IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I '" ilIM illlM £ ilM |||m 1: m 111^ III 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 ^ 6" — ► l> <^ w % e: w c"J %' / Ky- #^ y Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY 14580 (716) 872-4503 c^.. '-p CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut canadien de microreproductions historiques Technical and Bibliographic Notes/Notes techniques et bibliographiques The Institute has attempted to obtain the best origma* copy available for filming Features of this copy which may be bibliographically unique, which may alter any of the images in the reproduction, or which may significantly change the usual method of filming, are checked below. L'Institut a microfilme le meilleur exemplaire qu'il iui a ete possible de se procurer Les details de cet exemplaire qui sont peut etre uniques du point de vue bibliographique. qui peuvent modifier une image reproduite. ou qui peuvent exiger une modification dans la m^thode normale de filmage sont indiqu6s ci-dessous. D Coloured covers/ Couverture de couleur i I Covers damaged/ Couverture endommagee I I Coloured pages/ Pages de couleur Pages damaged/ Pages endommagees j Covers resto'ed and/or laminated/ I I Couverture restaur^e et/ou pelliculee C Pages restored and/or laminated/ Pages restaurees at/ou pelliculees □ C. -er title missing/ Lc titre de couverture manque [~7 Pag«s discoloured, stained or foxed/ I Pages decolorees. tachet^es ou piquees □ Coloured maps/ Cartes gAographiques en couleur □ Pages detached/ Pages detachees □ Coloured ink lie. other than blue or black)/ Encre da couleur (i.e. autre que bieue ou noirai / Showthrough/ Transparence □ Coloured plates and/or illustrations/ Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur □ Boun Reli« nd with other material/ avec d'autres documents □ Quality of print varies/ Quallte in^gale de limi ipression □ Includes supplementary material/ Comprend du material supplementaire n u Tight binding may causa shadows or distortion along interior margin/ Lareliure serree peut causer de I'ombre ou de la distorsion le long de la marge interieure Blank leaves added during restoration may appear within the text. Whenever possible, these have been omitted from filming/ II se peut que certaines pages blanches ajout^es lors dune restauration apparaissent dans la texte. mais, lorsque cela 4tait possible, ces pages n ont pas iti film^es. □ Only edition available/ Seule Edition disponible D Pages wholly or partially obscured by errata slips, tissues, etc.. have been refilmed to ensure the best possible image/ Les pages totalement ou partiellement obscurcies par un feuillet d'errata. une pelure. etc.. ont i'.e fHm^es d nouveau de facon a obtenir la meilleure image possible. n Additional comments:/ Commentaires supplementaires This item Is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document est filme au taux de reduction indique ci-dessous. 10X 14X 18X 22X 26X 30X ^ II II —i \ 1 \ \ \ ' \ \ \ \ \ \ \ 12X 16X 20X 24X 28X 32X The copy filmed h«r« has b««n r«produc»d thanks to tha ganaroaity of: Harold Campbell Vaughan Memorial Library Acadia University. L'axampiaira filmi fut raproduit grAca i la ginAroaiti da: Harold Campbell Vaughan Memorial Library Acadia University. Tha imagaa appaaring har* ara tha baat quality posaibia considaring tha condition and lagibility of tha original copy and in Icaaping with tha filming contract spacificationa. imagaa suivantaa ont *tt raproduitaa avac la piua grand soin, compta tanu da la condition at da la nanat* da l'axampiaira fiimA, at an conformity avac laa conditiona du contrat da filmaga. Original copiaa in printad papar eovara ara filmad beginning with tha front covar and anding on tha last paga with a printad or iliuatratad impraa- sion, or tha bacit covar whan appropriata. All othar original copiaa ara filmad beginning on tha first paga with a printad or iliuatratad impres- sion , and ending on tha laat page with a printad or iliuatratad impraaaion. The laat recorded frame on each microfieha shall contain tha symbol -m^ (meaning "CON- TINUEO"), or the symbol y (meaning "END"), whichever appliaa. Mapa, piatea, charts, ate, may be filmed at different reduction ratioa. Thoae too large to be entirely included in one expoaure ara filmad beginning in the upper left hand comer, left to right and top to bonom. as many framea aa required. The following diagrams illustrate tha method: Laa axempiairaa originaux dent la couverture an papier eat imprimte sont filmte an commenpant par le premier plat at an tarminant soit par la darniAre paga qui comporta una amprainta dimpnwaion ou d'illuatration, su*t par la second plat, salon la caa. Tous laa autraa axompiairas originaux sont filmta an commandant par la pramiire page qui comporte une amprainte dimpreaaion ou d'illuatration at an tarminant par la derniira page qui comporte une telle empreinte. Un dea symbolea suivanta apparaltra sur la demiAra image de cheque microfiche, selon le caa: la symbols '— ^'Signifie "A SUIVRE". la symbola ▼ signifie "FIN". Laa cartaa. planches, tableaux, etc.. pauvant itrm fiimte i dea taux de rMuction diffirants. Lorsqua la document eat trop grand pour itra raproduit an un saui ciichA. il est filmA i partir da I'angia sup4rieur gauche, de gauche i droite. et de haut en baa, an prenant la nombre d'imagaa n^cassaire. Laa diagrammea suivants illuatrent la m^thoda. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 h H OUTLINES OP I'SYCIIOLOGY, LOGIC AND THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION. BY J. B. HALL, Ph.D., Provincial Normal School, Truro, Nova Scotia TORONTO : WILLIAM BRIGGS, WESLEY BUILDINGS. Truro: D. II. Smith & Co. 1892. K\r-kKi-. icccirdirj^' t'. Act nf tlir I'lrliaiiunt < i t ;iiia<);t, ij. Ill th(ni«aii(1 ciulit huiidiHl ;»ii.l tiinet\ two 1, W ! Torriitf., II, ti;(. Oftics- < t tbv Miiiisti ,MV Hrii, It \.rioulti;ri ir Ottm PREFACE. It has been truly remarked that the present age is the heir of an immense stock of conservations, of sacrifices, of experiences and reflections in education. A brief review of the results of the great thinkers in solving the problems of education under various conditions-climatic, ethnic, social and religious- affords a fruitful field for study and reflection. Amidst the varying vicissitudes of the world's history, from Socrates to Horace Mann, a band of devoted and cultured men has been busily engaged in developing and maturing educational practice and principles. The works and labors of these men should ^e studied with the view of securing better results in school work in the immediate future, viz.: the proper development of the child-body, mind and heart Language is the chief instrument used in instruc- tion. It seems appropriate, therefore, that some attention should be given to the study of logic "the science of the necessary forms of human thou-^ht " PJ-A/l/C ._/ W' IV PREFACE. The especial concern and study of the teacher, however, is mind. It is now generally conceded that psychology is the basis of sound pedagogical practice. At the present time, the most advanced educational systems are governed l)y its principles in everything that pertains to school work. The greatest pedagogical activity is to be found among the members of the Herbartian school. The secret that underlies their aggressive spirit is found in the fact that it is based on psychological principles. ' Instruction, governed by these principles, tends to the proper development of the physical, social, esthetic, mental and moral powers of the child, and bears fruit in will and character. Guided by the lessons of history and science, we may hope to produce not only professional and prac- tical men, but well-balanced, self-dependent, vigorous human beings— men of will and character. The work that presents a most promising field to the educator is the study and correlation of those subjects that shed a lustre on educational work, as, the history of education, physiology, psychology, logic and sociology, with the application of the principles deduced to practical teaching. PREFACE. y Finally, the Outlines of Psychology. Logic and His- tory of Education may he regarded as translations and " notes " on these subjects. It is not possible to acknowledge all the sources that have been drawn upon in writing this outline My thanks are especially due to Dr. Lukens, for the the use of his "Notes on the Principles of Herbart as applied to Teaching." If the work of these outlines is accomplished, they have been the means already of affording many pleasant and profitable hours. It is hoped, however as they go out on their mission, that they may be the' means of mspiring some young teachers to gain a more comprehensive knowledge of the principles on wh.ch the divine art of teaching is based. To J- I^- H- Truro, 1892. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I.-PSYCHOLOGY SECTION Definitions ''^^'^ 2. Sensations.. JO 3. Sense- Perception 4. Conscious Perception, or Consciousness ." 16 0. Attention 6. Intuition ^^ 7. Growth of Intuition ' ' 8. Reproduction ^- Remembering 10. Kinds of Reproduction 03 11. Laws of Reproduction 12. Memory-Qualities of a Good Memory-Care of the Memoiy-Memorizing-Memory in General 13. Imagination-Defects of Imagination-Aberra- tions of Imagination-IUusions-Hallucina- tions-Causes of Aberration of the Imagina- tion— Retrospect and Transition. 30 14. Thinking-Fundamental Processes in Think- ing 15. Thought and Language-Principal" Forms' of Thinking 16. Origin of Conceptions [[ gy 17. Judgments-Origin of Judgment' " 37 ^'"' roNTKNTS. SECTION 18. Tiic> Cniicliision— OriKin of thu Concluaion . . y!» H>. Ajipercuptioii ^q 20. The rndcrstaiKling 4J 21. Ahilitit'8, Talont.s Ditrfcreiice between Talent and (Jenius j. 22. Feelings— Differenco between Feelings and Ideas -Origin and Extent of the Peelings— ClaN.sification of the Feelings- Physical, Intellectual, -Esthetic and Moral Feelings.' 43 2.'{. Conscience— Religious Feelings— Feelings of Estimation— Compound Feelings. . . 47 24. The Artections " " " -() 25. The Disposition ni 2Vk Phenomena of the Desires— Desires and Aver- sions—Sensual Desires— Intellectual De- sires—Inclinations and Aversions — Intel- lectual Interest— The Passions— Willing ... 52 27. Character- Diversity of Character— Change of Character j-k 28. Ideas and Ideals— Ideals 57 29. Reason --q 30. Individuality ' nQ 31. Teniperament ^1 32. Nature of the Soul 63 33. InHuence of the Body upon the Mind— Sum- '"^^ 66 CHAPTER II.— LOGIC. 1. Conceptions— Office -f Conception 70 2. Extent and Content of Conception— Qualities of Conception— Relation of Conceptions. . . 71 3. Attributes of a Definition 7(j CONTKNTb. ,\. ■f. na.s.siHcati..n Ri..,uire,nents of Divininn '"^7« .'. ^'itun- of •lu.l-inent~Cl;iH8itication ..f (he .'ud^'iiu-nt ^^ Conclusion «. Ki;,Mires (,f ( 'oniliiHion ' ' ^"^ !». Lhws of Cnchisioi, 10. Kinns(mous Pehception, or Con- sciousness. CoufH'iou.^)icss is inward perception, the senses are origans of outer perception. Self, in its inner world, imaij^ines, sympathizes, wills. Tiie soul perceives this subjective act! /ity. Endowed with tins pt)wer, I stand face to face with the iiuier world. Under consciousness are compre- hended all those ideas that are known by the thinkinijf person in contrast with tho.se that are unknown or foriri>tten. PSYCIIOLO(a'. 17 lu' plumo.n.na of consciousness are variable states. Il.err are n.on.ents when the smallest ;;'ta.ls enter our nm.ls in perfect clearness. "H. Kleas receive,! are clearest when the nwnd is .mrrowe. or concentrate,! on a single object. VVe clearly perceive an ilhnninate,! object in the oven.n^r an acpiaintance in a crow,! of stran^^ers »•• 't 'xxlily pain from other impressions This nan-own,. ,.f consciousness is calle.l attenfion ' )n other occasicms. we discern obscurely the olliect ot our thon<.ht. This ,lirterence in the je^n-ee of cmsciousness depends up,>n the intensity of psychological activity. Thus, in the hrst nu,numt ,)f ,>ne s awakenin,, from a sleep Ht lave but a va^^ue. dreamy consciousness of anytliin*^. so -act,,,, o,.r ,,„ ,.,,,„, .,,„„„„/„„,, ,' «.b, oet to cI,,»,.o;e a„,l tran,sfor,„ation. for ,,,„ i„ « ;lol„„t. ,„,|ivi,l„al, e,„lowe,l witl, certain op,n,on», rc.coMectio„.s, i„cli„atio„.s an,l bo.lily |/"a.s,,cl,a,,,,e.,. In th„ tl,inl y„ar of its a..' lio el,,l,l h,.t l,oeo„,e., »olf-cun»eious. Till tira .,,,0 ,t ,egaul» i,,elf an.l spoaks „C itself only in >e 1,,,.,1,H, As soon. l,o„ever,a,s it loams w,ch,t,s„„.™„„le,l,l,espeatsori,i,„»eifi„ the hrst person. is PSYCHOLOGY. Oiher I,Uas.~Wo find also among the objects surroundin-r us tliose that possess the .same characteristics a.s tho.se which we observe in con- nection with ourselve.s. Further, we note in them ecjual and .similar activitie.s and powers: Power of motion, of launrhing, weeping, speaiving, etc. We infer, therefore, that these bodies have an intellectual life, that tliey appear to be .similar to ours, or we attribute our own consciousness to them. In this way we gain an idea of our fellow-creatures. The idea of self, therefore, becomes a basis for the understanding of others. On the other hand, the consciousne.ss of self is (juickened and explained through our knowledge of others. Note 1.—" Clear consciousness may be thought as the circle of those concepts upon which attention rests. Experience shows us that this circle, like the pupil of the eye, can be extended or contracted within certain rather wide limits. The greatest narrowing occurs when we concen- trate our attention upon a single object; the greate.st extension takes place when we widen the bounds of the narrow consciousness to its greate.st extent It is apparent that the width of this circle is indirectly proportioned to the clearness of its single points, i.e., that our atten- tion is so much the less intensive, the more exten.sive it is, or the more it is divided." — Lindner. PSVCHOLOOY. 19 Note 2.— " There is an inner world of ideas thoughts and feelings, as well as an oute world a e iul'a 'r'T'^' V''^'' T'"^^' phenon^ena wUZ ^""^^\,^'^ physical phenolaena. By see that fh' ^" ''"f ^ P ^enon.ena. Thus we i fi /u .i_ "''^' '"''J^^^'^ o^ knowledge mav be both the things of the outer worl.i an!i the Vts and sta es of the nund itself. Both k nds of knovvled/)ie. Note 4.—" Children should be accustomed to examine, analyze and inspect every object of interest about them: the Mowers and minerals by the wayside, the animals of the fields, the warblers of the forest, the various household utensils, etc., all presont excellent subjects for exercisinrr the faculties."— T'a^?. Sec. 6. — Intuition. Intuition is the power of <,^aining directly con- crete necessary ideas. This piece of wood possesses extension, divisi- bility, weijrht, porosity and elasticity. That these qualities (phenomena) may be a substance (the very essence), must be. In a similar man- ner we find that space, time, cause, etc., are noumena. There are four tests of necessary ideas : 1. Seif-Evidence. Self stands face to face with facts. Think of trying to prove one's existence. We know it is self-evident. 2. Necessity. The mind must start with somethincr. Mind must be, that thought may be. Space must be, that external objects may be. They are necessary ideas. PSYcuoLoay. 21 ^^ n.^ Universality. Necessary ideas are accepted 4. Ivdrpevdnice. A necessary idea cannot be derived from other ideas. Intuitions furnish material for thinkinr., and thinking, leads to knowledge. If thinking, which consists m working over present material, shall lead to knowing and do^ng, that is to true edu- cation, then much care must be taken in the formation of intuitions. It i. inipossible to /e^.-Fre,,uently we are romin.led of a n.olody by a similar one ; of a la.ulscape by a s.nnlar one ; of a voice by a similar one, etc llns process is explained on the supposition that similar ideas strengthen one an.)ther. The Jaw Of Contrast is as follows: Contrasted idea« reproduce one another. L\vaury.~(a) True, if it retains unaltered tlic impressions in tiie soul'; (h) stronit the impressions may remain firmly in the soul, it is necessary {) imlistinct and superficial impressions liave but litth; value. It is ([uite evident that on account of the multitude of impressions which arc conveyed to the soul, only those which are firmly impressed will be firmly fixed. Weak impressions are obscured, or wholly darkened, by the mutual infiuence of the existincr mia-es in the soul, and those that have entered more recently. It will bo necessary, therefore, to make the impressions as definite and clear as possible. Impressions made by simple descrip- tions are wantin- in depth and clearness, and therefore do not possess much strencrth. Since the soul-images become less clear and vivid and are modified by those that liave more recently entered, repetition must occur frequently. In some cases one simple reproduction is all that is i 1 28 PSYCHOLOGY. necessary, but if the impressions have become darkened or obscured, they must be reviewed Suppose, for example, in a review in geometry 1 becomes evident that the pupils have not clearly understood the method of bisectincr a triangle, by a line drawn from a point on one side. In such a case the mere telling or refer- ence ,s not sufficient; the enunciation, construction and proof must be given again. The undisturbed health'of the body, and of the whole mental life, is essential to a c^ood memory. Experience teaches that by nervous derangement, by physical debauch, by excessive mental exertion, by trouble, by the use of nar- cotics and stimulants, by want and sorrow, the memory is impaired. Memorlzing.~The intentional learnin-. of a series of ideas takes place by means of memor- I'Airxrr izing There is a threefold memorizing: (a) the mechanical, the so-called learning by heart or rote method ; (6) the artificial, ingenious memor- i>^ing ; (c) the thoughtful, judicious, logical The mechanical memory consists in the repetition of numbers, geographical or historical names Gram- matical rules, or the words of a poem, tiirthev are produced unchanged. In this method slight regard is paid to the contents or meaninc. the Ideas entering the mind simultaneously or'in a PSYCHOLOGY. 29 certain order, are united externally or outwardly. The impressions are fixed more easily if the ideas to be learned are connected by rhythm or rhyme. The artificial, ini^enious, numerical memorizinir consists in explaining by artificial means the ^a to be impressed. The thoujrhtf ul, judicious, .o, leal memorizing pays attention to the content,' and unites the ideas by means of the judgment.' One remembers, for instance, a mathematical proof by its connection and order. Memory in General— The opinion that, by memorizing historical tables, (synopsis), songs and pithy sayings, the memory in general is strengthened, is erroneous. As there is no general power of memory, there en be no general exercise for the memory. He who is engaged chiefly in the study of mathematics strengthens his power but little for retaining historical dates, facts, names, etc. Note 1.—" It cannot be too clearly borne in nnnd that to acquire any amount of knowledcre respecting the particular and concrete, is not to be educated. Perfect knowledge implies the taking up oi the particular or concrete into the general ; the connecting of a variety of particu- ars u'uier a universal principle. A eerfain knowledge ot the concrete, a certain store of nnages, IS undoubtedly necessary to the exercise ot the higher intellectual faculties ; but if the teacher aims at simply mass or volume of detail M-l 30 rSYCHOLOQY. the higher powers of the mind will be unexer- cised. — n'''/)/. Note 2— "The facility of memory depends upon the degree and mobility of the attention as well as in general upon the freshness of apprehension which is partially connected with physiological conditions."— Zi/jtZ/^^r. Sec. 13.— Imagination. The power of forming mental images of objects not present to the senses is appropriately called imagination. This power is exercised in two lien called imaginative memory, or representative imagination. At another, it is a function of combination and elaboration, and it is then the inventive or creative imagination."— /^(?/7ie III f'Ai I !1 ds rSVCHOLoOY. in a L iTTl /^'""^"'> '^"'^ nna,<,Mn.vti„n interlace Tl.e , r ; '"''''' r^ '--ciprocally separate. iJit more the niental activity in renro. uction inovos alon. the ol,l tracks, the n,orc> pro "in »" does memory becon.e ; the more it n.ovls new ways throu..h the foun.iin,. of new simu ane^ ties and successions, the n.ore prominent wi I "na;^n>ation appear. The boundary line ,et,v^ n 1 r;;::; ^^r^ ^'f-^' -P'0.1ucJd perce^^^^^ art for the most part, i.na-inations, bmiuse incidents are always hickin^r, and since in l^eneral altered reproductions ha^^e n.ore chance lor themselves than the u na 1 te re. 1 ;•-/./,, f/;,,!"''' i DEFECTS OF IMAOINATION. . ^^'=^"'^'' o*' i»»'\^^ination are dreams, whims air-castles; n.ythology, with its persons and narrations, the world of fables and legends with their dwarfs, giants, fairies, goblins, wftches,' and ghosts. ' ABERRATIONS OF IMAlilNATIOJf, Phantasies are pictures of the imagination which one mistakes for perceptions of objective actuality, although one may not know how they have arisen in him. Many who relate untrue stories, soon believe their own fiction. lUusions arise through a wrong interpretation of sense impressions. Many persons think they «ee a ghost, when there stands before them in fact a post. ]t is an illusion, if an object in a tog or early morning appears to be much nearer I'SYCHOLOOY. 33 or lar...r than it really is. It is also an illusion vv .en the drunkard inm^n^ines he sees snakes and H-l.ers; when the sick believe they hear n.usic and tlu> rin^rino; of bells. Hallucination is a delusion of the senses without external excitation. •ArsKs (,K AliKKKATIO.N „K THE IMAOI.VATION. The chief causes are the following: ti)e filUnrr of he youthful mind with ^^^host stories, le-^ends an.l other fanciful ideas; in a word, by turninc: the youthful nund fro.u the real to the unreal and n.ythical. Personal vanity and pri) judgments, (c) conclusions. The laws of thinking are explained by logic. Psychology indicates how the forms of thinking are produced in the soul. Coiurption is the power to form general notions. Example. — The child observes many objects with four sides, as windows, doors, walls, tables, fronts of houses, etc. It is observed that all are enclosed by four straight lines, in which the two opposite are parallel and e(iual. When the child collects these essential characteristics and places them together, it obtains the notion parallelo- PSYCHOLOGY. 87 gram. The rest of tl.e cliamcteristlcs which were oh.s.^rve.l in the chjoct. viz., the diHerent •si/<"s. color, n.aterial. etc.. are separated as unes.sential ditierences. Sec. k;.— Ouiglv of Conceftion.s. From the ahove example it i. ,.vi,lent that in the formation of notions, the followini,' different processes may be distin^ruished : (a) The recep- tion and reproduction of all the characteristics of the object; (h) the blendini,^ of the homo cliniiiuition of tlic middle t(>rni inMci'fds tlic judi^niont, " Ihr ciihc //as three (fi))teiisli>u-<." By this means, contrary to the process of the formation of ideas, the honio<,fen- eous (>hMn(>nts are separated. Tlie characteristic of the conehision arrived ni in the juili;ment is attributed to the subject of the suhonhnate sinujU' jndi^ment. Si':(\ li). — AiTKiU': rioN. In former paragraphs, hy means of (U>linite principal forms of think itiijf. tlie inteih'ctual eh>mentary soul-ima«j:es, as i(h>as, pi>rceptions, intuitions, are intimately connected with one nimthiM'. These sonl-in\ai;es lu'come real con- tent of the soul. The threat er these content lieeome the more the capacity of the soul to awakiMi new perceptions is increased, whence the existiiiij^ ima^j^os are proved to he perc(>p- tive forces for the reception of uew impressions. Th(^ new impressit)ns art> tluM-efore perceived, explained and presenttMl to the mind by the imai^os which were awakened earlier in the soul. This relation of the earlier sonl-ima<;es to the new impressions is called appercej>tion. On the other hand, the apperceivinuj imaijjes are chaiiiijed or transt\)rmed by the new impressions. There- I'SY('II()I,«)(JY 41 rccc ption <)i new ideas. Tl ton' the soni proves its.«I|- conscious of the lis conscious activity ii|)rcssious to tlio i»-'"<'r in power and inner or-ani/ation, I the name of apperception unaltered rece|)ti()n of the same »ear"s :n contrast to tin p(!rc( ption. Skc, 20. -The Undhij.sta.n — Li 11(1 dinm; nr of knowini^r and doi outer oracomj)rehensive ni,', dt;pends upon th« «"".iitions of industry and [.ersevcrance. as well as on the |)ower of the intellect. Sec. 21.— a iMMTiEs— Talents. It xiierience teaclies that all men do not possess ''.|Ual facility in acpiirin-, e.pial power in 'vtainm- nor cpial .luickness in reproducing 42 PSYCHOLOOY. r 1 ideas. These facts lead to the supposition that men do not possess equal ability and intelligence. Whether these abilities in the child at birth were and are in all cases equal, and whether they through outer circumstance or conditions (sick- ness, trouble, good or bad teaching), become better in one case, and worse in another, we will not attempt to determine. It is only the intention here to show that experience proves that there is a ditference in the natural abilities of men. Exercise of the mental faculties is especially important to give strength for the formation of ideas, judgment and conclusion. The cause of obscurity and confusion of conceptions is due to the weakness of the mental powders. Slowness in judging and concluding is chietly due to the lack of mental vivacity. It is assorted that the genius (at least apparently) needs no training to attain the greatest skill. In each talent the highest is that M'hich is enabled to produce something new; originality must therefore be united with the conception genim. Genius either exhibits itself as a general or a special creative power. Each real geniu^, works some reform in his own sphere, as poetry, philoso- phy, painting, inusic, mathematics, etc. Some writers speak of a theoretical, practical and a;sthetic genius. Talent indicates distinguished intellectual or physical gifts. It recpiires, how- PSYCHOLOGY. 48 ever, much exercise for its development. It is difficult, therefore, to determine in talent what is due to education and training, and what is original and innate, DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TALENT AND OENIUS. Talent is regarded as the higher, genius as the liighest of the intellectual powers. It is impossible to trace clearly the difference between talent and genius, because the former, in its highest form, is very like the latter in its lowest. As already remarked, a creative power is at- tributed to genius, while talent uses present things, and alters them to suit its purpose. Talent does not originate, and goes less in its own special direction than genius. We have described the phenomena of the life of the soul, which possesses an intellectual character. A soul-life, however, not less rich, displays itself in every man, in the sphere of the affections. Lot us now turn our attention to these pheno- mena. Sec. 22.— Feelings. By the mutual influence of the feelings upon one another, intense interest is awakened in the ideas present in consciousness and in the phe- nomena of the collective soul life. These serve as stimuli, which arouse in us certain involuntary C(mditions. These manifest themselves as eondi- r. 44 PSYCHOLOOY. tions of pleasure or displeasure, of joy or sorrow. When we become conscious of them, th<;n we have feelings. Feelings, therefore, are conscious mental conditions of pleasure or displeasure. DIFFERENCE liETWEEN FEELINGS AND IDEAS. Ideas are occasioned by sense-excitation, feel- ings by inner stimuli. Ideas always refer to a ^eal or imaginary object, while the feelings make us conscious of our own conditions and of our simple passive state. It therefore follows that in different men there may be similar ideas, conceptions and contemplations, yet no harmony of feeling, because tlie latter are entirely sub- jective. ORUIIN AND E.XTENT OF THE FEELINGS. It has already been remarked that the feel- ings are caused by inner excitations which arise from the reciprocal influence and harmony of the soul-imagos. These excitations do not proceed from ideas alone, but they are caused by the entire mental life. The physical condi- tion is an important factor in the production of different feelings. For example : health, robust- ness, comfort, cheerfulness, exhaustion, warmth and cold, hunger and thirst, aversion, weariness, etc., modify the feelings. f'LASSIFK-ATION OF THE FEELINGS. The feelings are classified differently. The reason whv there are so manv divisions is. we PSYCHOLOGY. 45 believe, due to the fact that the feelinj^s are simply of a subjective character. Only under the most favorable conditions can one classify his own feelings. We say under the most favor- able conditions, because it maybe assumed that no man, not even the most intelligent psychologist, is able at any time to be sufficiently conscious of all his feelings to classify them. However, the following grouping of the feelings will be found, in general, satisfactory : Physical, intel- lectual, (t'nthetic, moral, rel'ujloas, feeling of edi- nuttion or value, corapound feelings. Phijsieal Feelings are those by which one be- comes conscious of the condition and nature of one's own body. To the physical feelings belong the various conditioris of sickness, hcaln , plea- sure, w^eariness, change of temperature, food, etc. Intellectual Feelings.— The intellectual feelings are those which make us conscious of the strength or weakness of our intellectual powers. Here belong the agreeable feelings, on account of the certainty of our convictions, and of our pleasure at intelligence obtained with difficulty. Here, also, belong the unpleasant feelings ex^^erienced in the darkness and confusion of our ideas, the uncertainty of our judgment, and the limitation of our powers of knowing and doing. ^Esthetic Feelings are those which awaken in us pleasure in beautiful and displeasure in dis- fi hi M ■iii 4() PSYCHOLOOY. agreeable things. To these two chief forms of beauty and deformity may be added two others, viz., the sublime or noble, and the common or vulgar. With beauty is related the grand, charming, ludicrous, etc., to the sublime, the noble, tlignitied, solemn, tragical, etc. ; those characteristics are observable in beauty. (1) All beauty must be perceivable by the senses, as a picture, musical selection, poetry, etc. (2) In all that is beautiful, as Plato says, must be ex- pressed or thought something intellectual. Both sense and spirit must completely permeate it, so that one can neither distinguish the sense as such, nor the spirit as such. From the close connection of these two moments arise, thirdly, the essential property of beauty, in consequence of which it is immediately eti'ective. All beauty pleases and delights us as soon as we see or hear it, although we may not be able to give a reason for it. We cannot fully enjoy the beauty of a work of art that we are obliged to study in order to understand. It is not till we have (juite understood it that it has its full effect upon us. The beauty of nature, in which the thoughts of God stand before us in bodily form, immediately affects aJl men. The feeling of sublimity manifests itself in a profoand exaltation of feeling. It produces astonishment, which overpowers us with the PSYCHOLOGY. 47 feelings of incomprehensibility, inHiiitude and eternity. Mural FeeIings.~The moral feelinjjs manifest tliemselves as pleased with the f^ood, and dis- pleased with the bad. They relate to the inten- tions and actions of men. We are pleased with the sacriticin,ir love of Pestalozzi, and displeased with the cruelty of Nero. The approval of the •••ood and disapproval of the bad is active in us. It a man possesses n oral convictions, he can have pleasure only in moral intentions and actions. These convictions are used as a scale in estimating the conduct of others and liimself, by which, in case of agreement, pleasure is awakened ; in case of disagreement, displeasure. Sec. 23.— Conscience. The faculty that passes moral judgment on our intentions, willing and actions, is called con- scieTice. The activity and range of conscience depends upon moral education. One speaks of a good and a bad conscience. The conscience is good if it awakens pleasure in a man, it is bad if it awakens displeasure. If the conscience precedes intentions, it manifests itself either in inciting or admonishing ; if it accompanies the actions and intentions, it is either encouraging or discouraging them. If conscience succeeds^in- tentions and actions, it produces eitlier self- It*^ 1 48 rSY(MIOLO(;Y. content or repentance and shaiue ; the former if it is in accord with the action, the latter if it is not in accord with it. Accord int; to the dcfrree of moral educativon, men possess either a delicate and active, or obtuse and waverinj^ conscience. To the moral feelintjs belong also the sympathetic feelings, or Sfjm- pdth)/. They manifest themselves as participating in the joy or sorrow of other.s, and consist in joying in the joy, and sorrowing in the sorrow of others. Man can attain to this condition only by the reproduction of personal experience, therefore the capacity for sympathy, in different 'nen, is very different. The sympathies possess great value in morals, as they banish selfishness and prepare the way for charity. The opposite of these sympathetic feelings is the unsympathetic. They manifest displeasure in the welfare of others, and pleasure in their sorrow. The first is called envy ; the last, pleasure in the sorrow of others. The man is indeed shortsighted and selfish that does not interest himself in the welfare of others. lieligious FecUvgs are those that have their foundation in a belief in God and a future life. The insufficiency of man's power, and the imper- fection of temporal conditions, awaken in man a feeling of dependence on One Almighty Perfect Being. Man conceives God as the Almighty, All- ili PSYCHf)LOOY. id I wise, All-good Being, as the highest known Good. The imperfection of temporal existence awakens in man a de.sire for a hai)j)y existence after death. His trust is in God ; he turns his hopes and de.sir^w upwards. The ert'ect of true religion is to g'lve .. man an impulse to greater virtue, morality and purity in life. FeeliiKjs of Estimation are those which are awakened in us l.y the idea of estimation of things and conditions. These feelings, in different individuals, are very different. What appears to one as a great good or evil, is treated with indifference by others. This diflTerence depends upon the estimates placed on the value of money, luxury, pleasure, art, science, patriotism, wisdom! virtue, and religion. Hence arises, on the one' hand, conscientiousness, modesty and humility ; on the other, selfishness, pride, vanity. On thi.s also depends the disregard and contempt of others. Therefore, the poor is to the rich, the honest to the dishonest, the true friend to the villain, an object of disregard and displeasure, because each man estimates his fellow - man according to the measure which he bears in him- self. The feelings of estimation or value are therefore intimately connected with our moral feelings. Compound Feelings arise by the blending of similar and mingling of dissimilar feelings. t! 50 i'SYcn()i.o(JY. These may be oitlier united or niirif^'led feelin;,'s. In relation to the form, they have eitlier a cheta-- fiil or irloomy eharacter. If upon reeoverini,' from a severe iUness one, in company with pleasant friends, on a tine sprintr's day, passes throu<,di a beautiful country, vocal with the sin^im; of birds, sinilin-,' with blossomin-; or- chards, cheerful feelinj^s arise in him. If, further, a poor sick father is trouble and'lis- pleasure are produced. Amon^rst the intellectual desn-es may he ranked inclinations, wishes aspirations, intellectual interests, emotions anss(0*;s.— Passions are exceedingly strong desires for something. The passionate man acts without consideration and without free resolu- tions. He has as little control over himself as a sailor over his ship in a stormy sea. Passion may become fanaticism if it interests itself in political, PSYCIIOLOOY. 55 moral or relii^qous (|ne.stionH. The fanatic endea- vors to realize his ideas under all conditions, and to remove all obstacles out of the way. P'anati- cisni is, indeed, in every department of mental and social life. Indifference is just opposite to fanaticism. It is usually the result either of a lack of knowledire or of interest. There is a moral, ])oliticaI, aesthetic and social indiflerenco. Christ was in all the fervor of His love and sint^deness of purpose without passion. Willin;/ is a desire or aversion, with the idea that the object of the desire or aversicm is actually attainable. The means that we use for the fultihnent of our desires are either permissible or not pernnssiblc, practicable or impracticable. In the first case, they depend upon the jud^nuent or reason ; in the last, upon the understandinfr. The value of willinn^, therefore, depends upon the judt'ers to tlicorctifal, practiciil mid a'stlictic ideas. The piactical idea is that oi" morality, the theoretical that ol" truth, the avsthetic that of beauty. The lirst i,n)\'erii.s in the spheric of actions and morals, the second in that of knou- led<:e and science, the third in the realm of the arts. The (Jerinan ])hilosoph(M-s who succeeded Kant havt> inclined to the Platonic use of th(! word. Idcdls. — While the ideas jnay he reujanh'd as model imat^^es of thinkinu^, willini^ ami actin'_^tlu> ideals may he reL:;arded as model forms, that is to say, IS ideas which are sout^ht to \)o, realized. Ideals art^ formed hy the combination of all the j)erfections of all the individuals of one kind and by the separation of all im))i!rfections. In this way, all bein<^s may be ideal i/,e(l, yet the tisrm will be chiefly ap]>lied to thos(^ pictures which deriv(> their value from the world of mankind. Theiefore, one speaks of nn ideal friend, wife, mother, father, teacher, man, state, church, etc. At the same time, it follows that only what appears to a man as true, !:;jood and beautiful from his standpoint, becomes to him an ideal. Men of et|ual mental capacity, of the same ai^e, raidc, callini;, education and culture, have e(jual ideals. With a change in the circumstances usually occurs a chauixe in the ideal. The ideal does not really (wist outside of us, but it has PSVCHOUHJY. 59 simply a suljcctivo moaning'. As opposite to the real, therefore tlu; ideas and kiiovvded;,'e of the Iminan mind, in all their connections, as knovvin<,% believinj^', anticipating^ wishin<;, willing', hopinj^', etc., are called idt^als. Sec. 2!).— llKAsoN. R )ason is the content of th(! nohlest form of tliinkin<,^ feelint,', and vvillini^r It is, therefore, the highest and most perfect development of the human mind. He; oidy is reasonable whose think- iM- twi't>ii iKNiuty and UL,dinrss in nature and art It supposes the existence ol" a I'ieli iinaijination ptn"i- lied hytruth and <;oodne he artist who wishes toad'ec't niori^ l>y heautii'id t'ornis than hy an inner life, wdu) awailic. It was the opinion that the ditlerent temperaments had their origin chiefly in the different conditions of the hlood and bile. Therefore the clujleric tempera- ment was called the hol-hloodcd , the phlej^nnatic, the cold-hloodid, the .sanjMg ; i; I II 1 1 n ^M 62 rsY(ii()L(H;Y. The choleric tcMiipcranicnt is charnctcri/.iMl hy (!xcit!il)ility, uiid hy rash jiikI vii^'orous action. The cholrric man is <^a'ii('rHlly hravc and cour- ageous, hut ])assi()natc an Aft er havin, M u ions concerninjjf the nature (jf tl ly different opin- U! soul tl helhular atoms. Kven the ^^reatest thiid ri ( i m ; '^1 ! ^^^H 1 1 j 1 : i '1 >i ( ' i " i j 1 iS " , => 9 J 1 m 66 l'SV(MI()I.O(iY. In answer to tht> (lucstion conci'miiiL,' the nature oi" tl»o soul, it may lu' stattMl : The soul is innna- terial, an mind is important, and is contirmed by daily ex])erienee. Let us cite some examples. If the hody is tire- t " ''' i f f) " l:i i 1 i 68 PSYCHOLOGY. i! course of psycholoirical development, the fact that all hi<,'her forms of knowlcdfje rest upon the lower ; that perception presupposes sensa- tions, and that these imply impressions ; that conception feeds upon perceptions, and that reason is huilt upon the intellect ; that impres- sions can reach insight only throui^'h all the intermediate phases, and that whatever blossoms in reason or bears fruit in the will has its roots far down in the teeming soil of sense-perception. " It should keep in view the fact that all that enters consciousness is there irretrievably ; that it must travel upward, carrying with it the strength or weakness, the light or darkness of which it is born. " It should keep in view the fact that all forms of knowledge are indissolubly bound to cor- responding forms of feeling — feelings of attrac- tion or repulsion, of pleasure or pain, which determine in a great measure to what extent the corresponding thought-forms shall participate in the conscious spontaneity of the mind. " Lastly, it should keep in view the indispens- able need of action for healthy and vigorous thought-growth. It is through action that knowledge becomes aware of its power and value. Action furnish(^s the rounds of the ladder by which knowledge, under the mighty incentives of feeling, climbs to ever greater heights, out of PSYCHOLOGY. 69 " Further, with reference to discipline in school, it may bo remarked that sweetness of temper, firmness of character, learning, skill, enthusiasm^ and other qualities of the teacher, owe their value chiefly to their power in eliciting, satisfy- ing, and holding interest. Whatever brings joy to the child's heart, a pleasing sensation, the gratification of a harmless desire, the innocent exercise of the sense of power, whatever makes life brighter and fuller, whatever makes ex- istence worth more to the child, will be sure to call for it.^ interest." 1 r I j f i ! , I ' \ I I- - ;. ■ m i H- tnl^ LOGIC. CHAPTER II. Logic is the science of the forms and laws of thinkinL,^ While psycholojiry extends its incjuiry over the whole sphere of the life of the soul, logic treats only of a limited part of it, viz., the intellect (lid. Ideas, perceptions and intuitions are the elements of thinking The soul activity called thinking can be performed only by these elements of knowledge. In the following paragraphs we si all examine these forms, and indicate their corresponding laws. Sec. 1. — Conception. Conception is the power to form general notions or group-notions. In order to form such a pic- ture, the mind should not take into account too many of the characteristics which belong to the simple objects. In conceptions only the univer- sal is thought, it may therefore be called the universal idea as distinguished from the simple idea. LOGIC. 71 OFFICE OF CONCEPTION. Self, as conception, discerns relations of simi- larity between things, and thus thinks many individuals into one class. You perceive the animals — horse, cow, sheep, cat, dog, lion, etc. You compare them, and you lind they have the common property, foiir- l('\t('nt coincide with oik^ nnotlicr in whole or in part ; und tliose in which the extent of tlie one lies wholly without the extent ol" the other. If the extent of two C()ncej)tions corres- pond only in part, so that they cross each other, then the conceptions are called conipatil.le ; r.7., school and academy, hoy and pupil. If in two conceptions, the extent of the one lies wholly within the extent of the other, the latter is called the superior, anrntKMKNT.S OF DIVISION. The followinir re(|uireiiients must he fullilled in logical division : 1. The memhers of a division mu.st exclu.Je one another. 2. United, they must e.xhaust the extent of the conc(q)ti<)n. 'i. No omissions or defects must arise in the series. If one should divide the geometrical fiirurcs into triani,rlcs, (|uadran^des, parallelo-rramsr and polyrrons, the first reipiirement would not be ful- filled, because the concept "' (|uadrangle " is also included in th.c parallelorrram. The second re- quirement would l)e violated if one should divide man into white and l,lack. because there are cop- per-colored and yellow men. In the series, an omission would occur if one sliould divide the objects in nature into animals, plants, and miner- als ; whereas, they should be divided f.rct into orj,ranic and inorganic, and the former divided into plants and animals. .« ; -f1 1: 78 1: it I .1 lit- i-oaic. Sec. 5. — Nature of Judoment. A jiuhjmeut is that form of tJi'inkin;) irliieh discerns and predicates the ai/reemeiit or dis- agreement of notions. In ^rraininar, the Judg- tnent is called a sentence. The principal parts of the sentence are the subject and predicate, or "opula. The subject is the basis of a judiijnient. It is that of which we assert the agreement or disagreement. The subject is u.suady a noun or some word or expression used as such. The predicate is that which is affirmed or denied of the subject. It is not really necessary to express every judgment in words, because thinking, and not the spoken sentence, forms the judgment. CLASSIFICATION OF THE JUDOMENT. In the classification of the judgment, accordinf' to Kant, four classes may be indicated, viz., quantity, quality, relation, modality. With respect to quality, judgments are affirmative, negative and indefinite. A judgment is affirma- tive if the predicate is attributive to the subject, e.f)., the earth is a plane. A judgment is nega- tive if the predicate is not attributive to the subject, e.g., the dolphin is no fish. The judg- ment is called indefinite if the predicate limits the subject only in appearance, e. g., man is immortal. By the quantity of a judgment is expressed the Lonic. 79 extent which the subject possesHes. In this re.spect th.> jiidfrment may be individual, parti- cular, or universal. A Judnrmont is indivi.lual if the subject is a sinj-le conception, e. ;/., Socrates would not escape. A jud<:rnient is particular if only a part of the conception is employed as subject, e. fj., some persons survived the shock. A j-idgment is universal if the whole extent of the conception is employed as subject, e. leof '■^>>;tra'•!»'< id /.v. hi n.atheiuatics this hiw is c-xphiined •y «-a. The pii.ic'iple of contra.liction is as •'Hows : 0,0 ami Ihr same fn-n/irate must not. !"• "JJ'nnnl and denied in the same suhject, e,, tlie rose is red and not red. ' ' Two contrary jud^rtnents (h, not always ex- chi.le a third, for both of them may he false If ono maintains, for examph", of a conception, that 't IS inhoni, and that it arises from observation -'"tl, .)u.lirnu>nts are false. The principle of the' sufhcient roason is as follows: lOvery iu.li,nnent '"ust ],ave a reason. The jud-ment/thereforo -mist correspond with the nature and character tlnn^^rs. The above rule mi^i,d.t read as follows • •lud-e accordin.ir to the facts of experience. If by one fact another becomes fully it' t:' ; :'i- ll • (■ S2 L()(ilC. from an inferior kind of beint,'. True and just iu(l<,Mnents are, therefore, only possible when there is proper knowledge at hand. Inferences are Died'iafe jiuh/ments, hcamse they are derived from other Judgments. Inferences nmy be derived, {a) by a change of the '-^<'''^<^t^>'>>i. It is immaterial about the position of the premises, therefore the minor proposition may come first. Example — Robins are birds. Birds breathe by means of lun-r.s Therefore robins breathe by means of lun<.s Ihe major propjs:':ion contains a general^the •lunor proposition a particular jud.n.u nt u \ 'II \' i'l' 84 T.OOTO. HI Sec. s. — Figures of Conclusion. Tlio middle term liold.s an important place in the conclusion. Lo-^ic distinguishes several ditierent figures of conclusion according to the ditlerent positions of the middle term. The most important of these may he indicated : We may call the major term P, the minor term ki, and the middle term M. 1. il/ = P 2. P=M .S. M=P 4. P = M ,S=3/ S = M_ M=S M^S .-. S =P :. S = P ■•■ S=P :.S^P In the first figure, the middle term is suhject of the major proposition and predicate of the minor proposition. Example — Fish {M) have cold blood (P). The eel (/S) is a fish {M). Therefore the eel {^) has cold blood {P). Tn the second figure the middle term is predi- cate of the major and minor propositions. Example — All beasts of prey (P) eat flesh {M\ No ruminant (*S*) eats flesh {M). Therefore no ruminant (^') is a beast of prey (P). In the third figure, the middle term is subject of the major and the minor propositions. LOGIC. 86 Example — All conclusions {M) arise from judgments (P). The conclusions (M) are acts of thinking {S). Therefore many acts of thinking {S) arise from judgments (P). In the fourth figure, the middle term is predi- cate of the major proposition and subject of the minor proposition. Example — All salts (P) are minerals {M). All minerals {M) are inorganic (S). Therefore some inorganic substances (8) are salts (P). These four figures . f conclusion may be increased if there is attributed to the premises a difierent quality and quantity. In this way, sixty-four different figures are formed, only nineteen of which are considered fit for use in logic, because the rest become quibbles, and are therefore not in accord with the usual forms of thinkinir. These figures do not especially advance think- ing or reasoning, but rather change it into a dull mechanism ; we therefore pass to a further development of this theory. f ■ f f ! 1 t lift'' 86 LOGIC. Sec. 9. — The Laws of Conclusion. For the rcLjiilar form of conclu.sion, these are the followinf( laws: (a) One of the two premises must be airirma- tive. It is impossible to derive a certain con- chision from only negative premises. From the judgment, The pea is no funf^us, — no fungus bears pulse, therefore it cannot Ix^ determined with certainty that tlie pea bears pulse. (/>) From the two premises thei'e must be at least one universal judgment. From the judg- ment, Many plants are poisonous, — the hem- lock is a plant, therefore only the possibility follows that the hemlock is ])oisonous. (c) Each conclusion must contain only three parts (elements). If the two" premises arc artirmative, the conchwion is atlirmative. K.rdniplc — All men are mortal. The Chinese are men. Therefore the Chinese are mortal. If one of the premises is negative, the conclu- sion is negative. Exami^h — No mannnal has cold blood. Many sea animals are mammals. Therefore many sea animals do not have cold blood. tooic. si If the premises are un'versal, the conclusion is either a universal or a particular. Example — All nianunalia breathe by lunif.-i. ])olphins are maninirJia. Therefore dolphins breathe by means of luncs. Some bears can walk on two feet. AH bears are quadrupeds. Therefore some ((uadrupeds can walk on two feet. If one premise is particular, the conclusion h particular. Sec. 10. — Kinds ok Concilusion. TJie conclusions are classified differently. They may be classified as follows : 1. Accordinjir to the i^'reater or lesser certainty of the conclusion : (a) proper; (h) improper. 2. Accordinuf to their relation to the major premise, as : (a) categorical ; (6) hypothetical. '). Accordinjjf to the number and composition of the premises, as: ((t) simple; (/>) compound ; [(•) abbreviated conclusions. 4. Incorrect conclusions, as : (a) false conclu- sions ; [1)) fallacies. The conclusions are called proper if the con- tent of the premise contains the full data of the content of the conchi.sion. Under this principle belong all conclusions . i : i ill r. ) )>l: ^: k III I 88 LOGIC. in which tlie part is comprehended in the whole, and the particuhirs in the <:jeneral. These conclusions are called deductions. In these cases, the conclusion follows from neces- sity. Those conclusions are called improper in which there exists only partial data in the antecedent, for the content of the conclusion. In these con- clusions, one proceeds from the particular to the general. This conclusion is, therefore, called in- duction or generalization. They are employed chietly in the Ktudy of the natural sciences. Be- cause here the conclusion can be proved twily in part, therefore they can only be inferred with probability. Here also belongs the conclusion by analogy, whereby we must proceed on the prin- ciple that if a concept contains a part of the content of a conception, it cont^iins all the characteristics of it. One may consider in this connection the exercises in declension and conju- gation in ditierent languages. This form of con- clusion is frequently employed. It is very easily understood by pupils. It is an indication of weak capacity if the pupilc form conclusions according to analogy slowly and often falsely. A noted logician makes the following remark in his work on logic, concerning conclusions by analogy : " Analogy is tacitly the guide of our widening Logic. 8d knowleilge ; and when it forms analof,'ou.s scries, it given to the mind a certain pleasure because of the unity of one common law in the midst of multiplicity." A conclusion is cate &M; H^ 90 LOGIC. i> Lcilmit/, proved hin opLiinisin in the foliovvinir wiiy : If the existing' world were not the best ainoiii^'.st all j)o.ssil)le worlds, (Un\ either had not known or i-ould not create or preserve the best world. All these suppositions are inadndssible, l>ecauso of His omniscience, onniipotence, all- <,'0()(lness. Therefore, the real world is the best of all possible worlds. All tlie propositions con- sidered to the present time are simple. Kre- (piently homoujeneous conclusiotis are united, by which the last premise of a conclusion is used as a premi,si> for another conclusion. TIh! form of conclusion thus obtained is called a series of conclusit)ns. 1. All or-fanisms are perishai)le. Plants are ori;-anisms. Therefore all plants are perishable. 2. All plants are perishable. All trees are {)lants. Therefore all trees ar(> pt^'ishabh^. •S. All trees are perishable. All oaks are trees. Therefore all oaks are perishable. The .sorites is often shortened in this way : The conclusions are left out, with the exception of the last. The simplest kind of .sorites is that in which the first Jud<;ment contains tiie subject, the last the predicate. Logic. 91 Example — The aiiiltitious man is passionato. Tile paMsionato man i.s hound. The hound man is unrea-sonahle. The unr(;as()nal)Ii! man is immoral. Therefore the amhitious man is immoral. Not only the sorites may he ahrid<;ed, hut also simple conclusions. Exiitiiplc. — The triant^Ics AlU.'and \)\\V are cont^'ruent, therefore all their sides and an<,de.s are ivspectively ec(mclusi()ns may he unintentionally false; on the other hand, sophisms are for the purpose of deceivini,^ Incorrect conclusions may arise: (Vt) from false premi.ses; (/;) from false connection of correct premises which have no middle term, and finally, (<;) therehy a conclusion is deduced, which does not really follow from the premises. A well known sophism is the horn dilemma. What you have not lost, that you have. You liavo not lost horns. Therefore you have horns. The false hut suppressed supposition is that one could lose that which he did not possess. 4^ .v^. sAi IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 4, MA 4^;^ -^^v^' ■^^ /... mpn V < /^./. A^ '^ 1.0 [f*^ iiM I.I 1.25 Hi la IIIIIM L^ I- lilO IIIIIM \A III 1.6 y] A c% "c-: VI ^7 /1^ w Photographic Sciences Corporation 4- ^^ \ 9> V a^ 6^ % ^^ ^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 Q.r x5> HISTORY OF EDUCATION. (jHAPTER III. Sec. 1.— Lndia. The people of India are a powerful Asiatic tribe, who descended, about 2,000 B.C., from the highlands of Iran into the low plains of the Indus and Ganges, where they conquered the native population and brought them under subjection. Gradually the people of the Indus arose, but the immigrants formed the highest class. Caste henceforth formed the basis of the social order. Among the four hereditary classes, priests, warriors, husbandmen, or traders, and servants or slaves, the Brahmins, or priests, were given the most important place, because they possessed a knowledge of all sciences. Education.— The principle of caste was the guide in the whole system of education. Educa- tion consisted in familiarizing the youth with the customs, duties and laws of the corresponding caste, and in imparting information in writing, arithmetic, morals and ceremonies. This informa- tion was obtained by instruction, example, cus- HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 93 torn and exercise. Girls, with the exception of those who devoted themselves to the service of the temple and the fourth class (Sudra), were excluded from receiving school education. There were higher and lower schools for boys. The first was intended chiefly for the priestly class ; however, they w^-ro accessible to the warriors and husbandmen. The subjects of instruction in these schools were history, philosophy, grammar, poetry, mathematics, astronomy, medicine and law. No attention was paid to physical educa- tion, nor to the development of mind and will They showed the utmo.st solicitude for relimous ceremony and a strict moral code : politeness, modesty, truthfulness, and respect to elders and superiors. The priests were the teachers. They received no salary, because it was regarded as disgraceful to teach for money. The teachers received all kinds of presents from the parents of the pupils. School discipline was gentle and mild. This was due to the fact that the teachers, as priests, were much respected. The Hindoos lost with their political independence their peculiar customs and systems of education. The people lost their courage and freedom, and suffered with indiffer- ence the control <..f a strange people. The lan- guage of the ancient Hindoos was Sanscrit, which is closely related to the European languages. Their education may be called Caste Edvxation, f ^f m I. I i i^ H m 04 HISTORY OF EDUCATION. Sec. 2.— Egypt. The education of the people of Egypt was simi- lar to that of India. It rested on the principle of caste, which was carried much farther than in In.lia. There was no common system of edu- cation. The lower classes educated their children for the common, ordinary employments of life, in the inherited beliefs and customary manners. The priests enjoyed a more liberal education, and fostered science and art in their schools at Thebes, Memphis, Heliopolis, etc. In many subjects, e.g., in philosophy, physics, medicine, mathematics, astronomy and architecture, the Egyptians reached such a degree of civilization that they served as models for many other nations. The architectu- ral skill of the Egyptians is marked by the Pyra- mids, built about 2,000 B.C. The education of the Egyptians may be called Priestly Education. Sec. 3.— Persians. During the most progressive period in the his- tory of the Persian kingdom, the education of the people was directed chiefly in developing strong citizens for the State. Physical and morat strength was the aim of all education. They re- garded the education of the people as the main business of the State. However, on account of the service rendered to the State, the people were prevented from using the institutions provided \m\ m HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 95 for the education of the youth. Girls were en- tirely excluded from the school. The boys of hii,dier classes spent the first se' ;n years at home. From this time they belonrred to the State. Until the fifteenth year education was chiefly corporeal and moral ; in addition to these, home customs were transtnitted. Special preparation for service in war and State affairs continued till the fiftieth year. Temperance in eating and drinking was observed by all. A patriotic spirit was fostered by the narration of the glorious deeds of the forefathers. Theteachers were worthy men who were indeed guardians of the boys and youth. Even the men were subjected to special discipline and watchfulness. Scientific education was enjoyed only by the magicians. They were not concerned about the intellectual education of the people. The despotic government destroyed this noble people, who were richly endowed in mind as well as in body. Zoroaster was the most noted educator of the Persians. The system of education in Persia may be called State Educa- tion. Sec. 4. — Education of the People of Israel. The purpose of education amongst the people of Israel was that the child should become a true Israelite, that is, an obedient and faithful servant of Jehovah. The education of these ])eople was if wgljA^I III i> iii i\ 96 HISTORY OF EDUCATION. It essentiuUy relii^nous. They followed the Mosaic law as a rule of conduct. God himself was acknowledn^ed as kintj^, jud<;e and teacher. The family was directed by their divine teachintrs. They eutleavored most earnestly to r^uide their children by types and tifrures, accordinf^ to the principles of morality and relijjrion. At tirst there were no public educational institutions. The father tauefht the boy to read and, in exceptional cases, to write. The son was also introduced l>y the father into practical and jjublic business life, and directed in the path of self-dependence, activity and wisdom. Th- ideal education of woman was the proper preparation for con.sort, mother and housewife. Practical ability, in- dustry, frufrality and modesty, were the cardinal virtues of woman. The education of the Israelit- ish people may be called traditional. Fragments of their educational theories are extant in the books of Sirach. His idea was that man was not bad by nature, but e(]ually inclined to good and evil ; he therefore makes the parents responsible for the future conduct of their children. He recommends strict discipline and regular occupa- tion for them. Sirach also exhorts the parents to care for their physical development. A flood of light is thrown on the education of the Israelites in the following passage : Deut. si. 18-20, " Therefore shall ye lay up these words r-:ff!E HI I HiSTOItY OF EDUOATION. 97 in your heart and in your .soul, and bind them tor a .si-n upon your hand, that they may be a« frontlets between your eyes. And ye shall teach them your children, speakini^ of them when thou fittest m thine house, and when thou walkest by the way, when thou liest down, and when thou risest up. And thou shalt write them on the door-posts ,)f thine house, and upon thy .rates " The education of the Israelites may be "called Theocratic Education. Sec. o. — China. A thousand years a-o the Chinese were proud of their culture and the perfection of their insti- tutions of learnin- The aim of education amon- these people was to hand down the old customs to the youth unchan-e.l. The free development of mind IS impossible, because later -onerations have nothinn new to learn. Educational inquiry has reached its utmost limit. The only task imposed on the youth is to learn and use that which exists, in order that tliey may profit as much as possible. Skill and dexterity in tra- ditional customs, proper outer deportment, self- possession, love of order, industry, perseverance punctuality, foresi-ht and temperance are na- tional virtues, and are cared for and practised with consistency. Tellin^r and doincr are the principal methods employed in education 7 I 1: OS HISTORY OF EDUCATION. Education be}:jin.s in the family and ends in the school. Schools exist in the whole empire, and are accessible by all. There is, however, no general or national school law. Education is narrow, national and anti(|uated. Chinese classics are studied instead of history, geography, gram- mar and arithmetic. This ethication is called Sec. G. — Education of the Greeks and Romans. Greeks. — History teaches us that in early times the Greeks were divided into many differ- ent tribes. The most important of these tribes appear later as Dorians and lonians. These different states carried on war with one another, and therefore no national system of education existed. Many of these States have left no record of the method and theory of their educa- tion. The educational systems of the Spartans and Athenians are known to us. SPARTANS. The Dorians emigrated as conquerors into the southern part of the Peloponnesus, and became the ruling class, while the former inhabitants of the district formed the lower class, called helots. Later, the legislation of Lycurgus kept the Spar- tans in aristocratic power. Education regarded only the ruling class, while the lower clai^^s HISTOllY OF EDUCATION. 99 received no benefit from the school. The State imperatively demanded that the youth should possess physical strength. Physical education therefore was regarded as especially important. Much interest was given to the study of music in order to develop a strong patriotic sentiment.' Intants that were weak or deformed were left on the mountains to die. Those that were strong received their education at home till the seventh year. From that age the education was given and paid for by the Statr. The schools or educational institutions for boys were separated into three classes (those of twelve, fifteen and eighteen years of age), where they were exercised in gymnastics, jumping, running, wrestling throwing the spear, and quoits. Readincr and writing were not taught in the State scliools but the youth were trained in the strictest obedience to parents and superiors, in veracity simplicity and self-possession. They demanded special energy in their youth, that they judcre clearly and correctly concerning the objects tn the world around them, and that they adopt a short and definite form of expression (laconic) ^rom h,s eighteenth year the young Spartan devoted himself chiefiy to military service. That the young women should have stron- bodies they were obliged to take gymnastic exercises.' J^ater the gymnasiums were founded, but they Ml ■ t ( ■ , i i'- '. i ^ '■ 3 ^4: ! ■;! : m ' m: f i 100 IllSTOllY OF KDl'CATION. were nothinf^ more nor loss than enclosed places, which were divided into different departments t'ur difi'erent kinds of exercise. Tile result of this simple military education was imp(jrtant. It secured to the Spartans not only ^'reat power in itself, but ^ave them author- ity over the neif^hhorini; State of Messina, Peloponnesus, and finally over the whole of Greece. Yet after these famous bej^dnnin^s and nnlitary con(|Uests, tin Spartans finally relapsed and degenerated, because they did not possess inner power snflicient to retain their position and aseentlancy. This was due to their education. The development of the hiirth, and an attendant from his second year. At seven years of age he was placed under the direction of a tutor. The teacher, a slave, pro- tected and directed him in his deportment, and accompanied him in his walks to the school and to the gymnasium. He received his instruc- tion from different teachers, who pursued the business of teaching as a profession. There were also private teachers who imparted instruction in advanced subjects. These were called critics or grammarians. Many of these imparted their instructions in the streets. The subjects studied were music, reading, writing; structure and literature of their own language, mythology, history, geography, physics, and arithmetic' The critics instructed the youth in mathematics, rhetoric, philosophy and literature. f -■' ! i J I I I ■; 102 HISTORY OF EDirf'ATION. The (liscipline in the schools of the Athenians was severe. The i,'yninasiu!ns were erected at the expense of the State. I; was tlie duty of the niai^'istrate to see that order anr<(s' was the most important teacher anionj;st the Dorians. He was born on the Island of Samos about 540 B.C., and taught at Croton, a Grecian colony in Southern Italy. The youths of distinguished families gathered about liim to receive religious, moral, and scien- tiHc instruction ; physical development and mus?c held a prominent place in education ; neverthe- less mathematics, physics, and philosophy were studied. The method of instruction was based on conversation and authority. " He said it " was the surest evidence of the veracity of an assertion. Pythagoras lived in retirement. At the time Mil ihsTOUV ()V KDVCXTtoS. los ■J i ' 6i the decline in morals in Athens, teachers appeared who represented the e^'otistical ten- dency in education. Tho teacher instructed concernin^r the ac.|uisition of wealth ; the pupils learned to ohtain <,'0()d positions. These teachers were called Sophists— teachers of wisdom. Ora- tory, applause, and <(ain wa.s the purpose and result of their instruction. By the first of these they endeavored to overcome every prejudice that prevented them from reachin^r the goal of their ambition. Soerdfe.s, born in Athens, 470 B.C., opposed this pernicious influence with all his power. The aim of his ettbrts was to preserve the Athenians from the loss of moral power and sentiment. He therefore opposed the apparent wisdom of the Sophists, and endeavored to establish .self- knowledjre, moral conviction, and consistency of character. His metliod of instruction was con- ducted in the form of dialo<,^ue, by questions and answers. He based his instruction on concrete examples. He endeavored to correct ideas, and derived from several homogeneous examples, idea.s, convictions, and definitions. The method of procedure is called induction. The method of Socrates has exerted the greatest influence on educational systems to tlie present day. He did not teach in closed rooms, but in porticos, in the market and in the street, for the purpose of IPI .1 : i I 104 HISTORY OF EDUCATION, instructing a larger ruinber of his fellow- citizens, Plato, born 427, died 347 B.C. He belonrred to a distinguished Athenian family, and was the most noted pupil of Socrates. After becominf^ acquainted with the philosophy of other teachers, by study and travel, he finally appeared as a teacher. He perfected the method of his master. Plato may be called the founder of scientific pedagogics. His views are contained in the third book (of the republic) and sixth book (of the laws). Plato desired, as the Spartans, educa- tion by the Sta_s but rejected the right of parents to interfere in the e■ '"«-. ■■'H-toric, „,„sie. arith- '" >.c fjec.etry, a„il ast,ono,„y. |.-„,. those «;l.o w..she., to .levote the„,selves't„ these L " tl„. church, theology fo..,.,e,l the chief sul.i "\ .n.st,-uct,„M. I„str„eti„„ in the ,..e„,entarv schools ,nciu,le,,, in a tion to reli.non IZ ">K, wnfng, arithn.etic, and sin^in.. The e o.ster ,n Uennany exercised a heneliclal in 'l«™oe on all cultu.-e. In achlition to thrir : ?"'' ;■'?"*;' '-""i".'?. tl.ey were „,„Jel schools ,n Ger,n,i„y were l.uilt at St. Galle Ke,chenau Ful.la. Ratishon. Hersfehl and N w Wey. r,,e eathe.lral schools were established "the Sees of the bishops, vi^., .Salsburg. tahhshed principally to educate the cler-y i .c paroclnal .schools (parish) had fan.iliarizfd 1.0 youth w,th the truths of the Christian doc nne ,n order that they ,„i.|,t be enabled in .„tell,,ent n.anner, to take part in diJin^ 114 HISTORY or KDUCATION. CIIAKLKMAtJNK AND TlIK SCHOOLS. Charlcma^'rie ccjnceivtd the design of spreadint^ Cliristian principles, good morals, and godliness over his whole kingdom. He used the ecclesias- tical schools, and endeavored to extend their usefulness for the jmrpose of promoting common school education. He established a high school at his court, and endeavored, with the assistance of well-(|ualitied teachers, to reanimate the cathedral schools. He improved higher educa- tion, but elementary education was not materi- ally impi'oved. The succes.sors of Charlemagne were fully engaged in maintaining their posi- tion, and education under them was therefoio neglected. Sec. 10. — Education in the Middle Aces. Since tlie tinu of Charlemagne, the high schools have undergone a great change. IMany religious orders distinguished themselves in connection with the schools. The Benedic- tines and Cistercians (arose in France, 109S), with their numerous cloisters, displayed much activity in education. In the thirteenth century the orders of Franciscans and ])ominicans arose ; they interested themselves also in the education of the people. The character of education in the cloisters and Dominican schools was prin- cipally ecclesiastical. The scholastics and UlSTdUi ot KDircATION. ,|,- ■nystics arn.se at that ti,„.. The teachers tau,.hf the sc,e„cos l,y lectures or rea,li„„ • th vHet J - ...terprete,! the n.atter to tCJ ZuT .s..ne., wrote, a,,,, learne,, as .rirts' U^ could, in order to he ahio k» .. . i • "^ -I- .s possi,„e. sehooiterp, r: r;::;: <-y WL c ot tile opm.on tliat the nature .,f "i"n inehned to evil Thns.. , 1 . "^ t-vii, I nose men were enll..,i humanists, who tnot tl. • called , WHO took the ancient e assies as ^\ hasis of a new education, because Tl, ""'■ was the education o( ,.„nT:i^'Z tlie second half ot the Middle A<.es a i re T -al opinion eoncernin, education ril; " The iinpnlse^hich elrlfst! ;. r~ -l:^::^=,trr'"-=^ % writing and personal inHuenee he ind„„ , Mianv men of his fi.„ » induced Alln 1. "" '" I""'™'' "lese studies n northern and western Kurope were intluen ed 7 these new studies The monies of tiie " I" nat LT f '"''"'^^■^ "' ''"'"™i-> -^ ^Ttnnany. By the di.scoverv of Hi.> ..^f e ■ . ncr ahonf iim ^u ^'-^ °^ '^"'- ^rt of print- »> about 1440, the new studies reneiv.-, . I Hi UISTOUV v^xu', there arose i„ ,„a,iy cities and towns citi/en or hur-luT schools, in which wen; taii-ht readin- wri't'in^^ arithmetic, and instruction in the rudiments of a husiness educatioM By the introduction of tlie I.atin hm-ua-e into the hur-her sdun,! arose the Latin town school. During,' the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries th(; monks of the Order of St. der.mie lerforn.ed i,'.)oj>lr wiis wholly neglect, d; {/,) there were no properly of thinc^s must precede a knowlednre of wonls. He recommenli>; (b) the Circulars to the Aldermen of all the towns in Germany, tliat they should estab- lish ami support Christian schools. i:,24; {<■) the Large and Small C^itechism, 1529- ((/) the Sermon that the Children should be 'kept at school. However, his endeavors were rewarded with but little success, because he was not sufhciently understood in his time, and because tlio circumstances did not exist to completely realize the good and nc^ble cn(]s he had in view. ^Manrfhon (born 1407, at Bretten ; die.l at Wnrtemburg, 1500). He was a co-worker with l^utlier, and became Professor at Wurtemburg in I .-. I S. IL' was actively engaged in reforinin.. I ! 120 IIISTOIIY OF EDUCATION. hi<,rher education. At an early aufe he favored the views of the humanists, and never changed his oinnions. He recommended the study of real science. He was actively enr^aged in writini; text- books of the Gr(>cian and Latin lani^aiages for the high schools, in addition to several outlines of in- structions in dialectics, rhetoric, physicsand ethics. Piety and love of truth were, according to him, the aim of all education. Sturm, Trotsc^ndorf and Neander were his pupils. He was actively engaged in promoting liheral education. His influence in the formation of schools was widely- recognized, and he was frequently consulted with reference to new school ornfnnizations. His educational principles are valuable. He desired a change in the instructions so as to awaken attention. By his undivided devotion to his profession, he has become a model for teachers, as he wished the teacher to become a model for his pupils. Ti'otsendorfs (14i»0-l.")5(;) educational prin- ciples, "Bides few (iu<{ s/nn-f ; c.rtivij>lc.s clear ((>}<( pnieilciil," "exercise hnKj find freqiwnlbjy In order to imbue the pupils with a respect for justice, and those in authority, he introduced a peculiar school regulation. A court formed of pupils had to decide concerning the moral con- duct of their associates. The accused had to defend hiinS7itrw(1507-15.S9). The aim of edu- cation accordini,^ to him was piety. He was noted for his orc^anization and method. Some of his principles were : " Instruction shall neith. r le superficial by multiplicity, nor wearying ,.y cxpiatiuiT long on one sul)ject;' " Few rules, numerous examples and exercises," "The know- ledge of words and their meaning must ho united," "Before pupils commit anything to memory, it must be well understood," "From the intuition to the conception, from the fact to the word," " New ideas must be received by already present ones, in order that the develop"- nient may follow according to nature, gradually and oi'ganically." Michael NeamUr (1525-ir,9o), was a very successful teacher, and devoted much attention to the study of natural science. Sec;. 12.— The Jesuits. The Order of Jesuits was founded lo.'^4 by Ignatius Loyola, and sanctioned by Pope Paul III. in 1540. In competition with Protestant schools thoy devel.)ped a wonderful activity, an to bring about a conunon civilization and a popuhir ecUication. In the liigher schools the youth were wearied with tiie Latin hmiriianre and the mere learning of words. Jn the connnon school they were troubled with the primer and catechism. The pedagogical power oF awakeningself-activity and life was wanting. The method consisted in a mechanical, forcible drilling in most unintelli- gent tasks. School discij)line was severe and bar- barous. Sec. LI.— Ped.vgogics of the Sevexteextii Century. Men arose in this century who clearly saw the defects in tlie .school, and set themselves reso- lutely to work to improve the education of the youth. The new pedagogies may bo said to have conniienced with the.se men. Prominently amongst them were Francis Bacon, John Locke, Katich, and Amos Comenius. Francis Ihicon lived in London (L')G1-1()2()). He rejected the verbalism of the .scholastics, with its ab.stract methods, and liesired more intimate knowledge based on critical examination. He is the founder of the modern realism. Science shall become real, vivid and practical. The only cor- rect way })y which tliis method can be reached is induction, 'j'his be<.nns with ob.servation and II IllSTOKY or KDIM'ATION. 12; experiment, aiul conclutles with exiinunatioii uikI comparison. In order to l)e<^in to study ac- cordin<;to this method with certainty and success, one must ahandon all preconceived opinions. The importance of liacon's method is fully ad- mitted, he exhiliited the proper method in tlie study of nature. " There is a present ; only op(m your eyes to recojj^ni/e its splendor. Turn away from the shallow spriui^'s of trau,)il but it should be like a play. Locke especially' emphasizes the importance of practical education. One of his principal demands is that the teacher should understand the individuality of each of his pupds. For that reason, he prefers home in- struction to that of the common school His "lost unportant pedagogical writings are : " Essay on the Human Understamling," and "Some Ihoughts Concerning Education " Yolf!ja'><, Ranch (born lo7l, in Holstein) is a pedagogical writer of doubtful importance. It IS also uncertain whether the di.lactic principles ascribe.l to him came from his hand. However pedag,3gical writers agree in this, that Ratich understood and explained the defects in the con- dition of tlie schools in his time, that he tried to b^ise dKlactics on psychology. The followin-. are Katich s principles : 1. Everything in order and according to na- ture. ° HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 127 2. Not more than one tlnn<( of the .saino kind at tlio same time ; never befrin a new subject till the former is derived (l>ase instruction on ob-^ervation ). 4. Every tliiiiLf i> learned l.y example, rules and exercises ; example must prece«ie rules. '). At first, one should study the nearest objects, and later those more and more remote. Instruction proceeds by (k-t^^rees; fnjm tlie easy to the more dithcuit ; from a few ti; many ; frotn the simple to the compound ; from the near to the remote. At lirst one must study an object us a whole, and then its part-^. (). One must divide instruction carefully and not f-^rjret what was formerly learned, but prac- tise it continually. 7. One nuist not do many thini^rs a the same time, but one after another. 5. Reading; and writinif must l)e learned at the same time. 9. That which is learned by heart, must be previously understood. 10. Every art is loai-ned by exercise : the art of writin<; l)y writinpr -. the art of singinj^ by sin<,'ing. Practise until you acquire skill. 11. By doinij, man hrst attains to real helivj. His noted book Orhi>i P'lct a.s {\\ov\d in pictures; appeared at Nurember) the subject; (c) the form of .school .lisciplinj in order to know the lohi/, where, and ho>r. Purpose of ^, after writing his confessions, he died, broken down in body and mind. Pedagogics. — Neither the life nor works of Rousseau can serve as a model for a teacher. With but one exception he did not do any prac- tical teaching. His importance lies in his theory of education, in which he opposed the existing methods, and endeavored to found a new order of lite and education. The theory of Rousseau produced a marked change in the sphere of education. In France, educational methods passed from one extreme into another. In Ger- many his principles were purified from errors, and rendered somewhat practical. He has ex- pressed his views on education in his book, " Emile; or, an Education." His work is divided into five sections. The first four are devoted to the education of Emile, the last to the education of Sophia. Emile and Sophia are imaginary model children. The first part of the book treats of the education of Emile iluring his first year, the second treats of his education till the twelfth year, the third to the fifteenth year, and the fourth till his marriage. In addition to a tutor, the child is rared for during his early years by a HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 139 nurse. The following are the principles deduced from a study of Eniile : 1. The chief principle is that the education must be natural. Everything comes forth good from the hand of the Creator. Everything de- generates under the hand of man. 2. Our proper study is a knowledge of the destiny of man. He who knows best how to bear the blessings and sorrows of this life is in my opinion educated best. Rousseau connects with naturalness, also, the claims of general civilization, for by nature men are all equal, their common business is to be men. Further, he says: ''Nature neither creates princes, nor empires, nor great lords. When my youth leaves me, he will neither be alderman, soldier, nor priest, he will rather be a man first." What is to be done to develop a man ? Doubtless very much. In order to educate properly, it is necessary — 3. To know properly the nature of the child. If one does not know its nature, wrong ideas are formed at tirst, and often continued to the end. Begin by studying your pupils. 4. He gives especial attention to physical education. 5. Do not command the child, but teach him to see the necessity. 6. Moral and physical education are united. Siif I r ri ill ^ J uo illSTOUV OF EDUCATION. 7. In awakenin. The first moral idea that the child must be made conscious of, is the idea of property. 10. Punish the child for its transp(!i'(i'jtti())i. Lazarus' " F^eben des Suele " -j p ;*► >» ft 3 ►o CJ" •o r-h i-3 ►2 » i' CO n c' 3 1 3 O CB te' = a' j^ K \_ o ^'%- ^^^ ! to t— ' r" K) 1— » CO 13 rt- cc CO C "3 c 1 2- O CO rj £ o 3 rt" 6 ri- u: H ^ • o 5 Ni V S- Hr; c v> s S- 3 5 85^ 3 o 3 §1 £ T s cz;5 >£. «-3 C r 1 CO S" w rr {72 3 1- 3 o* 1 ( OD CB ^x ta> • 'M p 1 1 ^ 1 rj CI- •— • 1 Q c CO ! 1 CO cc 3 3 o C 1 (« 'S (—I o- f-n S3 •^ ffi i nisTonv OF Education. 16o kKgriKEMKNTS OF API'ERC'EI'TION IN THE ARRANGEMENT OF MATTER IN KAC H COURSE OF STUDY. How is a child to be led to an intellijjent nnderstandinj? of the present history of Canada ? He must certaini}' first know about the wars, and strut]f<];h's that led up to them. But to understand tliese he must know the ear'v his- tory, and the early liistory is only intelligible when he has learned the history of the mother country, and how she founded the colonies. Further, taking the great epochs in the world's history, we may say the explanation of modern history is to be sout^ht in the Reformation and in the Renaissance movement, which, in its turn, becomes intelligible only through a knowledge of the introduction of Christianity and the his- tory of the Middle Ages. All this, however, presupposes ancient history. The inte'ligible arrangement of the course in history is, there- fore, according to the great epochs in the de- velopment of the world's civilization. (Kultur historische Stufen.) In such a development each step furnishes the material for the apper- ception of the next following steps. And other subjects demand the same treatment. If you are teaching the parts and ,vorkings of a modern flour mill, you wi'l make the subject clearer and follow the natural presentation if you allow the mill to develop, as it were. First tell your "III, i 106 JlISTonv OF EDUCATION. m pupils, or rather allow them to tell you, the earliest means employed in frrinding corn. Let them tell you the dirticulties and inconveniences of this method, and sugf^est to you how to over- come them. The windnnll, watermill, and finally the modern steam flour mill, will become intelli- (jfible to them in such a way as no description or even visit to the modern mill would be capable of without an account of the earlier forms. And this systematic view of the development of the flour mill, with all its wheels, millstones, shafts and other machinery, out of the simple appliance of two stones rubbed to/jether to crush the srrain, has in itself important educational value aside from the mere knowledge. For, it is system- atized knowledge ; and at every step the intere.st and expectation of the pupils is active, .since each step in the development was a necessary preparation for the following one. The application of this principle of arrange- ment according to the steps of historical develop- ment, to the teaching of history has a special and peculiar value, because the child, during his school years, is just passing through those very .steps of development .shown in the history of the human family from the infancy of the race up to the present time. There is, therefore, a peculiar appropriateness in the child's studying ancient history before modern ; because as a child he can HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 167 comprehend and take delight in the legends of Troy and Rome. When older he can appreciate and understand modern histcry, because he has then the background of previous history and has himself arrived at the step in his own develop- ment corresponding to the present stage of civil- ization. Of course if there is not time in the school course for both ancient and modern his- tory, the former must be left out rather than the latter. The principle laid down al»ove answers the (juestion about the arrangement of the mat- ter to be taught, not its sv, lection. KK(VUIRKMENrs OF AITKRCKl'TION IN THK rO-OKDINATION OR COURKr.ATKtN OF THE COURSE.S. The production of a many-sided interest in the pupil re/. The whole plan of instruction should proceed in regular steps like the acts of a mighty drama. History, as being j>ar excellence the builder of character, should take the central position, and the other studies should group themselves about it. The first act of the drama begins with the Greeks and Romans. Their civilization, their culture, the 1^ '': I! *l ill'- 1G8 HISTORY OF EDUCATION. m geography of Greece and Italy, and afterward the other parts of the Roman l*]nipire ; their art, their temples, their mytholorjy, their delight in nature, all that is possible in order to give a really living picture of tlK 'ays, make up the ma- terial for the first act. Each .subject of study contributes its -share to the enrichment of the whole, and in .so doing ga'tis added interest itself. The second act opens with the appearance of Christianity on the scene. Its influence spreads over the whole extent of the Roman Empire. The migrations of the nations bring di.stant peoj)les into contact with its doctrines. In the third act the Em})ire of Rome falls and the modern na- tions appear on the stage. The dark ages show us the contrast of religious a.sceticism as op- po.sed to the jubilant, joyous nature of the child- hood of the race. In the throes of the Reforma- tion and the reawakening to the reality of thti present life we have the culmination of the drama, and now advance to the fifth act, the working out of our destiny in the cheerful con- sciousness of our })r()gress and development. Who could here understand the fifth act before he knew the first, or the third before he had heard the second ? The whole is divided into acts and scenes and has a continuous thread of development running through it, about which all the parts must be concentrated. IllSTOIlV Ol- KDUCATION. STUDY PLAN. hi!) I. ShX^IKNCE OK SrihlKS. 2. Co-OKOINATION »)!•• StiDIKS. 'I'lio Hiiiiiilt;iiio/ stated. A merely formal statement, " We will c(nitinae to- day where we left ort' last time," is of no value wdiatever. (c) The ohject should not he too meaj^re nor too full. In the one case the chiMren remain unat}'ectev3rds, as a connected whole. This rough general (fpirre- hcnsion of the new is followed by a discussion, in which the other pupils correct what was wrong and supply what was lacking, and finally the teacher clears up what was not understood. The section receives a heading, which tells what it is about. This is a preliuunary to the steps from individual to general notions. The chil- !:;;: \ ijii ' 178 HISTORY OF EDUCATION. dren have now a comjilete apprehension of the whole subject. (c) The word presentation is by no means to be understood in the sense of doj^inatic hand- ing over to the child of ready-piepared know- ledge, but on the contrary, what is here called " Presentation" comprises what most teachers mean by " Teaching." On the otht^r hand, it is desired to emphasize the fact that the teacher does no more than pirsrnt in the proper form what the child has to receive. The reception is active, not passive. The teacher brings the mental food to the child properly prepared, but the child must himself dhjest it if it is to nourish hi!n. Consequently ^.he pupils nnist do the main work, in the recitation. The teaclier is director, the scholars are the laborers. His object must ever be to make them more and more indepen- dent of his help. {d) Every subject is to be illustrated and ex- plained by reference to the pupil's immediate experience and surroundings. So will his ideas be clear and his conceptions distinct. He will soon need but little guidance from the teacher to be able to work out whole sections for himself. {e) While the scholar is speaking 'le must not be interrupted. Let him finish before correcting him. It is of the utmost importance to preserve the connection of the parts in the whole. For this HIStORY OF EDUCATION. 179 reason the usual method of recitation by short (juestions and answers is entirely to be aban- doned. Knowled^'e so broken up and discon- nected is of but little use. Such is the process of apperception. Herbart considered the two steps, preparation and pre- sentation together, and stated their recjuisite as clearness. Pestalozzi emphasized the perception (Anschauung) as being the essential element, and for that purpose introduced the object lesson. III. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL I5ASIS. (6) Ahsti'iLction. — In the two preceding steps the first act of learning has been accomplished, and now the second act, the working out of con- ceptions, begins. The former was the assimild- t'lon ; the latter is the elaboration of knowledge. The mind raises itself up from the individual perceptions aloft to be able to take a view of all at once for the purpose of comparison. Each perception loses accordingly in clearness ; but related ideas unite and are strengthened, while contrary ones contend with and destroy each other. The latter vanish from consciousness, leaving only the similar ones which are thus abstracted from the others. In this way the conception originates, embracing a whole group of perceptions. Out of the raw material of sense the mind elaborate.^ tlie higher grades of thought, through this process of abstraction. "I ISO TITSTORY OP EDUCATION?. .i I P Mis- What vv(^ ordinarily call conceptions originate in this way an) the classifieation of like characteristics for the for- mation of conceptions. f i i IV. THE APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF ABSTRACTION TO THE ACTUAL WORK OF TEACH INO. Tlih'il Forraal Step. Vor the sake of mental unity it is necessary that the teaching be directed IIISTORV OF KDIH'ATION. 181 toward securini,' systematic connection \n tlio knovvlo(l<,f(^ ^'ained. Only valuable mental asso- ciations and general notions are to be sought. The two processes of apperception and at)strac- tion are not to be mixed. During the latter no new matter should be presented. The pupils work with ideas and perceptions with which they are already familiar. It is evident that the simultaneous presence of two or more related notions in consciousness is required for the formation of general notions. Comparison would otherwi.se be impossible. If tlie teacher works out the generalization and presents it ready prepared to tlie pupils, they w^ill obtain no mental nourishment nor strenirth from the process, but will become conceited. The child must himself, therefore, compare and weigh and judge ; subjects will be considered from different standpoints ; new matter will be brouglit into connection with old matter ; what is of value in tliy so-called "topical method" will here be utilized ; reference will constantly be made to the child'.s Aperience arl surroundings, in order to instil the idea that knowledire is practical and has to do with everyday life. Fourth Fonnal Step. Tlie abstract is still bound up with the concrcite in the pupil's mind. In the fourth step the generalization is accom- plislied, and with it tlie process of abstraction is ended, the new conception-: are arranged in lii i 1S2 HISTORY OF EDUCATION, U: t system and order, and the new knowledge is at the coniiiiand of its possessor. To this end the following four operations are necessary : 1. A clean separation of the generalization from the concrete material. 2. The children, with the help of the teacher, formulate in language the expression for the new notion. 3. The new notion is to be assigned its appro- priate place in the child's system of knowledge which the teaching has gradually built up. The series of associated thoughts should not be repeated with the new members included. 4. Finally, the new notion should be H.xed in the mind, by being entered, in the form of catch- word, example under a rule, model sentence, or the like, in the scholar's orderly note- book. Here the child sees his systematic knowledge growing and broadening under his own efforts. One of the great advantages of this way is that the book, being the child's own work, contains nothing that he does not understand. With the fourth formal step the process of abstraction is ended. The pupil has gained the desired knowledge, and yet the teacher cannot rest satisfied here. The knowledge and ability gained must be turned to account in the work of life. The school by no means i'ulfils its whole duty when it furnishes its p'^^^ils with know- IIISTOUV OF EDUCATION. 1 s:] lodLfe. Many a coUcf^e L,fracitation periods. 'I'lic division of the recita- tions into periods has notliinj.^ whatevt'i- to do witii the division of th(! Iearnin<; pi-oeess into the five formal steps. Helow is j^dven a reea])ittdation of rilK rilKollN OF I'lIK KOI.'MAI. STKI'S. (>l)icct. I Cle.ir- Sfrtimi of tlic iicw Siili- joct to lio t.ui;^'lit. A. A i'n;i!( Ki'TioN. I . I't III jtl iii)i . l«t Act. — First, Fnriiiul Stc|i. I'lfjp.ir.ilioii. - Aiiiily.sis. •JikI Act. Srininl Fnnii;il Step. TrcsfUtii- I nuas. tioii. Synthesis. I \\. Ai;,sriiA( Tio.N. II. Til nil. i III/. 1st Act. Tliinl Formal Stop.- ('oiiipurisun. Ahho- ciatioii. 2n(I .\ct.— Fourtli Formal Stt-p.— Cciioralizatioii.— Sy.Hti'in. ('. Ari'MCATIO.N. III. Apiil.i'-iil iiiii. Fifth Formal Stop. Ap])lication.— Method. The main ideas of the method were ah'eady discovered ])y Pestaloz/i, and have since heen further worked out and applied by IIerl)art and Ziller. The theory of the formal steps must not be considered alone, but in its connection to tlie whole system of Peda<,^ogy that has its name from Herbart. The three great 4Uestions the teacher has to 13 II i .*>. ..>%>. -'^• «'V '■"°- .oA**^ s^ai IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 !ri Li 28 M 22 110 i|2.0 18 1.25 _!A 16. 4 6" — ► ^. V. <^ /J ^;; ■^^ '^ C?^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY 14580 (716) 872-4503 186 HISTORY OF EDUCATION. answer in regard to his method of teaching are : 1. What is the proper sequence of the subject matter in each course ? 2. Wh«it is the proper relation of the courses to each other ? 3. What is the proper method of teaching ea2h subject in the recitation itself y Herbart has answered these (juestions by setting up three great peda- gogical principles, " The Steps of Historical Cul- ture," " Correlation of Studies," and " The For- mal Steps in Teaching." Sec. 21. — Education at the Present Time. All civilized nations recognize the importance of making some provision for the education of the people. Nearly all of the countries of Europe have adopted a system of common school educa- tion. The systems of popular education adopted in each country possess many characteristics in common. During the nineteenth century every part of the civilized world has awakened into new intellectual life and activity. Japan, India, Egypt, with other conservative countries in the Orient, are relaxing their formalism and caste- system under the benignant influence of Chris- tianity and education. Even China, bound in tradition and custom, is finally beginning to show some indications of iraprovem^ nt. Our remarks will be limited to the consideration of a few of these countries. HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 187 Germany is doubtless the first countiy in the world in the history, theory and practice of edu- cation. The principles of Pestalozzi have perme- ated the primary school and given a great im- pulse to the training of teachers. Teaching is recognized as a profession, and only those who have received special training are allowed to teach in public or private schools. Education is controlled wholly by the State. The minister of education is also minister of religion and medi- cine. The principles of pedagogics, briefly noted in former paragraphs, are put into actual prac- tice in the German school. Instead of the me- chanical transferring of knowledge of the past, there appears to be more and more a living development of the mind, heart and character. Education has been broadened and deepened and brought nearer to the life of the people. In addition to pedagogical departments in the dif- ferent universities, normal schools are established for the purpose of giving young men and women special qualification for teaching. The teachers' course consists of two years' preparatory work in order to enter the Normal School, three years' study in the Normal School, and one year teach- ing under supervision, before they present them- selves for State examinations. It would be impossible to name all the different schools from the kindergarten to the university. The common school may be divided into two ISS HISTORY OF EDUCATION. general divisions. One prepares the student for a business life, a trade, or to enter the technical school ; while the other prepares for the p^ym- nasium, and finally the university. The former make the modern languages and natural sciences the principal subjects of study ; while the latter devote their chief attention to the study of the Latin and Greek languages and literature. The elementary or primary school is called the " Volks Schule," or " Geminde Schule ; " the higher schools, gymnasiums, pro-gymnasiums, "Real Schule," and " Burgher Schule; " above these higher schools is the university. The English language has but few words that is susceptible of so many meanings as the word " education." It is therefore not surprising that many do not fully realize the significance and meaning of this word as applied to common school education in Germany. The Germans have long been solving the problem of education under the five following heads, with the most fruitful results, (a) The nature of the pupil, (b) the aim of education, (c) the educator, (d) the means to be used, and (e) the method of applying them. Matthew Arnold, speaking of the Prussian schools, says : " The Prussians are satisfied with them, and are proud of them, and with good roason ; the schools have been intelli- gently planned to meet their intelligent wants." HIRTOIIV OF EDUCATION. 180 COURSE OF STUDY FOR A GYMNASIUM, 1885. HOURS I'En WEEK. SUBJECTS. h 3 3 9 1 c^ S d = -- 5 11 ll 2 2 2 2 9 9 4 5 3 4 4 4 2, 2 2 ' '2 2 j 2 2 2 .c ■5" ^H 2 2 9 / 2 3 3 2 '2 2 >• ■Srt ■J X: 8th & 9th Years. I'riina. i Religious Instruction ( Jernian 2 2 8 7 2 3 J. 2 3 8 6 2 3 Latin Greek French History and Geography Mathematics 3 4 2 2 2 2 Natural History Physics Calisthenics 2 2 2 2 2 I 2 Writing and Drawing Music PLAN OF STUDY FOR A REAL SCHULE, 1885. HOURS PER WEEK. SUBJECTS. Religion 3 (ierman I 4 French | 8 English . . History and Geography 3 J" 1 «» ^ I > ■e I — C I c Mathematics Natural History Physics Chemistry Writing Drawing Music ....... Calisthenics . . . 5 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 8 3 6 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 8 4 6 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 V 2 3 5 4 3 5 3 2 4 1 2 1 1 ifi :li 190 HISTORY OF EDI^CATION. W K o o o >^ Q H fa O w (/3 o o d -■ CO o 't -M — • 00 s ;o O t 01 IN IN • 00 1— 1 1 1 -^ 2 M J^ 1 t o CO 01 X -f •^ 1 ^* VD 73 1-^ ■^ o "* ; ■* IN • hi X> CO t t • (M • . « S' CO ■* ■^j< ; ; (N t* CO -^ f fN ■^ ^-) •_ • • • 2 04 M ■* CO t o\ 'M -M C) 01 OJ CO t ;o ■M (N C^ Ol IN CO ■^ X ?< • (M • •* 00 fl • O • ■ ■* O • (N • 01 0< <-H "t -^ ■* ^^ IN CO "■^ • • (K l-( t oo ■* fO 01 IN (N CO Ol IN ^ t CO -t (N Ol Ol C^ (N 01 o< ;:; ^ o f IN (M • O) • O) 01 > •^ •-^ o , ?q ■5j< O ■* (N ©1 • Tt . o> 01 > 11 9 ^ ■^ > . . (M . Ol Ol . Ol IN M • a • , -tj ^ rfl t > 0) o a H ^^ . s r/3 a +3 .2 >> ■ >, • to o a so .2 c ithme tural 4) so %' - 1 £ o a S v Ol 0) u ra i QJ tf M 3 In 1647, the Grand Court of Massachusetts passed an order for the establishment of a school in every settlement where fifty families resided, and a grammar school for every community of one hundred families. During tlic historical period, common school education has advanced steadily. Thomas Jefferson said : " I look to the diffu- sion of light and education, as the resources most to be relied on for ameliorating the condition, promoting tlie virtue and advancing the happi- ness of man." The common schools of the United States are supported by the self-imposed tax of the people. Normal or training schools and educational journals are gradually diffusing general princi- ples of education. A central bureau of educa- tion has lately been established for the purpose of collecting educational information, which, by means of reports and circulars, is sent through- out the country. Thousands of educationists from the United States visit Germany annually, and in time, more systematic and scientific methods of instruction will be introduced and employed. Horace Mann is one of America's greatest common school men. IJ)4 HISTORY OF EDirCATlON*. Sec. 24. — Dominion of Canada. The oldor provincosof tho Dominion have made provision for the common scliool (-(hication of all tho children. The high scliools, acade?nie.s and col- lofres are doinrj excellent work in liii^dier education. Each province has a Superintendent of Kduca- tion, one or more normal v-hools, and an efficient corps of school inspectors. Durinrr the last quarter of a century, perceptible advance has been made in common school education. In this connection, the followinc^ points niay be noted: a course of study for the common school ; improved text-books ; more trt^ined teachers ; better school-houses ; school journals ; summer .science .schools ; and the introduction of music, drawinnr, phj'sical development, and man- ual training, in connection with the common school. The establishment of experimental farms, schools of agriculture, and the instruction given to miners .show that the Governments are giving some attention to technical education. Hand in hand, the mini.ster and teacher have marched with the rapidly incrca.sing population in the west and Northwest. Dr. Ryerson was one of Canada's best known educationists. HISTORY OF EDL'OATION. 195 Sec. 25. The followirifT table gives approximately the percentajjje of illiteracy of person.s over 10 years of aire in the foUowinir countries : Prussia, l.-a Ireland, - 4G% Germany, - 4 Hungary, ■ 51 liavaria, 7 China, oO Japan, 10 Italy, - - 73 Scotland, - 16 Greece, .S2 Netherlands, 18 Spain, - ■ - 80 United States ,2;', Russia, 91 France, 30 Poland, ■ 91 Belgium, - 30 India • 95 England, - 30 The following list of educational works may aid the teacher in making a selection : Gabriel Compayre, " History of Pedagogy " ; James Donaldson, " Lectures on the History of Education in England and Prussia " ; W. N. Hailman, " Lectures on the History of Pedagogy " ; S. S. Laurie, " John Amos Comenius " ; Jas. Leitch, " Practical Educationists and their Systems of Teaching " ; John Morele}'-, " Rousseau " ; W. H. Payne, "A Short History of Education"; Pa lOG HFSTOUV OF EDUCATION. Robert ir. Quick, " Essays on Education " ; Johann Karl, FricMlrich Rosenkranz, " Parti- cular Sy.stein.s of Educations " ; Matthew Arnold, " Higher Schools and Uni- versities in Germany "; James Morcran Hart, " Gorman Universities" John K. Lord, " The Gorman School System " Joseph Payne, '■ A Visit to Gorman Schools", Jas. H. Rinrcr, " National Education in its Social Conditions and Aspects," and " Public Elejuen- tary School Education, En