat. At all events, it is certain that wheat will net thrive on any soil which does not contain lime. In this. Sir H. Davy, Chaptal, Professor Thaer, and Grisenthwaite, fully agree. A more abundant supply of manure is generally required for wheat than for any other grain. Professor Thaer says, it absorbs more nou- rishment from the soil than any of the corn tribe ; and he calculates, (hy- pothetically, as he allows,) that for every 100 parts of nourishment in a soil sown with this grain, 40 will be carried off by a fair average crop, not checliLed in the growth by unfavourable weather. At the same time, too large a dose of mauuro to land in good tilth, is vQry apt to cause the crop to lodge ; hence it will not be necessary to tpanure fallows, when the laud is oi good quality. The principal improvement required ii^ the Canadian system of tillage, is, the adopting the practice of convertible Iiusbaodr/, and a judicious rotation of cf ops. I know it is the opiuion of some that where manure is abundant, wheat, alternating with green crop, may be grown alternately for an indefinite time. I believe it would bq diiBcult to support this opinion by experience. Whatever is the cause, co^tant tillage jyill wear out the be *t soils in this climate, and the grain will be found to deg^erate in quality, and decrease in quantity. In tro- pical countries, where watered grain is grown, crops have been raised on the same soil for ages ; but this mode of culture cannot be introduce;^ in otw climate. The clijpgiate required to bring wheat to perfec^^on must be si^ch as ?if- fords a dry ^d w.arpi season fof the blossoming of the ear, and ripeniQ|r i>f the grain. Wheat will endure a great deal pf cold during mntety i^ x2 !• 1 »*%i ii >i » i*-een under as twenty- the sanEie. iry easy to :o produce al produce wheat soil II Middle- nearly the M. weigh- bout 1296 s of wheat < nri) raised, with no other cultivation, than to harrow in the FC'-r?, nOrr tho wood has been cut down and burned. The land ennnot >«• ploiighrct well until tho most of tho roots are token out, which must be «f)me years nfler tho first clearing. I shall again refer to this subject when treating of tho settlement of new lands. Tho yield of wheat in flour ought to be, on on average, thirteen poimd.>* of flour to fourteen pounds of groin. In the ehemicol analysis of wheat. Sir Humphry Davy found that 100 parts of good, full grained wheat, sown in autumn, yielded in starch 77, and of gluten 19 : 100 parts of wheat sowed in spring, 70 of starch, and 24 of gluten. American wheat, he found to contain more than tho British ; and in general, the wheot of warm climates, to abound more in gluten and in insoluble parts, and to be of greater specific gravity, harder and more difficult to grind. Spring sown wheat requires a more minutely pulverized, and rather richer c^il, than fall wheat. When grass or clover seeds are sown on the same ground, they are sown immediately after the wheot, and harrowed in with a light harrow, or rolled in. The preparation of the soil for, and tho sowing of spring wheat, are the same as for barley. The produce of spring wheat, both in grain and straw, is generally less than that of fall wheat grown under favourable circumstances, and not injured by dis- ease. The diseases of wheat have been so fully considered in the second part of this work, it is not necessary to refer to them here. To judge of a sample of wheat, examine by tho eye if the groin is per- fectly fed or full, plump, and bright, and if there is any adulteration pro- ceeding from sprouted grains, smut, or the seeds of weeds ; ond by tho smell, if there is any improper impregnation, and if it has been too much heated in the mow or the stack ; and, finally, by the feel, to decide if tho grain is suflliciently dry, as when much loaded with moisture, it is impro- per for the uses of the merchant, the miller, or the baker. In coses whero a sample handles coarse and rough, and does not slip readily in the hand, it may be concluded not to bo in a condition either for shipping, grinding or laying up for keeping. RYE. Rye is very much cultivated on the Continent of Europe. It requires less culture and manure than wheat, though many consider it the most impoverishing of com crops. The varieties of rye, are the winter, and spring, but there is so little difference between them, that spring rye, sown along with winter rye, can hardly be distinguished from it. Rye will grow on dry sandy soils, and produce a tolerable crop ; and on tho whole, it may be considered as preferring sands to clays. The prepara- tion of the soil should bo the same as for wheat. According to Thaer, rye abstracts 30 parts in 100, of the nutriment contained in (he soil on which it is grown. The climate for rye may be colder than for wheat, but is equally injured by moist weather during the flowering season. One bushel of seed will be sufficient for an acre. As it vegetates more slowly than wheat, it should be sown when the soil is dry, as a wet soil is apt to rot the grain before it has completely germinated. The after culture and harvesting of rye, are the same as for ..heat ; and the produce in grain is greater than could be obtained from wheat, n "l :% \i ' « f,| ii '^ }' J ■' 1 Mm ^'■.^ilvs *K .'l^ M :i ■;• 1 a ^ ^ 93^H: ■\ '■♦• \ 'jm ,1 •i 't, -v'VU^^I t 11,111 M m mtm-t^-^ia^ \^ i j) 179 Hi under uimilur circumKtunces of soil, and the utraw of much larger bulk. Sir II. Davy found, in 100 parts of rye, 61 parts of starch, and 6 parts of gluten. Thaer says, rye is the most nourishing grahi next to wheat. Tiio use of ryo in other countries is chiefly for bread : in Canada not so much so, but is used in the distilleries ; the strav is useless os fodder, but excellent for thatching ; and in Scotland it is manufactured into hats, in imitation of leghorn. It is a grain that might be very profitably culti- vated on soil not fit for wheat. Rye is less subject to disease than most other grains. It is, however, subject to a disease called the spur, or ergoly which is a production of the seeds, is long, horny, and cartilagin- ous ; is sometimes straight, at others curved. The resemblance of this substance to cocks' spurs, has given it the name by which it is distin- guished. Moist soils are more subject to produce this disease than dry. In France and Switzerland, a disease called iho chronic, or dry gangrene, has been produced by eating ergot. In the latter country, animals re- fuse to eat ryo afiected %vith ergot. BARLEY. ■r Barley^ though loss calculated for a bread corn than rye, may be con- sidered as next in value to wheat. In Sweden and Lapland, it is more cultivated than any other grain, on account of its requiring to be so short a period in the soil ; sometimes no longer than six weeks, and seldom more than seven or sevea and a half. In Spain and Sicily, they have two crops a year on the same soil ; one is sowed in autumn and ripens in May, and the other is sown in May, and is reaped in autumn. Barley is a tender grain, and easily hurt in the stages of its growth, or harvest- ing. The climate of Canada is very favourable for ihe cultivation of this grain in all stages of its progress until brought to the barn or stack- yard. There are several varieties, if not different species, of barley. The variety generally cultivated in Canada is the square or four rowed, be- cause it is considered the most productive, and is not objected to by the brewers. The two-rowed, or long eared-barley, is partially grown in the country, and produces a beautiful sample, and brings a higher price than the four rowed. The seed of the naked barley, or wheat barley, has been introduced. This grain is considered by some as nothing else than spelt wheat, which it greatly resembles. I cannot sfiy with what success it has been cultivated. In choosing from any particular variety, the best grain for sowing is that which is free from blackness at the tail, and is of a pale, lively, yel- low colour, intermixed with a white, brightish cast ; and if the rind be a little shrivelled, it is so much the better, as it shows that it has sweated in the mow, and is a sure indication that its coat is thin. The husk of thick-riuded barley being too stiff to shrink, will lie smooth and hollow, even when the flour is shrunk from it within. The necessity of a change of seed from time to time, by sowing that of the growth of a different soil, as it has been before observed, is in no instance more evident than in the culture of this grain, which otherwise becomes coarser and coarser mg good Br rger bulk. 6 parts of to wheat. ula not so 08 fodder, into hats, ibly culti- than most spur, or cartilagin< ice of this is difltin- Ihan dry. gangrene, nimals re- ay be con- it is more )e so short id seldom they have i ripens in I. Barley Dv harvest- tivation of 1 or stack- ley. The rowed, be- 1 to by the grown in igher price )arley, has ; else than at success sowing is lively, yel- 3 rind be a ,s sweated le husk of nd hollow, f a change 1 different ident than nd coarser 180 every year. But in this, ns in all other graii>..>% the utmost cave shoulo be taken that the seed in full bodied. The best soil for barley is a light rich loam, finely pulverized. It'will not grow in perfoction on a very sandy, or soft soil, nor on strong clays, that are most f ,iable for wheat. It will succeed very well on light soil, if the situation lie warm and dry. It is generally sown in Canada after potatoes or other green crops, or naked fallow. The best season for sowing barley will be the beginning of May, or sooner if the weather is favrmrable and the soil in a good state. A cor- respondent of the Bath Society, England, gives the following experi- ment : — "I soaked my seed barley in the black water taken from a reser- voir which constantly received the draining of my dung heap and stables. As the light corn floated on the top. I skimmed it off, and let the rest stand 24 hours. On taking it from the water, I mixed the seed grain with a sufficient quantity of sifted wood ashes, to make it spread regular- ly, and sowed three fields with it. The produce was GO bushels to the acre, of good, clean barley, without any small or green corn or weeds, at harvest. No person in this country had better grain." The same per- son goes on to say he sowed barley without steeping, the same year, and the crop was much deficient in every way compared to what was produc- ed from the steeped seed. There is considerable advantage in steeping, as it promotes the ger- mination of the seed ; it also procures an equal germination, and conse- quently an equal ripening, and getting the start of weeds. The follow- ing directions arc given for steeping the seed in clean water. First, take out about one-third of the contents of each sack of seed barley, to allow for the swelling of the grain ; lay the sacks with the grain to steep in cl sar water ; let it be covered with it for at least twenty-four hours ; when the ground is very dry, and no likelihood of rain for ten days, it is better to lie thirty-six hours. Sow the grain wet from steeping without any addition. The seed y,\\\ scatter well, as clear water has no te- nacity ; only the sower must put in a third or fourth more seed in bulk than is usual of dry grain, as the grain is swelled in that proportion. Harrow it in as quickly as possible after it is sown ; and though not ne- cessary, give it the benefit of a fresh furrow if convenient. The quantity of seed sometimes sown in Canada is near two bushels to the acre. One bushel and a half, or perhaps less, might be sufficient on soils well prepared ; however, it is considered that thin sowing ol' barley is a disadvantage, for the following reasons. If the early part of the season be dry, the plants will not only be stinted in their growth, but will not send out offsets ; and, if rain fall afterward, the plants will begin to stool, and send out a number of young shoots, and these young shoots caiinot be expected to arrive at perfect maturity with the early shoots ; consequently an unequal sample will be produced, and the grain will be for the most part of an inferior quality. Good judges, therefore, think it preferable to sow a quantity of seed sufficient to ensure a full crop, with- out depending on its sending out offsets, that the crop grows and ripens more equally when this is done, and the sample of grain is uniformly good. Barley is ripe when the reddish colour on the car is gone off, or when :|1 ■■'J\ "1 ,.■ V ' , ■!.■• '1 UL ■ J. m -1 ilH IS m l' ■V| '1 J <> 'K •!„1- V ,'f rw- 181 m:'^ ^k tho ears droop or fall, as it were double towards the straw. In the hnr- vesting of barley, it requires more care than any other white crops, owin^^ to the brittloness of tho straw ; af\er it has reached a certain period it. must be cut down, as when it is suffered to stand too long, much loss is sustained ]iy the breaking of tho heads. On that account, it should be cut at a time when tho grain is sol), and the straw retains a great propor- tion of its natural juices ; consequently it will require a long time in the field before either the grain is hardened or the straw sufficiently dry. It' put into a stack or barn sooner than it is in a proper state of dryness, it will be apt to heat, and greatly lessen the value of tlu grain. Barley may bo cut down with the cradle scythe, and it will generally be found best to bind it in sheaves as it is cut, and set it up in shocks or stocks. Barley is rather more difficult to thresh than other grain. They have in England, what is called a hand hummelling machine, for taking off th(r awns of the barley, and every farmer who cultivates the grain should have one. The produce of barley in Canada on well prepared soils, and in favourable seasons, is very little short of the produce obtained in Eng- land. From twenty to forty bushels the acre is raised, and I have even heard of a larger produce. Tho average produce of Middlesex, Eng- land, is about 1570 pounds of grain, and 2590 pounds of straw, to the acre of barley. Barloy is applied to various uses besides malting, and making whiskey and beer. It is dressed into pot and pearl barley ; the first by grindinj; off the husks, and the pearl barley is produced by carrying the operation so far as to produce roundness in the kernel. These are used in soups, gruels, and medicinal drinks. Barley meal is ground like oat meal, or flour ; the coarser sort, with the bran, may be used for fattening live stock, especially pigs and poultry ; but the fine bolted barley flour, mixed with wheat and rye flour, in the proportion of two of barley to one of wheat, and one of ryo flour, are said to make a light and very agreeable loaf of bread. The finest of the barley flour without any mixture, will make good bread, much preferable to that made from the flour of Indian corn. The produce of barley in flour, should be twelve pounds of flour from fourteen pounds of clean grain : the straw is chiefly used for Utter and manure ; it is not very valuable for fodder. The diseases of barley arc few, chiefly smut, which has been already described. , . I OATS. The oat is a very useful grain, and the climaic and soil of Canada are not unfavourable to its culture, notwithstanding the heat of the summer. It may be cultivated both as a bread corn, and as horse food. Of all grains it is the easiest of culture, growing almost in any soil that admits of of being ploughed and harrowed. The varieties of oats are very nu- laerous. The different varieties of oats cultivated here have been already de- scribed, and the farmer may choose from them the variety that will be suitable for his soil. The seed of oats of the best quality is so easy pro- cured, that it must be the farmer's own fault if he sows any other. Far- 162 n the hnr- period it ch loss is should bo at propor- ime in the y dry. If iryness, it arley may ind beBt to Fhcy have ing off the ain should soils, and 3d in Eng- have even sex, Eng- ftw, to the g whiskey y grinding operation d in soups, Lt meal, or ening live our, mixed to one of ' agr(?eablc xture, will r of Indian flour from r Utter and barley are anada are 3 summer. I. Of all t admits of very nu- Iready de- lat will be easy pro- er. Far- mers in parts of England have been knoWn to be at the pains to select the choicest grain in order to get into the best seed ; they get them pick- ed out by hand by women. The soil for oats may be of any kind whatever, from the stiflest cidys to moss or bog, provided it be laid sufficiently dry. If the seasoil bo moderately moist, poor, sandy or gravelly soils will produce a crop of oats of the common white or black varieties. The most suitable climate for oats is one rather cocl and moist. When very dry and wartn, tlie panicles are very apt to get so dry and contracted that they cease to con- vey sufficient nourishment to the ears, which in that case never become plump, but thick husked, long awned, and unproductive in meal. This is sometimes the case in Canada, and the best remedy is early sowing. Oats are not so exhausting to the soil in a moist, as in a very dry climate. The best oats, both in quality and quantity, are those which succeed grass, on newly broken up lands ; no kind of grain seems better quali- fied by nature for foraging upon grass-land than oats ; as a full crop is obtained in the first instance, and the land lef\ in good order for succeed- ing crops. Oats should always be sowed on land not rich enough for wheat or barley, and will pay better on such lands than a crop of wheat or barley, that is much below an average. The season for sowing oats should be as early as the farmer can sow them afler the wheat is sowed. Much depends on early sowing, that tho plants may be covering the soil before the time of extreme heat of sum- mer. Oats that are not sowed before the 21st of May, might as well bo left unsown, and summer fallow the land. Late sowed oats will some- times succeed when the summers are cool and moist, an J no early frosts in autumn ; but if the summers are very hot and dry, they are nearly a failure ; or if there are early frosts in autumn before they are perfectly ripe, they are of very little value. The quantity of seed is generally about two bushels to the acre ; but on good soils, if the seed is sound, and sowed in time, a less quantity will answer. The af).er culture of oats, is only the weeding of it before the flower stalks begin to shoot up. In harvesting oats, they are oflon cut down by tho scythe, and carried loose to the barn. When oats are a good crop, I should always recom- mend to bind them in sheaves, and set them up in stookf^, as wheat and barley are managed ; it is the safest mode, and will much facilitate tho process of threshing. Oats should generally bo cut before they are dead ripe, to prevent the shedding of the grain, and to increase the value of the straw as fodder. Oats ••arely get damaged, or waste under the harvest process in this climate, if cut at the proper time, and bound in small sheaves. • -Ka »:" '• . j - ; ir ; The produce of oats in many parts of the British Islcfi is greater tliftn can be obtained in Canada, in ordinary seasons. I will not state here what I believe to bo the average produce of this country hitherto, because no crop has been more neglected, and imperfectly cultivated in general. However, I am convinced that were oats cultivated even moderately well, and sowed in time, large crops might be obtained that Mould amply romunorato the farmer. The produce of oats in meal, should be 8 pounds for 14 pormds of oats. This I have received from millers in Ireland, after allotting them y2 ■ 4 » !! t <' I r-: ^i» 1'',:; 183 ;3'i-" the (lucH for grinding, which was a 14tli part. Sir 11. Davy found 100 |)arts of oiiis afford 59 parts of starch, 6 of gluten, and 2 of eacchu- rine matter. ' The usoH of oats are partly for meal for human food, partly for hors( food, and occasionally used in distillation. The consumption of oatmeal for human food, might be much increased in Canada, and be a consider- able saving of wheat for exportation, and greatly increase the farmer's re- turns from agriculture. INDIAN CORN. ? . , J; i 1.' .M The Indian com is the most noble looking of the cereal grasses. It is considered to be a native of South America, and to have been cultivat- ed in Peru and Mexico from time immemorial. It was introduced into Europe about the beginning of the 16th century. It is at present culti- vated in almost every part of the universe, where the summer tempera- ture equals or exceeds that common to 45*** , and even in some cases to 48® . It flourishes on the Continent of America from about the 40th degree of southern, to higher than the 45th degree of northern latitude. It is that grain which, next to rice, supplies food to the greatest number of the human race ; and it may be held to be the most valuable gift of the new world to the old. As a bread corn, it cannot be greatly com- mended ; the grain is highly productive of flour, but that flour is deficient in gluten, and will not make good bread without a large admixture of tlic flour of wheat. It is much used as human food, prepared in various ways in the United States, Upper-Canada, and parts of Lower-Canada. For fattening cattle and poultry of every description, it is found to be most excellent, and its culture in a suitable climate and soil, should be encouraged and extended. There are many varieties of the maize or Indian corn. The large red, large yellow, and large white, are all well known, and very productive. The sweet corn, the pearl corn, and the maize quarantine, that is said to ripen in forty days from the time of sowing, and the Egyptian or chicken corn. The two last have rather small, handsome ears, and can hardly be distinguished from each other. They are found decidedly the most early, take less time to ripen than any other, and might be a very suita- ble variety for Lower-Canada. In this climate, Indian corn should be planted in the driest and warm- est, loamy or sandy soil ; it will not succeed well on clays, or low, flat lands. A very considerable degree of heat in the soil and of the at- mosphere is necessary to bring Indian corn to profitable maturity. It is almost everywhere planted in rows, at about the same width as drills of potatoes, or rather more, so as to admit of horse-hoeing the intervals. If the soil on which Indian corn is grown, is fit to produce wheat, it is con- sidered a good preparation for wheat, as Indian c. -n contains very little gluten. The preparation of the soil may be the same as for a crop of potatoes or turnips, and the land be put into raised ridgelets, as for tur- nips. Ashes are the best manure that can be applied. The quantity of seed required for an acre will not exceed a gallon at most, or about 25,000 grains. From the 15th to 31st of May, is the best time for sow- ing, if the soil is dry and in good order. If the weather is cold or wet, «• i 184 pund 100 >i' saccha- i'or hors(. >f oatmeal consider- timer's ic- asses. It n cultivat- |duced into sent culti- r tempeia- e cases to ut the 40tii n latitude. est number able gift of eatly corn- is deficient :ture of the in various sr-Canada. •und to be , should be 3 large red, productive, it is said to or chicken can hardly y the most very suita- and warm- s, or low, i of the at- rity. It is as drills of lervals. If , it is con- very little • a crop of as for tur- ]uantity of or about e for sou- ►Id or wet, the seed is apt to rot. The mode of planting in hills is only adapted to very dry soils. The soil is marked with a plnii^h in strai,|'hl lines, thrc c feet apart from one end to the other, and then neat lines in the opposite I I direction at right angles to the former, so as to leave the surface in p| .squares ; the planter then takes a hoe, and at every intersection of the lines, makes a little hole about an inch and a half deep, and six inches in diameter, and in this hole five or six grains arc regularly distributed, and covered over with fine earth, to the depth of an inch and a half. When planted on the ridgelets, the seed is ])ut in on ihe top in .•• mall holes at about two feet apart, and four or five seeds put in each hole, and co- vered with about an inch and a half of fine soil. The after culture consists of weeding, hoeing, and stirring the soil with the hoe and by the plough. The last process is earthing up to the plants with the plough, after removing all weeds, and all sickly or delicate plants of the Indian corn that are not likely to be productive. Some pumpkin seeds are put in at every second hill of corn, which afford a very considerable weight of a rich vegetable, at very little expense or trouble, for feeding hogs or cattle. It is said that putting a table spoon full of gypsum to each liill of corn, when first hoed, is sufficient manure with- out any other. Indian corn cannot be considered a certain crop when cultivated north of 45 degrees latitude ; and as Lower-Canada is north of that line, the cultivation of this grain is very uncertain ; indeed, when the sum- mers are moist and cool, it is generally a failure. The farmer cannot remedy this, further than by planting Indian corn in the most favourable soils and situations. But should the crop fail, it will affoid sonic food for cattle, and prepare the soil for the next crop, as well as if it had been summer fallowed. "The period of topping the com is, when you, upon stripping the husks, open a little at the tops of the ears, find the grains of the corn to be hard, not hard enough to grind nor dry, but hard enough to resist the strong pressure of the thumb nail. A second criterion is, all the far: ". having completely quitted the tassel, and the tassel being entirely dead and dry. A third is, the perfect deadness of the ends of the silk, where, instead of the bright green that appeared before, hanging gracefully down, it is become withered and brown. When all these signs ap- pear, the top and the blades have performed their office, and the sooner they are taken away the better, because, after this, they do no good, and only serve to retard tho ripening of the ears, by the exclusion which they cause to the sun and wind. The tops and leaves being removed, they arc laid in bunches in the intervals, suffered to dry, and then carried away and stacked, or put into the barn, as provender for cattle." These tops and leaves are highly prized in the United States, and said to pro- duce as much valuable provender to the acre, as an acre of hay. In this climate, however, I do not think they can be estimated at the same value of an acre of good hay, or anything near it. The season of harvesting the grain is generally the latter end of Sep- tember ; they are broken off the stem with the hand, carried at once to the barn floor, or some other convenient building. When given to hogs, the cars need not be husked or threshed ; but if intended for any other U' ,1' i|. 'if « A'- •3 •it 185 n u purpose, the cars nro himkod and shelled, or thrchhu^U The produce of luditui corn in the Lfniled Slates and Upper* Canada may bo esitinmlcd at I'roni thirty to Boventy bushels the acre, or perhaps in some instances more. In the Lower Province, in favourable years, and suitable soils, a produce nearly equal to that may be obtained, but only under these fa- vourable circumstances. It is one of the be»t gmin crops that can bo cultivated on new lands for the lirst two or three years, and generally succoeds better in such situations where there are wood ashes than in any other. The green ears of maize arc applied to various purposes. In the neighbourhood of Paris, and the south of France, before the male blos- soms expand, the female blossoms are gathered and pickled, in the man- ner of cucumbers. When the grain has arrived at its milky state, the ears arc gathered for the purpose of boiling or roasting. A large field will afford soft oars for five of six weeks. In common with other grain, maize may be fermented, and distilled from, so as to produce spirits* The meal of maize, made into paste, and iiried with fat pork, is the ordinary food of some of the peasantry of Eu- rope. ,. CULTURE OF LEGUMINOUS F.ELD PLANTS, THE SEEDS OF VrillCII ARE USED FOR MAN OR CATTLE. J The seeds of cultivated legumens are considered to be the most nutri- tive of vegetable substances grown in temperate climates. They contain a larger proportion of matter analogous to animal substances, having, when dry, the appearance of gluo, and bemg as nourishing as gluten. To the healthy workman, this substance supplies the place of animal food. The straw, or haulm, cut before it is dead ripe, is more nourishing than that of any of the cereal grasses. But leguminous* plants are not only more than all others nourishing to man and animals, but even to ve- getables, they may be said to supply food ; since they are not only known to be less exhausting to the soil than most other plants, but some of them, and more especially the lupine, have been ploughed in green as manure, from the earliest times. Many scientific agriculturists consider a luxuriant crop of peas or tares as nourishing the soil by stagnating car- bonic acid gas on its surface, which corresponds with the general opi- nion of their being equal to a fallow, and vith the value set on them in rotation, as already explained. Two reasons may be given for the cir- cumstance of peas and tares not exhausting the land as much as other crops : first, because they form a complete shade to the ground ; and next, because they drop so many of the leaves upon the surface. The legumes cultivated in Lower-Canada farming are almost confined to the pea, but as it is probable others may soon be introduced, I shall give a tfible of the nutritive products of the most useful of these plants, th« pea and the bean, as given by Sir H. Davy, Einhoflj and Thacr. The pro- ducts arc taken from 1000 parts of each. I T ?oM : •Llli-l J.!" 18G In iho jnlc blos- Ithe man- jtato, the irge field distilled iste, and y ofEu- IClt ARE >st nutri- f contain , having, 8 gluten, f animal )urishing i are not m to ve- lot only ut some afrcen as consider ing car- ?ral opi- thera in the cir- i« other i ; and . The i to the give a rtwj pea rte pro- Kxlunt, Whole quan- Gluten or iiiatti r Saccharine tity of solu-jMuclDagc or rendcicd English Name. matter or ble or nutri- or Albu- insoluble Sugar. tive matter. Starch. men. during ■ ' ' ' ' ,■,■-- . 1 r : Evapora- tion. Dry Peas. 22 674 601 35 16 Common Bean. 670 426 103 41 \ . THE TEA. The pea is the most esteemed legume in field culture, both for its seeds and haulm. It is said to be a native of the South of Europe. Fn this province it is cultivated succossfully, and to a considcrahlc extent, but not so extensively as it ought to be. The ground, after (he peas have been removed, if the soil be of good quality, might bo prepared for wheat the foUov/ing spring. In Oxfordshire, England, on the excellent land about Banbury, they have introduced a new kind of pea called, the " nimble hog pea." It is said to be a gray variety of the early frame peai as it has sing! flowers, and is fit to cut about the end of June, notwithstanding it must not be sown earlier than the middle of April. The produce is thirty-two bush- els the acre ; and on the same land, when the crop is cut, turnips are sowed, and produce a good crop, so that two valuable crops ore obtained in the year. The soil best suited to the pea, is dry calcarious sand ; it should be in good tilth? but not too rich. The climate required for the pea, is dry, and not over warm. The cUmate of Canada is generally favourable, and by suitable culture, on suitable soils, peas may be as certain a crop as any we have. Early sowing will be most likely to produce the best crop. The quantity of seed is about one bushel and a half to the acre, and if the pea is small, one bushel or a little more. The mode of sow- ing adopted in England by good farmers, is to sow them in drills after the plough, depositing the seed in every second or third furrow ; or, if land is in a pulverized state, by ribbing or drilling with the plough, and then shaking the seed, and harrowing the land. Peas require from two to four inches covering of earth, and if they are sown broad>cast, the best way would be, on light dry lands, (the only lands suitable,) to plough thera in lightly, in small ridges, well drained by open furrows, &c. ; no other crop requires to be better secured from too much moisture in tho soil ; peas should, therefore, be sown on narrow, high ridges, whether broad-cast or in drills. When sowed in drills, hand or horse-^hocing, and placing the earth well up to the plants with a small plough before tho pe- riod of their coming into blossom, will greatly improve the crop. In harvesting peas, considerable care is requisite, both on account of the seed and haulm. When pea crops become ripe, they wither or turn ltd -^.ii. i 187 it ' n\> M - ii hroun ill tl»o haiilni or sliaw, and the pods Lo^iii l P 'ti 189 1 . '.■' 'i K- rf f' >}lf ^■^ 1 /I tf "i. ' % K'" ■ % m' "' i P w '.U ■li • V ..'-> b ' > i? -,i lA .•J nny great cxtcnl, other modes of sowing mny be preferred to thiw I have laid down ; but for the present, this culture will answer very well to com- mence with, to make iarmera acquainted with the true value of n bcun crop. The climate most favourable to the bean in one neither very dry, nor y^xy moist. In general, however, a dry summer is the most favourable to the production c > ^ed. The season for sowing should bo as ear- ly as possible aftoi (,.v. severity of the winter is ovc. If not sown in time, they will often miscarry, especially if a dry summer should suc- ceed. The quantity of seed given to the acre in England, is about two l»ushcls, or two and a half. If the beans are planted thick, the top pods only fill to the number of three, four, and half a dozen ; when thin, the plants will pod and fill to the bottom. Both in the broad-cast and drill husbandry, it is common to mix a small quantity of peas with the beans, and this mixture is said to improve both ttic quality and quantity of the straw for fodder. The after culture of beans commences when they have made some growth. If hand hoes are used, as they must be, if the drills cross the ridges, the weeds should all be cut down, and those that cannot be reach- ed with the hoe, pulled out with the hand. When the plants have consi- derably advanced in growth, the earth should be laid up to them as to po- tatoes. If the beans are planted in drills along the ridges, a small plough can work between the rows exactly in the same way as with potatoes, and have the earth taken from the plants, the weeds hoed out, and after an interval of a few days, the earth should again be laid up to the plants with the plough. In moist seasons, the grain will not ripen fast, and in that cose it will be found advantageous to switch off the succulent tops of the plants with an old scythe blade, set in a wooden handle. This oper- ation, it is said, will occasion the crop to be ready for reaping a fortnight earlier, also, perhaps, a week sooner ready for the barn after being cut down. Beans require to be tolerably well ripened before they are cut down, otherwise the quality is impaired, and they will not keep well. Beans are usually cut with the sickle, but are sometimes mown, and even in some instances pulled up by the roots. It is proper to let them lie on the swath to wither and dry for a few days ; they are then tied up in sheaves with ropes of straw or withes, and set up in stooks to dry, but without any head sheaves. Beans may be very well secured in stacks, with proper thatching, or heading the stacks with straw, if there is not barn room ; and if put into a barn, they should be placed where there is least danger of heating. The threshing of beans is nearly as easy as that of peas. The produce in England, is various. Donaldson says, that a crop of beans, taking the island at large, may be supposed to vary from sixteen to forty bushels the acre, but that a good average crop cannot be reckoned to exceed twenty. Middleton says that in Middle- sex, the bean crops vary from ten to eighty bushels the acre. I have seen on one bean stalk in Canada, thirty pods well filled. Beans are sometimes made into meal, the finer for bread, and the coarser for swine : but beans are for the most part applied to the pur- poses of feeding horses, hogs, and other domestic animals. It is said that it has been found by repeated experience, that beans are a much I Lve consi- 190 more hearty uiiil profituhKi fuod for horscn thoji oats, and givo them much greater spirit and sIcekncHs of skin. Dean straw when properly harvested, is considered very good fodder for cattle, and horses uiton pre- fer it to pea straw. The produce of beans in meal is, like that of peas, more in proportion to the grain than in any of tlio cereal grasses. A bushel of beans is sup- posed to yield fourteen pounds more of flour than a bushel of oats, and a bushul of peas twenty pounds more. The diseases of beans ore, the rust, mildew, and honey dews. There is no remedy for these diseases* except what good culturo may do to prevent them. , . ,. ' ■ THE TARE. r . The tare, or vetch, has been cultivated for its stem and leaves from time immemorial. It is considered as a native British plant, and I be- lieve it may bo considered so in Lower-Canada. It is found wild in China and Japan. The tare is of hardy growth, and when sown in good land, will return a large supply of green fodder for the consumption of horses, or for fattening cattle. It may also be converted into hay. The spring variety of tare is that suitable to Canada. The quantity of seed to the acre may be from a bushel and a quarter to a bushel and a half. It should be sown as early in the spring as possible. Though tares are usually sown broad-cast in Ertgland, sowing them in drills at eight inches apart would be abetter mode. This could easily be done, after the land was ploughed into ridges nine feet wide, by making small furrows along the ridges eight or nine inches apart, sowing the seed broad-cast over these furrows, and aflerwards harrowing the ridges to cover the seed, which will all fall into the small drills or furrows in harrowing. Tares arc managed in the same way as peas, when they run to seed and arc pre- served for that purpose. When tares are made into hay, the time of cut- ting is when the blossoms have declined and begin to fall flat. The hay from tares is of a nutritious quality ; and as it requires much sun and air to dry it thoroughly, and is very apt to be injured by moisture, conse- quently this country is much more suitable for its cultivation than the British Isles. I do not know any plant that might be more usefully intro- duced in Canadian husbandry. I have seen tares give a very large pro- duce in Ireland on lands worn out by other crops ; before these tares were harvested, a part of the crop rotted near the ground, and remained on the soil, was ploughed in for wheat, and produced an excellent crop. I have mixed a i^rriall quantity of oats with tares in sowing, and found it to answer well. The produce of green tares has amounted to twelve tons the acre in England, and when converted into hay, to about three tons. The pro- duce of seed from the acre, has been known to exceed forty bushels. Tares are found to be an excellent food for all sorts of cattle. Cows give more butter when fed with this plant than with any other food what- ever. Horses thrive better on tares than on clover, and the same re- mark is applicable to the feeding of cattle, which feed faster upon this article of green foddiBr, than upon any kind of grass or esculent with which we are acquainted. If the plants are cut green and given to live z2 I" I '■ f. '{• 191 stock, oithur in the fwM. or in the i'uld yardd, there iu pcrhann no green crop would bu uf g^'eatur value in Cunuda, nnd that would afVord u more abundant supply of green herbage for Htock in July and August, when the pusturoa are often burned up ; and Hhould it not bo required for thiis purpose, it might bo cut and made into hay. The celebrated Yuung ob- serves, " that in the county of Sussex, tare crops are of such use and im- portance that not one tenth of the stock could be maintained without them ; horses, cows, sheep, hogs, all feed upon them ; hogs are soiled upon them without any other food. This plant maintains more stock than any other plant whatever. Upon one acre, Davis maintained four horses in much better eondition than upon five acres of grass. Upon eight ocroa ho has kept twelve horses and fivo cows for three months without any otlior food : no artificial food whatever is equal to this ex- cellent plant." Professor Thaer observes, that tares cut green draw no nouriuhment from the soil whatever, while made into hay, they aflbrd a fodder preferred by cattle to pea straw, and more nutritive than hay or any other herbage. In Germany, the grain of tares are given to horses, cows, sheep and swine. THB KIDNET-BEAN. ■5 .1 V The kidney-bean is a native of India, but ripens in Canada. It is not much cultivated here except in gardens. It is grown in the fields in yrance, Germany, SwitzcHand, and similar climates. The sort gene- rally used is tho small dwarf white. The ground is well prepared, and the seed is dibbled in rows eighteen inches or two feet asunder, in May. The ground is hoed and weeded during the summer, and the crop is ripe in August. It is usually harvested by pulling up the plants, which being dried, are secured in stacks or under cover. The haulm is of little bulk or use, but the seed is used in making that esteemed French dish called haricotf which might be usefully introduced here amongst poor settlers, and others. There is perhaps no other vegetable dish so cheap and easily cooked, and at the same time so agreeable and nourishing. The beans are boiled, and then mixed with a little salt butter, or other fat, and a little milk or water and flour. From 3840 parts of kidney-bean 1805 parts of matter analogous to starch was obtained ; 851 of vegeto- animal matter, and 790 parts of mucilage. FLANT8 CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS AS FOOD FOR MAN OR ;. ...,:•. rn.. ,. . - >. . ■ CATTLE. '. ■■■"■ i^ ■■»?; V Plants cultivated for their roots or leaves are various, and most of them are adapted both for human food, and that of domestic animals. The plants which are included under this head, and which may be suc- cessfully cultivated in Canada are, the potato, Swedish turnips, carrot, parsnip, beet, cabbage tribe, lettuce, and chicory. Friable or light soil, superior pulverization and manuring, the row-method, and careful after culture, are essential to the maturation of these plants ; and hence the importance of such crops as preparations for those of the bread OQrns. ....... , . . 193 liiu uuliitivr pioducc of thctfc pluiiU ore (hiiu given l>) Hir IIun|thrjr Davy :— KngliHh Nuinc0. Potatoo, Boet Root, Mangle Wurtzel, Common Turnip, Swedish Turnip, Carrot, Parsnips. Cabbage. • In 1000 parts. s 1^ '-M -r 0) IS V .A 1 *• s HIE S 9 S from 260 from 200 from 20 from40 to 200 to 155 to 15 to 30 148 14 121 13 13G 13 119 4 42 7 34 1 64 9 51 ? 98 3 95 99 9 90 73 41 24 8 ii\ TUB POTATO. The potato is ascertained to be a native of South America, having been found wild in Buenos Ayres and in Chili ; though Humboldt was very doubtful if that could be proved ; he admits, however, that it is natu- ralized there in some situations. Sir J. Banks considers that the potato was first brought into Europe from the mountainous parts of South Ame- rica, in the neighbourhood of Quito, where they were called papas., to Spain, in the early part of the sixteenth century. To England the potato was brought from Virginia, by the colonists sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1584, who returned in 1686, and brought with them the potato. The sweet potato was used in England as a delicacy, long before the introduction of the i, ow common potato ; it was imported from Spain and the Canaries, and was supposed to pos- sess the power of restoring decayed vigour. The potato was first plant- ed by Sir Walter Raleigh on the estate of Youghal, near Cork, Ireland, and was cultivated for food in that country, before its value was known in England, where, for a considerable period it was only eaten as a deh- cate dish. Parkinson mentions, that the potatoes were sometimes roast- ed and steeped in sack and sugar, or baked with marrow and spices, and even preserved and candied by comfit makers. There is a tradition among the peasantry of the county of Galway, that the potato was intro- duced there previous to its being known in any other part of Ireland, ow- ing to a vessel with some of them on board having been wrecked on the coast, and a few of the roots having been roasted by children who found them ; they wcr© so much approved of as to induce the planting of the A f 'V ^• I •I. 193 rcmcaindcr. It was neor the middle of the cigetcenth century, however, heforo they were generally known and cultivated in the British Isles. In Ireland they are now the chief article of food for a large majo- rity of the people. Though potatoes are certainly a nourishing and heal- thy food, relished by almost every palate, yet it is by no means desirable that they should become the principal food of the people in any country, and I hope they never will in Canada. They are an excellent vegetable with beef, muttofi, pork, and other good things, but are only fit to bo used in this way, if bread is attainable. The value of potatoes as a fallow crop, and as an article of food for cattle, compared with turnips, may be considered thus : Potatoes are more nutritive, and, in the opinion of those who have used them, fatten cattle much quicker than any other root, particularly if boiled or steam- ed. Potatoes may be secured from the severities of winter with much less difficulty than turnips, cabbages, or any other roots, and will keep better. A much less quantity of potatoes will fatten an animal than will be required of any other vegetable. In Canada they are more certain and more valuable than any other root crop. An acre of potatoes may produce from eight to twelve tons, or from 240 to 360 bushels, at 70 pounds to the bushel, and sometimes more. Tur- nips, even when a successful crop, will not often produce this weight of roots, and equal weight contains only about one-sixth of the nutriment in potatoes. There are many varieties of the potato, most of them fit for human food, but some only fit for cattle. In choosing a sort or sorts of potato from the numerous varieties which are to be found every where, perhaps the best way is, for the selector to procure samples and taste them, and to fix on what best pleases his palate. The Lincolnshire pink eye is much esteemed in England as an early potato. It has been cultivated in Canada. The kidney potato is also an early variety, and arc grown here. These early varieties, however, are not the most productive, and should only be planted to afford an early supply for the table. The com- mon red potato, well known here, is productive, of good flavour, and keeps well, if properly stored, until the new potatoes are fit for use. The soil in which the potato thrives best, is a light loam, neither too dry nor too moist ; but if rich, it is so much the better. They may, however, be grown well on many other sorts of lands, especially sandy, and those of the mossy, moory, and other similar kinds, where they are free from stagnant moisture, and have their parts well broken down by culture, and a reasonable portion of manure added. The best flavoured table potatoes are almost always produced from a newly broken up pas- ture ground, not manured, or from any new soil. Repeated on the same soil, except in new land, they very generally lose their agreeable fla- vour. In preparing land for potatoes, it is of much importance to free it as completly as possible from weed roots, which cannot be so well ex- tirpated afterwards as in some other drill crops, because at no period of their growth is it safe to work so near the plants, especially after they haye made some progress in growth. The first ploughing should be given as soon after harvest as possible ; the second, and most common- 194 however, ish Isles, ■ge majo- and heal- (lesirable y country, vegetable fit to be f food for atoes are 3m, fatten or steam- vith much will keep than will re certain from 240 fe. Tur- weight of trimcnt in Of human of potato ;, perhaps hem, and nk eye is Itivated in re grown ctive, and rhe com- vour, and use. sither too ley may, ly sandy, they are down by flavoured 1 up pas- the same cable fla- to free it well ex- period of ifter they liould be ;ommon- ly it will bo necessary to give a third, early in spring : the land iw tht n laid up into ridgelcts, from twenty-seven to thirty inches brond, and ma- nured in the drills. Land that has been some time pastured, and of lea- sonable fertility, if ploughed early in the fall, cross ploughed in tho spring, well broken up with the break harrow, and again ploughed and well harrowed, will give a most excellent crop of potatoes, and of good flavour without manure ; and with a very light dressing of manure, or even without any, will give a good crop of grain the next year, if sown with the species suitable to the soil. From whatever cause, potatoes, when planted on suitable soil, (indeed on any soil except heavy clays,) is a most excellent preparing crop for most kinds of grain, and will not impoverish the soil so much as mighi; be supposed from the great bulk produced. The season for planting potatoes in the fields, depends much on the soil. They should be planted as early as the preparation of the soil will admit of. Potatoes planted late in June often happen to produce abun- dantly, when the season is favourable; but there is much risk in late plant- ing in this climate, first in case of very dry wr.rm weather in June and July, or if the weather is very wet ; and, secondly, in case of early au- tumnal frosts. In either case, the crop has no great chance to be a good one. The latter end of May or the first week of June, potato planting should be finished if possible. The best climate for the potato is one rather moist than dry, and tem- perate or cool rather than very hot. Hence the excellence of the Irish potato which grow in a dry, loamy, calcarious soil, and moist and tempe- rate climate. It is supposed that the potato is grown nowhere in the world to the same degree of perfection as in Ireland, and in Lincoln- shire, England. I have seen as abundant crops of potatoes in Canada as in Ireland, or very little short of it, when the season was moderately moist, and the soil suitable ; and in these cases the quality is generally good ; however, potatoes need not be cultivated here for human food, so much as in other countries ; and for feeding cattle, abundant crops may be raised. In preparing the sets of potatoes for planting, some recommend large sets, others small potatoes entire, and some large potatoes entire ; oth- ers, on the ground of experience, recommend small cuttings, sprouts, shoots, or even only the eyes or buds. The farmer will find it his inter- est to make tolerable sized cuttings of pretty large potatoes, with two or three good eyes or buds in each. The strength of the stem at the outset depends in direct proportion upon the vigour and power of the set. The set, therefore, ought to be large, rarely smaller than the fourth part of a good sized potato ; a feeble and late crop is often the consequence ol small sets. It has been ascertained b< ond a doubt, that seed taken from the top or watery end of the potato, planted at the same time with the sets taken from the root or mealy end, will ripen their tubers a fort- night sooner. Sets should always be cut some days before planting that the wounds may dry up ; but no harm will result from performing this operation several weeks before hand, provided the sets are not exposed too much to the droiight so as to deprive them of their natural moisture. The quantity of sets depends on the gize of tho potatoes ; in generaJi " 1^ 4 ;»■ "i*- ►f ' 195 I ■ ' 1/ i •it where the seta are gufliciently large, about sixteen bubhel will be required for an aero : Bomc farmers plant less. The host method of planting on suitable soila, is in drills, formed at oqual distances, and of such width and depth as to contain the manure. The distance of the drills from each other is such, that the horse which leads out the manure may pass in one furrow, and each of the wheels ot the cart in' others, on the different sides. The manure is equally distri- buted in three furrows, by means of a crooked fork with two or three prongs. The distance of the drills is usually from 27 inches to 30 or 33 ; the richer and more fertile soils require the largest space. On the manure the Kcts are placed at from four to eight inches asunder, and the plough is run on each side, divides the ridgelets, and covers the seed. On dry sandy or gravelly soils, the sets are often put under the dung in the drills, and of a dry season it answers best in this way. In heavy clay, particularly long and unfermcnted dung, is decidedly preferable to short and well mixed manure for potatoes ; perhaps this is to bo attribut- ed chiefly to its mechanical influence in keeping the soil open. In any soil, a given quantity of unfermented dung, properly applied to crops by being buried in the soil, will produce much more beneficial results than the same quantity would do applied after being fermented and in a per- fectly rotten state. What is called the lazy-bed method of planting pota- toes answers well in a very moist climate or soil, and the greatest part of the potatoes are planted so in Ireland. The land is generally prepared by fallowing if potatoes are planted after corn crops. The dung is spread on the ridges, which are about five feet wide, and two feet and a half arc left on each side for trenches. The sets are laid on the dung at proper distances, and they are covered to the depth of four or five inches with the mould dug from the side trenches with the spade. "When the plants appear over the soil, there is more mould put on them from the trenches, and any weeds taken out that may appear. I have seen low, swampy lands planted with potatoes in the lazy-bed method in Canada, produce extremely well ; but this method is not suitable for dry soils. The luxuriance and abundance of the potato crop depend greatly on the attention and industry which are employed in the cleaning and hoe- ing operations. It is recommended by some to harrow the land when the shoots from the sets under the surface have advanced about an inch, which is to be ascertained by examination. By the operation of harrow- ing, the surface of the soil is not only cleaned from weeds, but loosened, to allow the tender shoots to push freely through it. A bush harrow is best for light soils, but for strong soils, a small folding harrow is recom- mended for this purpose, by which the weeds are destroyed, and the mould is applied to the opposite sides of the contiguous rows. When the potatoes are entirely up, the earth and weeds may be removed from them, by forming a shallow furrow with the plough, running the plough as close as possible to the plants on each side, without injuring them. When the earth is taken from the plants, the rows must be hand wed, and hand hoed, to complete what is deficient in the operation of the plough. A small triangular harrow, about twenty inches wide in the widest part, with nine iron teeth, and two small handles for the harrow- man to guide it by, is drawn by one hors(; along the furrows on the earth F .i. 19C •i! rtquiied brmed at manure. se which wheels of lly di&tri- or three to 30 or On the r, and the the seed, e dung in In heavy ferable to attribut- In any crops by suits than in a per- ting pota- est part of f prepared 3 dung is feet and a le dung at ive inches When the I from the seen low, n Canada, y soils, greatly on ; and hoe- land when it an inch, Df harrow- loosened, harrow is is recom- 1, and the 3. When •ved from le plough ng them, and wed, )n of the ide in the e harrow- 1 the earth taken from Oio ridii;r!rts on each side by lh(^ pioiicli ; two or ilucr- times will be sullicii'iit to \y,\.9^ on each i\inow. rrotii the lime tln-railh ih ta- ken from fl'.c plants, it is fr(nlyinid here, that, there is not ol'tcn time to do ko. la a wet r:^raRon, tlierc i.s considerai)le risk in cross harrowing j)otato(;s on heavy yoils, and Iciving them in that state, even for a day. In such seasons, on clay soils, ihcy should b(! pl(H!j>-hnd ii'^iuicdiateiy after l)ei'!n; hurrowt,'» turni|)s grown in llie fields urCrrmany, sel- dom exceed half a pound weight each, and that all his cure could not raise one at Magglcn beyond 14 pounds. In France and Italy they ore still less. They are found of no size in the rapid climate of Russia or Sweden. I have not seen them of any great size here ; ai.d from tho ravages of the turnip fly, and the frequent dry seasons, a turnip croj) is the most uncertain that can be sown. On now lands in the woods, or moss lands with abundance of ashes, a crop may be had, hut not of great bulk. Swedish turnips, with proper culture, might jjroduce tolerable crops, and would keep better than any other. The yellow Aberdeen, and yellow Dutch turnips, are next to the Swedish for their hardiness, and nutritive qualities, and keep much better than the whit(!. The Swe- dish and yellow turnips, are much used for work horses in Britain, as food, with hay or straw. The land requires to be well pulverized and perfectly clean for tur- nips. When it is in that state of preparation, the drills nuiy be opened with the plough to receive the manure, in the same way, and at about the same width between the rows, as for potatoes, from 27 to 30 inches. The manure is then carted out and spread in the drills, in as regular a manner as possible. When the manure is spread, it is covered with the plough, spliting each ridgelet in two, and forming a new ridgelet over the manure. The land being formed into ridgelets in this manner, is ready to receive the seed. This is sown on the tops of the ridgelets, by ma- chines of various forms. The most simple of these is the Northumberland one-row turnip drill. It has two wheels which run in the hollows on each side of the drill or ridgelet to be sown, by which the sower is enabled to keep the row ex- actly in the centre of the drill. The seed is put into a tin cylinder through an aperture which opens and shuts for the purpose ; from this the seed drops as it moves, through small equidistant holes made in it, into a tin tube, by which it is conveyed to tho ground. Immediately be- fore this tube is a hollow coulter of iron, sharp before, which encloses the forepart of the tin tube, and makes a track in the ground from one to two inches deep, into which the seed drops. This simple apparatus is mount- ed on light wheels, and has a light wooden frame work, having two shafts behind, by which the workman holds and keeps it sieady in its course. It is generally attached by a rope to a tight wooden roller, that rolls two drills at a time, and is drawn by a horse. This drill barrow has a small roller attached to it behind the covlter and tube, which will press in and cover the seed when worked by a man, without a horse or roller, but the ridgelets must be previously rolled. Many modes of preparing the seed to prevent the ravages of the fly, have been proposed, but hitherto without any great success. Mixing with radish seed has been adopted, as the fly is known to prefer the radish to the turnip. Steeping the seed for 24 hours in very strong tobacco water, in which the tobacco has been boiled, is also said to prevent the fly from injuring the young plants, until they get the rough leaf. But in very dry seasons, such as 1834, no remedy yet known will eflfcctually prevent the ravages of the fly in Canada, on old cultivated lands. It is necessary in ' 1 *n '<^'- h\ t :^ ' :''! 1 ■A :^ % 201 all cases to sow this seed thick, ns the plants arc so much exposed to contingencies. The period of sowing may be from the 1st of June, for Swedish turnips, which should be sowod early, to the 10th of July. If the crop be intend- rd for selling in ;narkct, for the table, the more rapid its growth, the moro tender and better they will be found for cookinj^. Turnips long in grow- ing will not cook well, but will be tough and sticky. Turnips require great care in hoeing and weeding, and should not be nearer to each other in the rows than eight or tvn inches. Swedish iurnips mny be trans- planted in moist weather, where blanks appear in the lows. In Norfolk, the best county in England for turnips, one acre of the best is considered only sufficient to feed 100 sheep for a week. The pro- duce of turnips sowed broad cast, varies in England from five to fifteen tons to the acre, and the last is reckoned a good crop. The white globe turnip drilled, generally produces in the north of England, from 25 to 30 tons per acre, equal to about 1000 or 1200 bushels ; the yellow and Swedish a few tons less. The produce of turnips in nutritive matter, as proved by Sir 11. Davy, was 42 parts in 1000 ; Swedish 64 parts in 1000. According to Von Thaer, 100 pounds of turnips are equal to 22 pounds of hny ; and an ox to get fat on turnips, ought to have one- third of its weight daily. In England, an ox of 60 stone will require one acre of turnips of thirty tons produce, to make him fat ; the quantity will be sufficient for 10 sheep. Mr. Young says, a beast will eat from a third to one-half his own weight of turnips daily, with a portion of hay or straw. Turnips cannot be preserved in Canada, unless in root houses or cel- lars ; and with the exception of Swedish turnips, they will not keep even in cellars if a large quantity is put together, without heating and spoil- ing. The following is the opinion given in the Supplement to the Code of Agriculture, on storing turnips in England. *' The storing of turnips is attended with too much labour and risk to be of much advantage in the greater part of the kingdom. Common tur- nips are never stored in any great quantity, ihough sometimes a portion is drawn and formed into heaps, like potato camps, and lightly covered over with straw, or preserved for some time under a shed ; on these oc- casions, before storing up, the shaws or leaves, and the tap roots must be cut off and removed, to prevent heating and rotting. The heaps must not be covered with earth like potatoes, for in that case their complete destruction is inevitable. This root contains too much water to be pre- served any length of time in a fresh and palatable state, after being re- moved from the groimd ; and though the loss in seasons, unusually se- vere, particularly in the white globe variety, is commonly very great, it is probable that a regular system of storing the whole, or greater part of the crop every season would, upon an average of years, be attended with still greater loss ; besides the labour and expenses, where turnips are cultivated extensively, would be intolerable." It is well known that turnips exposed to one night's severe frost in Ca- nada, will be deprived of a great portion ©f, their best qualities, and are thereby rendered totally unfit to be cooked for the table. They are of Buch a soft and watery nature, that if put together in nr-y considerable 202 quantity in ccUarfi, they nro inevitably jlostroyid. And snpposinp thry might bo kept sufely in cullars or root houses, as potatoes are kept, in largo quantities, what farmer could lind room (or as much as would bo necessary to feed a few cattle, at the rate of 10 or 1200 bushels lor one animal ? All farmers who understand stall-feeding cattle on turnips, ore well aware, that it is only by giving them fts much us they can eat, they caa bo fatted on that food to profit. •■.'if •! n CARROTS. The climate and much of the soil of Canada is most favourable for the cultivation of carrots, and on suitable soil will yield a more valuable pro- duct, perhaps, than any bulbous or tap-rooted plant whatever. The best sort for the field, is the long red or field carrot. Now seed and perfect- ly clean from chaff, is most essential, as it will not vegetate in the second year. Old seed should be carefully avoided. The best soil for the car- rot is a deep, rich, sandy loam ; such a soil should be at least a foot deep, and all equally good from top to bottom. Mossy or peaty soils well drained, will grow good carrots. On any other than these, the field culture of carrots will not answer well. In preparing the soil for carrots, it is necessary that it should be plough- ed before winter, that it may be pulverized by the frost. It should be again well ploughed in spring, to the depth often or twelve inches, and a second time by cross ploughing if possible. I would recommend plough- ing in the manure in the fall, and that it should be well rotted dung or compost. At any time the manure is applied, it should be of this de- scription. When the soil is perfectly well pulverized in spring, it should be formed into shallow ridgelets, about the same size as those for pota- toes or turnips, A light wooden roller should then be passed over them to level the tops of the ridgelets, and on the top of these ridgelets, two rows of seed may be sown, about six or eight inches apart. The rows in which the seed is deposited, should be made about an inch deep by a wooden instrument or rake, with two broad ieeth, six or eight inches apart, that can be drawn along the ridgelets, and thus form the rows. The seed may then be sown in these rows with the hand, and covered with a rake or light hoe. The after culture and weeding, will be much more readily eft'ected when the carroth are sown in this way, than in any other. A double row of plants will grow on each ridgelet. The preparation of seed for sowing practiced by some English far- mers, is to mix about two pounds of clean seed with one bushel of fine sand or mould, which will be sufficient for one acre, and this is done se- veral days before sowing, taking care to have the heap turned over every day, sprinkling the outside of the heap with water each time of turning over, that every part of the heap may be equally moist, and that vegeta- tion may take place alike throughout. There is a great advantage in preparing the seed so long before hand, as it is by these means in a for- ward state of vegetation ; it therefore lies but a short time in the ground, and is more able to contend with those numerous tribes of weeds in the soil, whose seeds are of quicker vegetation^ The drainings of the dung- bills are often used for watering the heaps. " ' '■':.i hi ■' U "U 'k 203 Afinr tho first thinning nnd hoeing of the plants, thoso nftrrwnrds tn- Ucu out nuiy bo given to the swino, and will ufl'urd conHidcrnhIo food in tiiiM wiiy from an acie. The plants slioiild he uhout six or eight inches apart in the rows, or if farther asunder it will he no harnj. Carrots are taken up generally in the latter end of October. They can ho taken up with a spudo or threc-j)rongcd forks ; the tops arc rut off, and th(! roots left in separate heaps to be carried away in carts. Tho toj).-) should also bo carried to tho cattU^ who eat them greedily. In dry sandy soil, carrots will keep in the ground till spring, and will not bo rntich injured by frost. Th(;y are not so subject to heat as turnips, but more so than potatoes ; they will keep well in a root house that is not too warm, but it is dangerous to put a great (piantily of them together in cel- lars or root-houses. They should bo perfectly dry when stored, and all those re{piired for use before the first of January may be kept in any out house that is close, covered with hay or straw, as a slight frost will not injure those that are to be used immediately. Hence it will be only ne- cessary to find cellar room for those that will be required in January, February and March, as the spring supply may be left in the soil in most situations. From two to five or six hundred bushels may be obtained from the acre, on suitable soil and culture, and they are not more expen- sive to raise than potatoes. The application of the carrot to the feeding of working cattle and hogs, is thus detailed by Mr. Burrows, an English farmer : " I begin to take up the carrot crop in the last week of October, as at that time I generally finish soiling my horses with lucern, and now solely depend upon my carrots, with a proper allowance of hay, us winter food for my horses, un- til about the first week of June following, when the lucern is again ready for soiling. By reducing this prr tice to a system, I huve been enabled to keep ten cart horses throughout the winter months foi these last six years, without giving them any corn whatever, and have at ihe same time effected a considerable saving of hay. I give them to my carthorses in the proportion of about 70 pounds weight of carrots to each horse per day, upon an average, not allowing them quite sc nir.ny in the very short winter days. The men who attend the horses, slice some of the carrots in the cut chaff or hay, and the barn door retusc ; the rest of the carrots they givfe whole to the horses at night, with a small quantity of hay in their racks 5 &nd with this food my horses enjoy uninterrupted health. I mention this, as I believe some persons think that carrots only, given a3 food to horses are injurious to their constitution ; but most of the pre- judices of mankind have no better foundation, and are taken at random, or inherent from their grandfathers. So successful have I been with carrots as winter food for horses, that with the assistance of lucern for soiling in summer, I have been enabled to prove by experiments con- ducted under my own personal insj>€ction, that an able Norfolk team horse, fully worked two journics a day, winter and summer, may be k^pt the entire year round upon the produce of one acie of land. I havij likewise applied carrots with great pront to the feeding of hogs in witltfen; and by that means have made my straw into a most excellent it\itii^ without the aid of neat cattle ; the hogs so fed are sold at" NjwwlCTt* bill to the London dealers as porkers.'' An additional 'chctifn^tio^d 204 greatly in favour oftho rnrrot in, thnt it doen not require to he ■teamed or bulled, as tlic potatoes, i'tn liornci', cuttle or IkOgi*, though steaming w hoihng might no doiiht, make them more vaUiahle na tbod. Carrots, in the distillery, owing to tiic great proportion of sugar in their composition, are said to yield uiort^ spirit than the ()otato ; the usual quantity is 12 gal- lons \)or ton. A bufshel will weigh 42 pounds, and uonietimcs over thi:* weight. Jlenre, it" an acre [)roduce 3 or 400 husheLs, it will he equal t'> G or 8 ton weight of carrots, at 50 bushels to the ton, and yield from 70 to 1 00 gallons of spirits to the acre, together with very valuable wastes for feeding cattle. I do not think it 'necessary to give horses so largo a quantity of corrots daily us given hy Mr. IJurrows. About three quarters of a bushel, or otic bushel to largo horses, would bo sufficient ; that would be from 32 to 44 pounds daily. I believe that from 3 to 4 bushels of carrots will be found erpial in value to about one bushel of Canadian oats of ordinary quality, for feeding horses, and the comparative value of a crop of oats and carrots may iiencc be accurately estimated by the farmer. The cul- tivation of green crops is so necessary to bo introduced into our agricul- tural system, that carrots should be grown by every farmer who has suit- able soil. Successful and profitable husbandry cannot be carried on without having green crops, summer fallow and grazing, in due propor- tion ; and our green crops should be such as may be a good substitute for grain in feeding of stock. ' ' 1 i\ t PARSNIPS. Parsnips may bo cultivated in the same manner as carrots, but will succeed best in a strong deep soil. They are said to be superior to car- rots for leading cattle and hogs, and to produce more to the acre. It is said that 30 perches of parsnips, when the crop is good, will be sufficient to fatten a perfectly lean ox of three or fou»- years old, in three months. The roots arc generally given in the proportion of about 30 pounds weight, morning, noon and night, and a little hay supplied at the intervals of these periods. I cannot say much of the value of parsnips from per- sonal experience ; however, I believe tho above estimate of the»r value is not exaggerated. THE FIELD BEET, COMMONLY CALLED MANGLE-WURTZEL. The culture of Mangle-wurtzel is said to be considerable in the Uni- ted States, and is very favourably reported of, as food for cattle. Any soil will suit it provided it is rich, and the season favourable. 1 have seen it cultivated in Canada, but not to any great extent, or very success- fully, ; it is an uncertain crop compared with potatoes or carrots, and will not give a more profitable produce, under tlie most favourable circum- stances. The preparation of the soil may be usually the same as for car- rpt^pr turnips ; the after culture is also the same. According to Thaer, thiey. afforiyilja^per cent, of nutritive matter, and are in that respect, to 1, ay, as l<3"i<^^» and to potatoes as 20 to 46. This root is said to be ©xceileni food for milch cows, increases the quantity of milk, and injr ■ i ,; 205 M t ' ^ . '1 t ■ ^.»». ■ 1 •>: M' 1 •:vi ';^i ■»?■ •■{•• ••■»}■ .» , *.■•• ^ » , '» ' '>'. '*"i ;i^. • ''i ' .T.!*, provps iffl qimlity. It is as diirnMill to sforo in w intrr rm tiiiiii|tP, or vf r nearly ho, and tins in a ^roat objcfti'iii to Moi\ and watery roots tor >virii< ki'op in Canada. lN»tato<'.-i, rarrols, parsnips, and .Swedish turnips, wi keep belter than any otlu-r roots, if properly put »>p and >»'eured in eel iars, root houses, t)r pits. rAr>M.\(;F,. Thfi cultivation of euhhaue for the romrnon jjurposes of farniiii i iieh roots as are easy to maua^rp, niost certain to produce a crop, and aft< r the crop is raised, least dillicult to preserve durin«ir our severe winters, for future use. It is very dangerous to commence an improved system of agriculture by too many specidative experiments, with such an agri- cultural comnmnity as we have in JJritish North America, who cannot afford to risk capital v. ilhout a reasonable prosj)cct of a return. TIioko who have abundant capital, and are fond of speculation and experiments, may bo allowed to make thcni, without exciting any jealousy amongst their neighbours, whcst; means may be more limited ; and from these experiments they may learn and profit, without any cost to themselves. . The allowance of cabbage for a cow is from 100 to 150 pounds daily, and for a sheep 10 or 12 pounds, besides a moderate allowance of hay. As cabbage is cultivated in IJritish America principally for human fu< (', it may be interesting to some readers to know how it is preser> ed for this purpose in Germany, and od>e» countries, for winter use. Salted cabbage, or sauerkraut, is thus prepared. Any sort of cabbage, turnips, and kidney beans, may be prepared in this way ; but white, con - pact-headed large cabbages are preferred. The first process of prepar- ing them is to scoop i.ut the interior part of the stalk with an iron instru- ment or scoop ; they are then cut into small shreds by a wooden n:a- chine composed of a flat board or tray, which has a ledge on two sides, to steady a box or frame into which the cabbages are put. In the mid- dle of the board are four flat pieces of steel, similar to the steel part of a spoke shave, placed in an oblique direction ; and the near edge of each being a little raised up with small spaces between each, to let the shreds fall down into a teb placed underneath to receive them. The cabbages are then put into the box before described, which is pushed backwards and forwards, when the cabbage)?, being cut by the steel, fall into a tub placed below. A barrel stands by ready to receive them when cut, the sides of which are first washed with vinegar. A man stands on a chair by the barrel, with clean wooden shoes on, whose business it is to salt and prepare them, which is done in the following manner : the man first takes as much of the cut cabbage as covers as much as four inches above the bottom, he next strews upon it two handfuls of salt, one handful of unground pepper, and a small quantity of sallad oil ; Ijb theii gets into the barrel, and treads it down with his wooden shoes,- tiH -it- 18 well mixed and compact. He next takes another layer of cabbage, diitj puts salt and pepper on it as before, and treads it again, and so goes'Oii >^, (>V \(tY lor >virii< r iiiiips, will t''bBge,iji<^^ lo goes on 200 till iIm) barrel in filled. A b«)ard is tlioii placed on if, nml on the board sonn! heavy wi'i^lits nre put ; nrul it reinain.s so ten or til\een days, when it partially t'ermeiitsj, and a pnat deal of water hw iins on the Hurfaco ; it is tlien put into the cellar for future u«e. The tnvn who prepare sauer- kraut in Goiuiauy, uro Tyrolese, and carry their machine from house to house. Tiicre arc several other plants which miod on taudi s<)ils than any other at present eu!ti\ ated. It also thrives well on bogs or peaty soils. It is .'-aid to do well ior S'»iliug eatlle and ^wiiie, and is made into hay in France and Loinbardy. It is objected to in England, on the ground of it.^ rising and becoming a vivacious weed in sucrrenial from Siberia, h is been lately brought into notice in England by D. Grant, a nursery man at Lcwisham, and tried by a nutnber of cidtivators. Cattle of every kind are said to be foudofthi-t plant; and so great is its produce on good soil, that Mr. Grant thinks an acre might be made to produce 30 tons of green fodder in a year, lie has grown it to the height of seven feet as thick as it could stand on the ground. The plant is of easy propagation, by seeds or by division of the roots ; the better way would probably be to sow in a garden, and tra"^«;plant, when the plants were a year old. As all the syrnphytums are plants of great durability, this species, if once establish- ed would probably continue to produce crops for many years. — {Garden- ers^ J[Ia^aziiie, vol. Btli, Country Times, JVIuij, 1830.) This plant might perhaps be profitably introduced into Canada. CULTURE OF HERBAGE PLANTS. Until the middle of the 16th century, clover and other herbage plants were not much cultiv.ated in Britain. The best of these plants were in- troduced from Holland. At present clovers enter largely into the suc- cession of crops, on all soils, and in every productive course of manage- ment. Before they were introduced in cultivation in Britain it was ne- cessary, when land was exhausted by grain crops, to leave it in a state of comparative sterility for several years before it become either valua- ble as pasture, or again fit for carrying corn ; but at present clovers arc not only indispensable in the cultivation of while and grcea croj)? altir- nitelv, upon verv rich soils, but are the foundation of (convertible hu«- Bb2 ■ 11 I > i i 207 bandry on land that is not so rich as to permit a constant aralion, and which thereforo, requires two or more years pasturage at certain inter- vals. Lucern and saintfoin^though considered of much less vnlue as ge- neral crops in England, are valuable plants in particular situations, more especially the latter, which will produce good crops on dry chalky and limestone soils, where most other agricultural plants, and even grasses, would barely maintain their existence. If the introduction of these plants were so necessary in England, and that then" cultivation has so greatly contributed to the improvement of agriculture, surely their cultivation is equally necessary in Canada, and would prove most advantageous to the improvement of husbandry, and the interest of farmers. It is highly desirable that not one acre of land sheuld be let out for pasture, or rest if you will, without being seeded down with clover or other grass seeds ; the herbage that will be obtain- ed in one year will amply repay the farmer the expense of seed. The nutritive produce of the principal herbage plants are thus given by Sir H. Davy : — In 1000 parts. Extract, Whole quan- Gluten or matter English Name. tity of solu- Mucillage Saccharine or rendered ble or nutri- or matter or Albu- insoluble tive matter. Starch. Sugar. men. during Evapora- tion. Red clover, - 39 31 3 2 3 Cow clover, - 39 30 4 3 2 White clover. 32 29 1 3 5 Saintfoin, - - 39 28 2 3 6 Lucern, - - 23 18 I 4 The clovers are a numerous family, and three or four of them arc natives of Canada ; one species of them, particularly the white or creepin*' clover, is often found to spring up in great luxuriance on lands that were in tillage the year previous. I have seen red, white, and yellow clover come up naturally on lands cleared from the woods that never were cultivated, and where it was scarcely possible any seed could have been carried. The climate and soil of Canada are more favoura- ble for the cultivation of clovers, than the British Isles. The introd'iction of clovers and cultivated grasses in England, was the commencement of improvements in the different species of live stock, in the mcdes of cultivation, and in the superior f;uality as well as quantity, of the crops of g''"in. This shonlJ n*^ sMiTicidii inducement to Canadian f.iri*:.r rs io adopt the same svKtetn, ami Ihcy r,.iay rest assui t>n the ro^^ults •7i'll not \j(i fogfi fAVcn:';\l)^o Th»i rfd rlov^'V is korAvn. from other ^p.^-oirs by its br'^ad leaves, luxu- rrjp.t iirowt)>-. ^n<} rt'i'^'hi'h p'»ni>^ Ho-w-^r-^ ''i%-: whit'.-, f^r cyin^.ftius^^i <>v 208 Dutch clover, is known hy its crcojiiug f-lnns niid v.liito flowciv. Tlio yellow clover, hop-trefoil, or shamrock clover, llic bhick nonsuch of the Norfolk farmers, is known by its procumbent shoots, and yellow flowers. This species is seldom ciillivat(>d. 7'ho meadow dovci-, cow clover, or cow grass, resembles the red clover, but of a paler luir, dwarfer habit, with pale red, or whitish flowers, and lonjj; roots, very sweet to the taste. This species is not much cultivated in England ; and it is said to be ex- tremely difficult to procure the seeds genuine. It comes into flower ten or fifteen days later than the red clover, has a solid stalk, a narrower leaf, and both leaves and flowers have a yellower hue. A j)oor sandy soil, it is said, will produce a good crop of cow-clover that would not produce half a crop of red clover ; it is also as good a second year as the first. The flesh-coloured clover, {Faronche or l^rfle de Houssillon) has long been cultivated in some of the northern departments of France, and, though an annual, it is found very advantageous on dry,sandy soils. The Agricultural Society of Nantz, have lately recommended its culture in the province of Lorraine ; and a writer in the Journal des Pays-Kas, as suitable to many parts of the Netherlands. M. De Dombasle, a theor- etical and practical agriculturist in great estimation, sows it after har- vest, in the stubbles, with no other culture than harrowing it in. It grows all the winter, and early in spring affords abundant food for sheep ; or, if lefl; till May, it presents a heavy crop for the scythe, and may be used for soiling or making into hay. This method of culture cannot bo adopted in Canada ; however, I beliv^vc it is a species of clover that would be very suitable and profitable for this country. It was introduced into England about the year 1824, by Mr. John Eilman, jun. of South- over, near Lewis, who gives directions for sowing in spring without ii corn crop, and states that it will be in fidl bloom, and fit to cut in June. lie says it i':" very productive, but should net be sown with corn crops like other clovers, because it grows so fast as to choke them. Seeds of this kind of clover may be obtained from Vilmori.i,Andjieux & Co. seed merchants in Paris. The red or broad-leafed clover is i. i t in \ M t, ■ w^ : . . .[ ■■ ■'!■ 209 ordinary farm cultiirf, are tho^-c destined also for another rrop ; clover niixed uith a certain proportion ot' timothy seed, being generally sown along with, or among corn crops, spring sown. Unless, however, the soils on which these crops arc sown are well pulverized, clovers will not succeed so well upon them ; hut clovers will certainly succeed better in Canada on la:nds not so well prepared as they would require to be in England. The time of sowing should be in spring, when the grain is sown. In Switzerland, ihey prcpiire the seed by steeping it in Avater or in oil, and drying it with powdered gypsum, as a preventive from the at- tacks of insects. The manner of sowing, is broad-cast. When sown with spring corn, clover and other grass seeds are usually put in immediately after the land has been pulverized by harrowing in the corn seed, and are themselves covered by one course more of the harrow. A light harrow would be best for covering clover or grass seeds. When the land is under a fall crop of wheat, or other grain, though the clover and other grass seeds are still sown in spring, the proper period must depend both upon iho state of the land and the progress of the crop ; and it may be often desi- rable to birak the crust formed on the surface of tenacious soils, by using a harrow before the clovers are sown, as well as afterwards to cover them. Sometimes the roller only is employed at this time, and there are instances of clover and timothy succeeding when sown without, either harrowing or rolling. But it is commonly of advantage to the wheat crop itself to use the harrows in spring, if the land is in a dry state, and the wheat plants firmly taken root, but not otherwise ; the roller alone, unless the soil is soft and mellow, cannot be depended on, much less, sowing without harrowing. In some cases, clover and grass seeds are sown by themselves in autumn or spring, on grass lands. I have sown them on meadows that were top dressed in the previous fall ; I harrowed the land well in spring, when sowing the seed, which succeeded very well, and yielded a crop the same year. The quantify of seed sown to the acre varies considerably. On rich sandy or loamy soils, well pulverized, two pounds of clover, or less, with about live or six quarts of timothy seed, will be fully sufficient for one acre. Indeed I have had more clover than I would desire in the hay where I have not sown one pound and a half of clover seed to the acre, with timothy seed. Strong clay soil might require more seed ; but for any soil that is in a proper state of preparation, two or three pounds of clover, and one gallon and a half of timothy seed will be sufficient, though a less quantity will often do very well. In England they sow from eight to fourteen pounds of clover and about a bushel of rye-grass seed to the acre. The same weight of clover, and a bushel of timothy seed, instead of rye-grass seed, will be sufficient for about seven acres of land in Canada. When lands are intended for permanent pasture, some white and yel- low clover seed might be mixed with the red clover and timothy seed ; but the same quantity of seeds will be sutucient for the acre. Clover seed is seldom sown alone in Canada, nor ought it to be. It is general- ly mixed with timothy seed. If the soil be rich and fertile, the clover will grow up very strong the fh'st yer«r, with ^ ery little timothy : the se- '. 210 i cond year there will Lc considerably less cIomt, peiliaps ."-(j-ircly iiv and the timothy will p;ro\v np a full crop. This juithcJ cf f-o\\iiijr \viil be found most profitable, fcjevcro winters, when th(! land is not \\i.ll et;- vered with snow, the clover roots are sometimes destroyed by the frost, and the timothy, being more hardy, comes up in the s[^ ring, and v.ill pro- duce a middling crop, though n(»t so heavy a crop tlir lir.st year, as clo- ver. Where a regular rotation of crops is observed, this plan will an- swer extremely well, as some land Avill be seeded down every year, vud afford a regular succession of clover nnd timothy crops. It is inconsis- tent with all pretensions to good farming to let out land from tillage witli- oui seeding it down with clover, or other grass seed. When clover is sowed alone, it will of course, require more seed than when sown with timothy, say about eight pounds to the acre. In the selection of seeds, particular attention should be paid to their quality and cleanness : the purple colour of the clover seeds denotes that it has been ripe and well saved ; and the seed of weeds may be de- tected in it by close inspection, if there are any ; but various noxious seeds of weeds are frequently mixed up with timothy seed, which may by some good judges be discovered, but are no; easily separated from them. Red clover seed introduced from France or Holland to England, has been found to die out in the season immediately after it has been cut or pastured, while the English seed produces plants that stand over the second, and in many instances the third year ; thus remaining in the lat- ter case four summers in the ground from the time of sowing. The after culture of clover and timothy consists chiefly of picking off any stones or other hard bodies which may be on the surface in the spring succeeding that in which it was sown, and cutting out by the roots any thistles, docks, or other large grown weeds. After this, if necessa- ry, the surface should be rolled once to smooth it for the scythe. A top dressing of gypsum has been strongly recommended for clover and other herbage plants. It is supposed that the smother of a thick crop of clo- ver or tares continued for any time upon the ground, greatly tends to promote its fertility. This I have proved to be the case. The clover crop in Canada is chiefly made into hay. Soiling cattle with green clover is not yet much practiced. Soiling is a term ap- plied to the practice of cutting herbage crops green for feeding or fatten- ing live stock. On all farms, under correct management, a part of this crop should be cut green for the working horses, and in many cases for milch cows, particularly in and near towns. W orking horses would, if fed in this way, be always conveniently near at hand, and fill their sto- machs more speedily than if having to collect their food on a short or scanty pasture. In feeding cattle with green clover, attention must be paid to prevent swelling, or hoving, which is very apt to take place when they are first put on this food, especially if it is wet with rain or dew ; and cattle aio exposed to this danger, whether they are sent to depasture the clover, or have it cut and brought home to them ; though, if the plants are some- what luxuriant, the danger is greater in pasturing. After being accus- tomed to this rich food for a few days, during which it should be given rather sparingly, the danger is much diminished ; but it is never safe to i-'f. r. '■f'r'i tq ! 211 allow milcli cowj piiiticuliirly lu (.tit hirge quantities of wet clover. )Vlien I put my cows on the alter j^rowth of clover in August, if it is very lux- iiriiiiit, I only iillow them to lemain about an hour in ihe day for the fjrnt iwij or three clays, and no accident has ever occurred to my stock from eatinjT jrreen clover. The making of herbage plants into hay, i.s a process somewhat difl'er- eatfrom that of making hay from natural grasses. All the herbage Iribci ought to be'mowr. when the plants have fully blossomed, and before the seed is rii)o, that the full jnict^ and nouri. hmont of the herl) may be re- tained in the hay. By adopthig this system, the hay is cut in better sea- son, can be more easily secured, and is much more valuable ; nor is the strength of the plant lodged in the seed, nhich is often lost. It v.ould be well tliat the advantage of converting unripe herbage into hay should be fully understood. There is much more saccharine matter in it, and it is consequently greatly more nutritious. A croj) of clover of saintlbin, when cut in the early part of the season, may be ten per cent, lighter than when it is fully ripe ; but the losy is amply counterbalanced, by ob- taining an earlier, a more valuable, and more nutritious article ; v.hile the next cro[) will he proportionably more heavy. The hay made Irom old herbage which has ripened its ^ccd^ or nearly so, will carry on stock ; but it is only hay cut from herbage when young, and soon after it lias come into flower, that will fatten them. When the stems of clover be- come hard and saple -.?, by being alluwed to bring their seeds towards maturity, they are of Ititle more value as provender than an equal quanti- ty of the finer sort of straw of corn. The mode of making clover hay, and that of all herbage plants as iaicticed by the best farmers in England, and is ec^ually proper for Ca- uuda, is as follows : The herbage is cut as close to the ground and in as uniform and [)crfect a manner as possible, with a sharp scythe ; the stubble after the mowing ought to be as short and smooth as a well sha- ven grass lawn. The part of the stems left by the scythe is not otdy lost, b'lt the after growth is neither so vigorous nor so weightjy, as when the first cutting is taken as low as possible. As soon as the swath or row of cut herbage is thorouglily dry above, it is gently turned over (not tedded or scattered,) without breaking it. This is done with a rake or small fork, carefully preventing the swath being broken. The grass, when turned over -in the morning of a dry day, is put into cocks in the afterncoI^ The mode of preparing this is simple and expeditious. If the crop is heavy, a row of cocks is placed in the middle of three or five swaths, or of three narrow ridges. A gatherer and raker on each side will form a row sufllciently large for cocks, which should be neat and well built by another person following those who gather and rake. Five persons may thus be employed about each row of cocks. It is impossible to lay down any rules for the management of hay after it has been once put into cocks ; one thing however, should always be attended to, not to shake out, scatter, or expose the hay oftener than is necessary for its preservation. If the clover is dry, though not withered, Hviien put into cocks, it may be left in that slate for two or three days, and then spread out on the third or fourth day, turned once or twice, and may be put into the stack or barn in the evening, salting it A\ell invariably. If « i 212 lighter le ; tho ■) the farmer has old hay on hand, it is a moist oxecUent plan to mix it with the new clover, and by doing so, the new cl«ver may be put up in a preener state than it could be if unmixed, and the old hay will be much improved by the mixture. It is much easier to save clover hay in Canada than in En^and, and though put up fresh and green, if well salted, it will not lose the colour nor its fragrant smeil. In wet seasons however, clover is difficult to cure well ; but if once in well made cocks, without losing its colour, it may be preserved from receiving much injury, by frequently re-making the cocks. Wet seasons are not usual in this climate, and when they do occur, the rains do not continue so long, or so constat Uy a:s in the British Isles. I have seen the after-growth of clover in moist, warm seasons, a reasonable crop, but, except for soiling, it would, in most cases, be more profitable to pasture it than mow it a second time. If it is mown a second time for the purpose of making it into hay, it will be a good method to mix it with some good fresh straw that will absorb part of its juice, and cattle will eat the mixture readily. The produce of the first crop of clover hay, or of clover and timothy, (though there will not be much of the latter the first year^) on the best soils, will be from 200, 300 or 400 bundles the acre. This description of hay, however well cured, will not sell for so much in the Montreal market as good timothy hay. If the land is very rich and fertile, it will give a crop of clover the second year as good as the first, and still keep down the timothy, but the third year it generally gives place to the timo- thy, and very little of the clover remains*. Clover, stacked or even kept in a baru till spring, is said to diminish in weight from 25 to 30 per cent. The value of clover hay in comparison with the straw of peas or beans*, and with the finest straw of corn crops, is considered to be in the propor- tion of two to one. One aero of red or broad clover is said to go as far in feeding horses and neat cattle as three of ordinary pasture ; and when it is cut occasionally, and given to them fresh, it will probably go still much farther, as no part of it is lost by being trodden down. j In Englaiid, clover will not perfect its seeds fit for saving early in the year ; therefore, the first growth is taken off either by feeding or with the scythe, and the seed is procured from the heads that are produced in the autumn. The management of a crop of clover with a view of saving seed, is thus given by a cultivator in England. " A moderate bulk of haulm is generally found most productive of seed, and a moderately rich, sharp, dry soil is the best for having moderate haulm. The field may be pas- tured till the middle of May, or the crop mown about the latter end of May, and then shut up until the ripening of the second crop, or new growth is cornpleted. In Canada, a first crop might very well be cut for soiling or hay, up to the middle of June, and then leil for a second crop for seed. August is generally the ripening month, and the maturity of the seed is known by the leaves becoming brown and dropping off. Ob- serve the seed from time to time, and when it has changed from a ' right yellow to a deep purple, it is then ready for the scythe. After the crop is cut down, disturb it as little as possible with fork or rake. Form it into small cocks not much larger tlian muck heaps. Should favourable c c ** ill y i.ir that purpose.. When tJhe seed is completely separated from the haulm, it is cleaned with the clover sieve, well known to sieve makers. The produce ia about four or five bushels, or three hundred weight to the acre." White clover, yellow clover, saintfoin and lucern, when intended for seed, are treated much in the same manner as red clover. The fertility of the soil must be considerably impaired by a second crop of clover perfecting its seed in this way, but the high value of the seed is a grep* inducement to the saving of it in favourable situations ; and every fa ler who can save seed ought to do so, in order to promote the cultivation of this excellent plant. 'I Lucern is a deep-rooted perennial plant, sending up numerous small and tail clover-like shoots, with blue or violet spikes of flowers. It is a native of the south of Europe. It is much grown in Persia and Lima^ and mown in both countries all the year round ; it is also of unknown an- tiquity in old Spain, Italy, and tVo south of France. It was introduced mto England from the latter country in 1667. It is now only cultivated in a few places in England, chiefly in Kent. It has been introduced into the United States, and is highly spoken of as an herbage plant. The objection to this plant in England is, that it is less hardy than red clover, requires more time before it comes to its full growth, great care to keep it from grass weeds, and from these and other reasons, is considered ill adapted to enter into general rotations of crops, or extensive culture. What is called yellow 'acern, is a much hardier and coarser plant than the plant first described, is common in several parts of England, but not cultivated any where except on some poor soils in France aid Switzer- land. J • . The soil for lucern should be dry, friable, inclined to sand, and with a sub-soil equal to it in goodness. Unless the sub-soil be good and deep, it is in vain to attempt to cultivate lucern. The soil that is dry and rich will be best suited to produce good crops of lucern. The pre- paration of the soil consists in deep ploughing and minute pulverization ; and the shortest way to cflect this is, to trench it over with the spade to two or three feet in depth, burying a good coat of manure in the middle or at l(>ast one foot from the surfucc. This is the practice in the laland 214 of Guernsoy whom luccrn is highly prized. The climnte for Inccrn should he warm and dry ; and that of Canodn, m summer, ought to an- swer well, hut there might be considerable datiger of the roots being in- jured in winter by severe frost. The season most proper for sowing lu- cern is as early as practicable in the spring months, as in this way the plants may be fully established before the season becomes too hot. The manner of sowing lucern is either broad-cast or in drills, and ei- ther with or without an accompanying crop of corn for the first year. Broad-cast, with a very thin crop of barley or other spring corn, is general- ly preferred ; first, because luccrn is extremely liable to be eaten by the fly, when it first comes up, and against which the growing corn is some protection. The value ot the corn crop is another object not to be forgot- ten, and is gained in the first year's growth of the lucern, which is very poorly productive the first year, though no corn should be sown with it. The quantity of seed sown in England, when the broad-cast method is adopted, is said to be from 15 to 20 pounds per acre, and from 8 to 12 if drilled. I suppose that about half this quantity of seed would be sufficient in Canada. The seed is paler, larger, and deeper than the clover seed, • and great care should be had to procure it plump and perfectly new, bs two year old seed does not come up freely. The same depth of cover- ing as for clover will answer. The after culture of lucern, sown broad- cast, consists in harrowing to destroy the grass and other weeds ; rolling, after the harrowing, to smooth the soil for the scythe, i.nd such occasion- al top dressing of manure as the state of the plants may seem to require. This top dressing may be either saline or mixed manures. Ashes are greatly esteemed ; also gypsum and liquid manure of any kind. A slight coat of manure annually in the spring is the management most approved o£. The harrowing is generally commenced the second year, with a light harrow, in the succeeding years with such as are heavier, and the operation should be performed in the spring, and the end of summer ; cill ihe weeds should be carefully collected and removed. The application of lucern is the same as that of clover the first year. The principal and most advantageous practice is that of soiting horses, neat cattle, and hogs. All agree in extolling it as food for cows, wh^ther in a green or a dried state. It is said to be superior to clover, both in increasing the milk and butter, and improving itf) flavour. In its use in a green state, the same care is necessary to be observed as with green clover, not to give animals too much at a time, especially when moist. The produce of lucern cut three times in a season, has been stated at from three to five, and even eight tons per acre. In soiling, one acre is considered sufficient for three or four cows during the soiling season ; say, however that the produce is equal in bulk and value to a full crop of red clover, then, if continued yearly for nine or ten years, (its ordinary duration in a productive state,) at an annual expense of harrowing, roll- ing and top dressing, it might be of sufficient value to induce farmers who have suitable soils, to lay down some land under this crop near their homestalls. To save the seed, the lucern may be treated precisely as the red clover, and it is much more easily threshed, the grains being contained in small pods, which easily separate under tho flail or a thresh-* ing machine, or clover-mill. cc2 \ * I t.f I ■< • m tl-J IT?' ^•: ■ J '■*■ if''- f! 915 Tho nutritive produce of lucern, according to Sir H. Dovy, is 2^ per cent., and is to that of the clovers and uaintfoin as 23 to 39. This result does not very well agree with the superior nutritive powers nttri< buted to lucem. Red clover has been proved by experience to produce most luxuriantly in Canada, to bo a certain crop, and require no after cul- ture. I am persuaded it will bo found more profttablo for the farmer than lucern. SAINTFOIK. Saintfoin is a deep-rooted perronial with branch-spreading stems, compound leaves, and showy,, red flowers. It is a native of £ngland, and many parts of Europe, but never foui.d except on dry, warm soils, where it is of great duration. It has been long cultivated in France and other parts of the Continent, and as an agricultural plant, was introduced from France to England about the middle of the 17th century. It has since been a good deal cultivated, and its peculiar value is, that it may be grown on soils unfit for being constantly under tillage, and which -would yield little under-grass. This is owing to the long and descend- ing roots of the saintfoin, which will penetrate and thrive in the Assures of rocky under strata. Its herboge is said to be equally suited for pos- iurage and for hay, and that eaten green, it is not apt to swell or hove cattle like the clovers or lucern. Arthur Young says that upon soils pro- per for this grass, no farmer can sow too much of it ; and in the Code of Agriculture it is said to be " one of the most valuable herbage plants we owe to the bounty of Providence." The best soil for this plant is that which is dry, deep, and calcaneus ; but it will grow on any soil that has a dry sub-soil. Light, sandy, and gravelly soils, and those of a mixed quality, provided they are sufficiently dry, will answer very well, and better thpn where there is a great depth of mould. It is a plant that is asserted by Marshall, to afford a large produce even on those soils which are of the poorest quality, and on such as are of a more rich and friable nature to frequently produce abundant crops. Still he conceives that it is only in the calcaneus soils, as the dry chalk and limestone, or such as have been well impregnated with that sort of matter, that it succeeds in a perfect manner, or becomes du- rable. The best preparation which any soil fit for thii plant can undergo is, unquestionably, trenching. The usual preparation, however, is the same culture as for clover, ploughing more deeply than ordinary, either by means of a trench plough, or, what is better, because more simple, by the common plough going twice in the same track. The earlier the seed can be put into the ground in spring the better, as from the greater mois- ture of the suitable soils, there will be a greater probability of its vege- tating in a perfect manner. Where the sowing is executed at a late pe- riod, and dry weather succeeds, much of the seed will be prevented from growing, and the young plants will bo more exposed to destruction by the fly. It cannot however, be sown in Canada sooner than the bar- ley, which is the best grain to sow it with, and this will be sufficiently early. 210 This |a nttri- roduco |er cul- Ifarmcr stems, igland, soils, tee and loduced It has it may which iscend- ^ Tho manner of sowing is generally broad-cabt ; some advise it^i bring sown with about half the quantity of barley unuulLy Hown for a full crop, which may slmdu and kee|) tho young plants moist during the fuht sum- mer, and at the same time not injure it from the crop being lighter. In whatever method it is sown, as tho se^'ds are larger than tho.si n '^ 'U 310 r ii ) rn foty light or iiiforior Roil, Bomc other varieties of groAS might bo in*c<] for prrmnncnt unstmcs. In Kiiglnnd, the mout ostcomcd grasflng arc the perennial rye grass, tall rcsciir, nicndow foHctic, spiked IVmcuis hard fcHCUO, flouting foscue, «\vcct-Hccntcd floll grass, fcrtilcniendowgruHH, creeping sot'tgrofla, tiorin* nnd water meadow grass. The comparative vaUio ol'all thene grasses, uith many others have been ascertained by experiments made at VVobum Al)hey, Knghind, the sent of the Duke of J^dford. TIjc result uf theso experitncnta as regards some of the principal grasses, and of timothy in particular, may bo interesting to the reader. The manner in >vhich these experiments were conducted is thus described in the Agricultural Che- mistry. " Spots of ground, each containin^^ four square feet, in the garden of Woburn Abbey, were enclosed by boards in such a manner that there was no lateral communication between the earth enclosed by tho boards, nnd that of tho garden. Tho soil was removed in these enclosures, and new soils supplied, or mixtures of soils were made in them, to furnish aa far as possible to the diflen nt grasses, those soils which seem most fa- vourable to their growth ; a few varieties being adopted for the purpose of ascertaining the eflTect of different soils upon the same plant. The grasses were either planted or sown, and their produce cut and collected, and dried at the proper seasons, in summer and autumn, by Sinclair, hia Grace's gardner. For tho purpose of determining, as far as possible, the nutritive powers of the different species, equal weights of dry giasscB or vegetable substances, were acted upon by hot water, till all their solu- ble parts were dissolved ; the solution was then evaporated to dryness by a gentle heat in a proper stove, and the matter obtained carefully weigh- ed. This part of the process was likwise conducted with much address and intelligence by Sinclair, by whom all the following details and calcu- lations arc furnished. The dry extracts supposed to contain tho nutritive matter of the grasses, were sent to me for chemical examination. Tho composition of some of them is stated minutely ; but it will be found from the general conclusions, that the mode of determining the nutritive pow- er of the grasses, by the quantity of matter they contain soluble in water, is sufficiently accurate for all the purposes of agricultural investigation." The time of flowering is given as it took place at Woburn ; in which it is observed, that " to decide positively the exact period or season when a grass always comes into flower, and perfects its seed, will be found impracticable ; for a variety of circumstances interfere. Each species seems to possess a peculiar life in which various periods may be distinct- ly marked, according to the varieties of its age, of the seasons, soils, ex- posures, and mode of culture." The soils, as denominated in the column devoted to them, are thus de- scribed. 1st. By loam, is meant any of the earths combined with de- cayed animal or vegetable matter. 2nd. Clayed loam, when the great- est proportion is clay. 3rd. Sandy loam, when the greatest proportion is sand. 4th. Brown loam, when the greatest proportion consists of de- cayed vegetable matter. 6th. Rich black loam, when sand, clay, ani- mal and vejj^ctable matters are combined in unequal proportions, sand and vegetable matter the greatest. % bo tried raas, tall rescue, s, florin, Wobum of thcso othy in ch these ml Chc- 1 nrdon of lat there boards, res, and rniHh a» most fu- purposo t. The ollcctod, :lair, his tossibic, glasses Bir solu- ness by weigh- addrcss d calcu- lutritivo ►. The nd from i^e pow- (1 water, ition." ti which >n when e found species listinct- >ils, ex- bus de> I'ith de- ! great- portion I of de- ly, ani- nd and '.m 6 1 4) •5 ce .22 H I "n.s S © 00 ':S 2 w) S o TO no a a •aiHimuOAMUin\ 'jliir.Cjp ut swu'i '.Can •KSlUf) ■J.M|IIIU.1AI|U|II,V SiiiCip uj stjo^ •iCuii 'SSIU9 (. ^ ^^ i ^^ .— — r — -* *- i '^ Vi df> irj i^J 5P © •• ^ -^ OD 4^ ^ *f TI — CI .*0 I >.-) I as O O o 1 1" 15 'O r: j: 7» — « r» — Q I-: w o T» V I- o; o . .■»r' C't i-< ^ -« ♦« r5 tX5 •*! *» IQ Ij-I TT •* c^ as ciO ;s r- 03 c; o « — rt -i J) i- r5 -" C^ ffC* p*^ '■^ |, •* ;^ I'. — tj c/j .-» I'} —< . ID H o :> o *- r^ a; ro w *- -r •^ >-^ p^ ift s «o - o» — « ro c; -f »0 "-^ '-• —" •iiiooajo piiixj •S3ss*nj3 asDiji JO uninmiis pua |ios puujTJSj tunqoAV IB IPS •uanq o ,^\^ \a po3s oiji Siiiundu JO aimx •lunqo \Y 1^ Sin ■j3woy JO oiufj^ •ajuis piJAV B ui saqaui iii inSiaij • i ;<». bo .a 0) o o 3 £ -a .5 v>o tt bfi .S .S '^ 'u, "a. 'S, c o< i >> i>> >> be bc^ir> S S 3 9 1/3 O r/3 rn 00 to o a 3 I-, )-8 05 ,-,,-» r-i r-H O (N 'I* Tf 'I* «D O O CO c» Jii t-C bo 1-8 -<5 •-a 'T -s '-I '-a '-a "-^ *-» o g 0'3 bug a; tn c« O v. -T3 fcC3 . O " O •" *»« as -^ ST.— O /} r3 &3 3 bli •'^ O it 1/1 " 6' 3 3 s CO o * O o CI (NOtn-.foooo-tio -ti o 2> 1* r-i ff>3 rS !M ^ fO -^ C-l C^ C-l CO t^ Ci o ^n & c» E S >x altf ^ :>^ ^ t:^ ?1 oii -< rt IS t- ctf ir I ^^ o c 71 f 1 I: 1, 4 H '■':' %: w m ft' t^ li 221 The produce of lattermath from the rye grass was 3403 and of nutri- tive matter 53. From the timothy 95*28, and of nutritive matter 297. The sweet scented soft grass produced most lattermath, 17,015, and nu- tritive matter 1129. The tall fescue next, 16,654, and nutritive matter 978. The hard fescue 10,209, and nutritive matter 197. These are the only grasses the lattermath of which is worthy of notice. This produce is given in pounds weight. It is necessary to observe that most of these grasses were grown un- der the most favourable circumstances possible, in suitable soil of the best quality ; it could not, therefore, be expected to obtain anything near such extraordinary produce from common field culture. However, it is interesting to know what extraordinary care and management is ca- pable of producing. Some of these grasses might not be suitable for the climate of Canada, but this table of experiments may be some guide to farmers who may wish to introduce some of the English grasses which we do not cultivate at present. On the nutritive produce. Sir H. Davy has made some valuable re- marks concerning the mode in which the animal economy is operated upon by the different substances composing the nutritive matter in plants. The only substances which he detected in the soluble matters procured from the grasses are, mucilage, sugar, bitter extract, a substance analo- gous to albumen, and different saline matters. Some of the produce from the aftermath crops give feeble indication of the tanning principle. In the experiments made on the quantity of nutritive matter in the grass- es cut at the time the seed was ripe, the seed was always separated ; and l^e calculations of the nutritive matter from the grass and not the bay. The order in which these substances are nutritive is thus given. '- The albuiien, sugar and mucilage, probably when cattle feed on grass or hiij, are for the most part retained in the body of the animal ; and the bitter principle, extract, saline matter, and tannin, when any exist, proba- bly for the most part are voided in the excrement, with the woody fibr-^. The extractive matter obtained by boiling the fresh dung of cows, is ex- tremely similar in chemical character to that existing in the soluble pro- ducts from the grasses. The extract of the dung, after being kept for some weeks, had still the odour of hay. Suspecting that some undigested grass might have remained in the dung, which might have furnished mu- cilage and sugar, as well as bitter extract, I examined the soluble mat- ter very carefully for these substances. It did not yield an atom of su- gar, and scarcely a sensible quantity of mucilage." From these facts it appears probable that the bitter extract, .though soluble in a large quantity of water, is very little nutritive ; and proba- bly it serves the purpose of preventing, to a certain extent, the fermenta- tion of other vegetable matters, or in modifying or assisting the functions of digestion, and may thus be of considerable use in forming a constitu- ent part of the food of animals. A small quantity of bitter extract and saline matter is probably aU that is needed ; and beyond this quantity, the soluble matter must be more nutritive in proportion as they contain more albumen, sugar and mucilage, and less nutritive in proportion us they contain other substances. In comparing the composition of the soluble products avoided by dif- f 1 222 of nutrl- kter 297. J>, and nu- (ve matter se are the Is produce ^rown un- foil of the anything However, lent is ca- Mtable for fme guide Jses which luable re- operated in plants, procured ce analo- produce principle. he grass- sparated ; id not the lus given, on grass ; and the St, proba- )dy fibr-. vs, is ex- uble pro- kept for idigested ihed mu- ble mat- tn of su- •though dl proba- rmenta- unctions !onstitu- act and uantity, contain rtion us by dif- ferent crops from the same grass, Sir H. Davy found, in all the trials, the largest quantity of truly nutritive matter in the crop cut when the seed was ripe, and least bitter extract and saline matter ; most bitter ex- tract and saline matter in the autumnal crop ; and most saccharine mat- ter, in proportion to the other ingredients, in the crop cut at the time of flowering. The soluble matter obtained from the different species of fescue grass afforded a large proportion of bitter extract. The soluble matter of the seed crop of timothy affords more sugar than any of the most esteemed species of English grasses. All the soluble extracts of those grasses, that are most liked by cattle, have either a saline or a sub-acid taste. No difference was found in the nutritive produce of crops of the differ- ent grasses cut at the same season, which would render it possible to establish a scale of their nutritive powers ; but probably the soluble mat- ters of the aftermath crop are always from one-fourth to one-third less nutritive than those from the flower or seed crop. The table I have ^iven of the Woburn experiment on grasses, will give all the information that is necessary for farmers in making a choice of grasses and the most judicious period of cutting them, so as to ob- tain the most profitable returns from the produce of each. As, however, the timothy grass is almost the only one cultivated in Canada, I shall give the remarks on this grass, in the Woburn experiment. The cat's-tiiil, or timothy grass, is a native of England, and found both in dry and moist soils. It was first brought into notice by Timothy Hudson, about 1780, who introduced it from Carolina, where it was in great repute. Though it has not hitherto been much cultivated in Eng- land, the Woburn experiments present this grass as one of the uiost pro- lific for hay. Sixty-four drachms of the straw afforded seven drachms of nutritive matter. The nutritive powers of the straw simply, therefore, exceed the leaves, in the proportion of 28 to 8 ; the nutritive powerfc. of the grass at the time of flowering, exceed those of the grass at the time the seed is ripe, in the proportion of 10 to 23 ; and the nutritive powers of the latterrnath, those of the grass of the flowering crop, in the propor- tion of 8 to 10 ; the value of the straw at the time the seed is ripe, ex- ceeds that of the grass at the time of flowering, in the proportion of 28 to 10. The comparative merits of this grass will, from the above parti- culars, appear to be very great ; and I am well convinced there is not a grass cultivated in England, that would be so profitable to cultivate in Canada as timothy grass. I have seen it grow well on every soil pro- perly prepared for grass seed. This grass has a remarkable quality of having very few leaves when at maturity, or fit for mowing, and these leaves scarcely of any value compared to the straw. The varieties of the fescue grass were the only ones that come up to the timothy in quan- tity of produce, but neither of these grasses are equal in value to timo- thy as hay ; and there is not any grass that requires less drying to con- vert it into hay. The reed, or water meadow grass, is chiefly found in marshes as its natural soil, but will grow on strong clays, and yield, as the Woburn ex- periments prove, a prodigious produce. In the fens of Cambridgeshire, Lincolnshire, &c., immense tracts that used to be overflowed, and to Dd2 a '■■ '» "m )k I A " ■ t^fli m to 223 produce useless aqnatic plants, and which, though drained by mills, strll retain much moisture, arc covered v. uh this gras*", \vhich not only nf- Ibrds rich pasturage in summer, but forms the chief part of the winter fodder. It has a powerful creeping root, and bc;irs frequent mowing well. It is sometimes cut thrice in one season near the 1 liamcs. It grows not only in very moist ground, but in the water itself. It is a grass well adapted to some of the swamp lands of I^ritish America, and would give new scttlcrh", in particular situations, a lar^rcr quant ily of fod- der for cattle than any othrr grass, and grow where scarcely any other grass would grow. The florin grass will produce abundantly on moist rich soils', but is very Into in coming to maturity. I have ^i on it grow very luxuriantly in Canada on moist soil, without any cultivation, and wherever it takes root, it will soon cover the ground to the total exclu- sion of every other grass. There arc several grasses which afford cvdms for straw plait, for hats or bonnets ; the following are amongst the best : Crested dog's-tail, nar- row-lea meadow grass, shcop fescue grass, meadow barley grass, down oat grass, lobed bent grass, and brown bent grass. The period of cutting the culms of these grasses is when thry are in blossom. They are bleached by pouring boiled water over thrm, and letting them remain in the hot water one or two hoiu's, and afterwards spreading them on a grass plot two or three days. When bleached, they are taken up, washed clean, and put in a moist state in a close vessel, where they are subjected to the fumes of burning sulj»hur for two hours. Green culms, immersed for ten minutes in a strong solution of acetic acid, and then subjected to the sulphureous acid gas, arc bleached per- fectly white in half an hour. Green culms, immersed for fifteen minutes in muriatic acid, diluted with twenty times its measure of water, and then spread on the grass, will be bleached perfectly white in four days.. The texture of the straw is not in the least injured by these processes. To imitate the Leghorn plait in the most perfect manner, the straws should be plaited the reverse way of the common English split straw plait. In tl." English plait, the straws are flattened by a small ';and- mill, made for the purpose ; but the Leghorn plait has the straws work- ed without flattening, and pressure is applied after the plait is made. It is essential that these two points should be observed by those who wish to rival the finest Leghorn manufacture. Dy reversing the common mode of plaiting, the fingers have a much greater power in firmly and intimately knitting the straws ; and the round or unfiattened state of the straws allows of their being more closely knitted, a circumstance that gives an appearance similar to the rival Leghorn plait. I art of the pr'1 luvl MANAGEMENT OP LANDS UNDER CRASS TOR MEADOW OR PASTURE. In a country like Canada, where labour is high, land retained in grass, to a certain extent, might be as valuable to the owners in that state, as they would be in nny other. Indeed arable culture cannot be carried on profitably, unless in connection with meadow, pasture and the feeding of stock. The term meadow includes all such land as is kept under grass for •1 224 Ihe sake of a hay crop. Where hay is in demand, as n( ar lart^c lownv, a great deal of land may be appropriated to hay crops, to s^iipply this de- mand. The most valuable meadows are such as arc naturally rather moist than dry, or are rendered so occasionally by means of irrigation. There arc three descriptions of these mcadous ; tho; e on the banks of streams and rivers ; those on uplands, or more elevated grounds, and bog and swamp meadows. River meadows, or those which are situated in the bottoms of valley?, are in general by far the most valuable. They are the most productive of grass and hay, yielding sustenance for cattle throuph tl.e suniu.d- ar.d the winter, and producing an everlasting source of nuiuure fur the im- provement of the adjoining lands. The soil is deep, and comrjionly al- luvial, having been deposited by water, or washed do^^n IVom tlu; ad- joining eminences ; the surface is even, from the same cau^e, and, what is of considerable importance, it generally has a gradual deelivily or sur- face-drainage to thfe river or stream, which almost i» variably flows in tlic lowest part of every valley, and which is essential to this description of meadow. The principal defects to which such lands arc liable are, Ihc oozing out of springs towards the junction with the rising lands, and the inundations of the river or stream. The former evil is to be remedied by draining ; and the latter, in some situations, by embanking, but it is a remedy that cannot often be adopted in Canada ; it will be a much bet- ter plan, where the rivers are not very large, to improve the water cours^es if practicable, by removing obstructions, and straightening them if ne- cessary. Such meadows will generally be stocked with glasses, ^alua- ble in proportion as the land is judiciovsly drained ; and the culture of these grasses consists of little more than in keeping these lands judicious- ly drained, by open furrows, and drains to carry oil* the rain water, and in mowing and pasturing by turns, so as to keep the land in good heart without laying on manure. These are the most suitable meadows for irrigation, and can be executed with much less expense than meadows of sloping or uneven surfaces, which are much more diflicnlt to water. • Upland meadows are next in value to those of valleys. In this coun- try there are not many acres of upland fit for arable culture, kept perma- nently under meadow, as in England, nor would it be necessary, were a proper system of convertible husbandry adopted. Near towns, pcnna- nent meadows might be profitable, and be kept many years producing? clover, saintfoin and timothy, by top-dressing. The roots of perennial grasses, whether fibrous or creeping, never strike deep into the soil, and thus derive their nourishment chiefly from the surface ; toj)-dressing of compost, or well rotted manure, would produce the most luxuriant crops, and have done so in England for centuries. Moss will not grow on meadow lands if they are rich. A most efFectual way of destroying moss is to harrow the surface well, top-dress w ith manure, and sow some fresh grass seeds. In a system of convertible husbandry, where lands arc ordy left in grass three years for meadow or pasture, meadows will not require much manure. If laid down in proper condition, lands will give two crops of meadow, and be pastured the third year before they are again ploughed up. When land is Icfl six years under grass, by pasturing the thirds i m l^-^ III! 225 fourth, and sixth years, it will not require much manure ; but, in any case that meadow is mowed for three years in succession, it would re- quire manure before the third crop is taken ofT, and every second year afterwards that it produces a hay crop, without pasturing. The best sea- son for applying manure in this climate is from the middle of September to the end of October, if it be practicable, and the land sufficiently dry to bear loaded carts without injury. At this season, the heat of the day is moderate, and will not exhale the volatile parts of the dung, as it would do, if applied when the heat of the sun is more powerful. If the farmer cannot conveniently apply the manure in the fall, by putting out the dung in the field during the winter, it may answer very well to apply it when the snow is gone in the latter end of March or beginning of April, taking care not to cut up the surface b , the carts. When manure is applied in spring, it requires to be wel' rotied, or to be compost manure, and un- less put on early, it may as well be reserved to the fall ; but if applied early, the grass will soon grow up over it, and protect it from the effects of the weather. There is scarcely any sort of manure that v 1 not be useful when laid on the surface of grass grounds. The banks of drains and ditches, turn- ed over with the spade two or three times, will, if spread over grass lands, greatly iinprove them. Compositions of dung and earth, well mixed and rotted, or of earth and lime, will answer extremely well as top-dressing ; indeed they are the best kind of manure for top-dressing meadows. The quantity of manure necessary, must in a great measure depend upon the circumstances of the land ; and the quantity that is actually applied, will depend upon the facility of procuring it, and the industry and skill of the farmer. Thirty loads of a one-horse cart, of good dung, might do one acre ; but of compost, it will require from 40 to 60 loads ; that is, allow- ing one load to 35 yards of a ridge 9 or 10 feet wide, at 40 loads, or a load to about 22 yards of the same kind of ridge, at 60 loads to the acre. If the farmer can afford a larger quantity of manure, it may be very pro- fitablv applied. I believe top-dressing meadows, when necessary, at the proper season, will give the farmer as good returns as any way that ma- nure can be applied in agriculture. It will be sure to produce clover and timothy without any new seeding. Bog meadows are of two kinds, peat bogs and earthy bogs. Peat bogs are situated in hollows or basins, which have had no natural outlet for water to drain them perfectly, and have become filled with aquatic plants and mosses. In warm moist climates, these kind of bogs, if they can be properly drained and dressed with a coating of sand, earth or lime, would be most productive in clover or timothy, and other grasses of less value. These kind of lands might be made most valuable in the climate of Canada. In very dry summers the main drains might be dammed up to supply the soil with moisture, and these bogs are generally so level, that moisture may be supplied effectually. Earthy bog meadows are situated either in hollows or on slopes, and are formed by an accumulation of water in the sub-soil, which not find- ing a free passage in any one point, spreads under and filtrates upwards through a considerable extent of surface. The grasses on such mea- ut, in any would re- cond year best sea- eplember ;iently dry )f the day s it would he farmer the dung y it when ril, taking applied in , and un- if applied the effects when laid ihes, turn- ass lands, nixed and dressing ; W8. The upon the plied, will kill of the ht do one is, allow- oads, or a the acre, very pro- iry, at the ^ that ma- :lover and Peat bogs outlet for tic plants ' they can 1 or lime, Bs of less e climate mmed up so level, >pes, and not find- upwards ch mea- 226 dows before they are drained, are of little value ; but by draining, the quality of them will be improved, and better kinds will appear. HAY-MAKING. The best time for mowing timothy grass is, when it comes into flow- er ; this will generally be from the 10th to 20th of July. It should then be mown as soon as possible. The same rule may be observed with regard to all other grasses intended for hay, whether cultivated or natu- ral. Farmers who do not mow their oivn meadows, will find it the best plan to let their mowing at a fixed price per acre. The price in Lower-Ca- nada ^ .nerally, for meadows growing timothy or uncultivated grasses, is from 2s. to 2s. 6d. the acre, without food or drink ; for heavy mea- dows, where there is much clover, the price of mowing is sometimes double this. In Upper-Canada, also, the price is higher. When the grass is standing, a good mower will cut about one acre and a half, and perhaps two acres in a day ; but I have seen good mowers not able to cut much over half an acre of heavy clover in a day. Mowers should begin their work as early as there is light in the moraing, in order that they may take rest in the middle of the day, when the heat is very great, and work again until a late hour in the evening ; the grass will cut much better in the morning and evening, than in the heat of the day. First day. — All the grass mown before twelve o'clock at noon, may be tedded on the same day, strewing it evenly over all the ground. This should be done before dinner. By this regular method of tedding grass for hay, the hay will be of a more valuable quality, and be worth more to the farmer or purchaser. When the grass is sufl^ered to lie in the swath, the upper surface is dried by the sun and winds, and the interior part is not dried, but withered, and is of a difl^erent colour. In fine weather, in this climate, the hay tedded in the forenoon should, in the af- ternoon, be carefully turned, and about three or five o'clock, gathered and raked into rows, and put up into well made grass cocks. I find that a heavy dew falling on hay, after it has been tedded, and partially dried, before it is put up into cocks, is very injurious to it, and changes the co- lour as much as rain would do. Farmers will, therefore, find it their pro- fit, in good weather, to put up in cocks in the evening of each day all the hay that has been cut before twelve o'clock. Isecond day. — The busi- ness of this day may commence with tedding all the grass cut in the af- ternoon of the day previous, and all that was mown this morning. Next, all the grass cocks put up the evening before should be shaken out in rows, putting three rows of cocks in each, if it can be conveniently done, raking between the rows immediately, and mixing this raking with the other hay, ia order to its all drying of a uniform colour. The next busi- ness will be to turn these rows once or twice before dinner. After din- ner, if the weather is favourable, and the grass chiefly timothy, all that was put into grass cocks the evening before, and shaken out in the morn- ing, may be carted to the barn or stack. I have frequently done this ; but, of course the farmer's own judgment must determine when the hay is sufficiently dried. One day may dry hay more than three days, though i ^1 if 227 Urn .-11 ihcre .shoiiUI be no rnia uny one of the days ; liay may not be equally well tcd'lcd or tuniod iu all canes ; these circumalances will have a ma- terial influence on ihc time it will take to prepare hay perfectly lor tho barn. The grass tedded in the morning must also be attended to, turn- ed, gathered and r.dicd, and put uj) in grays cocks, as was done on the lirst day, and the sauic oj)erati()na may go on every succeeding day of hay-m.dvin/^. It is most e.-sential that at haying time farmers have sufil- cieiit help Id carry on the work regularly. It is better to stop mowing than mow a greater (juantity than can be managed properly ; the grass will suflbr much leiss in a growing state than lying on the ground, cut, bleach- ing under a hot sun in the day, after being exposed to heavy dews at iiight. flay thus exposed is not much better than straw. The propor- tion of liay-mukers in England is about twenty men, women and boys, to four mowers ; but there can be no certain rule laid down ; the crop, the weather, and ,„] f ii ''.ii li'ftf «» oviA ViiiJUj^'i 'J. e'. p. Hi jijiT^^ot much of the lands of Canada cari be termed nch old pastures. Any lands that could be ploughed were seldom allowed to continue in grass a second year. The farmers have been so much attached to the .system of arable culture, there was no great chance tliat pastures should become old and rich. Perhaps it was not necessary they should. This system, however, has been unfavorable to the due improvement of stock ; indeed, it was impossible that stock could be brought to any degree of per- fection, on poor pastures that were only allowed to continue in grass of one year's natural produce, or on such pastures as were unfit for culti- vation.- Under these circunistances, stock must have degenerated, and their improvement is impossible until a different and more judicious sys- tem of agriculture is introduced. The plan of convertilj^le husbandry, I have submitted, would perhaps improve the foOd of animals sufficiently, without making it necessary to keep land lit for the plough in permanent pasture : but, on all lands that rdquire very considerable expenditure of capital, to prepare tjiem for the plough, it will generally be most profitable for the farmer to allow them to remain in permanent pasture in such a country as this, where abundance of land of good equality is to be hvL^ by purchase at a low price. , ' '^ "' There are various sorts of grass landn, if once improved, that ought not to bo broken up ; as water meadow, lands apt to be overflowed, and lands near large towns where the produce of grass land is always in demand for the pasturage ofcattle, and to supply hay, which cannot be profitably , brought to market trom any great distance, from its being a bulky com- modity, and often sailing at a low price. , ,; Fiu-ms arc not sufficiently extensive, or propei'ly subdivided, at pre- sent, to enable farmers to keep their stock ol dincrent nges,or for different E e .« ■| m i ■ 1 ' , ■I <■', I '! 229 purposes, in separate enclosures, though this management would Lo highly desirable, and is essentially necessary for the profitable improve- ment of stock. It is in many cases proper to intermix animals, but it should be always in the power of the farmer, to keep them, or any class of thcni, separate, when ho found it necessary. Cattle that arc put to fatten on grass, should be as little disturbed as possible. Driving them to arid from the pasture with milch cows, or other stock, morning and evening, is injurious to them, and it is equally so, to restrain them in the pasture when the other stock are driven home, if accustomed to be with them, as they will be inclined to fret, and not rest or feed when separated from the other cattle. Water should, if possible, be provi(^od in every field under pasture, and also shelter and shade, either by a (cw trees, or by a portable shed, which may be moved with the stock from one enclo- sure to another. All weeds of every description, in pastures, should bo carefully mowed on or about the first of July. , It is difficult to estimate accurately, what stock lands will feed or keep Well to the acre, so much depends upon the soil, its richness or fertility, when seeded down. Were those lands that arc favorably situated in fer- tile valleys, in many parts of both provinces, allowed to become old pas- tures, they would support or fatten a suitable stock of animals, sufiiciently numerous on a given quantity of land, to pay the farmer as well as if the same land were in tillage, and I believe much better. Equally favora- ble results will, I hope, be obtained from the land that may be alternate- ly pastured, in the proposed system of convertible husbandry, if far- mers will only keep their lands in a constant state of fertility, and always sow clover and grass seed when letting them out for pasture. i PLANTS CHIEFLY CROWN FOR CLOTHING. •. • ■ K * ; ' '.* The plants used as food for men and animals are by far the most gene- rally cultivated in all countries. The flax for clothing, and hemp for oth- er purposes, are partially cultivated in the Canadas, but not to the extent that is desirable, and would be profitable. Large premiums have been long offered, by the London Society of Arts, Manufactures, and Com- merce, for encouraging the cultivation of hemp in British America, and I have no doubt but it might be cultivated with great success in Canada, if imills were erected for breaking and preparing it ; the soil and cUmate is suitable for growing'hemp. As flax is, however, a plant necessary for bur domestic manufactures, every farmer ought to sow some, to supply his own family with one of the most useful articles for their summer clothing— good home manufactured linen» ■■•'Ml ''•J!' ;■■!; UVIUO \ . .'(■■ji ■; H :r.l FLAX. y .M in Zealand, a province of Holland, remarkable for the fineness of its flax, the soil is deep and rather stiff", with the water almost every where at the depth of a foot or a foot and a half from the surface. In Ireland the moist stiff soil yields much larger quantities of flax,and far better seed than can be obtained from light lands. These facts might be some guide to farmers here. ; 230 - mdry, if far- Flax, if intended to be pulled groon, might be placed in n rotation as a green crop, and come in place of a part of the summer fallow. In that CL )e the land might bo early ploughed in the flill, so that the soil may bo duly mellowed by the winter frosts. If necessary, it should be again ploughed iki the spring, and the surface bo reduced perfectly fine by har- rowing, previous to sowing the seed, water furrowing the land, and removing all stones, roots, &c., that may remain on the surface. The seed should be sown as early as the land can be prepared in the spring. The quantity of seed dopends on the intention of the crop. When the the crop of seed is intended to be taken, thin sowing is preferable in or- der that the plant may have room to throw out lateral shoots, and to ob- tain air at the blossoming and filling seasons. But when the plant ia pulled green for flax, the seed should not be sown thin, for the crop then becomes coarse and unproductive. In Ireland the usual quantity sown to the English acre, is from eighteen to twenty gallons ; hero a much less quantity would be required. When the crop is intended for seed, one third loss seed may be sown. The seed brought from Holland is found to produce much better crops of flax in Ireland than seed brought from America. I believe this must be greatly owing U ihe diflc;enco of cli- mate, that of Holland approximating to that of Ireland more than the cli- mate of America does. When the soil is made perfectly fine, the seed is then sown, harrowed in, and ought to be rolled. In Ireland when the crop is intended for flax, it is pulled while green, immediately aficr the seed is formed, and when the bottom of tho stalk begins to turn yellow, as the flax is much finer and of better quality when the plant is pulled at this stage of its growth, than when allowed to ad- vance more towards maturity. When pulled it is tied into sheaves like corn, and carried off* immediately to be watered in bogs where turf has been dug out. In this country, where it may be inconvenient in many situations to water-steep flax, what is called in England dew-rotting, may be adopted instead. This is nothing more than spreading the flax on the field, and exposing it to the influence of the weather until the stalks ar- rive at that state in which the woody parts separate most easily from the boon, or fibre. Where it can bo water-steeped, howevcr,it will be found the preferable mode, and in standing pools,or in pits made for the purpose in swamps or bogs, the flax may be steeped, placing weights on planka over the flax to keep the whole firmly under water. Clear soft: water is the best for steeping flax. The period the flax should remain under wa- ter depends upon various circumstances; as the state of ripeness in which it was pulled, the quality and temperature of the water, &c. The most certain rule by which to judge when flax is sufficiently watered, is when the boon becomes brittle, and the hard or woody parts separate ea- sily from it. In warm weather, six or seven days will be sufficient for itto remain in the water. It is better to give it too little of the water than loo much, as any deficiency may bo easily made up by suffering it to lie lon- ger on the grass, whereas an excess of water admits of no remedy.— Bleaching flax is the next operation, the intention of which is to rectify any defect in the watering process, and carry on the putrefaction i)roccs3 to that point where the fibre will separate from the bark or woody j)art of the stem with the greatest ease. In performing this opcration,the flox EC 2 i^' i ^'i' 'i it'll 'Hi '4. »; f )■.' I '% 231 is spread very tliin on tlic grasp, in regular rows, tho one being made to ovorlap tho other a few inches, with a view of preserving it as much as poasiblo from being scattered about with tho wind. Tho time allowed f(jr bleaching is regulated by tho state of tho flax, and seldom exceeds twelve or fourteen days in Ireland, but will not require so many in Canada. It must bo repeatedly examined, and when found that on being broken and rubbed between the hands, the fibre easily and freely separates from the woody parts, it may bo bound up in sheaves, and secured for future dres- sing and manufacture. The dressing of flax consists in various operations, such as breaking, by wiilch the woody part is broken, scutching, heckling and combines by which the fibre is separated from the woody part. These operation^ must bo executed by hand, where there are no flax mills. ^ Mr. Lee's method of breaking flax and hemp without dew or water rot- ting, was invented in 1810. I have seen some of his samples that were laid before tho Farmer's Society in Ireland ; they were very fine and silky in appearance, and much stronger than water rotted flax. The invention of Mr. Lee, has been brought to greater perfection by a new patent ma- chine of Messrs. Hill and liundy. These machines are portable, and may bo worked in barns or any kind of out house ; a great part of tho work Is so light that it can be done by children and infirm persons ; and such is the construction and simplicity of the machine, that no previous instruction or practice is required. Their introduction into Canada would be very desirable, and would bo well calculated for work-houses. Tho woody part of the flax stalk is removed by a very simple machine ; and, by passing through a machine equally simple, the flax may be brought to any degree of fineness equal to that used in France and the Netherlands for the finest lace and cambric. The original length of the fibre, as well as its strength remains unimpaired ; and the difference of the produce is said to be immense, being nearly two thirds ; one ton of flax being pro- duced from four tons of stem. The expense of working each ton ob- tained by this method is only five pounds. The glutinous matter may be removed by soap and water only, which will bring the flax to such a perfect whiteness, that no further bleaching is necessary, even after tho linen is woven ; and the whole process of preparing flax may be com- pleted in six days. The produce of flax, in fibre, varies considerably. j3efore being sorted, the gross produce of fibre is from three hundred to half a ton the English acre. When the crop of flax is intended for seed, it must not be pulled until the seed be ripe. The seed pods are separated from the $talk by a pro- cess called rippHng, and it is considered best to perform this operation im- mediately af\er the flax is pulled, as the easiest time to do so, and dry tho seed afterwards. The operation of rippling is performed by forcing from the stalk the pods containing the seed by means of an iron comb called a ripple, fixed on a beam of wood through which the flax is drawn repeatedly until the seed is separated from the &talk. A large sheet is generally spread under the ripple to receive the seed, which must be dried by the sun perfectly before it is threshed. When the seed is threshed and cleaned, it must be carefully stirred, and prevented from heating. As the making of flax-seed jelly is an agricultural operation, I shall 232 made to much ns lllonc fl for pds twelve knnda. It rolicn and from fho Iturc drcs- bronkin/j, fmbin^f, by [opcraticms water rot- that were and silky invenrion atont ma- table, and 'art of the ons ; and previous ada would iC8. The ine ; and, )rought to ethcrlands re, as Mell produce is eing pro- h ton ob- itter may o such a after the be com- siderably. indred to lied until y a pro- ation im- d dry the ing from • called a pcatcdly generally d by the led and I shall here dosrribc it. The proportion of water to fired is about Kovcn to one. I'hc sod having been steeped in part of the water for 4^ hours previ- o\isiy to the boiliiijT, the remainder of the water is added cold, and Ihe whole boiled gently about two hourp, being kept in motion during the op- eration, to prevent it?i burning in tho boiler. Thus the whole is reduced to a jelly-like, or rather a gluey or ropy substance. ,\fter being cooled in tubs, it is given with a mixture of barley meal, bran and cut chafi"; a bullock being allowed about two quarts of the jelly per day, or sonif- what more than one quart of seed in four days, that is, about onc-six- -tccnth of medium allowance of oil-cake. HEMP. tW . r ■•I' ;»|!.' |! • 1 '1' ' J The culture, management, and use of hemp, are nearly the samo as those of flax. When grown for seed, it is a very exhausting crop ; but when pulled gieon, it is considered a cleaner of tho ground. The soils suitable for hemp are those cf the deep black putrid vegetable kind, which have a situation low and somewhat inclined to moisture, as well as the deep mellow, loamy or sandy sorts. But the quajitity of produce is in general much greater on the former than on the latter, though, according to some, of an inferior quality. Mellow, rich, clayey loams do well, and nothing better than old meadow land. The season of sowing may be the same as for flax, and the quantity of seed may be about two bushels to tho acre, but something less if the soil be T^ry rich. It is generally sown broad-cast, and it is necessary to keep the birds from it untd fairly up. In hemp, the male and female flowers arc in different plants, a circum- stance which has some influence on its culture and management. When the crop is grown entirely for its fibre, it is pulled when in flower, and no distinction made between the male and female plants. IJul as it is most commonly grown both with a view to fibre and seed, the usual practice is to pull the male plants as soon as the setting of the seed in ihe females shows that they have efTected their purpose. As the female plants re- quire four of five weeks to ripen their seed, the males are thus pulled so long before them. In the operation of pulling tho males, the pullers walk in the furrows between the ridges, and reach across to the crown of the ridge, pulling one or two stalks at a time, ana carefully avoiding to tread down the fe- male plants. Tho male stalks are easily known by their yellowish hue and faded flowers. They are tied in small bundles, and immediately carried to the watering pool, in the manner of flax. The operation of pulling the females commences when the seed in ripe, which is known by the brownish or grayish hue of the capsules and tho fading of the leaves. The stalks are then pulled and bound up into bundles, being set up in the same manner as grain, until the seed be- comes as dry and firm as to shed freely ; great care siiould be taken in pulling not to shake flie stalks rashly,* otherwise much of the seed may be lost. It is advised that, after pulling the seed, hemp may be set to stand in shocks of five sheaves, to dry the seed ; but, in order to prevent any delay in watering, the Eccd-pod.-i may be cut olfwith u chop[>ing S ■« .^ • 1 ^ . 233 ■ knife, and dried on ctinvJis exposed to the air under Fomc t-hcd or cover. Thia luat method of drying the need will prove of great advantage to the hi'inp, tts tho seed and pods, when green, are of Huch a gummy nature that tho stems might suffer much by uun-hurning or rain, which will dis- C(^lour and injure tho hemp before tho aeed can be sufficiently dried upon tiii(^ stalks ; besides, the threshing out tho seed would damage the hemp in a considerable degree. Hump is watored, bleached, and grasned in tho name manner us flux. (Jrausing is omitted in some places, and drying substituted ; and in other districts, watering is omitted with tho female crop, which is dried and stacked, and dewed or bleached tlie following sfiring. On the Conti- ntjut, hot water and green soap have been tried ; and there as in the case of flux, it is ft und that steeping for two hours in this mixture is as eflec- tual in separating the fibro from the woody matter as watering and grass- ing for weeks. The produce of hemp in fibro is said to vary from tlirec to six hundred per acre ; in seed, from ten to twelve bushels. Hemp might, if cultivat- ed extensively, become a very valuable produce for exportation. The Society of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, have offered largo premiums for tho cultivation of hemp in Canada. Several samples of hump of Canadian growth were sent to England some time back, and were placed under the examination of the best judges, by whom they were considered defective, rather from tho faulty mode of preparation than from any inferiority in the material itself. Some was found to be of as great a length as the Italian hemp, which is longer than that from the IJaltic, but the whole was mixed together w ithout any regard to length or (piality. The Russian hemp, on tho contrary, is always carefully assort- ed into diflerent classes, which of course obtain very diflijrent prices in the market. Surely if hemp is worth cultivating, farmers migtit readily attain proper methods of preparing and assorting it. It is supposed that England imports from Russia alone, annually, the hemp produced from 60,000 acres of land, and in time of war, it was about double that quan- tity. It is calculated that the sails and cordage of a first rate man-of-war require about 180,000 pounds of rough hemp for their construction, equal to the average produce of about 80 acres of land. THE HOP. Of the plants grown expressly for use in tho brewery, the only one of any consequence is the hop. The hop is a perennial-rooted plant, Avith an annual twining stem, which on poles or in hedges, will reach the height of from twelve to twenty feet, or more. It is a native of Britain and most parts of Europe, and is very successfully cultivated in Canada. The female blossoms are the parts used ; and as the male and female flowers are on different plants, tho female only is cultivated. When the hop was first used for preserving beer is unknown ; its culture was in- troduced into England from Flanders, in the reign of Henry the 8th. * , ' Tho hop has been cultivated extensively in many parts of Engli.nd, but not much in Scotland or Ireland. Hops arc not considered advan- tagcoui in an agiicultural point of view, because much manure is ab- tl upon ' hemp •#>" 234 slrncl^d l>y ihom while little or none ia retiirnrd. They nro nn uncer- tain articUi of growth, often yielding largo profitH to the rnltivalor, niid often making nn imperfect retijrn, not much more than Huflicicnt to de- fray the expenses of labour. Hops nre exposed to so many disrases niid casualties, that there is considerable uncertainty in cultivating them. The soils most favourable to the growth of hops are clays and strong deep loams ; but it is also of great importance that the sub-soil fhotdd le dry and friable ; a cold, wet, tenacious, clayey understratum being foun«l extremely injurious to the roots of the plantM, af, when they penc traS* below the good soil, they soon become unproductive, ond ultimately de- cay. Bannister says, that though a dripping summer is by no means kindly ; 1, 1'^ ifti/tiil • r; .'Jfvii. Si 235 likely to prevent blasts, mildew, moulds, and ctlicr accidents. If the hops are planted too close, the vines arc disposed to house or grow toge- ther at the toj)S of the poles, whereby the hops are so over-shadowed as to be debarred the influence of the sun, and prevented from arriving at half their growth. The ordinary season for planting is in spring ; but if bedded plants, or Buch as have been nursed for one summer in a garden are used, I be- lieve they might bo safely planted in autumn, and then some produce might be had in the succeeding year. It is, however, when dressing and l)runing the vine in spring, that cuttings are generally taken for a new plantation. The plants or cuttings are procured from the old stools* and each should havG two eyes or points ; from the one placed in the ground springs the root, and from the other the stalk. They should be mado from the most healthy and strong binds or stalks, each being cut to the length of five or six inches^ The mode of performing the operation of l)lanting in Kent, England, is as follows : — After the land is properly prepared, they strike furrows with the plough at equal distances of six or eight feet ; when finished, they repeat the same across in an opposite di- rection, which will divide the piece into six or eight feet squares. The hills are made where the furrows cross each other ; small pits are formed by taking out a spit, or spade's depth of earth ; and th^ earth below is generally loosened ; a certain quar»tity, about half a bushel of dung is laid in each pit ; then the earth that was formerly taken out is again replaced, and so much added as to form a small hill. On this hill, five, six or se- ven sets, procured from the roots or shoots of the old stock, are dibbled in. The plants are placed in a c'rcular form towards the top of the hill, and at the distance of five or six inches asunder from each other. They arc made to incline towards the centre of the hillock, where another plant is commonly placed. When the rows are planted in this way, ploughing and horse hoeing can be executed in the after culture. An interval crop can very well be taken in the first summer of a hop plantation. Beans are grown in England in the intervals for the first two years if the hop plants are raised from cuttings put down in the planta- tion, without having been previously planted for a year in beds in a gar- den. Some are cf opinion that onions or carrots only should be grown in the intervals. I have seen Indian corn raised here in the intervals, .and by a person who understood the raising of hops better than most far- mers in the province. Iloeing in hop plantations is in England performed by a horse imple- ment. \'VTien the hop-stools are formed in the angles of squares, the in- tervals may be hoed both lengthwise and across, and thus nothing is left to be performed by manual labour but cutting any weeds which may rise in the hills. " Stirring the soil between the rows may be eflbcted with the plough, to any desirable depth ; the surface can also be cliangcd at discretion. Once going and returning would eiloct this, cither by the paring or cleaning out ; that is, forming eidier a ridgelet or gutter betw«;en the rows, bolh lengthwise and across. Twice or thrice going in the i^anio direction would also succeed, and would be the preferable mode of covering in manure. s^ 136 fS In the application of manure, vaiiou? modes a'^e adopted ; some always use well .^ued stable dung, otiieis compost of earth and dung. In lay- ing it on in P^ngland, many prefer the auttmin to the spring, and heap it on the hills without putting any between the rows ; others put it all be- tween the rows, alleging that laying on the hills encourages insects, ex- poses the dung to evaporation and loss, and sometimes, when mixed with earth, hinders the plants from coming up. A great deal will be found in favour of, and against each of these modes, in the numerous works on tHe culture of the hop, which have been written within the last three cen- turies ; but it must be obvious to any person gonerally conversant with vegetaljje culture, that well rotted stable dimjj must be the best kind for use for the hop, and the spring the best season for laying it on, and that it ought to be turned int j the soil between the rows with the plough. Thirty ca;t-l jads of dung to the acre, once in three years, is considered sufficient in England. So iie prefer giving it ten or twelve loads every year. By the latter end of spring the young shoots will have made con- siderable progress, and the carJi is then drawn up to their roots from the surrouadiiig mtcrval-:, in order to strengthen them ; and whether any kind of crops are grown on the intervals or not, the land must be kept perfectly clean. In dressing the hop plants, the operations of the first year are confined to twisting and removing the haulm. The operation of twisting is con- fined to such plants as are not exj)Gcted to produce a crop that season. It is usually performed when the vines have grown to some length, by twisting the young vines into a bunch or knot ; so that, by thus discou- raging their growth, the roots are enabled to spread out more vigorously, and to acquire strength previously to the a[!j)roach of the winter season. Removing the haulm takes place about the end of September, and con- sists simply in cutting it over with a sickle, and carrying it oflf the field for litter or burning. After this operation, some add cupping, or cover- ing the hills with compost. The first year's dre.ssing of hops expected to produce flowers, consists in what is called in England, picking. This operation is generally com- menced as early as iho state of the soil will permit in spring, by spread- ing out the hills, in order to give opportunity to prune .and dress the stocks. The earth being then cleared away from the principal rootr, the remains of the former year's vines are cut off, together with the shoots which were not allowed to attach themselves to the poles in the former season, and also any young suckers that may have sprung up about the edges of the hills ; so that nothing is allowed to remain that is likely to injure the principal roots, or impede their shooting out strong and vigor- ous vines at the proper seaaon. After the roots have been properly cleaned and primed, the hills are again formed with an addition, if not every year, at least every second or third year, of a proper quantity of compost, or even rotted manure, previously laid near the hop ground for the purpose. At this season, such sets are procured as may be wanted for the nursery or for new plantations. The yearly operation of stacking, or setting the poles, commences at whatever time in spring the shoots may have risen two or three inches. The poles generally used in Canada are straight, slender cedar, from fif- '.; *. M w ■ r ■ ■: . f 237 teen to twenty feet long. These poles may bt set three or four to a hill, and should be so placed as to leave an opening to the south, to udmit the sun-beams. They may be fixed by making deep holes or openings in the ground, with an iron crow. Into these holes the root ends of the poles are put, when, if the earth is rammed hard about them, they will very seldom alter from the position in wh ch they are placed, except on occasions of very violent gales of wind. Great care is necessary in placing the poles, and no less judgment and experience in determining what ought to be the proper height. When very long poles are set in a hop ground, where the stocks are too old or too young, or where the soil is of indifferent quality, the stocks are not only greatly exhausted, but the crop always turns outunproductively, as, until the vines reach the top, or rather till they overtop the pok s, which depends on the strength of the stocks and the quality of the soil, the paternal branches on which the hops grow never begin to shoot out or make any progress. The chief art in poling a hop-ground is, first, to pitch the hole to a proper depth, about twenty inches ; next, to set down the pole with some exertion of strength, so that being well sharpened it may fix itself firmly at the bot- tom ; thirdly, that the tops of the poles may stand in such a direction as to lean outwards from the hill, to prevent as much as possible the hous- ing of the vine ; anr\ lastly, to tread the earth closely to the pole with the foot. For want of regard to these particulars in the labourer, a moderate blast of wind will loosen the poles, so as not only to occasion a double expense, but the hazard of injuring the future crop, by tearing asunder the vines, which often become twisted together, or, as it is termed, hous- ed, at the extreme part of the poles. With respect to the species of wood proper for poles, it is suggested that the hop appears to prefer a rough soft bark, to one which is more smooth and polished ; hence there cannot be any wood better adapted for poles than cedar. In regard to the size of the poles, hops, likewise, it is well known, have their instinctive choice or approbation with respect to the thickness of their support, embracing, with greater readiness, a pole that is moderately small, than one which is thick at the bottom. The ordinary circumference of poles, at the thickest end, may be set down at fiom eight to ten inches, tapering to the size of a walking cane at the top. Different grounds require different lengths of pole ; to stand ten or twelve feet above the hills, would, perhaps, be sufficiently high for the best lands in Canada. Wires of copper or iron have been tried as substitutes for wooden poles in the north of France, but are not considered so good as wooden poles. The wires are stretched horizontally in the direction of the row of plants, the first v.ire five feet from the ground, the second one foot above that, and so on, say to the height of fifteen feet. The plants are led to the lowest wire by short sticks, and left to twine up, or along oth- ers at pleasure. Tying the shoots or vines to the poles is the last operation in the after culture of the hop. This requires the labour of a number of persons. In England, women are generally employed, who tie them in different places with withered rushes, but so loosely as not to prevent the vines from advancing in their progress towards the tops of the poles. *• When i 38 e : to stand the vines have got out of reach Irom the ground, proper persons go round with standing hidders, and tie all such as appear inclined to stray. One important part of this operation is selecting the f^hoots. In England, it is considered a good plan to extirpate the most forward vines, from expe- rience that these early shoots will produce little, if any, fruit, and rather tie up the second, or less forward vines. It is found there, that when the vines are strong, vigorous and luxuriant, early in the season, the crop is more subject to be injured by blasts, which generally occur some time in the month of May, than when the growth of the vine is more protract- ed. Hops are known to be ready for puliin;5 when they acquire a strong seem, and the seeds bcromc firm and of a brown colour, which, in or- dinary seasons, happens in the first week of September. When the pull- ing season arrive:-;, the utmost assiduity is requisite on the part of the planter, in order that the dillerent operations may be carried on with re- gularity and despatch, as the least ne ith this precaution, Mr. Fallance states, hops may be preserved for half a century. The stripping and stacking the poles succeeds to the operation of pick- ing. It is of some consequence that this business be executed as soon as possible after the crop is removed, because the poles will receive far less damage from the weather when set up in a stack, than when dis- porseti about the ground with the vine on them. The ojieration of strip- ping may be performed by women and boys, being nothing more than tearing otf the binds or vines. These may be burned en the grouud, or tied up into small bundles, brought home and formed into a slack, to an- swer the purpose of heating ovens or boilers. At this time such poles as are deemed unlit for future service should be carried away, that the planter miay have an early knowledge of the number of new poles that will be wanting ; and thus the business of providing pries may be com- pleted in winter time, when the horses are not greatly engaged about oth- er labour. The good poles are stacked up in conical piles, from two to live hundred in a pile, and well put up so as not to be readily blown down by wind or storms. The produce of the hop crop is liable to very considerable variations according to soil and seasons. From two or three to so much as twenty- hundred weight, is obtained from an acre in England ; but from eifrht to fourteen hundred weight is considered a good average croj), according as the soil may be very good or middling. The produce of the hop in Ca- nada, in favourable years, and cultivated equally well as in Kent would be fully as great as is generally obtained in England. To judge the quality of hops, as the chief virtue resides in the yeliow powder contained in them, which is termed the coniHlion, and is of an unctious and clammy nature ; the more or less clammy the sample ap- [)ears to be, the value will be increased or diminished in the opinion of the buyer. To this may be added the colour, which it is of very material consequence for the planter to preserve as bright as possible. The duration of a hop plantation on good soil may be for twenty year;- or more, but in general they begin to •' cline about'the tenth year. It is the practice of the most successful plaaiers not to continue the hop plan- tation longer than ten years, and then to make a fresh one. Makinn new plantations, however, is a very considerable expense. ^ L. growing hops in connection with a farm, regard should be had to the extent that can be manured, without detriment to the other tillnre I hi * i\ i ■'■ • 19 ■ 4 Iti lands. On the whole, the hop is an cxpen:ii\ e and precariou s crttp l;e' 241 I culture of which should be well considered before it ia entered upon, and particularly the ceiUi'miy and extent of the market for its sale. The use of the hop in brewing is to prevciit ihc beer from becoming sour. The young shoots may be eaten early in spring aa asparagus. The herb will dye wool yellow. In Sweden, a strong cloth is made from the stalks : for this purpose they must be gathered in autumn, soaked in Avater all winter ; and in March, after being dried in a stove, they are dressed like flux. They require a longer time to rot than flax. If not completely macerated, the woody |)art v ill not separate, nor the cloth prove while or fine. A pillow iilled with hops, was prescribed for tho use of George the 3rd, in his illness in 1787. The hop is a plant very liable to become diseased, and is often greatly injured by insects and vermin at the roots, and on the vines and leaves ; so much so, that unless prevented, the crop will iVecpiently be destroyed altogether. It must be llio planter's care to guard against these casual- ties, and to make himself thoroughly acquainted with the diseases the hop is subject to, and the habits of the vermin that ravage the plants, in order to provide all the remedy that is possible ; and, if he does not do this, better he should never attempt to raise a hop plantation. The hop cannot be profitably cultivated in Canada to a greater extent than will be suflicient to supply our own consumption ; there is not much probability of a foreign marki't for any pait, and very frequently consi- derable quantities of hops are import d here from the United States. The hop, therefore, cannot under present circumstances, be cultivated to any great extent. i: • ^.• r ^ poll, and iccominff pnrafTiis. ado from onkcd in they are ir not he clo(h for Iho AGRICULTURE. greatly leaves ; estroyed casual- ses the :^iits, in s not do r extent ot much consi- s. The d to any PART V. BREEDING, REARING, AND MANAGEMENT OF FARM IIOKSES. The horse family are by far the most important among the brute crea- tion, as servants to man. In a wild state, the horse is, in general, of an inelegant form, and extremely untractable ; but, when domesticated, he becomes docile, yet bold and intrepid, and is highly altachec! to man. In no country has his various qualities, both for the turf, the field, r id the road, been brought to such perfection as in England ; and, with i.iu ex- ception of the pure Arabian, there can nowhere be found a breed to com- pare with the English race horse. The subject of thorough-bred horses is, however, beyond the scope of this treatise, which, being intended for the use of farmers, is proper to confine to a description of draught horses best suited to agricultural purposes ; and a 'ariety of saddle horse that might be useful and necessary for the occasional use of farmers, for the saddle, and for light work ; these may be ranked under the denomina- tions of Canadian horse, Suffolk punches, and the improved English hackney, or a variety of horses possessing their qualities. The two former have been already described ; it only remains to describe the lat- ter. The improved hackney, is derived from a judicious mixture of the blood breed, and sometimes the hunter, with mares of substance, cor- rect form, and good action. In the hackney, as safety is as requisite as speed, it is necessary to look particularly to the fore parts to t^te that they are high and well placed ; that the head is not heavy, nor tiic neck dis- proportionably long or short ; that the legs stand straight, ( that is, that a perpendicular line drawn from the point of the shoulder should meet the toe,) and that the elbows turn out ; and although a perfect conformation in the hinder parts is necessary to the hackney, it is in some measure subordinate to the same perfection in the tore parts ; whereas in the racer and hunter, but particularly in the former, the form of the hinder is even of more consequence than that of the fore parts. This description of horse would be very suitable in some situations for many purposes, though not generally necessary for farmers. .:• k; 1^1 ,,. I :i:' tr •,'1 Ji43 In tlio briciliiifr of liorsrs, tho cntiro fitfonlion sliruld not, ns is (oo roinrnonly piiicticcrj, be coiifmcil to IIk; stalliori.s. So fur as cxporiciicc has liitlierlo shown, it has in most instiinocs huon f(Mui(l that nearly as much (hipcnd-^ upon thii;eny. it is the opinion of the Lest jiulj^es, tluit no i,^ ii^ij^iKX)T2;j:j jii:!^r (xLJ^iJ JUi[;iiv*f:p;jr ^ >< -^-- a i 1 I?, Mi'TlM'^lli^J!;. ;i :- r 244 of good courage arc doBiraUlo. Hot, fiory horses^ Holdom laut long. A good couragod horse moves with rondincHs, enrrieu one onr lurwurd, and one backward ; is attentive and chocrful, Iovoh to bo talked to, and caressed even when on a journey, and in a double hnrneijs will play with his mate. Good couraged horses are always the best toinperod, ane the operation, as il isahviiys peifdrniedby a farrier. The process of training horses lor the saddle or th,hl brood mtdcs, and give them ft fair trial. In many situations, I believe they A\ould be found to answer a good purpose. • . 'a NEAT OR IIOUNED CATTLE. ¥h "i . ' 4 ■I *! ■ r' . r The noat or hornvoJ caitlc used in agriculture arc included under the species of Bos, the ox and the buffalo ; the latter, however, is not used in Britain or in Canadti. These animals are more universally used as boasts ofdrauji^ht and burden than the horse, and have the additional ad- vanta<.';c of i"urnishing excellent food and othe.' valuable produ"'s. There is scarcely a country in which the ox or the bud'alo is not eitncr indige- nous, or naturalised and cultivated, while in many parts of the world the horse is wanting. The male ox is the bull, and the female the coav. The bull and cow inhabit various parts of the world, and are domesticated every where. In most countries they are the mere creatures of soil and climate, the na- tural habits little restrained, or the form litile improved for the purposes of milking, fattening or for labour. It is almost exclusively in Britain that this race of animals has been ameliorated so as to present breeds for each of these purposes, far superior to what are to be found in any oth- er country. Notv/ithstanding this, however, much certainly remains to be known regarding the nutriment ali'orded by different kinds of herbage and roots ; the quantity of food consmncd by different breeds, in pro- pc rtion as well to their weight at the time, as the ratio of their increase ; and the propriety of employing large (;r small animals in any given cir- cumstances. Even with regard to the degrees of improvement made by fattening cattle generally, no great accuracy is commonly attenjpted ; machines lor weighing cattle themselves and their food, from time to time, not being in general use in any part of Britain. The varieties of the European cow are inmunerable. The pliancy of their nature is such that they have been ftrmed into many diversities of shape, and various qualities have been given them, wry diiferent fVom the orifrinal stock. The uvis.ov cows of Lithuania, arc almost as large as the elephant ; while some of those on the Grampian hill.! arc little above the size of a goat ; and cows are found of every vari( ty of form between the one and the other. They are not less varied in iheir shap'^s- The bi- 5o;t, which is a species of the cow family, and which readily j*. ^pogates with our cows, wears a strong shaggy mane, like a lion ; a beard like the goat ; as much hair under its neck and breast as covers its fore legs ; a hump upon its shoulders, nearly as large as that worn by the camel, (sometimes forty or fifty pounds in weight,) with a tail that scarcely reaches to the top of its buttock ; and it resembles the lion much more than it does oin* domesticated ',ows, or other varieties of its own species. The diversity of qualities in the cow family is also very great. Our cows are so grovelling and inactive, that they scarcely know the road from their stalls to their pastures ; while those of the Hottentots are so tractable as to be intrusted with the charge of other animals, and keep them from trespassing on tlu^ fi( Ids of grain, or other foibidden ground. 'They also light their niastcr'o battles, and gore his enemies with their ^'L 250 c them rt answer a ndcr tho not used used as ioiial ad- There indige- ivorld the and cow where. , the na- rposes ot' itain that ccds for any oth- nains to herbage , in pro- icrea.se ; ven cir- made by en;pted ; time to ianry of "si ties of iVoiii (he e as the )ove the ■een the T'le 6/. pogates ird like c Jegs ; camel, carcely li more ipecics. . Our le road are so d keep ground. li their horns. Our dairy cows arc so feeble and inactive, that they are hurt by travelUng twice a day, even slowly, one mile from the byre to the pas- ture ; while those of Tuscany are used as riding animals, and in drawing carriages. Those of Ilindoston draw tiie coaches, and maintain their rates with horses at full trot ; and the Hottentots teach their cows to hunt down the elk antelope. Cows of th(! wild neglected breed can with difficulty be removed from one enclosure or one hill to another, while those on whom due attention has been bestowed, are docile, and submit to perform all sorts of labour. Some cows will yield more n)ilk per day than others will give in ten, perhaps in twenty days. These are not so many different species of animals, but all of them one and the same spe- cies, all capable of generating with each other a perfect olVspring. All these varieties have been formed from the parent stock, partly by the di- versity of soil and climate, or other accidental or adventhious circum- stances, and paitly, of late, by human skill and industry. From the European variety have been formed the different breeds cul- tivated in Britain, and also our Canadian breeds. After what I have al- ready said of some of the breeds that are and might be cultivated to the greatest advantage here, it is unnecessary to describe them now. There are, however, two breeds of cattle much esteemed in Britain, the Devon- shire, and Ayrshire, which I have not described, and l ;s both breeds have been introduced into Canada, it is proper to notice them. The Devonshire cattle are of a high red color, (if any white spots they reckon the breed impure, particularly if those spots run one into another,) with a light dun ring round the eye, and the muzzle of the same color, fine in the bone, clean in the neck, horns of a medium length, bent upwards,thin-facecl, aud fine in the chops, wide in the hips, a tolera- ble barrel, but rather flat on the sides, tail small and set on very high ; they are thin skinned, and silky in handling, feed at an early age, and ar- rive at maturity sooner than most other b. -eds. They are considered a model for all persons who breed oxen for the yoke. I have known gen- tlemen in Ireland to import them from England to breed oxen fur labour from them ; though the weight of the cow is usually from 30 to 40 stone, and the oxen from 40 to 60. The north Devonshire variety in i)articu- Jar, from the fineness in the grain of the meat, is held in high estimation in Smithfield. The Devon cattle are extremely well adapted for feeding and draught, but not equally so for the dairy or milk. Ihe peculiar nature of the an- . irnal disposes it to the accumulation of fat, rather than to the production of milk. For the purposes of labour, this breed can no where be ex- celled for docility, activity, or hardihood, in proof of which no stronger circumstance can be adiluccd, than that it is a common day's work in Devonshire, on fallow land, for four steers to plough two acres with a dou- ble furrow plough ; and that a general use is thus made of them, and for most of the other purposes of draught in the country Mhere they were originally found, and in others to which they have been since transplant- ed. T' .s breed is supposc.l to bo one of the original breeds of England, and one of (hose which have j)re.serveti most of their primitive forn). For iabour and feeding, I betieve t]'ey would be a very suitable breed of cat- tle for the British [aoviucts in North Viuerica. I:: 251 The Ayrshire breed arc mu "> ew^n-rn d *n Scotlnnd f'o. v.i- dairy or fattening, and are generally of hua.kione .hopf and moderate size. Ac- cording to Alton, " the size o'' the Ayr'^h»'o 'r;.proved dairy cows varies from 20 to 40 stone, English, accr.dini; to the quality or abundance of their food. If cattle are too small for the soil, they will soon rise to the size it will maintain, and the reverse, if they are larger than it is calculat- ed to support." The same author says, (in his Ag> iiculturo of Ayr,) that this breed of cattle not only for the dairy, have no parall d, under similar soil, climate, and relative circumstances, but also in feeding for the sham- bles. They have been improved in their sizo shape and qualities, chief- ly by judicious selection, Cioss-coupling, fei ding and treatment, for a long series of time. The usual produce of butter from those cows, is said to be half their own weight, (meaning the four quarters,) in a year ; but this requires that the pasture be good, and the cow otherwise well kept the whole season over. From what I have seen of this breed, I should prefer them decidedly to the larger breed of English cattle that have been iinported here ; and the bulls of this breed, would be a judi- cious cross with the Canadian cows. Those that have been hitherto im- ported are not the most superior animais of the Ayrshire breed. In every part of British America, it is quite possible to raise an im- proved and useful stock of cattle from those already in the country ; all that is required to accomplish this is, cyif-ful sehction for breeding, by judicious crossing, feeding and proper treatnent. It is by this kind of management that cattle have been improved in the British Isles, and they never can be improved by any other means in the British colonies. The farmer who knows what is the best shape and size for animals to possess in order to their producing most prof' to him, may improve his stock to the required shape and size, from the materials already in the country, at any time he chooses to give due care and attention to their breeding and feeding. Farmers must have very little knowledge of stock, who expect to produce th'- -j *isite or desired improvement in the shape or size of their animals, i > archasing a superior male animal of any species as a cross with their own stock without adopting any improvement in the care and keep of the progeny pr'^iuced from this cross, the want of which keep and treatment is, perhaps, the only cause that die stock he has al- ready is inferior to those he is desirous to cross with. A v^ry consider- able knowledge of stock, and their prop-^r management, is necessary for farmers in order to their becoming successful breeders or feeders of neat cattle and sheep. The criteria of excellence in neat cattle in general are thus given by an eminent breeder, Mr. Wilkinson, of Linton, near Notingham, Eng- land.^ — {Remarks on catlU, 1820.) This will apply to cattle of any size, in any country. *' The head ought to be rather long, and muzzle fine ; the counte- na ace calm and placid, which indicates a disposilion to get fat ; the horns fr:ie ; the neck light, particularly where it joins to the head ; the breast wide, and projecting well before the legs ; the shoulders moderately broad at the top, and the joints well in, and when the anin.3.1 is in good condition, the chine so full as to leave no hollow behind it ; the i^re flank well filled up, and the girth behind the shoulders deep ; the back straight. ■w Juiry or lizc. Ac- :>ws varies indance of rise to the } calculat- Ayr,) that ler similar the sham- ies, chiet- ent, for a ! cows, is n a year ; wise well s breed, I cattle that >e a judi- therto im- se an im- intry ; all eding, by is kind of and they es. The possess 3 stock to ountry, at ?ding and lo expect or size of iicies as a i the care of which 16 has al- consider- issary for •s of neat ^K. Si M given by im, Eng- any size, counte- :he horns be breast jderately 'J in good Lft; flank straight, I, ,"' ■•!■• ij'Di^re) :i[i>:' J1*J!;JD. ^:Mx)Ji:i' 11 Diiij^fJiJiD. il 1/ n .11, ' Ml '^>A^J>CDUAri a^->r If:. I !■ tl Till 252 wido, nnd flat ; tlio ribs hrond, nnrl the spnor bftworn ihrni and the liips sniall ; (ho fhitik fidl and hrav)' : iho Ix lly w< II kept in, and not HJnking low in tiic middle, but so fonnod that across soction of it woidd reseniblo an ovcd, whose two ends arc of the same uidfh, and whose form ap- pro;ulie.s that of a circle ; the hips globular, wide across, and on a level with the back itself; the hind rpiarters, that is, from the hips to the ex- tremity of the riimi), long and straight ; the rump points fat, and coming well up to the tail ; the twist wide, uiid the s(>nm in ih- niddlc of it so well fdled that the whole may very nearly form a plane pcMpendieular to the lino of the back ; the lower part of (he thigh small ; the tail broad and flat towards the top, but the lower part (bin ; the Ie highest degree, the strength and activity reqiiired in the beasts of labour. It v/as generally considered in (lie Hritish [sl«s, (hat a disp,osi(ion to fatten, and a tendency to yield a lar^e quanlity of n-ilk, cannot be united. The form oi' the Uiiimal inost rcujurktblc for the liisi, is very diiilrcnt H h ■ f ■ rrt ■ Ef^.■ '.'ll.i 263 from that of the other ; in pl.ico of being flat in the BidcH, and big hi the belly, an all grcut milkers iire, it is high-sided nnd light-bellied ; in n woni, the body of the animal well adapted to fatten is barrel-formed, while that of the milker in widest downwards. This rule will certainly be found correct as regards large sized cattle, but not generally so with small, or tlu*se of middling si/e ; and it will be ever found that u larger ntunerical proportion of small j^ized cattle possess the true criteria of excellence for milk and the dairy, than those of the larger size. I have fattened cows in the Old Country, and found that good milkers, if they could only be dried, (which was often dilficult,) fattened well and kindly. It is reasonable to su|)posc that a cow accustomed to produce n largo cpianlily of milk, cannot lay on much fat, while she continues ',o produce it ; but when this produce is no longer taken from her, that sho is suflered to become dried, and is in good health, th« nutrim'.iii which before was necessary for the produce of the milk, will then be converted into beef and tallow- I admit that some cattle are unfit for the dairy, that would bo very suitable and profitable for feeding or labour ; but I am convinced that cows good for the dairy, will also fatten well when dried. If farm.^rs will select for breed and the dairy, only such heifers as pos- sess the criteria of excellence for that purpose, fattening those that are unfit for milk, they may have the most excellent stock for every purpose. While every description of the heifer kind is allowed to breed, it is no wonder the stock siiould degenerate. For the consideration of farmers, the following is given from the reports of select farms in England, in 1830. A report of one in Hampshire states that, " the stock in general best adapted to this laud are, the Alderney, and the smaller race of Nor- man cows. The Devonshire and larger breeds require richer pasture ; and although they are kept in condition, the milk they give is by no means in proportion to the bulk of food they consume. The Normandy and Al- derney cattio appear to be less afl'cctcd by the quality of the herbage." There can be no doubt that particular breeds are best adapted to par- ticular situations, on which ground breeders of cattle should endeavor to find out what breed is most profitable and best suited to their situations, and to improve that breed to the utmost. In order to have good cattle of any breed, particular regard must be paid in selecting those that are the most complete and perfect in their form, shape, and other qualities, and to breed from them. Bulls should not be often employed before they ore two years old. The females, in most instances, bring their first calf at the age of two y.iars ; but this is not a good practice if the heifers are not of a reasona- ble size, from being properly kept ; however, they should be kept so as to admit of their having calves about the first of June af\er their second year, and provided they are properly kept afterwards, their growth will not |)erhaps be injuriously afiected by breeding thus early. The most desirable period for putting cows to the bull is midsummer, in order that they may be dropped in the beginning of spring, and have the whole of the grass season before them. Except in situations where tic fattening of calves is an object of importance, about the first of April is i)robul)ly the most advantageous time ; as the calves, having all the season before them, become sufficiently strong for enduring the change ■I If- 264 •o a IciB.s ngrocablc food in the insuing winter. A call" newly weaiuJ Heldoin thrives well during that period, unless it is pampered with better food than usually falls to (he share of youufir animals. IJut while hulls are suflered to go at large, as they generally nie in (anndu, cows must of course calve at all seasons of the year. It is iiighly desirahle tiial this practice should bo discontinued, except where cows are kept for dairies near towns. Bulls might very well be confined in a yard or stall, anvar. When calves are reared on skim milk, it should be boiled, and suflered to stand over until it cools to the temperature of that lirst given by the cow, or a trifling degree more warm, and in that state it ,«hould be given to the calf. Milk is often given to the calf warmed oidy, but that method will not succeed so well as boiling it. If the milk is given over cold, it will cause the calf to purge. When this is the case, two or three spoon- fuls of rennet put in the milk, will soon stop the looseness. If, on the contrary, the calf is bound, pork-broth is a very good and safe thing to put in the milk. One gallo i of milk per day w ill keep a calf well at first. The usual allowance is al)out double that, after the first eight or ten days, and this is increased with the age of the animal, though not very greatly. When the calf is about thirteen weeks old, it will do very well upon grass, without milk. A small quantity of oats and bran, about a pint of each, given to the calf at mid-day would be of great service when the calf is capable of eating it ; they should also be enticed to eat hay and have it constantly bo''bre them. The culf should have its portions of milk at fixed hours of the day, at eight o'clock in the morning, and four in the afternoon, and be regularly served at these, hours or he will not thrive. It has been found by experiments, that it is not absolutely ne- cessary to give milk to calves after they are one month old : to wean them gradually, two quarts of milk, with the addition of flaxseed boiled in water to make a gruel, given together will answer ; and l>y diminish- uh2 ■^ •4 i. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 l.i Ui an «. ... 1 2.0 140 m |l.25 |||.4 1.6 < 4" V] v2 /. 7 ^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER. N.Y. MSSO (716) 872-4503 « i~- -^ iV :\ \ 6^ '^ d ^ /j 255 ing the milk gradually, the calf will soon do without any. ITay-tra will do, with the like addition of two ((nuits of milk, but it is not so nutritious as flaxseed. The method of making hay-teu, is to put such a portion of good sweet hay as will be necessary iuto a tub, then to pour on a sufli- cient quantity of boiling water, covering up the vessel, and letting the wa- ter remain long enough to txtract the virtues of the hay. In summer, calves may be reared on sweet cheese whey only. The Duko of Northumberland'B receipt is, to take one gallon of skimmed milk, and to about a pint of it add one ounce of connnon treacle, stirring it until it is well mixed, then to lakc one ounce of linseed oil-cake finely pulverized, and with the hand let it fall gradually, in very small (juanlities into the milk, stirring it at the same time with a spoon or ladle, until it is thoroughly incorporated ; then let the mixture be put into the other part of the milk, and the whole made as warm as new milk when Ihsl taken from the cow, and in this state it is fit to be givoi to the calf. The quan- tity of powdered oil-cake may from time to time be increased, as tlic calf becomes accustomed to it. Another method is, to boil one quart ef llax- seed in six quarts of water, for ten minutes, and then mix the jelly with a small quantity of hay-tea ; on this calves are reared without auy milk. It will be good for calvcj hi summer when there is gratis, to put them on sweet rich pasture after they are eight or ten days old. Th in this sncrully 256 from six to ninn weeks. In nituations whore milk, is considered a vahm- blc article, calves will n«.t pay for iilttcnin<^^ 1 think the method adcj-ted in Holland for futtenin«;f calves is much better than to allow them to Mick the cows ; it is the following : — Tho pen in whieii the call" is kept is so narrow that it cannot turn round, so that it can only go haekwnrds to the end of the pen, which is alis > short, and forwards to the door: the houfcc is kept in total darkness, and the pen kept perfectly clean and level. When the sucklcr comes to admiiiisler the milk, a small hole is ojiened, sufiiciently big to admit its head to i)c thrust out, and which is made in tho door-way ; as soon as the animal perceives the li^ht, it advances towards it, pushes ont its head, which tlie tsuckler putr; into the milk pail ; and, being taught to drink the milk, it very soon gets fat, and much quicker than by cither of cur modes, vvlicn the calf is usually tied up, or is per- mitted to run about in an open place. The Dutch farmers hang up a piece of chalk near the door, for the animal to lick ; and when the calf is about to be removed, the pen is so contrived, as to height, tliat when the door of the suckling houfic is open it fulls dawn on tho tr.il of the cart, and the animal walks into it, and is secured. The floor of the Dutch calf pens is of lattice wo'k, so that it ahvajs lies dry. ]>y this mediod the quantity of milk that is necessary to faUen the calf perlectly may be given, whether its own mother had had that (pianiily or not. If the calf becomes costive, a little jiork or lutilton bruih will ^Ivc it ease ; and if it bcgms to purge, a small quantity of rennet used in coagulating milk will cure the disease. Barley meal, and wuxseed boibJ iiito a jelly, arc giv- en to calves in the course of faiLciiing, ;.i vl answer.^ well. Some blood should be drawn from the calf once or t\\ ice during the last week or ten days of fattening it. The price of fat calves varies according to the goodness of tlic young animal, and the time of the year they arc disposed of. In the Montreal market, a well fed calf of six or eight weeks old, will bring from six to eight dollars ; and at a month old, from three to live dollars. The fol- lowing is a comparative estimate of the several applications of milk, "iz : to the feeding of veal, and of making of cheese and butter, in the county of Gloucester, England. This estimate will be found to apply correctly in Canada, except in the prices of the articles. " In feeding calves for the butcher, it generally takes seven weeks to feed them to about a hundred each ; and they consume the following quantity of milk in the seven weeks : about 10 gallons the first week, 16 the second, 20 the third, 24 the fourth, 27 the fifth, 30 the sixth, and 32 the seventh ; so that it takes 159, or say 160 gallons of milk to produce 112 pounds of veal. The average money value of the above modes of converting milk into a marketable commodity will stand thus : .'■t;;Vi > VjVvi\ '^ ".* 'A U ._,■■>■ . ■ , ' 'it. • i:\ ],.. '!<']! t Mi -•> ,r 257 100 r]^iillons «»i milk produce 113 pounds of choose of ihe beat quality, which at Cd. per pound is - - - 2160 . And 5 lbs. of whey butter, which at 8d per pound is 3 4 Value of 100 frallons of milk converted into cheese, 2 19 4 100 gallons produce of milk butter, 34 lbs at lOd per 1 18 4 And of cheese of the worst quality, 74 lbs at 3d per 18 6 Value of 100 galls, when made into butter and cheese 2 6 10 160 gallons produce 112 lbs. of veal, which at 7Ad ) « m rk per lb. is - . - - J^ 10 But calves when dropped, generally sell for 10s. 10 which being deducted, - - i Leaves, as the value of 160 gallons of milk, 3 And therefore the value of 100 gallons in feeding Tcal is, - - - - - - — 1 17 G Thus, making cheese of first quality is more profitable than either mak- ing milk-butter and inferior cheese, or feeding veal." The above prices will not be obtained in Canada ; but, were cheese to be made good, it would come nearer to the above prices than the veal will do, which will seldom bring more than three pence the pound. Though the calves may not be so large here as in England, yet the same quantity of milk wi'l produce as many pounds of veal here as there, if the calves are judiciously managed. I have no doubt but the milk of Canadian cows, fed on good pastures, will be fully as rich as milk in England, if we could only have these good pastures throughout the sum- mer. FATTENING NEAT CATTLE. The fattening of cattle requires considerable and constant attention, and the grand object is to fatten quickly. An animal, when in a state of rearing, only requires so much food as will keep it constantly in good condition, without forcing it ; but when fattening, it should have as much good food as it can be induced to eat, without surfeiting ; otherwise, ani- mals of all species may be kept for months with a view of fattening them, without gaining a pound of meat. Hitherto the fattening of cattle has been greatly neglected in Canada, both in summer and winter. I wish it were possible for me to persuade farmers to introduce extensively this most necessary branch of husband- ry, at least to the extent that would fully supply our own wants. If pro- tection from foreign competition is necessary, surely all reasonable pro- tection will not be withheld. / maintain Ihat Canada is able to supply ev- ery want of her population in butchers^ meat, cheese^ and butter^ in the most ample manner ; and that her agriculture can never be in the most healthful or prosperous state until she does supply it to the fullest extent. Her arable culture cannot be profitably maintained without adopting a ro tation of crops, in which a diversity of species of plants shall be introdu- ced ; and to consume the portion of these crops which is only adapted to the feeding of cattle, the stock of cattle must be increased, as well as to supply manure for arable culture, without which crops will not be rais- ed generally that will pay the expense of production. 268 The food on which cattle fatten on in summer is grass, on iMislure ; in winter, on hay, oil-cake, potatoes, grain, and on wastes ot distille- riP3. To these may be added carrots, parsnips, and Swedish turnips. The age at which cattle may bo profitably fattened depends upon the manner they have been reared, and the properties of the breed in regard to a propensity to fatten earlier or later in life, and on the circumstances of their being employed in breeding, in labour, for the dairy, or reared solely for the butcher. In the latter case, an improved breed will be found tit for the shambles at three years and a half old ; and w hen they arc not worked, they should never be kt pt longer than to be four years old ; they will not pay for their keep whatever they may sell for, when kept longer. I have seen oxen sold in Montreal, at seven years old, that never hud been worked : and the most of the large coarse cattle on this continent, are seldom brought to great perfection until they are five or six years old, which must leave the farmer's profit small indeed, considering that cattlo have to be fed in houses, or sheds, five or six months of the year, on dried food. An animal that could be well fattened, and brought to weigh from 700 to 1000 pounds dead weight at three and a half or four years old, would pay much better than one of double that weight at six or seven years old, besides the risk of death, or other accidents. No cattle will pay in this country that cannot be brought to maturity at an early age. In stall feeding cattle, it will be found much the most convenient, and better way for stock to have separate stalls for each. This will prevent the weaker from being cowed by the stronger, and allow all to eat their own food without fear. A domineering spirit is remarkably prevalent amongst horned cattle ; there will scarcely be one in a tlock that will not strive to have the mastery over all those weaker than itself, and this is one of the chief causes of the difference in the condition of a lot of beasts after a winter's keep. Cows inclined to butt, should have their horns tipped, or the sharp points cut oft'. In feeding cattle in yards in winter, it would be a good method to keep the master beasts tied up in their stalls, or the weaker animals will not be allowed to eat much from tho cribs. Cattle that are grass-fed in summer, should, if possible, be separated from store cattle, and milch cows ; they should have a sufficient supply of good pasture until fat ; and if they have, and were put on the grass in good condition, they will be fat in three months. In stall feeding in win- ter, an abundant supply of nutritive food regularly given, and to keep the animals clean, are the chief points. If the animals are put up in the con- dition that every farmer ought to have them, they will soon get fat. If potatoes are given they should invariably be steamed or boiled. One bushel steamed, will be better than two bushels, or more, in a raw state. One bushel of steamed potatoes in the day, given in three parts, will be sufficient for an animal of 1200 or 1400 pounds five weight, with good hay. One hundred bushels of potatoes given in this way, will fatten an ox well of 1,000 pounds dead weight ; and animals of a less size, should have less, nearly in proportion. One gallon of ground oats, barley or In- dian-corn meal, given in warm water at mid-day, would be an excellent substitute for one-third of tho daily portion of potatoes. Carrots, and parsnips, contain about one-third of the quantily of nutriment found in :v5j, ■'■':t !^i. 259 polatoofl ; honor, if tliopo roots slioultl bo fod to oattlc, they will rrq«irc tihoiit tlirco limes \hv quantily they would ofiiotatocy. All kind.s of infe- rior {friiiti may he ii;»|)liid to the lattcning of catllo. The oflhls of distil- hrics may he profit-ihly eniployod in iiittcning cattle. The chief point to h(! oh.sorvtd ill usin;; t!iis food, i:j to supply the cattle ^vidl as much as ihoy will eat without M.iicitiiiir, and to kocj) them perfectly cknn about their manp:crs, and well littered. Thid cleaning is necetisary three or foiu- times uj the day, or perhaps oftLner. It is said that one of the quick- est and4no»t ocrtuiii tridhods of fiittriiinjjf cattle in the stall is, by feeding with bran and lins(;c'd oil mixed; the proportion for ai: animal of moderate .size, would he two jjoeks, or four gallons of bran in the day, divided into thr(!c feeds ; and half a pint of oil to each feed, mixed well with the bran, the proportion to be increased for large eatlle. A cow or heifer of three years old, will be as ea.»y to jaltcn as a bullock of four. It is gcner-illy Ibund, and 1 have exj/erience of the fact, tliat heifers or young cnws of a good lund, if Jhltod, will produce more beef per .acre, or ^■" •ill .isc of tho unthrifty animal llic earliest opportunity ; the lirst loss ho will (ind to be ilie best. 1 believe i^ may be ascertained very nearly the profitable weight of fat aiiimal.«, i)y weighing them befor? they are slaugl'.tered. I have taken a fat animal from the stall, drove it about five mile y, and then weighed it. The weight was near loOO pounds, and the butcher to whom I sold the animal, gave mc a return of the dead weight, o*'becf, iat, oliul, including the hide, wiiioli war, near 000 jjounds. Hence the dilierence of weight was not entirely a third. If an animal i^; a long time without food when weighed, it will of course make a considerable ditlerence between it and ono weighed from the stalls ; but I believe a third will be very near the diHercncc of live and dead weight in animals that arc fit for the butcher. MANAGLINtENT OF COWS KEPT FOR THE DAIRY. Milch cows arc kept for the manufacture ol" butter and cheese, for the suckling of calve.j for the butcher, and for tho immediate use of milk. Where butter and cheese are the principal objects, tuch cows should al- ways be chosen as arc known to adbrd thi best milk and cream, and in the largest (piauaty, of whatever breed tiiey may bo. 3>ut the weight of butter to be mado from a given number of cows must always dt>pend on a variety of coutingent circumstances, such as the size and geodriess of the beast, the kind and (piantlly of the food, and the distance of time from calving. As to the lirst, it need scarcely be mentioned that a large cow will gcTierally give a greater store of milk for a month or two after calving than one of a snudler size ; though cows of ecptal^ size dif- fer as" to tho quantily of cream produced iVom the milk of each ; it is, therefore, on Shoso cows whose nnlk is not only in largo abun- dance, but which from a peculiar inherent richness, yields a thick cream, that the butter dairymr.n is to place his chief depcndance •, and wheii a cow IS deiicienl 'u cither of tliCc\', jihc theuid L( puil..u with, and 260 11 require 1h of inl'o- ofMistil- r point to much as nu about ■ I lire e or lio 'jiiick- y reeding moderate ided into the bran, r ol' three icifers or r ficre, or niers will ropcnsity I beast of ic should t loss he Shtoffat Lve taken •ighcd it. sold the including »f weio^ht )od '.vhen en it and near the jutcher. D, for the of milk, hould al- pam, and weight 3 depend ^cotlricss ^ of time it a large wo after size dif- cach ; it ;o ahun- k cream, ud wlitii itli. and and her place supplied by one more proper for this use. As to the se- cond particular, namely, the kind and quality of the food ; those who would wish to profit by a dairy, ought to provide for their cows hay of a superior goodness, to be given them in the depth of winter, and this in an unlimited degree, that they may always feed till they are perfectly satis- fied. The profit of dairy cows depends very much on the goodness of the pasture, and the suitableness of the stock. The vales of Buckingham- shire and Oxfordshire, are said to produce the sweetest butter in Eng- land ; and though the grass on other lands should be equally luxuriant, the cow of the same breed, and the cream in like abundance, yet it is found a decided preference still remains in favour of the vale-fed cows ; for, as a fattening beast will on rich land thrive much quicker than on thin soils, though the herbage bo much shorter on the former than on the poor ground, so will cows give a larger store of milk, and that of a more nutritious quality, when fed on deep fertile meadows, than if depastured on those of inferior goodness of quality. Great care should be taken not to over stock pastures. Milch cows should always have a full bite of close, short, fine grass. In England, long overgrown grass is found to give a rank flavour to the cheese and butter, and is avoided. Cows should be kept constantly in good condition, as, if they are ever sufiered to become very lean, and that in the winter season, it is impos- sible that they can be brought to afibrd a large quantity of milk, by get- ting them into perfect condition in the summer months. Where cows are lean at the period of calving, no management afterwards is ever ca- pable of bringing them to afibrd for that season anything near the pro- portion of milk that they would have done if they had been supported m proper condition during the winter. Food of the most nourishing and succulent kinds should, therefore, be given in suitable proportion in the cold inclement months, and the animals should be kept warm, and well supplied with pure water. If cows are in good condition, they may be milked to within a very short period of their calving, say a month or two at most. When cows are expected shortly to calve, they ought to be lodged at night in a separate house sufliciently large, for a week previous to calving, as it may be the means of saving the life of the calf, perhaps of the dam. A milch cow is in her prime at four or five years old, and will generally continue in a good milking state till ten years old, or upwards ; but this depends much upon the constitution of the animal. Cows should not be kept longer than they yield profitable returns for the food they consume. Cows of large size will yield a great store of milk on pastures where the grass is in suflUcient abundance, but as these large cows require a more ample provision than would fall to their share on the generality of farms in Canada, it would seem that they should not be kept by farmers whose lands are not of the most fertile kind ; for, on ordinary keep, a small cow will yield a fairer profit than one of a large breed, which, being even in England only fit for the best kind of land and the most luxuriant pastures, would be starved, where a Canadian cow would find an ample supply of food. Those who would have th greatest advantage from cows, either as 1 i r 1 26 r m It*; > IK calf-feedcrs, milk-sollorn, or dairy-men near towns, should always hove ff bull to run with the herd. Bulls should seldom be '. opt longer than fiver or six years old ; aAcr this tigc, they are apt to contract vicious disposi- tions, and become very unmanageable. \>'hcnever this happenn, they should immediately bo castrated, and put to fatten. In the vicinity of towns, cows kept for milk may be fed with brewer's or distiller's grains, from half a bushel to one bushel per day. To mix these grains with bran or pollprd, at the rate of two gallons of grains, to one gallon of bran, will be a good method. Three gallons of this mixture wet with warm water, will make a good feed for a cow, and two or three such feeds in the day will be amply sufliciont. It will answer a good purpose to mix chaff, or cut hay with grains, and if the chaft' or cut hay could be steam- ed conveniently, previous to mixing it with the grains, it would make it much more valuable food. If potatoes are given, they should be steam- ed. Potatoes are more useful for fattening cattle, than tor milch cows. Carrots or beets, are good for milk, and may be given to cows, at the rate of one bushel a day, with a feed of grains or bran at mid day. With a sufHcient quantity of good hay, cows with this feeding will yield abun- dance of milk, provided they are a good kind for milk. Bran, or ground oats, or barley, or Indian-corn meal, unsifted, may be substituted for grains if they cannot be conveniently had. Three gallons of bran, or one gallon and a half of the unsifted meal, will be sufficient for a cow in the day, made into a mash with warm water. These will give more and richer cream, than the grains will do. Farmers at a distance from towft will not require to feed store stock so highly. The inferior grain, chaff, potatoes and carrots, will afford him ample food for his stock, by manag- ing judiciously, and boiling or steaming this inferior grain, chaff, &c., which may be mixei with cut hay or straw. In all situations, it is most essential that the cows should be kept warm and clean, and be regularly attended to in feeding, milking, &c. Farmers should endeavor to turn- the cows out to grass in spring in good condition, iu order that they may " start well," for if cows are not in good condition when turned out to- grass, it is a long time before they get into full milk^ ml'- THE DAiRY AND ITS MANAGEMENT. The manufacture of butter and cheese is of necessity carried on where the milk, or raw material, is at hand. The subject therefore forms pari rffarm management more or less on every farm ; and the principal one un dairy farms. In most of those coanties where the profit of the cow arises chiefly from the subsequent manufacture of the milk, the whole care and management of the article rests with the house-wife, so that the farmer has little else to do but to superintend the depasturing of his cat- tle ; the milking, churning, and in short the whole internal regulation of the dairy, together with the care of marketing the butter, when the same is made up wholly for home coni?umption, falling alone upon the wife. In this department of rural economy, so large a portion of skill, of frugality, cleanliness, industry, and good management, is required in the wife, that without them the farmer mvy be materially injured. This ob- servation will, indeed, hold good in many other parts ci* business which t - SC2 pASfl through tho hands of tho miHtresi) in a Cartfi houeo ; but there is none in which ho may bo so grc:itly UHsistod, or so materially injured, by tho gcod conduct or want of care in his wife, as in the dairy. Experienced dairy-men admit that the quality of their cheeses differs materially in the same season, and without being able to assign a reason. Tho chccso of (jJloucostcr differs much from the cheese of Cheshire, though both are made from fresh milk, tho produce of cows of the samo breed, or rather in both countie?, of almoat every breed, and fed on pas- tures that do not exhibit any remarkable diflcrence in soil, climate, or herbage. Even in the same district, sonic of what must appear the most important points are far from being settled in practice. One would think the process of saltinp the cheeses tho most simple of all, and yet it is sometimes, (indeed generally in Canada,) mixed with curd ; in other in- stances poured into the milk, in a liquid state, before being coagulai- d ; and still more in England, never applied at al! till the cheeses are form- ed in tho press, and then only externally. Tho dairy house for general purposes should consist of three separate apartments, the milk room, the dairy or working room, and the cheese or store loom. Tho properties requisite in a good milk house arc, that it be cool in summer, and moderately warm in winter, so as to preserve if possible a temperature nearly the same throughout the year, or about 50 degrees ; and that it be dry so as to admit of being kept clean and sweet at all times. This can only be obtained in Canada by having the milk house partly under ground, or well banked with earth on the outside of the wails, and if possible, under the shade of trees, so that the sun can have no influence on the roof or walls in summer, and tho frost must bo entirely excluded in winter ; the latter, however, cannot be done cflectu- ally unless by keeping a stove and fire in the milk house, or changing it into the dwelling house at that season. CHEESE-MAKING. ' The production of cheese includes the making of rennet, the selection of a colouring matter, the setting of the curd, and the management of the cheese in the press. Th3 application of any kind of acid will cause milk to coagulate, as well as the infusion of several plants. 1'he maw, or stomach of a young calf that has been killed b-^fore the digestion is perfected, is almost uni- versally preferred as rennet. The bag or maw, is cleaned and salted in difTerent ways in different districts ; but the following method described by Marsaal, is considered the best. " Tuke a calf's bag, maw, or stomach, and having taken out the curd contained therein, wash it clean, and salt it thoroughly inside and out, leaving a white coat of sa't over every part of it ; put it into an earthen jar, or other vessel, and let it stand three or four days, in which time it will have formed the salt and its own natural juice into a pickle. Take it out of the jar, and hang it up for three or four days, to let the pickle drain from it ; re-salt it, and pui it again in the jar, cover it tight down with a paper pierced with a Inrgo pin, and in this state let it remain until i r»' ■ wanted for use. In this state it ought to be kept for twelve months ; it ii2 263 f ..■ may, howc\cr, in casc of necessity, be nerd in a few days after it has re- ceived n second salting ; but it will not bo so strong as if kept a longer time. In order to prepare the rennet for use, take a handful of the h>avcs of sweet-briar, the same quantity of the leaves of the dog-rose, and the Hko quantity of bramble leaves, boil them in a gallon of water, with three or four handfuls of salt, about a quarter of an hour ; strain off the liquor, and, having let it stand pntil perfectly cool, put it into an earthen vessel, and add to it the maw, prepared as above. To this add a good sound lemon, stuck round with about a quarter of an ounce of cloves, which gives the rennet an agreeable flavour." The strength of the rennet thuji prepared will increase in proportion to tbc length of time during which the bag ren^ains in the liquor ; the quan- tity to be used for the purpose of coagulating milk, can therefore be as- certained only by daily use and occupation. In general, however, it may be stated, upon the average, that somewhat less than half a pint of wine measure will suffice for 50 gallons of milk, for which quantity in Gloucestershire, the practice in* to employ about one-third of a pint. Throughout the whole process of preserving rennet, too much attention cannot bo given to cleanliness, and sweetness ; for if it be kept too long, so as to become foul or tainted, the chee?e will invariably become affect- ed by it. Spanish arnatto, is unquestionably the best ingredient of the kind for colouring cheese. The usual mode of applying it is to dip a piece of the requisite size in a bowl of milk, and rub it on a smooth stone until the milk assumes a deep red colour. This infusion is to be added to the milk of which the cheese is intended to bo made, in such a quantity aa will impart to the whole a bright orange colour, which will become the deeper in proportion to the age of the cheese. Setting the curd. — The prope: season for making cheese is from the beginning of May till the close of September, or in favourable seasons till the middle of October. A certain elevation of temperature is requi- site to the coagulation of milk, and it may naturally be supposed to be ne£v-ly that of the stomach of milk- taking animals. Marshal is of opinion that from 85 to 90 degrees of heat, and twj hours of time, are the fittest for coagulation. Climate, season, weather, and pasture, may require that these limits should sometimes be violated. Milk produced from poor clays will re- quire to be coagulated at a higher temperature than that which is procur- ed from rich pastures. In some dairies the milk is heated to the proper temperature ; but the most approved practice is to mix boiling water in such a proportion as shall render the milk of a proper degree of heat to re- ceive the rennet ; for this the thermometer should be used to determine. In hot weather the milk in the cow's udder is liable to become agitated by their running about, or being driven too great a distance ; so that if ren- net be put to it in this state, the curd, instead of coming in one or two hours, will require three, four, or five hours, and will be so spongy, tough, and in every respect so imperfect, as to be scarcely capable of being ooafined in the press or vat ; and when released from the press, it will heave or split, and be good for little. Whenever, therefore, cows are dis- covered to be in this state, which perhaps can scarcely be avoided during has t«- longer leaves nnd the !r, uilh off the f'nrlhoM ii good cloves, ition to e quan- e bo as- 'ever, it pint of mtity in a pint, ttention >o long, } affect- cind fur e of the intil the 1 to the ntity as ome the rem the seasons s requi- d to be opinion e fittest limits will re- procur- 1 proper 'ater in It to re- ermine, igitated t if ren- or two . tough, r being , it will ire dis- during f ■}}■ 264 very hot weather, where cow« arc pastured abroad in unsheltered grounds, or where wai- »• is not within their reach, it will bo advisable to add some cold fresh spring water to the milk as soon as it is brought into the dairy. The quantity to be mixed, in order to impart the proper degree of heat, can in this case only be regulated by expcritmce and the use of the ther- mometer. The efl'ect of the water thus added will, in both cases, be to make the rennet take eflcct much sooner, and consequently to accelerato the coagulation of the milk. * The proportion of rennet and time requisite for coagulation have been already mentioned ; too much rennet ought not to be put in, olhcrwi^'o the cheese will be ready to heave, as well as become rank and strong ; the same effect will also be produced if the rennet be made with bad or foul materials, or if it bo too strong to operate in the given time, (two hours.) During the process, the milk ought to bo covered so as not to lose more than five or seven degrees of its original heat. One or two handfuls of salt added previously to mixing the rennet, will promote coa- gulation. Some put in a bowl, which is an absurd, ancient custom, and injurious rather than useful. When the coagulation has taken place, the curd is broken or cut with n cheese knife, which causes the whey to rise through the incisions, and the curd sinks with the more case. AHer a short time the cutting is re- peated, still more freely t- ?in before, and is continued until the curd is re- duced to small uniform particles. This operation will require three quar- ters of an hour ; the cheese tub is again covered with a cloth, and is al- lowed to remain for the same time. When the curd has sunk to the bot- tom of the vessel, the whey is taken off by the hand, or by means of a skimming dish ; another quarter of : > hour should now be allowed for the curd to settle, drain, and become t olid, before it is broken in the vat, as it prevents the fat from being squec? ut through the fingers, and of course contributes to improve the qun f the cheese. Sometimes, in addition to the skimming dish, a seniuin ar board and weight, adapted to the size of the tub, are employed. The curd is again cut as before, in order to promote the free separation of the whey, and pressure is again applied till it be wholly drawn off. Great attention is requisite in con- ducting this part of the business ; and if any particles of slip curd should be seen floating in the whey, it might be carefully laded off with the whey, as it will not incorporate with the solid curd, but dissolving in the cheese, causes 'vhey springs, as already mentioned, and materially im- pairs its soundness. If the whey be of a green colour, when loaded or pressed out, it is a certain criterion that the curd has been properly form- ed ; but if it be of a white colour, it is equally certain that the coagulation is imperfect, the cheese will be sweet, and of little value, and much valu- able caseous matter will be completely thrown away. In the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, the cheese manufacturers have recourse to a some- what different method for extracting the whey, which is worthy of notice : when they think the milk sufficiently coagulated, they lay a strainer in a basket made for the purpose, in which they put the curd, and suffer it to remain there for some time to drain, before they break the curd ; when the card is sufficiently drained, it is put into two or three separate vessels, and is broken with the hand as small as possible. During this part of ''it •a t05 I*' f tho procoflfl, Bah is scattered over tho curd, and intimately mixnd uith it ; tho proportion, howovcr, haH not boon correctly adcortuined, and iM rogu- latiAI by experience. Matui^rf-ment in the Press. — Tho breaking and suiting completed, a cloth in spread over tho cheese vat, and the broken curd being packed into it, and covered up with tho cloth, a smooth roimd board is laid over tho vat, which in usually tilled to the iaighl of on^ inch above the brim, to prevent tho curd from shrinking below its sidcb, when the whey iu squeezed out. Tho whole is then put into a proas for two hours ; and as it is of tho utmost importance that every drop of whey should be exprcss<'d, skewers arc thrust into tho cheese through tho holes in tho lower part of tho vjt, to facilitate its escape. The two hours expired, tho cheese is taken out and put into a vessel of warm or hot whey for an hour or two, in ord«ir to harden its skin. On taking tho cheese out of tho whey, it is wiped dry, and when it has become cool, is wiped with a clean dry cloth, of a fmer texture, and again submitted to tho press for six or eight hours. Tho cheese is now turned a second time, and is taken to the salting room where it is rubbed on each side with salt ; after which it is wrapped in another dry cloth, of a finer texture than either of tho preceding cloths, and is again pressed for twelve or fourteen hours ; if any edges, these are paired oif, and the cheese being laid upon a dry board, is turned every day. In the salting room, cheese should be kept warm until it has had a sweat, or has become regularly dry and somewhat stifi* ; as it is warmth that ripens cheese, improves its colour, and causes it when cut to have a fleaky appearance, which is tho surest sign of superior excel- lence. J\/Ianagemcnt in the Cheese-room. — After the process of salting and drying arc completed, the cheeses are deposited in the cheese room or loft, which should be airy and dry ; but on no account should hard and soft cheeses bo placed in tho same room, for tho dampness or moisture arising from i\ 3 latter will cause tho hard cheese to chill, become thick coated and often spotted. Throughout the whole process of cheese-ma- king, tho minutest attention will be requisite, for if the whey be imper- fectly expressed, or the rennet be impure, or the cheese be not sufficient- ly salted, it will become rank and pungent. For this defect there is no remedy ; the imperfect separation of the whey will cause cheese to heave or swell, as well as run out at the sides. In order to prevent as well as to stop this heaving, the cheese must be laid in a moderately cool and dry place, and be turned regularly every day. If the heaving be very considerable, the cheese must be pricked on both sides in several places, particularly where it is most elevated, by thrusting a skewer into it ; by this pricking, though tho heaving will not be altogether prevented, a passage will be given to the confined air ; heaving, or swelling will consequently be considerably reduced, and the cavities in tho cheese will bo less ofiensive to the eye. Another remedy for heaving in cheese consists in applying a Co.nposition of nitre and bole armoniac, which is vended in the shops under the name of cheese-pow- der. It is prepared by mixing one pound of saltpetre with half an ounce of bole armoniac, thoroughly together, and reduce them to a very finci i I 266 powdor. About a quarter of an ounce of thiH ih io \>o rubbed in a chcefo when put a Accond and third timo into the press, half on each Hide of th« cheeue at two dillrrent iiicuIh, before Halt in rubbed on, that the chcoHO may be pent trated with it. This preparation iH very binding, and soine- tiuK^fl proven Herviceable : but the ni(r<^ is apt to impart an aeid tanto ; and iftoo inueh bo appheugh the 10 cows, ►St ccle- |thc can- ince and mclilot. |the milk I, and in ofl; tho I'lk, and l>agj», on round to wcrs, or 5 flowers ms, who e cream icture of 1 chalf ix ^)enco y, whcie moun- ' bruised 1. The 16th of oasants, id cows grazed, what la il lowed hen re- . The ones to [Is, and hree to r mild, ird un- he top, inders, id but- iloves. imbled . As weight, f (liey soon dry in tho opcr. air, ai^tl are then fit for use. Some think this cheese preferable to the Dutch, Swiss, and even Pdrniesan cheese; it is sometimes tj be had in London, but not \cry common. Devonahire ftcalded or cloultd cream. — The milk is put into tin Olr earthen pans holding about ton or twelve quarts each. The evcnin;; meal is ,/laced the followini; morning, and the morning milk is placed in the afternoon upon a broad iron plate heated by a small furnace, or otherwise over stoves, where, exposed to a gentle fire, Ihey remain until after tho whole body of cream is supposed to have formed on the sur- face, which being gently removed by the ed^e of the spoon or ladle, small air bubbles will begin to rise, tho.t denote the near approach of boiling heat, when the pans mu^t be removed off the heated plate or stove. Tho cream remains upon the milk in this state until (juitc cold, when it may be removed inlo a churn, or, as is more frequently the case, into an open vessel, and mov* d by hand v.ith a stick about a foot long, at tho end of which is fixed a sort of peel from four to six inches m diameter, and with which about twelve pounds of butter may be separated from the butter milk at a time. The butter in both cases being found to sepa- rate much more freely, and sooner to coagulate into a mass, than in the ordinary way, when churned from raw cream that may have been several days in gathering, and at the same time will answer a more valuable pur- pose in preserving, which should be first salted in the usual way, then placed in convenient egg-shaped earthen crocks, and always kept covered with pickle made strong enough to float and buoy upabouf half out of the brine a new laid egg. This cream, before churning, is the celebrated clouted cream of Devon. Tho scalded skim-milk is foup.d much rich- er and better for suckling calves, and makes far better cheese, than the raw skim-milk does. Three gallons of milk, managed in this way, is said to produce one pound and a quarter of butter, and the skim-milk is valued at one penny farthing the quart for making cheese, or feeding. When cheese is to be made of the skim-milk, tho milk should not be healed so far as to produce bubbles under the cream. Cheese is sometimes made without pressing, by putting the curd into a bag, or net, in which it is suspended, and frequently shifted, till it is sufficiently dry and solid. The cheeses arc small ; about five pounds each. They make potato cheese in Germany thus prepared. Mea- ly potatoes are selected; they half dress them in steam, for by burst- ing them their flavour is diminished; they peel thcm,and grate or beat thena into a fine pulp* To three parts of this mass, they addtv.'o parts of sweet curd, knead and mix them, and allow them to stand three days in warm, and four or five days in cold weather ; they are then formed into small pieces, like the Westphalia cheese, and dried iu the same manner. In Gloucestershire, it is found that the best land does not always produce the best cheese ; oftentimes the reverse. If it has either been much ma- nured with dung, or sheep feeding,the quantity of milk will be increased, but the quality materially altered. This is probably owing to the intro- duction of plants, which did not grow there before, or to the destruction of some that did. The cause does not originate with the cow, but with the herbage on which she feeds. The ?ame cow, on two pastures, separated only by a hodge, will give milk of difi*erent qualities ; from one shall be K k * 277 Lv made nne,rich,an(l close cheese, while from the other shall be tnadc rank, heaving, hollow, unpleasant to the taste, and unfit for the market. Two grounds adjoining each other were alternately used for the pasture of cows ; while they were on one, excellent cheese was made ; but when on the other, it was difficult to make any tolerably good. The latter had been lately well dressed with manure. On some farms, pastures have for t' nemorial been appropriated exclusively to cows for the dairy. Tl. ig of the cow, being of a cool- ing nature is considered the best manure for cow pastures. Among the plants which are useless, or unfavorable to the making of good cheese, are white clover, the diflerent kinds of crow-foot, and garlic. The produce of cheese in some parts of England, ^herell.e whole milk and cream is used, is from three to five hundred, long weight of 120 lbs. from each cow. Three hundred weight of cheese, is, however. Considered a good produce from an ordinary cow in the season ; and of skim-milk cheese, the quantity does not average more than two hundred weight. The whey is applied to feeding calves and hogs, and greatly augments the returns of the dairy. MAKING A.NI> CURING BUTTER. In dairies where cheese is made partly from skim-milk, the milk drawn from the cows in the evening is strained into creaming dishes, which should never be more than from two to three inches deep, and of about a gallon and a half or two gallons in capacity. The cream will be removed next morning, or in about ten hours. This cream is put into the cream barrel, where it may remain from three to seven days before it is churned. Cream that is removed from the milk in about ten or twelve hours af\er it is drawn from the cow, will always make the sweet- est bulter. Cream allowed to remain several days on the milk before it is skimmed off, will seldom make very sweet butter,though the quantity may be increased. In many dairies the whole of the milk is churned without separating the cream ; the milk is kept in the churn, or in barrels for two or three days until it begins to get sour. From this mode, the greatest quantity of butter is obtained,and if properly managed, the quality will be good, particularly from the milk of Canadian cows, which I have known to produce one pound of butter from two gallons and a half of milk manu- factured in this way. In the process of churning, great care is required. A regular stroke in upright or pump churns, and a regular motion in those of the barrel or turning kind, must if possible, never be deviated from. A few hasty, irregular strokes < • turns, has been known to spoil what would otherwise have been excellent butter. To those who have been accustomed to sec cream churned without being properly prepared, churning may, perhaps^ appear to be severe labour for one person in a la:rge dairy : but nothing is more easy than the process of making butter when the cream is duly prepared. The best time for making butter, during summer, is early in the mor- ning, before the sun acquires much power ; and if an upright or pump churn be used, K would be well to have it plunged about a foot deep into t 4 i 278 Mc ranfs, market, posture >ut when ittcrhad roprintcd [fa cool- -Ainorig dices t", ^e whole eight of [lowcver, and of hundred greatly he milk f dishes, » and of 1 will be put into 3 before ; ten or 3 sweet- fore it is ■iiy may without for two greatest will be lown to manu- stroke irrel or hasty, lerwise ! to sec Jrhaps,. othing I duly mor- pump p into • a tub of cold water, where it should remain during the whole time of churning, which will very much harden the butter. In \cry hot wenthcr, it may be necessary to pour some cold water into llie cream, if the churn cannot bO placed i.i cold water. During w inter, the temperature must be kept up to a certain degree, and if the dairy is too cold, the cream must be heated to about 65 ® , by mixing hot writer with it, placing the churn in hot water, or by some other means. The temperature of the milk or cream, during the operation of churning, should not exceed 65 ® , or it will bo injurious as well to the quality as to the quantity of the but- ler. As soon as the butter is made, it must be separated fr(»m the milk, and be put into a clean di.sh, or tub, the inside of w hich phould be previ- ously rubbed with common salt to prevent the butter from adhering to it. The butter should then be pressed and worked with a flat wooden ladle or skimming-dish, having a short handle, so as to press out all the milk that may bo lodged in the cavities of the mass. If the milk is not en- tirely removed, the butter will infallibly spoil in a short time. Cold wa- ter is often used in washing the butter, though the practice is generally dis- approved of; however,! believe it will be found necessary in Canada in very hot weather, where the dairy is not of a proper temperature, and has not an jce house attached. When water is ajiplied it must be care fully worked out of the butter. If the farmer has an ice house, or a good well, when the butter is soft, after being churned, by placing it in the ice-house, or hanging it in a vessel in the well, close to the water, it will become hard in a few hours, and may then be made up with, or without salt, in rolls, or figures on butter moulds, for the table or market. When so made up it may again be placed in the ice-house or well until wanted. In salting or curing butter, wooden vessels are preferable, and these vessels should be made of ash, boiled for four hours, to free it from all acid. The casks should be rendered as clean and sweet as possible be- fore they are used, well rubbed with salt, and the cavity between the bot- tom and sides filled in with melted butler. An excellent composition may be made for preserving butter, by reduc- ing into a fine powder, and carefully mixing together, sugar and nitre, of each one part, and two parts of the best common salt. Of this one ounce jshould be thoroughly mixed with each pound of butter, or in that propor- tion, as soon as the butter is perfectly freed from the milk ; and fhe but- ler must be immediately put into the firkins, being pressed so close as to leave no air-holes, or any kind of cavities within it. If the vessel is not filled at once, the butter should be covered closely with a piece of fine linen, and over this a second piece ol' linen, dipped in melted butter, to exclave the air as much as possible. These linen covers should be care- fully replaced whenever more br.tter is put in the cask, until it is filled. The two covers are then to be sipread over it, and a little melted butter should Uc pc ired all round the edges, so as to exclude the air. A little salt should then be strewed over the whole, and the wooden head firmly fixed down. Butter thus cured does not taste very well for the first fort- night, but after that period it acquires a rich marrowey taste, and will con- tinue sweet for some years. I huve cured butter in this wry. If this butter should, after being opened, be long in using, a strong brine of ccramon salt shoi^ld be poured when cold, upon the butter, to Kk2 ■ ',1 .T #1 %. Jill 4- 270 r^'' prevent any rancidity which might be occasioned by constant exposure to the air. When butter is to ho exposed to the lieat of a warm climate, i( should bo purified by mcUing btforo it is sahcd, and parked up. Ff)r this pur- pose lot it he put into a proper vt-sscl, and thi.s be iujrnrr^cd in unothcr containing water. JiCt iho water be heated until the butter be thorough- ly melted ; let it continuo in thiH state for worno time, when the impure parts will subside, leaving at the tup a perfeelly pure tjnnspnrent oil. This, when it cools, will become opaque, iind assume a colour nearly re- senibling that of the original buttor, only somewhat pnler, and of a firm consistence. When this refined butter is become a little f^liflT, but while it is still somewhat soft, the pure part must bo Fcparatcd from the diegs, and bo salted and packed up in the niunc maimer as other butter ; it will retain the salt better than in its oiifjinal .state. It may le preFer\ cd sweet without salt, by adding to it a certain portion of fine honey, perhaps one ounce to a pound of butter, and mixing them together thoroujihly, so that they may be perfectly incorporated. Butter might in this way be pre- served sweet in long voyages, it is supposed, without any danger of spoil- ing. I have seen as good butter made in Canada, as in Ireland ; and I believe that with proper management, it may be made here of as good quality as any that is made in the British Isles. I am noi aware of any circumstance connected with our climate, soil, or cattle, that should pre- vent us from making good cheese. All that is necessary is, thai wo should give the same care and attention to the dairy, and the process of cheese-makinf', that is given to it in England. There is nothing to pre- vent our adopting mc same process here. Our milk is sufficiently good, and as it is in our power to give our dairies the proper Icmpcraturo for manufacturing cheese and butter, it will be our own fault if we do not make this branch of our agriculture as profitable as it might, and ought lobe. , - BREEDING, REARING, AND FATTENING OF SHEEP. Of the various animals given by a bountiful Providence for the benefit of man, there is none of greater utility than the sheep. The sheep afl'ords us food and clothing ; and in manufacturing their wool, persons may be employed in productive labour in the winters in Canada, when they would otherwise, perhaps, bo unproductive consumers. Sheep properly man- aged, and in suitable situations, might constitute a material part of a far- mer's live stock and profits in these provinces. But to make them pro- fitable, our present stock of sheep require improvement, and must be ma- riaged very differently from what they generally are at present. From our limited pastures^ and the kind of fences which forms our enclosures, a breed of sheep of a quiet disposition would be very necessary for us, and be much better adapted to the circumstances of this country, than a wild breed that run through or over the fences at pleasure, unless re- strained by yokes or ties, which will never allow them to attain perfec- tion, or produce mutton or wool, in quantity or quality that would make them as profitable as they ought to be t^Lthe/armer. * The New-Leicester, or Dishley breed, portrayed in the plate?, are k i? « ^ IL il:^^ c;jii:i-j^j;_Ho.-:DTi2Lif.tji;r :j.'':jfij;:x; msiss mi^j-iEiB J3jij;j5:i; I'll 280 much approved <»f in England, and I can state from experience, that they are capable of being brought to a great weight, on a smaller proportion of food than any other breed that were known in Ireland. They are of a quiet disposition, and those that are well v.oolled would he very suitable sheep for all fanners determined to feed and manage them judiciously as any stock must be to make them profitable. They are, however, consi- dered in England a tender breed of sheep. The Teesvvater breed, portrayed in the plates, are another variety of the old long-vvoolled sheep of England, and are said to arrive at a greater weight than any other breed in the kingdom, and produce a fleece of about eleven pounds. The ewes arc singularly productive of lambs, twins being not only common, but three, and even four being somet'mes produced at a birth. The value of this species of stock may be in a great degree estim.ated by its aptitutde to increase in flesh at an early age, and when no particular means of fattening are said to be used, of which the following account of four, fed by a Mr. Mason, of Chilton, aflbrds a fair specimen. Lambs. Wt. 15th Augt. 1803. Shearlings. Wt. 4th Oct., 1S04. Cain. Two Shear. Wt. loth Oct., 1805. Gain. Average. Average. 88 lbs. 202^ lbs. Average. IH.i lbs. Average. 235i lbs. Average. 33 lbs. Thus the weight gained from five months to one year and seven months old, is 114^ pounds, or at the rate of 1 pound 15 ounces per week ; and from that age to two years and seven months old, the g?in is only 33 pounds, or 10 ounces per week. Of two four-shear sheep of this kind, one killed at Darlington, weighed 62 pounds per quarter, the other 54 pounds. A wether, three years old, killed in January, weighed 59 pounds per quarter, and a lamb, five months old, weighed 22 pounds per quarter. ,(See Agricultural Survey of Durham and Yorkshire.) This breed, would of course, require abundant keep at all seasons, or they could not be profitable. Long woolled sheep are, however, much the most suitable for our climate and our wants, provided the staple of the wool is fine, and close grained, not coarse, open and curley. The South-Down, delineated in the plates, is a favourite breed in England, for their sweet mutton, and fine wool ; but the quantity of wool is small, seldom over 3 pounds on sheep of two years old. They arc considered the most valuable breed in England for short pastures, and exposed situations. I have no doubt but the quantity of wool might be increased, though the fineness of the fleece would he diminished. This appears the result of experiments to increase the quantity of wool of this breed in England, according to evidence given before a Committee of the House of Lords, in 1828. But as extremely fine wool is not necessary for our present manufacture, the weight of tlie South-Down fleece might be increased without in any degree dihiinishing its value to us. The Herefordshire, or Ryeland breed, are small, white-faced, and hornless ; the wool growing close to their eyes ; are light in the hone ; hav^ small, clean legs ; and possess great compactness and symmetrv 281 of form. The mullon ii3 exec l!ent, but small, and the wool very fino, javcraging only about two pounds per fleece. Though a tender breeds they are capable of subsisting on a small quantity of food. They have boon crossed in England with the Spanish sheep ; the produce are termed Merino Ryeland, and the wool An^lo JMeriuo. This cross detracts from the beauty of the Ryeland's form ; but the fleece is much improved both in weight and quality, and the carcass is considerably increased. The Ryelands have also been crossed whh the new Leicester breed, but it has iiot succeeded well, according to the Agricultural Survey ofHerefordr shire. The Canadian sheep, are a horned breed, the wool rather coarse and open, and the form of the animal entirely different from what the most experienced judges consider perfection of shaj)e in sheep for producing the most protitable returns in mutton and wool for the food they con- sume. The breeding and management of these sheep has certainly been greatly neglected hitherto ; in fact, they may be said to be in a state of nature, so far as regards breeding. The best breed in England can be maintained in perfection only by cutting at a proper age all males not necessary or fit to breed from, and by rejecting from the breeding ^wes all such as are coarse and of defective shape, and selling them to the butcher. The climate of Canada may be less favourable for sheep than England or Ireland ; but in Saxony and Hungary, where the finest wool in Eu- rope is produced, the sheep are regularly housed during winter, and arc kept during that season on dry fodder. In Hungary this housing com- mences early in October. The following is the return of wool and mutton from some of the breeds in England : Average wt. of fleece in pounds. Average wt. of wethers per qr. in pounds. iCears old when kill- ed. Dishley, or New-Leices- ter, long wool, white face and legs. Tees-Water, long wool, white face and legs, Lincolnshire, long wool, white face and legs, J Romney Marsh, do. do. Herefordshire, or Rye- ) lands, short wool, do. J South-Down, short wool, ) Gray faces and legs, ) 6 H 21 -^2 22 28 25 24 14 18 2 3 Witli respect to the selection of sheep, as an article of live stock, the same principles of symmetry of form and other requisites in the formation of a good breed of neat cattle, which have been already specified, are equally applicable. Tho farmer should also carefully examine the nature of his land, and his various sources for supplying food ; he may then pro- ceed to bel been some tentio prop good (I oco ceed to obtain a breed, which, after mature consideration, he has rcaKorr to beUeve is best calculated tor him. The introductory view that has been given of some of the most cileemed breeds, will probably afi'ord some guide to his choice. The following particular point demands at- tention ; and, as in all cattle, the male has the greatest influence, it is proper to specify those requisites which are considered essential to a good i-am. " The head of a good ram," says Mr. Culley, " should be fine and small ; his nostrils wide and expanded ; his eyes prominent, and rather bold and daring ; ears thin, his collar full from his breast and shoulders, but tapering gradually all the way to where the neck and head join, \vhich should be very fine and graceful, being perfectly free from eny ccaise leather hanging down ; the shoulders broad and full, which must at the same time join so easy to the collar forward and chine backward, as to leave not the least hollow in either place ; the mutton upon his arm, or fore thigh, must come quite to the knee ; his legs upright, vith a clean fine bone, being equally clear from superfluous skin and coarse hairy wool, from the knee and hough dowr. wards ; the breast bread and well formed, which will keep his fore legs at proper widencss ; his girt or chest, full and deep, and instead of a hollow behind the shoulders, that part by some Called the fore-flank, should be quite full ; the back and loins broad, flat, and straight, from which the ribs must rise with a fine circular arch ; his belly straight ; the quarters long and full, with the mutton quite down to the hough, which should neither stand in nor out ; his twist, (i. c. the junction of the inside of the thighs,) deep, wide, and full, which wiih the broad breast, will keep his fore legs open and upright ; the whole body covered Mith a thin pelt, and that with fine, bright, soft wool." Such is the description of the animal recommended by Mr. Culley, who observes, that the nearer any breed of sheep comes up to it, the nearer they approach to excellence of form, and all experienced judges will be of the same opinion. Such animals may be purchased, but the farmer who makes the purchase, and is desirous that the progeny should possess the same excellence of form, must adopt the fame management and care in feeding and breeding, which has brought different breeds of stock to so great perfection in England, or he never will obtain the desired re- sults. The characteristic marks of an ewe, should be the same as those of the ram, and also with regard to the breed ; for, with sheep, as with other cat- tle stock, no certain dcgice of excellence can be attained, unless the fe- male is equally well bred with the male. This, however, is impossible to be obtained under present circumstances. We must endeavor by cross- ing and selecting, to improve our breed of sheep, and this Me may acccm- plish by care and attention. Ewes should not be let to breed before they are about 18 months old. In the county of Galway, Ireland, where, ac- cording to Wakefield, are to be found the finest flocks of sheep in the world, the ewes are seldom allowed to breed until they are two years and a half old. Ewes bring forth one, two, and sometimes three lambs, after a gesta- tion of five months, or twenty weeks. According to M. Tcssicr's expe- riments on gestation, out of 912 ewes, 140 lambed between the 146lh ■\ kf I /■ i 283 and 150th day ; 676 between the 150th and lolth day ; 96 between the 154th and 161st day. The most prolific sort ot sheep are the Toes- water. An ewe of this breed, belonging to Mr. Eddison, brought forth twenty lambs in five years, of which nun/oer the first nine were yeaned in eleven months, viz : 1st year, 4 lumbs ; 2nd year, 5 ; 3d year, 2 ; 4th year, 5 ; 5th, 2 ; 6th year, 2 ; all yeaned within sixty months. The best time for yeaning in this climate would be from the 15th of March to the 15th of April, consc(iuenlly the rams should not be admitted to the e\Ves before the middle of Oc<,ober. There naist necessarily be a great loss of lambs here, from allowing the rams to remain constantly widi the ewes ; hence, they bring forth lambs at a much too early period of the year, when the cold is extreme, and the sheep houses and yards not of the very best construction for the safety of the young lambs. The general im[rrovement of the breed of our sheep stock cannot be accom- plished until the whole system of their management is changed. In the first place, all attempts will be in vain while rams of all ages, soits and sizes, are permitted to go at large. To prevent this, is the first step that is necessary in any plan of improvement that may be proposed, and no means, by crossing or otherwise, can be successfully adopted to produce a good breed of sheep until this is done. If all the males are cut, except those necessary for bieeJ, (and one ram is sufficient for 60 or GO ewes,) the farmer might readily separate him from the ewes, or at least prevent copulation until the proper time, by a cloth properly lilted on them. During the period of gestation, ewes require great attention. In the breeding of cattle, it is a maxim which ought to be steadily kept in mind, that nothing can be moie prejudicial to the females than to fatten them during gestation ; and v.'ith respect to ewes in particular, this rule should be more carefully observed than with regard to any other animals ; for if they be fed too high while they are going with lamb, they will undergo great difficulty and pain in yeaning ; but, nevertheless, it is necessary they should be so kept that they will not be deficient in strength at that critical moment, and have a sufficient supply of milk for the support of the lamb. In Hungary, they have sheep sheds, well constructed, pnd di- vided by little racks, into such spaces as are necessary for the division amongst the flocks. Racks are also arranged around the whole, so that all the sheep can conveniently feed at them. The floor is covered with straw, continually removed, and a dry and M'arm bedding is obt-ained. The sheep are fed on dry food four times a day, and watered twice a day. In summer they are put into these sheds in the day time when it rains, or when the heat is oppressive. The ewes always lamb in the house. On these occasions the ewo is placed in a little pen b) herself, where she remains unmolested. These pens arc about three or four feet long, and two feet wide, and are formed by means of hurdles. Owing to this care, they are said never to lose a lamb. In constructing fl)e sheep sheds, they allow for each ewe, two and a half feet square, which will be suffi- cient for the hay rack, and the partition required during lambing. All wetness and moisture is considered injurious to the sheep ; but they are taken to water, if not in the pasture, twice every day in the summer ; they are a^so supplied with salt. For fourteen days before the coupling sea- son, during its continuance, and for fourteen ng, and lis care, sheds, )e suffi- g. All hey arc !r; they ng sea- ed witli i 28.3 four pounds of oats daily. In the lambing season small troughs are pla- ced in each pen, in whi^'h the ewes get watcr,\vith a small quantity of bar- ley meal, which is found greatly to increase their milk. The quantity of dry food given to each sheep is about five pounds weight in the day ; li lbs. of good hay, and 3^ of good straw, given in four parts. At the period of lambing, and for some days previous, the quantity of hay is increased, and the straw diminished. Young sheep get about one pound less food in the day. Carrots or potatoes are excel- lent food for ewes after lambing. In Hungary,sheep are sometimes almost entirely fed on potatoes in winter. About four pounds of potatoes to full grown sheep are given in a raw state, cut with an iron instrument, and mixed with a small quantity of barley meal and chopped straw or hay, wet with a little salt water, and distillery wash. This is given to them in three meals in the day, allowing to each animal about 6^ lbs. of nour- ishment in the 24 hours. This would be about one minot of potatoes for fifteen sheep, or two of carrots. Count Magnis found that 4^ lbs. of clover, cut straw, chaflr,and potatoe3,were suflicient for a full grown ewe, 6| pounds for a ram, or full grown wether, and 3| for a lamb. Of this food given by Count Magnis,the proportion of potatoes was not much over one pound for each sheep. The castrating of lambs may be performed at any time from the af* of a fortnight to a month old ; the younger the lamb, the less danger oi" much inflammation taking place. The operation should be performed in fine weather, when not too warm ; and the lambs should be kept dry and sheltered for a few days,until the inflammation is gone off. Lambs may be weaned at about three months old, or the first of August; Ram lambs may be allowed a month longer. They should be separated to some dis- tance, if possible, from the ewes when weaned, though the farmer should have to send his lambs to a farmer at a distance and take his in exchange for a few weeks, until the ewes are dried of milk. Lambs should have an abundance of food after weaning, the after grass of clover would be very suitable. Docking, or cutting oft* the tails of the lambs, is a general prac- ice in England, Ireland, Spain, and Saxony. No doubt docking gives the animal a square handsome appearance on the hind quarter ; but in this countiy, where flies are so extremely troublesome to sheep in summer, it is a species of cruelty to deprive them of their tails, which would ap- pear to have been given them for defence against these annoyances. In the cold of winter, a long bushy tail is a very considerable protection and warm.th to the udder of the ewes. The farmer who will take the trouble to understand perfectly the economy and management of sheep, will be able to determine for himself whether he should dock their tails or not. The shearing of sheep, and the profit thence derived from the wool, form a very considerable article of rural economy. The most proper time for this must be regulated according to the temperature of the weath- er. If the weather be hot,lhe latter end of May is a good time tor shear- ing or clipping these animals. An early sheering is preferable to a late one, when the weather and other circumstances will admit of the opera- tion being performed safely ; because the new wool will not only gain time to get ahead, but the animal will also be secured considerably from the attacks of the flios,to the depredations of whom they become so liable l1 ■K 'i! 284 m by delaying the operation of ehearing to a late period of the summcn Frevioiis to shearing, the sheep ought to be well washed, in order to re- move the dust and other filth which they have contracted ; this is usual- ly performed in the British Isles by men standing in the water, who have the sheep handed to them, and they v/ash the wool completely, not allow- ing the head of the sheep to get under water. The Farming Society of Ireland recommended, that when much dirt had fastened itself at the points of.the wool, and the haw and yolk could not be dissolved in cold water, a large tub should be filled with water at about blood heat, in which to place the sheep, till all the wool should be well washed and sof- tened, and thai the sheep should be river-washed directly after. This process, the society observed, would not be so troublesome as might bo supposed ; for the heat of the animal will keep nearly a sufficient warmth in the water, which will at all events be produced, by occasionally put- ting in a few pails full of hot water. This method is the more necessa- ry where sheep are housed for many months as in Canada. It is said the extra labour required to wash sheep in tubs with warm water and lye, or soda, would be amply repaid, by carrying out the washing and applying it as manure ; the quantity of rich animal soap it would contain, must make it one of the most fertilizing applications which could possibly be used. When sheep are not kept in great numbers, some clean cold wa- ter should be poured on the sheep after being washed in the tub ; this should be done with the sheep standing on the ground, and the water should be squeezed out of the wool as much as possible. Sheep may be shorn, or clipped, in three or four days after washing, or at any time the wool is perfectly dry. A shearer may shear twenty-five or thirty sheep in a day. When the animal is wounded, the part may be anointed with its excrements,or with a mixture of linseed oil and rosin. If the weather should happen to be cold or wet after shearing, the sheep should be housed and fed under shelter while it is cold. In Ireland, when the fleece was shorn, it was spread at large, with the outside uppermost, upon a platform of boards ; the coarse part about the tail and hind-quarters were separated from the fleece, the fleece was then carefully folded and rolled, beginning at the hinder part and folding in the sides or belly wool, as the rolling proceeds. W^hen arrived at the shoulders, the wool of the the fore part is to be rolled back to meet the other, instead of having a binder twisted from the wool, as was the practice in many cases; the most approved plan was to secure the whole by a pack-cord band, in the com- mon way in which parcels are tied up. Thus the fleece is kept much tighter together, and unfolds itself with more regularity under the hand of the sorter. This method would be found very profitable for all farmers who may have wool to sell. The coarse and inferior wool that is sepa- rated from the fleece may be sold separate, or made into coarse cloth for horse covers, or other purposes. W^ool of long staple, or what is term- ed combing wool, will be most suitable for our present wants, as it is best adapted for making cloths of a long and even nap, and moderate degree of fineness. Should we be able to export wool, and require it of any par- ticular quality ,we must endeavor to produce such wool as will suit the mar- ket, if our climate and other circumstances will admit of our doing so. A soft pile is an essential requisite to constitute a good fleece, as is al- summer, er to re- is usual- tvho have lot allow- jociety of elf at the (I in cold heat, in I and sof- 3r. This might bo it warmth nally put- necessa- [t is said ir and lye, ! applying lin, must >ssibly be I cold wa- tub ; this the water ashing, or iventy-five rt may be rosin. If the sheep and, when ppermost, d-quarters olded and )elly w ool, ool of the having a the njost the com- ept much he hand of II farmers at is sepa- e clolh for t is term- s it is best ,te degree )f any par- it the mar- oing so. ;, as is al- 285 so a felting quality in all wools which are 'wrought up into such cloths as are submitted to the action of the fulling-mill. These qualities are said to be wanting in much of the British wool ; and the Saxon wool, and some of tlie New South Wales, particularly excel in these properties. The climate, soil, and mode of feeding sheep, is said to have considera- ble effect on the quality of their wool, and of this there is no doubt. IVIr. Bakewell was of this opinion, but considered that the soft quality of Uie wool, may be secured in every situation by greasing the sheep ; and that this will greatly contribute to counteract the effects of climate and soil, where they are unfavorable to this quality of wool ; and further, that it preserves the sheep from any injurious effect from the change of cli- mate, and from any sudden change of temperature after shearing. But- ter and sulphur, made into an ointment, is recommended to be applied to the roots of the wool immediately after the sheep are shorn. Another ointment made with one pint of tar and four pounds of butter, (which quantity will be sufficient for twelve sheep) is recommended. I have made use of both these ointments with good effect in Ireland, and have found it to improve the quality and quantity of the wool, and destroy in- sects. Oil (not train oil) mixed with warm water, is good to rub the skin of sheep, after shearing, and is less objectionable than otlier ointments, because it will not discolour the wool. When sheep are allowed to go on the young grass in spring, their tails and udders should have the wool well clipped away from them, in order that they may be preserved in a perfectly clean state, until shorn. Wh«n farmers have market convenient for selling fat lambs, it is a great ad- vantage to have them early, and the ewes on whicli they are suckled or fattened, must be fed with nutritive food to give them an abundance of milk. Wether sheep may be brought to a profitable fatness on grass at eigh- teen months old. For v/inter feeding they will answer well at this age so as to be sold out in spring when two years old. Sheep that are fattening in winter should be kept separate from store sheep, and should have a full supply of roots, grain, or edible refuse of the brewery and distillery. Potatoes should be given boiled or steamed, and mixed with a small quantity of ground oats or barley ; this food, with hay, will fatten a sheep in less time than any other food, and I believe at less expense. In feed- ing sheep, it would be found to answer a good purpose to have the troughs in which they get their food raised a little from the floor, or railed off so as only to admit the sheep to put their heads through to their food, as in hog sties. This would prevent waste, as sheep are very apt to get into the troughs and soil the food with their feet. In England they have a contrivance denominated a tumbril ; it consists of a circular cage or crib, which may be made of osiers, willows, or other pliant brushwood. The whole is about ten feet in circumferance, and closely wattled to the height of about one foot, above which it is left open for the space of eighteen inches ; it is then wattled again to the height of eight or ten inches, and an opening about eighteen inches in diameter is left at the top for putting in the roots, or other food, whether green or dry, on which a cover may be placed when necessary. The staves, or stakes, which form the ske- leton of this utensil, are ten inches asunder, which is sufficient space to l12 286 r aJinit the sheep (o ^et at the food, and twelve sheep may feed at tl>,G same lime at each tiiinbiil. This i^iiiiple consliuction ellccts a material savii)^ of provender, and the stronger aheep cannot drive away the weak- er, or trample on, or spoil the food. Prince Esterhazy is said to possess a flock of 300,000 sheep, fed on his estates, situated chiolly in llun^rnry. Tho superintendance and nia- nagemcnt of these flocks are coiiductcd on the best principles, and with the greatest regularity ; monthly reports are sent from all the distant farms of the state of the flocks, the food, &c. to Eisenstade, where a board of directors arc appointed to superintend and give instructions to the different persons in charge of farms. A ram of the Spanish Merino breed has been sold at a public sale in Hungary, for 800/. sterling, and within a few hours after being sold, the purchaser was offered 1250/. sterling for the eame ram. At these public sales, according to Dr. Jjright, from 100/. to 300/. have been commonly paid for a ram. Sheep, to be |)rofitable, require great care and attention, particularly by having good fences, and sufficient grass in summer, and warm houses properly divided and arranged, and abundance of food for them in winter. The farmer who is not disposed to provide these indispensable requisites, and feel duly interested in keeping his flock in suitable condition at all seasons, had better not keep sheep. SWINE. The common hog is found in a wild or domestic state, in almost all the temperate parts of Europe and Asia, and in many parts of Africa, and the South Sea Islands. Hogs seem to enjoy none of the powers of sen- sation in emincni perfection. So imperfect is their feeling, that they have been known to sufter mice to burrow in the fat of their backs, with- out discovering any uneasiness, or appearing to notice it. The form of the hog is inelegant, and his carriage equally mean as his manners. His unwieldy shape renders him no less incapable of swiftness and sprightli- ness, than he is of gracefulness of motion. His appearance is always drowsy and stupid. He delights to bask in the sun, and to wallow in the mire. An approaching storm seems to afTect his feelings in a very sin- gular manner. On such an occasion, he runs about in a frantic stale, and utters loud shrieks of horror. Hogs are infested with lice, and subject to many disorders. The sow brings forth in the beginning of the fifth month after conception, and has often two litters in the year. Hogs, when suffered to see the natural term of life, live from fifteen to thirty years. Their size and strength continue to improve until they are five or six years old. The hog is in a very considerable degree beneficia' to mankind. His flesh is pleasant, substantial and nutritious. Pork takes salt better than the flesh of any other animal, and is in consequence, preserved longer, and makes an important article of naval stores. The hog, in British farming, is viewed as a subordinate species of live stock, and chiefly valuable as consuming what would otherwise be lost. It is supposed, however, that fed on the offal of mills, breweries, distilleries, and dairymen, they would return a greater weight of meat, (many think double the weight,) than could be obtained from any other cattle. Were green crops introduced ,A ■■u.r^ ~ •• V- if; -i ul ( m3 ^(1 at tlic L niutci iul he weak- p, fed on and nia- and with le distant where a ictions to h Merino rling, and cd 1260/. ig to Ur. 1. cidarly by m houses in winter. requisites, ition at all almost all ktrica, and crs of scn- that they icks, with- he form of lers. His 1 sprightli- is always How in the 1 very sin- mtic state, nd subject f the fifth r. Hogs, a to thirty aie five or ind. His setter than Dnger, and h farming, aluable as i'ever, that hey would ight,) than ntroduced 5Xx;J3\r/Jirf :i3JsisisiDo % li i ,... I !!t! ill Can tecdin only IV Inii as oui" of a V make good with t flavou bone, as in tion with it i9 weigl; fiesh inge offah Tl intro mult Tl be oi of o quic bree quar mea Ir off( muc ny» not gvo oUo car swi pec she an( cei lie ad mi bo CO w g' w 287 in Cannilian agriculture to the extent which is ncccssnryi the rearing ond t'oediu;; of Mwiuo might bo carried on to u unds of e weight average ;s while otracted le pow- lo me a 10 much ofsuffi- easons. a good as cer- kv a fair such an aping a rtificial J to re- nd per- fhbour- t, how- drying iild ob- viously be substituted, that would not rcquiro so long or warm a scnson to bring them to maturity. If whoatcannot be Hown in the month of A|>ril, a good crop con scarcely bo expected in ordinary seaHonM, and much Icmh in those that may happen to bo wet and cold. In cxtr(>niely fuvourablo seaHons, late mowing may succeed, but it will be moro Hafo and protitablu for a farmer to cultivate such crops as will be likely to succeed in ordina- ry seasons, than to incur the risk of sowing wheat lato, in expectation of an extraordinary favorable season. I do not propose that a farmer nhould sow any other grain than wheat, when ho can do so with a reasonable prospect of reaping a fair average crop; but otherwise, a crop of oats will be more profitable, and afford a larger cpiantity of good nutritive food, if ho should require it for his family, than wheat grown under circumHtanccs known to bo unfavourable to its production in perlcctit)n. 1 have this spring proved beyond all question, the necessity and utility of sowing wheat early, and the inexpediency and unprofitablencHs of sowing it lute. I am persuaded that it would be greatly the interest of farmers to encou- rage the manufacture, and consumption of oat-meal. It is known to bo a healthful and nourishing food, and wotild be found in those parts of the province unfavorable to the growth of wheat, a good substitute for the flour of wheat, as human food, and in all parts of the country its occa- sional use would be a saving of our more saleable, and valuable grain, and hence greatly increase the farmer's profits. When I commenced this treatise I expected it would not exceed 300 pages at most ; I find however, that I have passed the utmost limits I first laid down, and have concluded the fiAh part without being able to include all which I proposed. The diseases of live stock, and their cure, is yet to be treated of. I would also wish to ofler a few observations on the clearing and cultivation of new land ; the value of labour and land, and the probable profiis of agriculture in different sections of British America, and some general remarks on matters which I conceive to be connected with the prosperity of agriculture, and the interest of farmers in these provinces. Circumstances prevent me from entering fully on these subjects for the present. The ensuing winter, I propose to publish a supplement, which shall comprise them and all that I think to bo further necessary to make my book interesting, and useful to farmers. I shall use all possible industry to enable me to give correct tables of the selling value of cultivated farms sn the British Provinces of North America, their situation, extent, soil, state of cultivation, and farm buildings, with the wages of labour in the different localities. I have stated what I conceived to be the best modes of cultivating the diflTerent species of crops, on cleared farms, the expenditure of labour necessary in the cultivation and harvesting of crops, and the cost of keeping labouring cattle. It only remains for me to give some idea of the usual wages of labour, and the price of produce, to enable a farmer to calculate the returns or profits he will be likely to obtain from a given quantity of land, under good management in ordinary seasons. For the last fifteen years, I have not observed any great variation in the wages of labour in the neighbourhood of Montreal or Quebec. Dur- ing all that period, labourers were to be had at from five to seven dollars a month, and their board, during spring, summer, and harvcut. As high as 290 eight dollars might be occasionally paid to good mowers. If men were hired by the year, the wages varied IVom 12/. JO*, currency, to 18/. or perhaps as high as 20/., to good workmen. Properly qualified ]>longh- men have been paid higher wages, but they are not always to be had. Men hired by the day, without board, got generally about half a dollar. These prices apply only to agricultural labourers, and this wages oil paid in -cash. In the Eastern Townships, and in Upper-Ganada, the wages is generally much higher, but not in all cases paid in cash. The nominal difference may bo one-third more, or perhaps over that. The price of produce has varied exceedingly during the period above sla- ted. The value of wheat is influenced by the price in England. It has however, seldom been sold less than a dollar the minot in Lower-Canada for several years past. The price in Upper-Canada is generally less by a fourth or a fifth in their principal markets. Barley has sold for the last few years from half a dollar to as high as four shillings and six pence the minot; the usual prices may be stated at from half a dollar to three quarters of a dollar the minot. Oats, at from a quarter of a dollar to half a dollar. Peas, from two shillings to five shillings, but generally about three shillings and six pence. Indian-corn, from three to five shillings ; and potatoes from one shilling to two shillings and six pence the minot. Hay, from two dollars and a half to as much as sixteen dollars the hundred bundles ; the price is generally five to eight or nine dollars. In Quebec the aver- age price of hay is much higher than in Montreal. Straw, from two dollars to six the hundred bundles, but seldom more than three or four dollars. In Upper-Canada, the prices of barley, oats, peas and potatoes, are generally fully as high as in Lower-Canada. Hay is rather h'gher in price, and Indian-corn much lower. Beef varies in price from two and a half to six dollars the 100 pounds. The latter price may be ob- tained by the farmer in spring for well fatted beef. Pork soils from four and a half to six or seven dollars the 100 pounds. Mutton of well fattened sheep, would in spring sell for four to five pence the pound, or perhaps more ; but mutton of ordinary quality sells for two to three pence during 6 or 8 months of the year. Veal and lamb sells in the usual propor- tion to other butchers' meat. The cheese made in Canada hitherto was not of first quality. It is seldom kept over so long as English cheese is usually kept before it is used, and from the manner it is generally made, it would not be fit to keep long ; but the defect in our cheese may be rcern- died whenever the farmers' wives take the trouble to learn how torn ake good cheese, and of good materials. The common cheese made in the country sells fresh at three to four pence the pound. There is much good butter made in Canada, but there is also a large proportion of it ill made, and of course, ill tasted. This may be remedied by care and attention, good m'lk houses, removing the cream from the milk before it becomes too old, stirring the cream frequently after it is removed, and whon the butter is churned, by separating etTectually the butter-milk from the butter. The present price of fresh butter is in summer from six pence to ten pence the pound, of sixteen ounces. In winter, fresh butter does i.ot sell much over the latter price, from the large quantity of good suit butter brought to the markets of Montreal and Quebec from a distance, which sells from seven to ten pence the pound. On some occasions it 291 ' men were , to 18/. or ed plotjgh- to be had. If a dollar, wages all >anada, the ash. The it. 1 above sta- id. It has i^er-Canada \y less by a the last lew ! the minot; jarters of a »Ilar. Peas, [lillings and tatoes from ', from two d bundles ; c the avcr- , from two ree or four id potatoes, ther h'gher from two may be ob- i soils from tton of well e pound, or three pence sual propor- litherto was sh cheese is rally made, ay be rcem- DW torn ake nade in the much good it ill made, k1 attention, it becomes and whon ilk from the Ti six. pence butter does f ffood suit a distance, occasions it exceeds these prices ; salt butter of inferior quality sells as low as five pence and six pence the pound. The value of land in the neighbourhood of Montreal and Quebec, is not easy to determine. On the island of Montreal, within ten miles of the city, cleared farms, with reasonably good buildings, cannot be purchased readily for less than from 6/. to 10/. currency the French arpent, and often sell for much more. Off the island, at a greater distance from town, say twenty or thirty miles, farms are sometimes sold for less than the build- ings upon them cost, but this happens only in peculiar circumstances and is no general rule. The price of farms near Quebec is perhaps some- what lower than at Montreal, though farm produce is generally higher. The lands in the neighbourhood of Quebec are not equal in quality to those near Montreal, nor are the seasons so favourable for agriculture, particu- larly for the production of wheat, the spring being considerably later. In Upper-Canada the price of land is rather higher than in the Lower Pro- vince, though I cannot assign any reasonable cause for this circumstance, except that the soil is generally considered to be of superior quality to that of Lower-Canada. The latter province, however, has its advantages in the healthfulness of its climate, better command of labour, and having the best markets for buying and selling : and though the winters may be longer and more severe in Lower than in Upper-Canada, the crops are not more subject to failure or casualties, in the Lower Province than in the Upper. It ought not to be necessary to remind farmers how much it will be their interest to encourage the consumption of the produce of agricul- ture to the full extent of the wants of the population, and to raise for export all that they can find a market for. Any article for our own consumption that can be directly manufactured in Canada from the raw produce of agriculture, ought surely be preferred to that of any other country. There are various manufactures not made from agricultural produce which in our present circumstances we will find cheaper to buy than to make, particularly while we have a thin popu- lation, and abundance of fine land, the produce of which we can give in exchange for these manufactured goods. So long as this exchpnge can be continued on its present footing, it will be no less for our i.jierest than that of England, to continue it, and I presume to maintain that the ad- vantages arising from this trade between England and this colony arc perfectly reciprocal. The manufactures that we can make from the pro- duce of our own agriculture, cheaper than we can buy them, are : butch- er's meat, cheese, and butter, spirits and beer. We might also make wine from currants, and other berries, that might be cultivated to any ex- tent, of infinitely superior quality to three-fourths of the wine we import, and making this wine is worthy the attention of every farmer's family. The mode of manufacturing various kinds of home-made wine, I shall treat of in the supplement. Our wool we should manufacture, and could do so, into cloth sufficiently good for any farmer in Canada. Flax could be manufactured for our own wants to a very considerable extent. Per- haps these are the only or principal articles for our own consumption, that it would be expedient to encourage particularly, the manufacture of at pre- sent. M m ^02 Jill''- M/ object in publislwiig this treatise was to prpipotc the improve- ment of agriculture as tha best means of advancing the prosperity of all tlje pop,u|iitiop| of Canada, whether engaged ii^ agriculture or not. I am convince^ tli^t agriculture cannot be 4^1^ improved, unlcgs its producp f.f\or it is raised in abuijdance, is judiciously applied ; and this it can- pot !|;^e, while wo allow ourselves to be supplied with agricultural produce in a jaw or manufactured state, by strangers, tliat we are capable of fur- nii^hiog in the mosjan^plo manner, if we ipake a proper use of the rneans f^^ our disposal. For a coMntry that >voulfi be unable from pecuhar cir- pumstances to supply her population with the direct necessaries of life, it would ])e a fortuuato circumstance that this supply could be obtained irowi iiL neighbouring state in exchapgp for what that country ipay have to disposed of in rqani^f^ctured gpods or other commodities. Canada, however, is fortunately not po circumstanced, and while she neglects to iniproye bof advantages, aqd buys what her own soil might furnish, with- out giving in exchange what her own soil, or the industry of her peo- ple cjoep or might produce, she cannot be in so prosperous a state as she might be. At least such a state of thipgs rnust be against the interest of her farmers who constitute a vast majority of her population, and who aro pntitled to every reasonable encouragement and protection* I would not presume to offer ?iny objection to trade carried on between ourselves and other countries, (howev^.r it might interfere with the interest of farrners,) provided the trade was left open, free, and unshackled, on each side, or established on the principle of perfect reciprocity. But. if not establish- ed on one or other of these terms, I cannot be convinced tliat the tradp woujd be fair or equitable, or pqually advantjigeous for both countries epr ^aged in it. , . . •; Justice is at length about to be done to Ireland, and a legal provisfon iz^ade for her unemployed poor. This will make a vast chan^ie for the better in the circumstances of that country. Much of the agricultural produce which they have been hitherto accustomed to export, will in fu- ture be required to feed, and provide other comforts for hej- nppulatipn. This will of course lessen the quantity of provisions that can be spare(| for exportation to England, and wil' probably open the Knglisl) market to us to a very considerable extent for our agricultural producp.' I hope \ am not too sanguine in feeling confident that we shall, at no distant period, be able to sqpply this market, together with providing food of every description for all our own wants. * I have great confidence in the capabilities of Canada as an agricultural country, even with her snow-;- povered surface for several months in winter, pur farmers are owners of the soil they cultivate, or rnay be so ; they are free from tlhat state of vassal^e which farmers and the working class of almost all parts of thp old world are subject to, and from which tl^e government of iany.coiintry Jiowever good, cannot effectually relieve them. T^hey are in possession of a fine and beautiful country that has neither bleak or barren moun- tains, or uncultivcble bogs, but almost every ^cre of which nniay be ap- plied to the growing of corn, or the rearing or feeding of cattle ; ancj with such advantages th,e^ might furnish agricultural produce for export to a much greater amount than that which the imports from other cpn- ntries is likely to be, or shall be necessary for us. '" * ^ .3»l' in j-\ 293 Tho greatest benefit that legislation can confer on a country circum- stanced as these colonies are, is to j)rovido for, and promote, by every possible means, the general education of tho people. Were every indivi- dual of the population of this, and the other provinces of British America duly instructed, and educated according to their situations and circum- stances in life, every man would be able to make the most of the oppor- tunities offered to him, and if any fiivoural)le opportunities should not offer, educati( n would so improve the judgment of most men that they would bo enabled to understand the best means of improving their cir- cumstances, know how to render those means available, and give that degree of confidence which a man ought to have in his own power to at- tain that success in his pursuits that would be desirable ; and this suc- cess is generally possible to all men who possess energy, industry, fru- gality, and well informed minds to apply these qualifications to the best purpose. It would be my ambition, and I hope it is that of every one who consi- ders Canada as their country, that we should not be second to any people on this continent, but should take the lead in all useful improvements, and in every way that would best secure the prosperity, comfort and hap- piness of the people of Canada. I cannot bring myself to believe that our situation or circumstances, geogra|)hical or physiral, are in any way unfavourable to our advancement to tho highest degree of improvement and prosperity. It is for th(; government and legislature to provide that our civil and political situation shall have no unfavourable influence or retard our progrses onward ; and this will be no less the true interest of one than of all parties. Should I have taken an erroneous view of matters which I conceived to be connected with the prosperity of agriculture, I hope I shall be ex- cused, when I affirm truly, that however I might wish to promote the in- terests of farmers, I would not, if I could, do so at the expense, or to the prejudice of any other part or portion of the community. My sincere de- sire is, that ALL should unite in adopting the best means of promoting the prosperity of the land we live in, and all who dwell in it. hi 'I i 'I THE END. f\^'^ •i; 'f't>> > I :r: ■.I I I I if") .ly-i-^f :f I' I « ,\^ hi ;>.>;] 'J/' t^v'r:;(V (., .' »i ■ w ,1 ' '• >-•«/. J . 1 1 •' I . i:>.fi 1 ,_ )■ ! >■■?;>•', '■, u» Sii; i'.i -^ij J. i^ ■"<-> -1 .)!,' ii :hi' t!l! .i'»= I > p I I 'I )l '> . ill, ' ' l*i} i.h\. -A i . , /I .> '< •1 i .1 j:.j-' it::.;. I /I- -'■■■- fifiti: v.. .. i V] - ', :,.: / ''u ij,!.': !' •' *' '- ' '•! •'*;• '^ of Italy, • - - > :t!! -.; M • .;/•*::: of Switzerland, ... of France, - ... of Holland and the Netherlands, of Prussia, - - ... of China, - • • - - , • : i of Australia, • - - - ■ . •'.'- '} of the Cape of Good Hope, of the United States, - « of Mexico, - « - . . General view of Agriculture, - '.; : r # - r/t « ' W r. a '' Agriculture in the British Isles, . . Statistical Notes of England and Wales, Statistical Notes of Lower-Canada, f ^.\lr. It fa I'm , u M (« 1 6 7 13 19 22 25 27 28 30 31 33 38 42 PART SECOND — SCIENCE OF AGRICULTURE. ;i. .; Hi- iMil. Compound products of Vegetables, - Germination of the Seed, - . », . Food of vegetating Plants, and nature and properties of Soil, Improvement of Soils, - - ... Principles of Rotation of Crops, - - r , . u Of Manures, Fermentation, &c. - - - ' . Fermenting and applying Manures, ^ ^ ^ Mineral Manures, -^ " # «•• Distribution of Plants, - - . » - Disease of Vegetables, - - - . - ■ Natural Decay, - - - , • Temperature and Climate, - - - Table of Temperature, - - . ' Rain Tdble of several Countries^ Means of prognosticating the Weather, ::«J l.'S).. iv 48 61 63 66 67 69 72 74 76 80 88 89 91 96 97 PART THIRD — SCIENCE AND PRACTICE OP AGRICULTURE. >:i; Domestic Animals used in Agriculture, - - - 101 The object of Improvement of Breeds of Animals, - 102 The Means of improving the Breed of Animals, - - 102 Choice of live Stocl^ for the purposes of breeding or feeding, 108 Choice of live Stock for purposes of labour, - - 117 Age of Animals, - - - - - 121 Practice of Agriculture, - - - - - 124 Personal character of, and expectations of a Farmer, - 124 Capital required for a Farmer, ~- - - ' 12t Selecting a Fann for purchase or hiring^ - • - 139 Character of Surface, Aspect, and situation in regard to '"i'^'-" ' '- Market, - - - - « - Extent of land avitable for a Farra^ •- •;»; i,.- Buildings necessary for a Farmer, - • - Tillage,. Implements, and Machines, Smb-dividing and fencing Farms, Draining, Formation of Drains « Ploughing and Harrowing, notation of crops suitable * the different descriptions of soil, 161 Summer Fallow, -.-..- .- . - 164 Qhoice .of Seeds, -- - - - - - * fo - 165 \<^i - - r^RT. FOURT^^,,:r,^;ijj-] ^.Hj'io (?<: - .. - - , ^ j. ■>'>?/. J If. '!(• ••• Culture of cereal Grasses, or corn Crops, li; i «,A i ' 'V*.* / h; 172 Wheat,. .... ^ - J/!:i;«.i: Dff}r« ;ij!:ilr;173 Bye, • — - ..-;.,■,.. unwliit' ■ - •» ■ 178 Bajfley, - - - - . - .•;hi./r»i >--r>. '/'•■:-•* . •■ 179 Oats, «. - • *» - .181 Indian Corn, . •: - - - ..- r t^ -^ 183 Cutivation of leguminous field plants, tlie seeds of which are 185 , !-n :;[•.- 132 133 134 139 150 152 156 157 ...^., »■ * . 4 }\^ . ' i x->.\ »'Atai\. \ used for man or cattle, The Pea, .. - .. - . - " /fn'.r-' tj:i? U> J.^iji;jti'4?6 - The Beailt '- 'lA^'^iWo'"'*-! r-'.•"';.■!; 'm^ ,■ ;.;'il'*.f' •••n:*j;k.i''^,:'].i ^8.9'- The -Tare, .. - J '- , - - - ,-.n: r': . };i'k(r:j7!.ijP' The Kidneybean, - . - . r , -: . - ) o^i i^^U Plants cultivated for their roots as focKiipr mwt^or Cf^^t^i . aiijlf^^ ' ThePotato, ^ -. r j.; t:.:.: r;;.; /?;;.. .il?^, Turnips, ^ % ^ \ .. '..:.., (.'rfr;/,^ fn-fjift?/ (parrots, - - - - - .. - , ;.• t V) rioitndi^03| Parsnips,. - - . - - , •* ^'t., osr^O.^ The field beet, commonly called Mangle-wurtzel, , ,- ..-^ ,{ | \sr,i^Q4 Cabbage, - - - - . - , - : ?:i i^iriirrio .?05, C.ulture of herbage plants, - - . - . .nSinojatTio^^QO, Clovers,.. . .- - -^hlnu^ii) U^vy/f^'l.) 'A'ln'XWfi. Iruceru, -- .- ,-.)tiji,w^^- ■■'•-(;:«^)-.cr(r?';T;jV; ■-'^1?:„ Saintfoin, - - « » ' - «'' , 215 Cultivated Grasses, - . - - - Table of grasses experimented on at Woburn Abbey Management of lands under grass for meadow or pasture, Hay-making, - - - » • Pastures, .-.--- Plants chiefly grown for clothing. Flax, -,---. Hemp, mm- • " - The Hop, «» • 4, PART FIFTH. Breeding, rearing, and managing of farm horses, • Asses and Mules, - - - - - Neat or horned cattle, - - - - ■ Breeding of neat cattle, Rearing of neat cattle, - - - - Fattening of Calves, - - - - Fattening of neat cattle, ... Management of cows kept for the dairy Dairy and its management, - . - Cheese-making, _ - - - , Management ot a dairy in Gloucestershire, Cream, Parmesan, Switzerland, and Westphalia Cheese, Devonshire scalded or clouted cream, Potato, Cheese, . - - . Making and churning butter, . - - Breeding, rearing, and fattening of Sheep, Swine, ------ Conclusion, --_.-. 218 220 223 226 228 229 229 232 233 242 248 249 252 - 254 255 - 257 259 - 261 262 267 2^4-275 - 276 276 277 279 - 287 288