IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-S)

|_y_

11.25

I^|2j8 12.5

— 6"

U IM

Photographic
.^Sciences
Lorporalion

23 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580

(716)872-4503

^^N

^'• «^ "^t. '^^\

<^ - ^J^

fel

CIHM/ICMH

Microfiche

Series.

CIHIVI/ICIVIH
Collection de
microfiches.

Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques

Technical and Bibliographic Notes/Notes techniques et bibliographiques

Th
to

The institute has attempted to obtain the best
original copy available for filming. Features of this
copy which may be bibliographically unique,
which may alter any of the images in the
reproduction, or which may significantly change
the usual method of filming, are checked below.

Coloured covers/
Couverture de couleur

I I Covers damaged/

Couverture endommagde

Covers restored and/or laminated/
Couverture restaurde et/ou pellicul6e

Cover title missing/

Le titre de couverture manque

Coloured maps/

Cartes gdographiques en couleur

Coloured ink (i.e. other than blue or black)/
Encre de couleur (i.e. autre que bleue ou noire)

Coloured plates and/or illustrations/
Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur

Bound with other material/
Reli6 avec d'autres documents

Tight binding may cause shadows or distortion
along interior margin/

La re liure serrde peut causer de I'ombre ou de la
distortion le long de la marge intdrieure

Blank leaves added during restoration may
appear within the text. Whenever possible, these
have been omitted from filming/
II se peut que certaines pages blanches ajouttes
lors d'une restauration apparaissent dans le texte,
mais, lorsque cela 6tait possible, ces pages n'ont
pas 6t6 filmtes.

L'Institut a microfilm^ le meilleur exemplaire
qu'il iui a 6t6 possible de se procurer. Les details
de cet exemplaire qui sont peut-dtre uniques du
point de vue bibliographique, qui peuvent modifier
une image reproduite, ou qui peuvent exiger une
modification dans la mdthode normale de fiimage
sont indiqute ci-dessous.

I I Coloured pages/

Pages de couleur

Pages damaged/
Pages endommagdes

Pages restored and/oi

Pages restaurdes et/ou pellicul6es

Pages discoloured, stained or foxei
Pages d6color6es, tachet^es ou piqudes

Pages detached/
Pages ddtachdes

Showthrough/
Transparence

Quality of prir

Quality indgale de I'impression

Includes supplementary materif
Comprend du materiel suppl^mentaire

Only edition available/
Seule Edition disponibie

|~~| Pages damaged/

I I Pages restored and/or laminated/

r~T| Pages discoloured, stained or foxed/

I I Pages detached/

r~| Showthrough/

I I Quality of print varies/

I I Includes supplementary material/

I I Only edition available/

Til
po
of
fill

Oi
be
thi
si(
oti
fir
sic
or

Th
sh
Til
wl

Ml
dif
en
be
rig
re(
m(

Pages wholly or partially obscured by errata
slips, tissues, etc., have been ref limed to
ensure the best possible image/
Les pages totalement ou partiellement
obscurcies par un feuiilet d'errata, une pelure,
etc., ont 6t6 film^es d nouveau de faqon d
obtenir la meilleure image possible.

rri Additional comments:/

Commentaires suppi^mentaires;

Various pagings.

This item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/

Ce document est filmi au taux de rMuction indiquA ci-dessous.

10X 14X 18X 22X

12X

16X

20X

26X

30X

24X

28X

32X

itails
i du
lodifier
r une
Image

The copy filmed here has been reproduced thanks
to the generosity of:

Unlvanrity of Saslcatchewan
Saslcatoon

The images appearing here are the best quality
posnible considering the condition and legibility
of the original copy and in keeping with the
filming contract specifications.

Original copies in printed paper covers are filmed
beginning with the front cover and ending on
the last page with a printed or illustrated impres-
sion, or the back cover when appropriate. All
other original copies are filmed beginning on the
first page with a printed or illustrated impres-
sion, and ending on the last page with a printed
or illustrated impression.

The last recorded frame on each microfiche
shall contain the symbol ^»> (meaning "CON-
TINUED"), or the symbol V (meaning "END"),
whichever applies.

L'exemplaire film6 fut reproduit grSce d la
gAn6rosit6 de:

University of Saskatchewan
Saskatoon

Les images suivantes ont 6t6 reproduites avec le
plus grand soin, compte tenu de la condition et
de la netteti de l'exemplaire filmd, et en
conformity avec les conditions du contrat de
filmage.

Les exemplaires originaux dont la couverture en
papier est imprimde sont filmds en commenpant
par le premier plat et en terminant soit par la
derniire page qui comporte une empreinte
d'impression ou d'illustration, soit par le second
plat, salon le cas. Tous les autres exemplaires
originaux sont fiim^s en commen9ant par la
premiere page qui comporte une empreinte
d'impression ou d'illustration et en terminant par
la dernidre page qui comporte une telle
empreinte.

Un des symboles suivants apparaitra sur la
dernidre image de cheque microfiche, selon le
cas: le symbols — ^- signifie "A SUIVRE", le
symbols V signifie "FIN".

Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at
different reduction ratios. Those too large to be
entirely included in one exposure are filmed
beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to
right and top to bottom, as many frames as
required. The following diagrams illustrate the
method:

Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre
fiimds i des taux de reduction diffdrents.
Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre
reproduit en un seul clichi, il est filmd d partir
de I'anglo supirieur gauche, de gauche d droite,
et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre
d'images nicessaire. Les diagrammes suivants
illustrent la mdthode.

trrata
to

pelure,
nd

32X

/nc^f.

THE

ORIGIN OF CIVILISATION

AND THE

;*EIMITIVE CONDITION OF MAH.

MENTAL AND SOCIAL CONDITION OF SAVAGES.

Sir JOHN LUBBOCK, Bart., M.P., F.E.S.

>UTHOB or 'PRKinSTORIC TIMES' KfnerTicr>I^.UKN-T or T,„ ETHNOLOGICAL SO.,RTr •
n-.LLOW 01. THE LINNEAN, OEOWGICAL, ENTOMOLOGICA., AND OTHER SOCIIflES.

SECOND EDITION, WITH ADDJ^IONS

Iv^

LIBRAf?'

■\

r--\>l

LONDON :

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

1870.

PEEFACE.

■r

TN my work on ' Prehistoric Times ' I have devoted
-^ several cliapters to the description of modern
savages, because the weapons and implements now
used by the lower races of men throw much liglit
on the signification and use of those discovered in
ancient tumuli, or in the drift gravels ; and because a
knowledge of modern savages and their modes of life
enables us more accurately to picture, and more vividly
to conceive, the manners and customs of our ancestors
in bygone ages.

In the present volume, which is founded on a course
of lectures delivered at the Eoyal Institution in the
spring of 18G8, I propose more particularly to describe
the social and mental condition of savages, their art,
their systems of marriage and of relationship, their re-
ligions, language, moral character, and law^s. Subse-
quently I shall hope to publish those portions of my
lectures which have reference to their houses, dress,
boats, arms, imple-ments, ^c. From the very nature of
the subjects dealt with in the present volume, I shall

.%>

have to
to us

i'UEFACl^:

I'ecord m,

tny actions and ideas

lat
•innation

many in fact that if I

very abhorrent
pass them without

comment

w- -po^siMe not to mention 1' t::;' r" '
ve.y repugnant to o„r fedinr,. v '""'' '"'''

«y -thnents in son.e ^'L ,f' ""*= ' '" «'-«

Montesquieu' commenoes with L ,
PoHion on., great work Which; Jo J^^^^^^^
^«. ''e say., 'on pent j.,ger pa.„,i jl t M '"°"-

<3"i -nf lo, n>oins profon* ai^ l """ ""''

-'- le. .eh-gion. ies eC i .r' f""'^"
forme, au bien de la soeiet X o ^"" ^°"-

"WpasreffetdeinenerleVho '' '""'"'''""

I'autre vie, peuvent lI7 '"^ ''""^'^^^ ^'"^

^"-"on/e ep::;::r^""'-^'--rehgion.

d- le ciel, ou bien de ceiles quill '" ™"'"

terra- The difficulty which I h' . , , ''"' ^'''

<^i^erent fo„n, but l\, J /„':::? r t" -

^ivrcLbsaiy to say these

.'1

•S

^ ^*'^.

I 'HE FACE.

Vll

few words of exi)lanation, lost I should be supposed to
approve tliat wliicli I do not expressly condemn.

Klenim, in his 'Allgemeinc Culturgeschiclite der
Mensclien,' and recently Mr. Wood, in a more populai-
manner (' Natural History of Man '), have described tlie
various races of man consecutively ; a system which has
its advantages, but which does not well bring out the
general stages of progress in civilisation.

Various other works, amongst which I must specially
mention MuUer's ' Geschichte der Americanischen
Urreligionen,' 'M'Lennan's Primitive Marriage,' and
Bachofen's 'Das Mutterrecht,' ded with particular por-
tions of the subject. Maine's interesting work on ' An-
cient Law,' again, considers man in a more advanced
stage than that which is the special subject of my work.

The plan pursued by Tylor in his remarkable work
on the 'Early History of Mankind,' more nearly re-
sembles that which I have sketched out for myself,
but the subject is one which no two minds would
viev/ in the same manner, and is so vast that I am
sure my friend will not regard me as intruding on a
field which he has done so much to make his own.

Nor must I omit to mention Lord Kames' ' History

of Man,' and Montesquieu's ' Esprit des Lois,' both

of them works of great interest, although written at a

time when our knowledge of savage races was even

'more imperfect than it is now.

VUl

I'UEFAtJE.

Yet tlie materials for such a work as the present
are immense, anci are daily increasing. Those in-
terested in the subject become every year more and
more numerous ; and while none of my readers can be
more sensible (jf my deficiencies than I am myself, yet
after ten years of study, I have been anxious to publish
this portion of my work, in the hope that it may con-
tribute something towards the progress of a science
which is in itself of the deepest interest, and which has
a peculiar importance to an Empire such as ours, com-
prising races in every stage of civilisation yet attained
by man.

High Elms, Down, Kent ;
February, 1870.

'hi

Jsent
in-
ane!
I be
yet
lish
on-
tice
bas
m-
ed

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

Importance of the Subject-Difficulty of the Subjecl^Inactivity of
the Savage Intellect-Condition of the Lowest Races of Me^.-
Cunou8 Customs with refereiice to ^lothers-in-Law-La Couvade-
Reasons for La Couvade-Savage Ideas on the L,fluence ,.f Fuod-

sT/ T? ^^"Vtv ''"'-'' '" Portraits-Use of Prayers as .Medicine
-Savage Ideas of Dise_asfi-M'edical Treatment among Sava-vs-
Fancies about Twins-Life attributed to Inanimate Objects-Sduta-
Lions ,

r.voK

CHAPTER n.
ART AND ORNAMENTS.

Art as an Ethnological Character-Ancient Art-E«quin,aux Drawings
-Ihe Qmppu-Picture-writing-Indian Census Roll-Indian Tomb-
stones-Indian Biography -Indian Petition - Rock Sculptu^s-

sZ% TTr ^^' Studs-Labrets-Omamentation he
S^n-lribe Marks-Tattooing-Artifidal Alteration of Forn -
Hairdressing— Feejee Head-Dresses ,

CHAPTER HI,
MARRIAGE AND RELATIONSHIP.

The Position of Women among Savages-Absence of Ailection i„

pZ7 t"''^-'"""^^ Savages^Biiferent kluds of M r ia"
-lolyandry- Separation of Husband and Wife - Absence of
Marriage-Absence of any Xame for Marriage-Absence of AltSage
Ceremony-Marriage Ceremonies-Relationships Indepenct^it of
Marriage -South Sea System of Relationship^ Xoda Sv tl

rONTI'lNTS.

I'AQR

Ilelntionship — Prcvftlence of Adoption— The Milk-tio — Orif>iiiiil or
Communal Marriage — Origin of Marriage — JJiiehofun's Viow-s —
M'Leminn's Views — The True Ivvplanation — Origin of Marriage by
Capture — Prevalence of Marriage by Capture— Originally a Ileality
— Subsequently a Form — Ilindostan— Malay Peninsula — Kalmucks
— Tonguses — Kamchadales — Mongols — j'^squinmux — South Ameri-
cans — Feejee'vns — Polynesians — I'iiilippinu Islanders — Negroes —
Mandingos — Circassians — IJussiu — North (Jermany — liritain — Ivxpla-
uation of Marriage Ceremonies — Marriage by Confarreatio — Expiation
for Marriage — Babylonia — Armenia — .Ethiopia — (t recce — Ilindostan,
North America, Greenland — Supplying Guests with I'eniporary
AVives — Ivespect for Courtesans — Keligious Character of Courtesans
— Exogamy — Origin of Exogamy — I'revalence of Exogamy —
Australia — Africa — Ilindostan — Northern Asia — China — Circassia —
Exogamy in North America — Exogamy in North and South America
— The Causes of Polygamy — Polyandry — Polyandry Exceptional —
Endogamy — The Milk-Tie — Inheritance througli Females — lielatiou-
ship through Females — Causes and Wide Distribution of the Custom
— Neglect of i'aternal delation — Origin of Ilelationship in the ^Inlo
Line — Change from Female to Male Kinship — System of Kinship
through Males — Neglect of the Maternal delation — The Present
System

CHAPTER IV.

RELIGION.

r^s

I (

Mental Inactivity of Savages — Relation of the Lower to the Higher
forms of Religion — Religious Characteristics of the Lower Races of
Man — Classification of the Lower Religions — Religions according to
Sanchoniatho — Absence of Religion — Rudimentary Religion — Reli-
gious Ideas as suggested by Sleep — Religious Ideas as suggested
by Dreams — Nightmare — The Shadow — Tliunder — Spirits regarded
as Evil — Spirits regarded as causing Disease — Disbelief among
Savages in the Existence of Natural Death — Low Ideas of Spirits
entertained by Savages — Their Low Conception of their Deities as
evidenced during Eclipses — Belief in Ghosts — Absence of Belief in
a Future State — Future Life dependent on Mode of Death — Belief in
the Plurality of Souls — Divination — Sorcery — Confusion of Name
and Thing — Confusion of Part and Whole — Similarity of Witchcraft
in various Parts of the World — Belief in Witclicraft sliarod by
European Travellers— Sorcerers not necessarily Impostors— Fasting

a Reliaious Form ....

— Religious Dances-

-Smoking as

131
/

CUNTHNTS.

1'A(iE

CIlAl'TKll V.

RELIGION {cotUinued).

Objects of Worship — Origin of Animal Worship — Tlio Kohonf,'— The
Totem — Totemism in Americn — I lindostim — Sorpunt-^^'orship in Asia
— Africa — l">gypt — Abyssinia — Chiiuea — KafVnuia — Ma(hi;j:as('av —
Feejee hhmds — Polynesia — America — The Worship of other Animals
in America — Pacific Islands — Siberia — India — Africa — Mada^niscar —
The Custom of Apoloyisiug to Animals for Killing them — TheWorship
of Inanimate Objects — Savage Tendency to Deification — Life Attri-
buted to Inanimate Objects — Souls Attributed to Inanimate Objects
— Tree- Worship in Europe — Africa —India — Ceylon— Siberia —
Sumatra — Philippines^ — Pacific Islands — North America — Peru —
Patagonia — America — Europe — Water- Worship in Europe — Asia —
Africa — North America — Central America — South America-Thu
Worship of Stones iu Asia — Ilindostan— Oreece — liapland — Franco
— Ireland — Africa — I'acitic Islands — Sumatra — America — Eire-
Worship — \'''stals — Worship of the Heavenly Bodies in Americn —
India — Africa — Asia — Worship of other Objects ....

PAClE

181

CHAPTER VI.

RELIGION {concluded).

Religion of Australians— Veddahs — Californians — Bachapins — KalHri*
— Fetichism — Explanation of Fetichism — Negroes — Fetichism iu
other Races — Hindostan — North America — China — Siberia — Tote-
mism — Developmental and Adaptational Modifications of Religion
— Shamanism in Siberia — Greenland — Pacific Islands — Africa —
India — Idolatry — Absence of Idolatry among the I^ower Races —
Origin of Idolatry — Solomon's Explanation — Idols not Mere Emblems
— Worship of Anceators — Worship of Men in Asia — Pacific Islands
— Africa — The Great Lama — The Worship of I'rinciples — Sacrifices
— Confusion of the Victim -with the Deity — Egypt — Mexico —
Hindostan — Eating the Fetich — Human Sacrifices — Temples —
Q'ombs — Priests — The Soul — Ideas of Heaven — Plurality of Souls
— The Future State — Creation— Prayer— Morality — The Nature of
Idols — Science and Religion ii35

CHAPTER VII.

CHARACTER AND MORALS.

Difficulty of ascertaining the Character of Savage Races— Insecurity

in Morals — Moral

of Life and Property among Savages-

-Progree

Xll

CONTENTS.

V.UiK

Condition of Stivayea — Coufiision of Family Allectioii and Moral Feel-
ing — Absence of Moral Feelin;,' — llelifrion not necessarily connet-tt'd
with Morality — Morality and Religion — I^aw and Ri^'ht — (Jrowtli of
Moral Feeling — Origin of Moral Feeling 2U3

CIIArTEK VIII.

LANGUAGE.

Gesture Language— The Origin of Language — All Language reducible
to a Few Koot-words — Origin of Root-words — "Wear and Tear of
Words — Nicknames and Slang Terms — Origin of the Terms Father
and Mother — Words for Father and Mother in various Languages —
The Choice of Root-words — Poverty of Savage Langitagos —
Deficiency in Terms of Affection— Absence of Abstract Terms —
Deficiency in Numerals — Savage Difficulties in Arithmetic — Use of
the Fingers in Arithmetic, as shown in the Names of Numerals —
The Origin of the Decimal System

313

CHAPTER IX.

LAWS.

Importance of the Subject— The Character of the Laws of Savages
— The Multiplicity of Laws among Savages — Rules relating to
Hunting — Salutations and Ceremonies — Conduct of Public Business
— Property in Land — Communal Property — Laws of Inheritance —
Absence of Wills — Roman Wills — Rights of Children — The Yasu —
Custom of Naming Parents after Children — The Punishment of
Crime — Regulated Revenge — The I-aws of Property — Manifest and
Non-Manifest Thieves — The Wergild — Ceueral Conclusion

341

APPENDIX.

PART I.

Difficulty of obtaining Conclusive Evidence — The Stationary Condition
of Saviiges — No Evidence of Earlier Civilisation — Evidence deriv-
able from Domestic iVnimals and Pottery — Indications of Progress
among Sa\ ages — Savages not incapable of Civilisation — Indigenous
Origin of Mexican Civilisation— Progress as indicated by Language
— Traces of Barbaritiui in Civilised Countries — Arbitrary Ciistouis —
Unitv of the llunuui Race ,

30f)

V,\(1H

341

LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS QUOTED
m THIS VOLUME.

Adelung, Mitliridiitesi.

Arago, Narrative of a Voyage round

the World.
Asiatic Researclies.
Astlcy, Collection of Voyages.
Atkinson, Oriental and Western Siberia.

Bachofen, Das Mu'terreelit.

Baikie, Exploring Voyage up the rivers

Kwora and Binue.
Bain, Mental and Moral Science,
Baker, Albert Nyanza.

,, Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia.
Battel, The strange Adventures of, (Pin-

korton's Voyages and Travels).
Becchey, Narrative of a Voyage to the

Pacific.
Bosnian, Description of Guinea (Pin-

kerton's Voyages and Travels).
Brett, Indian Tribes of Guiana.
Brooke, Lapland.
Bruce, Travels in Abyssinia.
Burchell, Travels in Southern Africa.
Burton, Lake Regions of Africa.

,, First Footsteps in Africa.

„ Abbeokuta and the Cameron
Mountains.

„ City of the Saints.

Cailli^, Travels to Timbuctoo.
Callaway, Religious System of the

Amazulu.
Campbell, Tales of the West Highlands.
Carver, Travels in North America.
Casalis, The Basutos.

Catlin, North American Indians.
Chapman, Travels in S. Africa.
Charlevoix, History of Paraguay.
Clarke, Travels.
Collins, English Colony in Now S

Wales.
Cook, Voyage round the World. (In

Hawkesworth's Voyages.)

, , Second Voyage towards the Soutli

Pole.

„ Third Voyage to the Pacific Ocean.
Cox, Manual of Mythology.
Crantz, History of Greenland.

Darwin, Animals and Plants under
Domestication.
„ Origin of Species.
M Researches in Geology and
Natural History.
Davis, Dr. J. B., Thesaurus Craniorum.
Davis, The Chinese.
Davy, Account of Ceylon.
De Brosses, Du Cultedos Dieux fetiches.
Denham, Travels in Africa.
Depons, Travels in South America
Dias, Dicciouario da Lingua Tupy.
Dioffenbach, New Zealand.
Dobrizhoffer, History of the Abipones.
Drury, Adventures in Madagascar.
Dubois, Description of the People of

India.
Dunn, The Oregon Territory.
Dulaure, Histoire abr^gee des diffe*

rents Cultes.
D'Urville, Voyage au Pole sud.

•# -^'i

XVIU

LJST OF WORKS QUOTED.

Eiirle, Eosidonco in New Zealand.

Egwle, Greenliind.

Ellis, Three Visits to i'l.idagascar.

„ Polynesian Eescarchcs.
Erman, Travels in Siberia.
]'>skine, "Western Pacific.
I'lyro, Discoveries in Central Austritlia.

Farrar, Orifjin of Language.
Fergusson, Tree and Serpent Worship.
Fitzroy, Voyage of the 'Adventure'

and ' Beagle.'
Forbes Leslie, Early Eaces of Scotland.
Forster, Observations made during a

Voyage roxmd the World.
Franklin, Journey to the Shores of the

Polar Sea.
Eraser, Travels in Koordisttm and Me-

soiwtamia.
Freycinet, Voyage autour du Monde.

Gaius, Commentaries on Eoman liaw.
Gama, Descripcion historica y crono-

logica de las Pedras de Mexico.
Gardner, Faiths of the World.
Galton, Tropical South Africa.
Gibbs, H.H., Eomance of the Chcvelere

Assigne.
Giraixl-Tculon, La Mere chez certains

Peuples do I'Antiquite.
Gladstone, Juventus Mundi.
Goguet, De I'Origino des Lois, des Arts

et des Sciences.
Graah, Voyage to Greenland.
Gr.ay, Travels in Western Africa.
Grey, Sir G., Polynesian Mythology.

,, Journal of two Expeditions

of Discovery in North-West and

Western Australia.

Hale, Ethnology of the United States

Exploring Expedition.
Ilallam, History of England.
Hanway, Travels in Persia.
Hayes, Open Polar Sea,
Hawkcsworth, Voyages of Discovery in

the Southern Hemisphere.
Hcarne, Voyage to the Northern Ocenn.

Herodotus.

Hill, Travels in Siberi.i.

Hooper, Tents of the Tuski.

Humboldt, Personal Eesearches.

Hunter, Comparative Dictionarj' of tlio

Non-Aryan Languages of India and

High Asia.
Hume, Essays.

„ History of England.

luman. Ancient Faiths

Names.

in Ancient

James, Expedition to the Eocky Moun-
tains.
Journal of the Eoyal Institution.
Jukes, Voyage of the 'Fly.'

Karnes, History of Man.

Kcnrick, Phoenicia.

Keppel, Visit to the Indian Archipelago.

,, Expedition to Borneo.
Klemm, Allgemeino Culturgeschichto

der Menschheit.
„ Werkzeuge und Waffen.
Koelle, Polj-glotta Africana.
Kolben, History of the Cape of Good

Hope.
Kolff, Voyage of the 'Dourga.'
Kotzobue, Voyage round the World.

Labat, Voyage anx lies de I'Anieriquc,
Labillurdierc, Voyage in search of La

Pe rouse.
Lafitau,Mceurs des Sauvages amerieains.
Laird, Expedition into the Interior of

Africa.
Lander (K and J.), Niger Expedition.
Lang, Aborigines of Australia,
Latham, Descriptive Ethnology.
Lecky, History of Eationalism.
Lewin, Hill Tracts of Chittagong.
Liclitenstein, Travels in South Africa.
Locke, On the human understanding.
Lubbock, Prehistoric Times.
Lyon, Journal during the Voyage of

Captain Parry.

LIST OF WOIiKS QUOTED.

rchps.

lomry of flin
af India iviul

in Ancient

ocky Moun-
ition.

rchipeljigo.

rgeschichto

tffen.

e of Good

World.

^nieriqiio.
fch of La

»ericiiin«i.
itorior of

edition.

Africa,
tiding.

y»g6 of

McGillivray, Voyage of the ' Eattle-
snako.'

JI'Lennan, Primitive Marriage.

Maine, Ancient Law.

Marsden, History of Sumatra.

Mariner, Tonga Islands.

Martins, Von dem Rechtszustande unter
den Ureinwohncrn Brasiliens.

Merolla, Voyage to Congo (Pinker-
ton's Voyages and Travels).

Metz, Tribes of the Neilgherries.

Metlahkatlah, published by the Church
Missionary Society.

Middendorf, Sibirische Reise.
Monboddo, Origin and Progress of Lan-
guage.

Montesquieu, Esprit des Lois.
Moser, The Caucasus and its People
Moor, Notices of the Indian Archi-
pelago.

Morgan, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila-
delphia.

Mouhot, Travels in the Central Parts '
of Indo-China. i

Midler (Max), Chips from a German
AVorkshop.

„ Lectures on Language, !

First Series.

Lectures on Language,
Second Series.

Midler (F. G.), Geschichte der Ameri- :
kanischen Urreligionen.

XIX

Nilsson, On the Stone Age.
Olaus Magnus.

Pallas, Voyages en diff^rentes Provinces

de I'Empire de Eussie.

» Voyages entrepris dans les Gou-

vernements mtn-idionaux do I'Empire

de Pussie.
Park, Travels.
Parky ns, Life in Abyssinia.
Perouse, Voyage autour du Monde.
Pliny, Natural History.
Prescott, History of Peru.

» History of Mexico.
Prichard, Natural History of Man.

Proceedings of the American Academy
of \rts and Sciences.

Proceedings of tJie Boston Society of
Natural History.

Proy.Mrt, History of Loango (Pinker-
ton's Voyages and Travels).

Raffles, History of Java,
Reade, Savage Africa.
Renan, Origine du Langage.
Richardson, Journal of a Boat Journey.
Robertson, History of America.
Rutimeyer, Beitr. zur Konntniss der
fossilen Pferde.

Scherzer, Voyage of the ' Novara.'
Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes.
Seemann, A Mission to Fiji.
Smith, A., Theory of Moral Sentiments,

and Dissertation on tlio Origin of

Languages.

,,^ G.^ (Bishop of Victoj'ia), Ton
AVeeks in Japan.
,, I. History of Virginia.
,, W., Voyage to Guinea.
Smithsonian Reports.
Snowden and Prall, Grammar of the

Mpongwe Language. New York.
Spcke, Discovery of the Source of the
Nile.

Spencer's Principles of Biology.
Spiers, Life in Ancient India.
Spix and Martins, Travels in Brazil
Sproat, Scenes and Studies of Sava-o
Life. °

Squiers, Serpent Symbol in America.
Stephens, South Australia.
Stevenson, Travels in South America.
Stmhlenberg, Description of Russia

Siberia, and Great Tartary,
Systems of Land Tenure. Published by

the Cobdcn Club.

Tacitus.

Tanner^ Narrative of a Captivity among
the North American Indians.

Taylor,Ne«rZealand and its Inhabitants.
Tortre, History of the Caribby Islands

LIST OF WOIfKS QUOTED.

Tindiill, Grammar and Dictionary of
the Namaqua (Hottentot) Language

Transactions of the Americ. Antiq. Soe.

Transactions of the Ethnological Society

Transactions of the R. S. of Victoria.

Tylor, Anahuac.

,. Early History of Man.

Upham, History and Doctrine of Budd-
hism in Ceylon.

Vancouver, Voyage of Discovery.
Vogt, Lectures on Man.

Waitz, Anthropology.
Wake, Chapters on Man.
Wallace, Travels in the Amazons and
Eio Negro.

Wallace, Malay Archipelago.

Watson and Kayo, The People of

India.
Wedgwood, Introduction to the Diction-

ary of the English Language.
Whately (Archbishop of Dublin),

Political Economy.
Whipple, Report on the Indian Tribes
Wilkes, United States' Exploring Expe-
dition.
Williams, Fiji and the Fijians.
Wood, Natural History of Man.
Wrangol, Siberia and the Polar Sea.
Wright, Superstitions of England.

Yate, New Zealand.

) People of

the Diction-

iRge.

f Dublin),

Jian Tribes.
Soring Expe-

ns.
Inn.

)Iar Sea.
jland.

THE ORIGIN OF CIVILISATION

(J'C.

CHAPTER I.

: N T H O D U C T I O N.

rrm etmly of the lever races of men, apart from the
J- direct Luportance which it possesses in an empire
like ours, IS of great interest from three points of vieH-
In the first place, the condition and habits of existinc^
savages resemble in many, ways, though not in alh-
those of our own ancestors in a period now loner .one
by: m the second, they illnstrate much of whal is
passmg among ourselves, many customs which have
evidently no relation to present circumstances ; and
even some ideas which are rooted in our minds, as
fossils are nnbedded in the soil: while thirdly, we can
even by means of them, penetrate some of that mist
which separates tlie present from the future

In fact, the lower races of men in various parts of
the world present us with illustrations of a social con-
dition ruder, and more archaic, than any which history
records as having ever existed among the more
advanced races. Even among civilised peoples, how-
ever, we find traces of former barbarism. Not only is

2 IMrORTANGE OF THE SUBJECT.

language in tliis respect very instructive ; but the laws
and customs are often of very ancient origin, and contain
symbols which are the relics of former realities. Thus
the use of stone knives in certain Egypti.an ceremonies
2X)ints to a time when that people habitually used stone
implements. Again, the form of marriage by coem[)tio
among the Romans, indicates a period in their history
when they habitually bought wives, as so many savage
tribes do now. So also the form of capture in weddings
can only be explained by the h3'pothesis that che capture
of wives was once a stern reality. In such cases as
these the sequence is obvious. The use of stone knives
in certain ceremonies is evidently a case of survival, not
of invention ; and in the same way the form of capture
in weddings would naturally survive the actual reality,
while we cannot suppose that the reality would rise out
of the symbol.

The study of savage life is, moreover, of peculiar
importance to us, forming as we do part of a great
empire, with colonies in every part of the world, and
fellow-citizens in every stage of civilisation. Of this
our Indian possessions afford us a good illustration.
' AYe have studied the lowland population,' says Mr.
Hunter,^ ' as no conquerors ever studied or understood
' a subject race. Their history, their habits, their re-
' quirements, their very weaknesses and prejudices are
' known, and furnish a basis for those political induc-
' tions which, under the titles of administrative foresight
' and timely reform, meet popular movements half-way.
' The East India Company grudged neither honours nor

Hunter's Non-Aryan Languages of India, p. 2.

TMrORTANCK OF THE SUJUUCT.

: the 1m ws
id contain
3S. Thus
eremonies
ised stone

cocrnptio
ir liistory
ny savage
weddmgs
le capture

cases as
ne knives
'vival, not
)f capture
d reality,
:1 rise out

peculiar

a great
>rld, and

Of this
Istration.
|ays Mr.

lerstood
[heir re-

ices are
induc-

)re sight
-way.

|)urs nor

' solid rewards to any meritorious effort to illustnite the

* peo])le8 whom it ruled.'

' The practical residt now appears. English adini-
' nistrators understand the vVryan, and are almost
' totally ignorant of the non-Aryan, ])opulation of
' India. Thev know with remarkable precision how a
' measure will he received by the higher or purely
' jVryan ranks of the community ; they can foresee
' with less certainty its eil'ect upon the lower or semi-
' Aryan chisses, but they neither know nor venture to
' predict the results of any Hue oi' action among the
' non- Aryan tribes. Political calculations are impos-
' sible without a knowledge of the peo[)le. But the evil
' does not stop here. In the void left by ignorance,
' prejudice has taken up its seat, and the calamity of
' the non- Aryan races is not merely that they are not
' imderstood, but that they are misrepresented.'

AYell, therefore, has it been observed by Mr. Maine,
in his excellent work on ' xVncient Law,' that, ' even if
they gave more trouble than they do, no pains would
be wasted in ascertaining the germs out of which has
assuredly been unfolded e^'ery form of moral restraint
Avhich controls our actions and shapes our conduct at
the present moment. The rudiments of the social
state,' he adds, ' so far as they are known to us at all,
are known through testimony of three sorts — accounts
by contemporary observers of civilisations less advanced
than their own, the records which jjarticular races
have preserved concerning their primitive history, and
ancient law. The first kind of evidence is the best
we could have expected. As societies do not advance
concurrently, but at different rates of progress, there

4 nTFFTCULTY OF THE SUBJECT.

' have been epochs at wliich men trained to liahits of
' methodical observation have really been in a position
' to watch and describe the infancy of mankind.'^ He
refers particidarly to Tacitns, whom lie praises for
having 'made the most of snclian opportunity;' adding,
however, ' but the " Germany," unlike most celebrated
' classical books, has not induced others to follow the
' excellent example set by its author, and the amount of
' this sort of testimony which we possess is exceedingly
' small.'

This is very far, however, from being the case. At
all epochs some ' men trained to habits of methodical
' observ^ation have really been in a position to watch
' and describe the inftmcy of mankind,' and the testi-
mony of our modern travellers is of the same nature
as that for which we are indebted to Tacitus. It is,
indeed, much to be regretted that Mr. Maine, in his
admirable work, did not more extensively avail himself
of this source of information, for an acquaintance with
the laws and customs of modern savages would have
enabled him greatly to strengthen his arguments on
some points, while it would, I cannot but think, have
modified his views on others. Thus he lays it down as
an obvious proposition that ' the organisation of primi-
* tive societies would have been confounded, if men had
' called themselves relatives of their mother's relatives,'
while I shall presently show that, as indeed Mr.
McLennan has already pointed out, relationship through
females is a common custom of savage communities all
over the world.

' ^faine's Ancient Law, p. 120,

DIFFICULTY OF THE SUBJECT.

il)its of
position
.:' He
Lses for
adding,
ebrated
low the
ount of
edingly

36. At

liodical

) watch

e testi-

nature

It is,

1 in his

liinself

ce with

have

nts on

have

own as

primi-

en had

itives,'

1 Mr.

irough

ies all

But though our information with reference to the
social and moral condition of the lower races of man is
much more consideral^le than Mr. Mjiine supposed, it
is certainly very far from being satisfactory cither in
extent or in accuracy. Travellers naturally find it far
easier to describe the houses, boats, food, dress, weapons,
and implements of savages than to understand their
thouirhts and feelinf^s. The whole mental condition of
a savage is so different from ours, that it is often very
difficult to follow what is passing in his mind, or to
understand the motives by which he is in'kienced.
Many things ai)pear natural and almost self-evident to
him, which produce a very different impression on us.
' What ! ' said a negro to Burton, ' am I to starve, Avhile
' my sister has children whom she can sell ? '

Though savages always hnve a reason, such as it is,
for what they do and what they believe, their reasons
often are very absurd. Moreover, the difficulty of
ascertaining what is passing in their minds is of course
much enhanced by the difficulty of communicating
with them. This has produced many laughable mis-
takes. Thus, when Labillardiere enquired of the
Friendly Islanders the word for 1,000,000, they seem
to have thought the question absurd, and answered him
by a word which apparently has no meaning ; when he
asked for 10,000,000, they said ' laoalai,' which I will
leave unexplained ; for 100,000,000, ' laounoua,' that
is to say, 'nonsense;' while for the higher numbers
they gave Inm certain coarse expressions, which he
has gravely published in his table of numerals.

A mistake made by Dampier led to more serious
results. lie had met some Australians, and ap[)re-

t !

INACTIVITY OF Till:

hcndiiif,^ an attack, lie says: — '1 (lischargctl my gun to
' scare tlicni, })Ut avoided sliooting any of them ; till
' finding tlie young man in great danger from them,
' and myself in some, and that though the gun had a
' little frightened them at first, yet they had soon learnt
' to despise it^ tossing up their hands, and crying " pooh,
' " pooh, pooh!" and coming on afresh with a great noise,
' I thought it high time to charge again, and shoot one
' of them, which I did. The rest, seeing him fall, made
' a stand again, and my young man took the opportunity
' to disengage himself, and come off to me ; my other
' man also was with me, who had done nothing all this
' while, having come out unarmed ; and I returned
' back with my men, designing to attempt the natives
' no farther, being very sorry for what had happened
'already.'^ ' Pooh, pooh,' however, or 'puff, puff,' is
the name which savages, like children, naturally apply
to ixuns.

Another source of error is, that savages arc often
reluctant to contradict what is said to them. Thus
Mr. Oldfield,'' speaking of the Australians, tells us : —
' I have found ihis habit of non-contradiction to stand
' very much in my way when making enquiries of them,
' for, as my knowledge of their language was only
' sufficient to enable me to seek information on some
' points by putting suggestive questions, in which they
' immediately concurred, I was frequently driven nearly
' to my wits' end to arrive at the truth. A native once
' l)rouglit me in some specimens of a species of euca-
' hl)tus, and beh>'>' desirous of asccrtaininix the habit of

' Pinlcortou's Voyagow, vol. xi. ]i.
473.

~ Trans. Etliii. Sue X. S. vol. iii.
p. 2.>5.

SA VACJE INTELLECT.

>' gun to

(

jm ; till

n tlicni,

m had .'i

m learnt *

" pooh,

at noise,

loot one

1 ^^

ill, made

ortunity

ly other

all this

■'i ,

•eturned

natives

J •

appened

puff,' is

y apply

•e often

Thus

1 us : —

3 stand

1 '

f them,

IS only

n some

h they

'.'1

nearly

^e once

,?. '

f cuca-

•I '

abit of

1 '

the plant, 1 asked, " A tall tree?" to which his ready
answer was in the aHirmativc. Not feeling quite
satisfied, I again demanded, " A low bush ?" to which
" yes " was also the resj)onse.*
Auaui, the mind of the savaire, like that of the child.

'n^i

rs.

; easily fatigued, and he will then give random answc
3 spare himself the trouble of thought. Speaking of
le Ahts (N.W. America), Mr. Sproat' says: — ' The
native mind, to an educated man,

be asleep; and, if you suddenly asl

seems generally to
novel question,
you have to repeat it while the mind of the savage is
awaking, and to speak with emphasis until he has
quite got your meaning. This may partly arise from
the questioner's imperfect knowledge of the language ;
still, 1 think, not entirely, as the savage may be
observed occasionally to become forgetful when volun-
tarily conmiunicating information. On his attention
being fully aroused, he often shows nuich quickness
in reply and ingenuity in argument. But a short
conversation Avearios him, piu'ticularly if questions are
asked that require efforts of thought or memory on
his part. The mind of the savage then appears to
rock to and fro out of mere weakness, and he tells lies
and talks nonsense.'
' I frequently enquired of the negroes,' says Park,
what became of the sun during the night, and whether
we should see the same sun, or a different one, in the
morning; but I found that they considered the ques-
tion as very childish. The subject appeared to them
as placed beyond the reach of human investigation ;

. viil. iii.

^ Scenes autl Studies of Savage liife, p. 120.

I ' '

CONDITION OF Till':

i: II'

I I

i; '

' they had never uidiilged a conjecture, nor formed any
' liypothesis, about tlie matter."

Such ideas are, in fact, entirely beyond the mental
range of the lower savages, whose extreme mental in-
feriority we have much difficulty in realising.

Speaking of the wild men in the interior of Borneo,
^Ir. Dalton says that'^ they are found living 'absolutely
in a state of nature, who neither cultivate the ground
nor live in huts ; who neither eat rice nor salt, and who
do not associate with each other, but rove about some
woods, like wild beasts ; the sexes meet in the jungle,
or the man carries away a woman from some campong.
When the children are old enough to shift for them-
selves, they usually separate, neither one afterwards
tliinking of the other. At night they sleep under some
large tree, the branches of which hang low ; on these
they fasten the children in a kind of swing ; around
the tree they make a fire to keep off the wild beasts
and snakes. They cover themselves with a piece of
bark, and in this also they wrap their children ; it is
soft and warm, but will not keep out the rain. The
poor creatures are looked on and treated by the other
Dyaks as wild beasts.'

Lichtenstein describes a Bushman as presenting ' the
true physiognomy of the small blue ape of Caffraria.
What gives the more verity to such a comparison was
the vivacity of his eyes, and the flexibility of his eye-
brows. . . . Even his nostrils and the corners of
his moutli, nay his very ears, moved involuntarily.
There was not, on the contrary, a single

' Park's Travels, vol. i. p. 2Uo.
* Moor's Notices of the Indian

Archipelago, p. 49. Sec also Keppel's
Expedition to Borneo, vol. ii. p. x.

i V

LOWEST It ACES OF MKX.

mod any

! mental
ental in-

Borneo,
)solutely
i ground
uid wlio
ut some
! jungle,
impong.
►r them-
er wards
er some
)n these
around
I boasts
)iece of
; it is
The
e other

ig ' the
ft'raria.
|on was
is eye-
lers of
tarily.
single

Keppel's
p. X.

' feature in his countenance that evinced a consciousness
' of mental powers.

Under these circumstances it cannot be wondered at
that we have most contradictory accounts as to tlie cha-
racter and mental condition of savages. Nevertheless, by
comparing together the accounts of different travellers,
we can to a great extent avoid these sources of error ;
and we are very much aided in this by the remarkable
similarity betv;een different races. So striking indeed is
this, that different races in similar stages of development
often present more features of resemblance to one am)ther
than the same race does to itself in different stages of
its history.

Some ideas, indeed, which seem to us at first inex-
plicable and fantastic, are yet very widely distributed.
Thus among many races a woman is absolutely forbidden
to speak to her son-in-law. Franklin' tells us that among
the American Indians of the far North, ' it is considered
' extremely improper for a mother-in-law to speak or
' even look at him ; and when she has a communication
' to make to him it is the etiquette that she should turn
' her back upon him, and address him only through the
' medium of a third person.'

Further south, among the Omahaws, ' neither the
' father-in-law nor mother-in-law will hold any direct
' communication with their son-in-law ; nor will he, on
' any occasion, or under any consideration, converse im-
' mediately with them, although no ill-will exists between
' them ; they v/ill not, on any account, mention each
' other's name in company, nor look in each other's faces ;

' Lichtenstoiii, vol. ii. p. 224.

- Journey to the Shore.s of the Polar Sea, vol. i. p. 137.

!ii

CUinOUS CUSTOMS WITH REFERENCE TO

' any conversation tlmt passes between them is conducted

* through the medium of some other person.' ^

Harmon says that among the Indians east of the
liocky jMountains the same rule prevails.

Baegert"- mentions that among the Indians of California
' the son-in-law was not allowed, for some time, to look
' into the face of his mother-in-law, or his wife's nearest
' relations, but had to step on one side, or to hide him-
' self when these women were present.'

Laiitau,^ indeed, makes the same statements as regards
the North American Indians generally. We find it
amono' the Crees and Dacotahs and ao-ain in Florida,
Ivochefort mentions it among the Caribs, and in South
America it recurs anions; the Arawaks.

In xVsia, among the Mongols and Kalmucks, a woman
must not speak to her farher-in-law nor sit down in his
presence. Among the Ostiaks^ of Siberia, ' une fille
' mariee evite autant qu'il lui est possibk ui presence du
' pere de son mari, tant qu'elle n'a pas d'enfant ; et le
' mari, pendant ce tems, n'ose pas paroitre devant la mere
' de sa femme. S'ils se rencontrent par hasard, le mari lui
' tourne le dos, et la femme se couvre le visage. On ne
' donne point de nom aux filles Ostiakes ; lorsqu'elles sont

• mariees, les homnies les nominent Imi, fenmies. Les
' femnies,par respect pour leurs maris, ne les a])pellent pas
' par leur noni; elles se servent du mot de Tahe, hommes.'

Dubois mentions that in certain districts of Hindo-
stan a woman ' is not [)crmittetl to speak to her motlier-

1 James's Expedition to the Iioclvy
Mountains, v-'. i. p. 2;')2.

- Account c.f Calit'nrnia, 177-').
Trnnslatoil by C. rJtiu,iu ^'niitlidonian
liop. for I8G0-4, p. 3{i6.

'-^ Moeursdes SauvagosAnieiicains
vol. i. p. •')7().

•' Talla.s, vol. iv. pp. 71, 577. Ife
nialies the same ptateuicnt with ivf'or-
cuce to the SaiuoyctUs, /. c. p. 09.

I
4

MO TIIEIiS-IN-LA W.

' iii-Liw. AVhen any task is prescribed to her, she shows
'her acquiescence only by signs;' a contrivance, he
sarcastically adds, ' well adapted for securing domestic
' tranquillity. ' ^

In China, according to Duhalde, the father-in-law,
after the wedding-day, ' never sees the face of his
' daughter-in-law again ; he never visits her,' and if they
chance to meet he hides himself.^ A similar custom
prevails in liorneo and in the Fiji Islands. In Australia,
Eyre states that a man must not pronounce the name of
his father-in-law, his mother-in-law, or his son-in-l:iw.
In central iVfrica, Caillie '' observes that, ' from this
moment the lover is not to see the father and mother
of his future bride : he takes the greatest care to avoid
them, and if by chance they perceive him they cover
their faces, as if all ties of friendship were broken. I
tried in vain to discover tlie orioin of this whimsical
custom ; the only answer I could obtain was, " It's our
" way." The custom extends beyond the relations : if
the lover is of a different camp, he avoids all the in-
habitants ot the lady's camp, except a few intimate
friends whom he is permitted to visit. A little tent is
generally set up for him, under which he remains all
day, and if he is obliged to come out, or to cross the
camp, he covers his face. He is not allowed to see his
intended during the day, T)ut, when e^'ery^)ody is at
rest, he creeps into her tent and remains with her till
daybreak.' I.astly, among ^he Bushmen in the far
South, Chapman recounts exactly the same thing, yet

^ On the Poople of India, p. i)3o. ^ Caillie's Travelii to Timbuctoo,

- Astley's Collection of \'oyii<jes, vol. i. p. D-l-.
vol. iv. p. Dl.

LA COUVADE,

none of these observers had any idea how general the
custom is.

Mr. Tylor, who has some very interesting remarks
on these customs in his ' Early History of Man,' observes
that ' it is hard even to guess what state of things
* can have brought them into existence,' nor, so tar
as I am aware, has anyone else attempted to explain
them. In the Chapter on IVIarriage 1 shall, however,
point out the manner in which I conceive that they
have arisen.

Another curious custom is that known in Beam under
the name of La Couvade. Probably every Englishman
who had not studied other races would assume, as a
matter of course, that on the birth of a child the mother
would everywhere be put to bed and nursed. But this
is not the case. In many races the father, and not the
mother, is doctored when a baby is born.

Yet though this custom seems so ludicrous to us, it
is very widely distributed. Commencing with South
America, Dobritzhoifer tells us that ' no sooner do you
' hear that a woman has borne a child, than vou see the
' husband lying in bed, huddled up with mats and skins,
' lest some ruder breath of air should touch him, fasting,
' kept in private, and for a number of days abstaining
' religiously from certain viands : you would swear it was
' he who had had the child. ... I liad read about this
' in old times, and laughed at it, never thinking I could
' believe such madness, and I used to suspect that this
' barbarian custom was related more in jest than in
' earnest ; but at last I saw it with my own eyes among
' the Abiponcs.'

In Brazil among the Coroados, Martins tells us that

LA GOUVADE.

they

you
the

long

as soon as the woman is evidently pregnant, or has
been delivered, the man withdraws. A strict regimen
is observed before the birth; the man and the woman
refrain for a time from the flesh of certain animals, and
live chiefly on fish and fruits.' ^

Further north, in Guiana, Mr. Brett ^ observes that
some of the men of the Acawoio and Caribi nations,
when they have reason to expect an increase of their
families, consider themselves bound to abstain from
certain kinds of meat, lest the expected child should, in
some very mysterious way, be injured by their partaking
of it. The Acourl (or Agouti) is thus tabooed, lest, like
that little animal, the child should be meagre; the
Tlaimai^a^ also, lest it should be blind — the outer coating
of the eye of that fish suggesting film or cataract; the
Labia ^ lest the infant's mouth should protrude like the
labba's, or lest it be spotted like the labba, which spots
would ultimately become ulcers. The Marudi is also
forbidden, lest the infant be stillborn, the screeching
of that bird being considered ominous of death.' And
gain : — ' On the birth of a child, the ancient Indian
etiquette requires the father to take to his hammock,
where he remains some days as if he were sick, and
receives the congratulations and condolence of his
friends. An instance of this custom came under my
own observation, where the man, in robust health
and excellent condition, without a single bodily
ailment, was lying in his hammock in the most
provoking manner, and carefully and respectfully
attended by the women, while the mother of the new-

' Spix and Marti iis's Travels in
lirazil, vol. ii. p. 247.

^ Brett's Indian Tribes of Guiana,
p. 355.

5 !

REASON FOB L:. COUVJDE.

'i '

' born infunt was cooking — none apparently regarding
'herl'i

Similar statements have been made by various other
travellers, including De Tertre, Giliz, Biet, Fcrmin, and
in fact almost all who have written on the natives of
South America.

In Cirecnland, after a woman is conlined, the ' husband
' nmst forbear working for some weeks, neither must
' they drive any trade during that time f"^ in Kamskatka,
for some time before the birth of a baby, the Imsband
must do no hard work. Similar notions occur among
the Chinese of West Yunnan, among the Dyaks of
Borneo, in the north of Spain, in Corsica, and in the
south of France, wdiere it is called ' faire la couvade.'
While, however, I regard this curious custom as of
much ethnological interest, 1 cannot agree Avith Mr.
Tylor in regarding it as evidence that the races by whom
it is practised belong to one variety of the human
species.'^ On the contrary, I believe that it originated
independentl}', in sevend distinct parts of the world.

It is of course evident that a custom so ancient, and
so widely spread, must have its origin in some idea
which satisfies the savage mind. Several have been
suggested. Professor Max Midler,* in his ' Chips from
' a German AVorkshop,' says : — ' It is clear that the
' poor husband was at first tyrannized over by his female
' relations, and afterAv^rds frightened into superstition.
' He then began to make a martyr of himself till he made
' himself really ill, or took to his bed in self-defence.

' Brott, /. c. p. 101.

2 Egode's Greenland, p. lUO.

3 L. c. p. 20U.

* Chips from a German "Work-
shop, vol. ii. p. 281.

; 1

imi'

SAVAGE IDEAS ON THE INFLUENCE OF FOOD. 15

' Strange and absurd as the couvade appears at first
' siglit, there is sometliing in it with wliich, we believe,
' most mothers-in-law can sympathise.' Latitau ^ re-
gards it as arising from a dim recollection of original
sin, rejecting the Carib and Abipon explanation, which
I have little doubt is the correct one, that they do it
because they believe that if the father engaged in
any rough work, or was careless in his diet, ' cela feroit
' nial a I'enflmt, et que cet enfant participeroit a tons
' les defauts naturels des animaux dont le pere auroit
' mange.'

This idea, namely, that a person imbibes the cha-
racteristics of an annual which he eats, is very widely
distributed. Thus the Malays at Singapore give a large
price for the flesh of the tiger, not because they like it,
but because they believe that the man who eats tiger
' acquires the sagacity as well as the courage of that
' animal.' ^

' The Dyaks of Borneo have a prejudice against the
' flesh of deer, which the men may not eat, but which
' is allowed to women and children. The reason given
' for this is, that if the warriors eat the flesh of deer,
' they become as faint-hearted as that animal. '^

' In ancient times those who wished for children used
' to eat frogs, because that animal lays so many eggs.' ^

The Caribs will not eat the flesh of pigs or oTtor-
toises, lest their eyes should become as small as those
of these animals.^ The Dacotahs eat the liver of the

' Moeurs des Sauvages Amdricaius, vol. i. p. 231 .

vol. 1. p. 250. ^ 4 iniuan's Ancient Faiths iu Au-

Iveppel s Visit to tlio Indian cient Names, p. 38:3

Archipelago, p^ 13. . Miiller's Geschichte der Anieri-

Aeppei s Expedition to Borneo, canischen Urreligionen, p. 221.

Ill

I!-!

t !

1() SAVAGE IDEAS ON TTIE INFLUENCE OF FOOD.

dog, in order to possess the sagacity and courage of
that animal.^ The Arabs also impute the passionate
and revengeful character of their countrymen to the
use of camel's flesh. ^

Ty lor mentions^ that 'an English merchant in Shang-
' hai, at the time of the Taeping attack, met his Chinese
' servant carrying home a heart, and asked him what
* he had got there. He said it was the heart of a rebel,
' and that he was going to take it home and eat it to
' make him brave.' The New Zealanders, after baptis-
ing an infant, used to make it swallow pebbles, so that
its heart might be hard and incapable of pity.*

Even cannibalism is sometimes due to this idea, and
the New Zealanders eat their most formidable enemies
partly for this reason. It is from the same kind of
idea that ' eyebright,' because the flower somewhat
resembles an eye, was supposed to be good for ocular
complaints.

To us the idea seems absurd. Not so to children. I
have myself heard a little girl say to her brother, ' If
' you eat so much goose you will be quite silly ; ' and
there are perhaps few children to whom the induction
would not seem perfectly legitimate.

From the same notion the Esquimaux, ' to render
' barren women fertile or teeming, take old pieces of the
' soles of our shoes to hang about them ; for, as they
' take our nation to be more fertile, and of a stronger
' disposition of body than theirs, they fancy the virtue
' of our body communicates itself to our clothing.'^

* Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, vol.
ii. p. 80.

* Astley's Collection of Voyages,
vol. ii. p. 143.

^ Early History of Man, p. 131.
* Yate's New Zealand, p. 82.
'^ Egede"s Greenland, p. 198.

FOOD.

CURJ0V8 WE AS WITH REFERENCE TO rOJiTRAITS. 17

Duragc of
::>assionate
3n to the

in Shang-
is Chinese
him what
3f a rebel,
I eat it to
;er baptis-
es, so that

idea, and
e enemies
e kind of
somewhat
hv ocular

ildren. I
Dther, ' If
y ; ' and
induction

:o render

;es of the

as they

stronger

le virtue

tig.

»5

m, p. 131.

p. 82.
.. 198.

In fact savages do not act without reason Jiny more
than we do, though their reasons may often be bad ones
and seem to us singularly absurd. Thus they have a
great dread of having their portraits taken. The better
the likeness, the wor-^e they think for the sitter ; so
much life could not be put into the copy except at the
expense of the original. Once when a good deal an-
noyed by some Indians, Kane got rid of them instantly
by threatening to draw them if they remained. CatUn
tells an amusing, but melancholy anecdote, in reference
to this feeling. On one occasion he was drawing a
chief named Mahtocheega, in profile. This when ob-
served excited much commotion among the Indians :
' Why was half his face left out ? ' they asked ; ' Mah-
' tocheega was never ashamed to look a white in the
' face.' Mahtocheega himself does not seem to have
taken any offence, but Shonka, ' the Dog,' took advan-
tage of the idea to taunt him. ' The Englishman knows,'
he said, ' that you are but half a man ; he has painted
' but one-half of your face, and knows that the rest is
' good for nothing.' This view of the case led to a
fight, in which poor Mahtocheega was shot ; and as ill-
luck would have it, the bullet by which he was killed
tore away just that part of the face which had been
omitted in the drawing.

This was very unfortunate for Mr. Catlin, who had
great difficulty in making his escape, and lived some
months after in fear for his life ; nor was the niatter
settled until both Shonka and his brother had been
killed in revenge for the death of Mahtocheega.

Franklin also mentions that the North American
Lidians ' prize pictures very highly, and esteem any

18 CURIOUS IDEAS WITH llEFEBENCE TO PORTUAITS.

they can get, however badly executed, as efficient
charms.' ^

The natives of Bornou had a simiLir liorror of beinjr
written ; ' they said ' that they did not like it ; that
the Slieik did not like it ; that it was a sin ; and I am
quite sure, from the impression, that we had much
better never have produced the book at all.' "^ In his
Travels in Lapland Sir A. de C. Brooke says : — ' I
could clearly perceive ^ that many of them imagined
the magical art to be connected with what I was doing,
and on this account showed signs of uneasiness, till
reassured by some of the merchants. An instance of
this happened one morning, when a Laplander knocked
at the door of my chamber, and entered it, as they
usually did, without further ceremony. Having come
from Alten to Hammerfest on some business, curiosity
had induced him, previously to his return, to pay the
Englishman a visit. After a dram he seemed quite at
his ease ; and producing my pencil, I proceeded, as he
stood, to sketch his portrait. His countenance now
immediately changed, and taking up his cap, he was
on the point of making an abrupt exit, without my
being able to conjecture the cause. As he spoke only
his own tongue, I was obliged to have recourse to as-
sistance ; when 1 found that his alarm was occasioned
by my employment, which he at once comprehended,
but suspected that, by obtaining a likeness of him, I
should acquire over him a certain power and influence
that might be prejudicial. He therefore refused to
allow it, and ex[)rcssed a wish, before any other steps

* Voyage to the Polar Seas, ii, 0.
^ Donbani's Travels in Africa, vol.

i. p. 21 ~).

■' Brooke's Lapland, p. 354.

VATTS.
fficient

' being
: ; that
i I am
much
In his
s:— 'I
laffii^ed
doing,
ess, till
ance of
:nocked
as tliey
Iff come
uriosity
pay the
^uite at
1, as he
ce now
he was
3ut my
ke only
to as-
sioned
ended,
him, I
fluence
sed to
r steps

154.

USE OF rJ?AYET?S AS mWTf'TKT:.

* wore taken, to return to Alton, and ask the permission
' of his master.' Mr. Ellis mentions tlic existence ol' a
similar feeling in Madagascar.*

We can hardly wonder that writing should seem to
savages even more magical than drawing. Carver, for
instance, allowed the North American Indians to open
a book as often as and wherever they pleased, and then
told them the number of leaves. ' The only way they

* could account,' he says, ' for my knowledge, was by
' concluding that the book was a spirit, and whispered

* me answers to whatever I demanded of it.' '■^

Father Bacgert mentions'^ that ' a certain missionary
' sent a native to one of his colleagues, with some loaves
' of bread and a letter stating their number. The mos-

* senger eat a part of the bread, and his theft was con-
' sequently discovered ; another time when he had to
' deliver four loaves, he ate two of them, but hid the
' accompanying letter luider a stone while he was thus
' engaged, believing that his conduct would not be
' revealed this time, as the letter had not seen him in
' the act of eating the loaves.'

Further north the Minatarrees, seeing Catlin intent
over a copy of the ' Xew York Commercial Advertiser,'
were much puzzled, but at length came to the conclu-
sion that it was a medicine -cloth for sore eyes. One of
them eventually bought it for a high price.*

This use of writing as a medicine prevails largely in
Africa, where the priests or wizards write a prayer on a
piece of board, wash it off and make the patient drink it.

' Three Visits to Afadagasciir, p. ^ Smithsonian IJoport, 18{J4, p.

nr,8. .S70.

^ Travels, p. 2r)r). ^ Anioricnn Indians, vol. ii. p. 02.

c '2

USE OF PRAYERS AS MEDICINE.

Caillio ' met witli a man who had a p^rcat reputation for
sanctity,. and who made liis livhig by writing prayers
on a board, washing them off, and then selling the
water, which was sprinkled over various objects, and
supposed to improve or protect them.

Mungo Park on one occasion profited by this idea.

* A Bambarran having,' he says, ' heard that I was a
' Christian, immediately thought of procuring a saphie ;

* and for this purpose brought out his walha or writing-
' board, assuring me that, he would dress me a supper

* of rice, if I would write him a saphie to protect him

* from wicked men. The proposal was of too great con-
' sequence to me to be refused : I therefore wrote the

* board full from top to bottom on both sides ; and my
' landlord, to be certain of having the whole force of

* the charm, washed the writing from the board into a

* calabash with a little water, and having said a few
' prayers over it, drank this powerful draught ; after

* which, lest a single word should escape, he licked the

* board until it was quite dry.' ^

In Africa, the prayers written as medicine or as
amulets are generally taken from the Koran. It is
admitted that they are no protection from firearms, but
this does not the least weaken the faith in them,
because, as guns were not invented in Mahomet's time,
he naturally provided no specific against them."

Among the Kirghiz also, Atkinson tells us that the
Mullas sell similar amulets, ' at the rate of a sheep for

* each scrap of paper.'

' Travels, vol. i. p. 202. ^ Astley's Collection of Voyarros,

2 Park's IVavela, vol. i. p. .%?. vol. ii. p. 85.

See also p. 5(5.

■' Siberia, p. .".10.

SAVAaiJ iniJAS OF JHSFASIl

311 for
ravers
cT the
i, and

idea,
was a
[iphie ;
riting-
5upper
ct him
it coll-
ate the
nd my
orce of

into a

a few
; after

ed tlie

or as

It is

[is, but

them,

time,

lat tlie
|ep for

' oyn.p'os,

The science of medicine, indeed, like that of astro-
nomy, and like religion, takes among savages very
much the character of witchcraft.

Among the Kaffirs, 'diseases are all attributed to
' three causes — either to being enchanted by an enemy,
' to the anger of certain beings Avhose abode appears to
' be in the rivers, or to the power of evil si)irits." So,
again, in Guinea, the native doctors paint their patients
different colours in honour of the spirit.^

Ignorant as they are of the processes by which life
is maintained, of anatomy and of physiology, the true
nature of disease does not occur to them. Many savage
races do not believe in natural death, and if a man,
however old, dies without being wounded, concUidc
that he must have been the victim of magic. Thus,
then, when a savage is ill, he naturally attributes his
sufferings to some enemy within him, or to some
foreign object, and the result is a })eculiar system of
treatment, curious both for its simplicity and uni-
versality.

' It is remarkable in the Abiponian (Paraguay) phy-
' sicians,' says Father Dobritzhoffer,"' ' that they cure
' every kind of disease with one and the same medicine.
' Let us examine this method of healing. They apply
' their lips to the part affected, and suck it, spitting
' after every suction. At intervals they draw up their

* breath from the very bottom of their breast and blow

• upon that part of the body which is in pain. That
' blowing and sucking are alternately repeated. . . .

' Lichtenstein, vol. i. p. So/J, ' History of the Abiponos, vol. ii.

- Astley's Collection of Voyages, p. 24U.
vol. ii. p. 43'J.

MEDWAL TREATMENT

! !i

i>i

Tlii.s method of healing is in use amongst all tlie
savages of l*araguay and Brazil that J am ac(iuaiiit('<l
with, and,- according to Father Jean Grillet, amongst
the Galibc Indians. . . . The Abipones, still more
irrational, expect sucking and blowing to rid the body
of whatever causes pain or inconvenience. This belief
is constantly fostered by the jugglers with fresh
artihces ; for when they prepare to suck the sick
man, they secretly put thorns, beetles, worms, &c.
into tlieir mouths, and spitting them out, after havhig
sucked for some time, say to him, pointing to the
worm or thorn, " See here the cause of your disorder."
At this sight the sick man revives, when he thinks
the enemy that has tormented him is at length
expelled.'

At first one might almost be disposed to think that
some one had been amusing himself at the expense of
the worthy father, but we shall find the very same mode
of treatment among other races. Martins tells us that
the cures of the Guaycurus (Brazil) ' are very simple,

* and consist principally in fumigating or in sucking

* the part affected, on which the Paye spits into a pit,

* as if he would give back the evil principle which he
' has sucked out to the earth and bury it.'^

In British Guiana, Mr. Brett mentions that, ' if the

* patient be strong enough to endure the disease, the
' excitement, the noise, and the fumes of tobacco m
' which he is at times enveloped, and the sorcerer
' observes signs of recovery, he will pretend to extract
' the cause of the complaint by sucking the part

■'i

Travi'L- in Brazil, vol, il. p. 77.

lIs

AMONG SAVAGES.

&c.

the
the
o in
erer
:ract
part

' affected. After many cercmonieH, he will produce
' from his mouth some .strange substance, such as a
' thorn or gravel-stone, a tisli bone or bird's claw, a

* snake's tooth or a piece of wire, which some malicious
' yauhahu is supposed to have inserted in the affected
' part."

Father IJacgert mentions that tlie Californian sorcerers
blow upon and suck those who are ill, and finally show
them some small object, assuring them that it had
been extracted, and that it was the cause of the i)ain.
Wilkes thus describes a scene at AVallawalla, on the
Columbia Jiiver: — 'The doctor, who was a woman,
bending over the body, began to suck his neck and
chest in different parts, in order more effectually to
extract the bad spirit. She would every now and
then seem to obtain some of the disease, and then faint
away. On the next morning she was still found
sucking the boy's chest. ... So powerful Avas de
influence operated on the boy that he indeed seemed
better. . . . The last time Mr. Drayton visited the
doctress, she exhibited a stone, about the size of a
goose's egg, saying that she had taken the disease of
the boy out of him.' ^
Among the Prairie Indians, also, all diseases are
treated alike, being referred to one cause, viz. the
presence of an evil spirit, which must be expelled.
This the medicine-man ' attempts, in the first place, by

* certain incantations and ceremonies, intended to secure

* the aid of the spirit or spirits he worships, and then
' by all kinds of frightful noises and gestures, and

' Brett's Indian tribe?* of Guiana,
p. ;U54.

- United R^^ites Exploring Expe-
dition, vol. iv. p. 400,

' ':!i

MEDICAL TREATMENT

' Slicking over tlie sent of pain with his moutli.'^
Speak hig of the Hudson's Bay Indians, Hearne says : —
' Here it is necessary to remark that they use no
' medicine either for internal or external complaints,
' but perform all their cures by charms — in ordinary
' cases sucking the part affected, blowing, and singing.'^
Again, in the extreme north, Crantz tells us tliat
among the Esquimaux old women are accustomed ' to
' extract from n swollen leg a parcel of hair or scraps
' of leather ; they do it by sucking with their mouth,

* which they had before crammed full of such stuff.' ^
Passing now to the Laplanders, we are told that if any-
one among them is ill, a wizard sucks his forehead and
blows m his face, tninking thus to cure him.

In South Africa, Chapman thus describes a similar
custom : — A man having been injured, he says, ' our
' friend sucked at the wound, and then . . . extracted

* from his mouth a lump of some substance, which was
' supposed to be the disease.'^

In Australia, we are told by ex-Governor Ej're, in his
interesting work, that, ' as all internal pains are attri-
' buted to witchcraft, sorcerers possess the power of
' relievinf*' or curino; them. Sometimes the moutli is

* applied to the surface where the pain is seated, the
' blood is sucked out, and a bunch of green leaves
' applied to the part ; besides the blood, which is
' derived from the gums of the sorcerer, a bone is some-
' tiriics put out of he mouth, and declared to have

* biien procured from thi diseased part ; on other occa-

^ Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, vol. ^ History of Greenland, vol. 1. ^.

i. p. 250. 214.

- Voyage to the Northern Ocean, ■• Travels in Africa, vol. ii. p. 40.
p. 1W».'

AMONG SAVAGES.

tliiit
d 'to

' sions the disease is drawn out in an invisible form,
' and burnt in the fire or thrown into the water. '^

Thus, then, we find all over the world this primitive
cure by sucking out the evil, which perhaps even with
ourselves lingers among nurses and children, in the
universal nursery remedy of ' Kiss it and make it well.'

Another curious remedy practised by the Australians
is to tie a line round the forehead or neck of the
l)atient, while some kind friend rubs her lips with the
' other end of the string until they bleed freely ; this
' blood is supposed to come from the patient, passing
' alon<y the strin^^.'^

A dislike of twins is widely distributed. In the
Island of Bali^ (near Java), the natives 'have ihe
' singular idea, when a woman is brought to bed of
' twins, that it is an unlucky omen; and immediately on
' its being known, the woman, with her husband and
' children, is obliged to go and live on the seashore or
' among the tombs for the space of a month, to purify
' themselves, after which they may return into the
' village, upon a suitable sacrifice being made. Thus an
' evidence of fertility is considered by them unfortunate,
' and the poor woman and her new-born babes are
' exposed to all the inclemency of the weather out of
' doors just at the time wh'3n they need the most
' attention.' This idea is, however, far from being
peculiar to that island.

Among the Khasias of Hindostan,* ' in the case of

' Discoveries in Central Australia,
\ol. ii. p. 360, See also Oldfield,
Trari. Ethu. Soc. N.S. vol. iii. p.
L>4;J.

- Englis^h Culoiiy ir New South

Wales, pp. 3G3, .382.

^ Moor's Notices of the Indian
Archipelago, p. 90.

" Steel, Trans. Ethn. Soc. N.S. vol.
vii. p. 308.

.Ml

t i

■

FANCIES ABOUT TWINS.

* twins bcin^ born, one used frequently to be killed : it
' is considered unlucky, and also degrading, to have
' twins, as they consider that it assimilates them with
' the lower animals.'

Among the Ainos of Japan,^ when twins are born, one
is always destroyed. At Arebo in Guinea, Smith and
Bosnian ^ tell us that when twins are born, both they
and the mother are killed. ' In >Tguru, one of the sister
' provinces to Unyanyembe, twins are ord^^red to be
' killed and thrown into the water the moment they ai'e
*■ bom, lest droughts and famines or floods should op-

* press the land. Should anyone attempt to conceal

* twins, the whole family would be murdered.' ^

The American Indians,* also, en the birth of twins,
killed one j perhaps merely under the idea that one strong
child was better than two weak ones.

This is not, however, I think, i'^ . ^ oral cause of the
prejudice against twins. I should rather see it in the
curious idea that one man would only have one child ;
so that twins imply infidelity of an aggravp^ed character.
Thus in the iixiiroduction to the curious old Chevalier
Assig .J, or Knight of the Swan (the king and queen
are sitting on the wall together) : —

The kynge loked adowne, and byhelde under,

And seygh a pore womman, at the yate sytte,

Withe two chyldeien her byfore, were borne at a byvtlie ;

And he turned hyni thenne, and teres lettc he fallo

Sythen sykcde he on hyghe, and to the qwene sayd .

So ye the yonder pore womman. Now that she i.- p; iii •.

With twyiilenges two, and that dare I my hedde wedde.

' liickmore, Proc. Bost. Soc. of in Guuioa twins are welcomed.
Nat. His. 1807. ^ Speke'a Discovery of the Sourco

2 Voyage to fiiiinoa, p. 2.")3. IMii- of the Nile, pp. '}i\, HIS.
k'-rton, vol. xv. ]>. '')2(), Filsewhere ' liafilaii, vol. i. p. niVJ,

LIFE ATTRIBUTED TO INANIMATIJ OBJECTS. 27

Soiirco

Tlio qweiic nykked him with nay, and seyde it ia not to love :
Oon nianiie for oon chylde, md two wymmen for tweyne ;
Or ellis hit were unsemelye Ihynge, as me wo! '.e thenke,
But eche chvlde hadde a fader, how manye so ther were.'

Since reading this I have found that the very same
idea occurs in Guinea.^

Some curious ideas prevalent among savages arise
from the fact that as their own actions are due to life,
so they attribute life even to inanimate objects. Even
Plato assumed that every thing which moves itself must
have a soul, and hence that the world must Lave a soul.
Hearne tells us that the North American Indians prefer
a hook that has caught a big fish to a handful that have
never been tried. And that they never put two nets
together for fear they should be jealous.^

The Bushmen thought Chapman's big waggon was the
mother of his smaller ones ; they ^ despise an arrow that
' has once failed of its mark ; and on the contrary, con-
* sider one that has hit as of double value. They ^vill,
' therefore, rather make new arrows, how much time and
' trouble soever it may cost them, than collect those
' that have missed, and use them again.' *

The natives of Tahiti sowed some iron nails given
them by Captain Cook, hoping thus to obtain young
ones. They also believe that ' not only all pnimals, but
' trees, fruit, and even stones, have souls, which at death,
'• or upon being consumed or broken, ascend to the di-
' vinity, with whom they first mix, and afterwards pass
' into the mansion allotted to each.'

' Tlie Romance of the Chevelere
Assigue, edited by H. H. Gibbs, Esq.
Tnibners, 18G8.

- Astley's Collection of Voyages,
vol. iii. p. 8.']. At p. '-ioS in the suuie

vol., we find a curious variation of
this idea among the Hottentots.

" Loc. cit. p. 330.

^ Lichtenstoin's Travels in South
Africa, vol. ii. p. 27 1 .

:>« LIFE ATT Till !UTED TO INANIMATE OBJECTS.

The Tongaiis were of opinion that ' if an animal dies,'
' its soul inmiediately goes to Bolotoo ; if a stone or any
' otaer substance is broken, immortality is equally its
' reward ; nay, artificial bodies have equal good luck
' with men, and hogs, and yams. If an axe or a chisel
' is worn out or broken up, away flies its soul for the
' service of the gods. If a house is taken down or any
' way destroyed, its immortal part will find a situation
' on the plains of Bolotoo.' Hence probably the custom
of breaking the implements, &c. buried with the dead.
This was not done to render them useless, for the savage
would not dream of violating the tomb, bringing on
himself the wrath of its occupant ; but because the im-
plements required to be ' killed,' so that their spirits, like
those of the wives and slaves, might accompany their
master to the land of shadows.

Lichtenstein relates that the king of the Coussa Kaffirs
having broken off a piece of the anchor of a stranded
ship, died soon afterwards; upon which all the Kaffirs
made a point of saluting the anchor very respectfully
whenever they pa^>sed near it, regarding it as a vindictive
being.

Some similar accident probably gave rise to the an-
cient Mohawk notion that some great misfortune would
happen if anyone spoke on Saratoga Lake. A strong-
minded Englishwoman, on one occasion, while being
ferried over, insisted on talking, and, as she got across
safely, rallied her boatman on his superstition ; but I
think he had the best of it after Ul, for he at once re-
plied, ' The Great Spirit is merciful, and knows that a
*■ white woman cannot liold her tonjrue.' ^

* Mariner's Toiigii I&lund.s, vol. ii.
p. 137.

- T3urton's Abbcokutji, vul. i. p
198.

vs.

SALUTATTOXS.

al dies,'
3 or any
I ally its
xl luck
a chisel

for the
i or any
ituation

custom
le dead.
} savage
^ing on
the im-
•its, like
ly their

I Kaffirs

tranded

Kaffirs

lectfully

idictivc

Ithe an-
woidd

Istrong-
beiiig
across
but I

Uce re-
tliat a

V-

The forms of salutation among savages are sometimes
very curious, and their modes of showing their feelings
quite unlike ours. Kissing appears to us to be tlie
natural language of affection. ' It is certain,' says
Steele, 'tliat nature was its author, and it began
' with the first courtship:' but this seems to be quite a
mistake. In fact it was unknown to the Australians, the
New Zealanders, the Papouans, and the Esquimaux ; the
West African negroes, we are told, do not like it, other-
wise I should have thought that, when once discovered, it
Avould have been universally popular.

The Polynesians and the IMalays always sit down when
speaking to a superior ; a Chinaman puts on his hat in-
stead of taking it off. Cooke asserts that the people of
IMallicollo show their admiration by hissing, and the
same is the case, according to Casalis, among the Kaffirs.^
In some of the Pacific Islands, in parts of Hindostan'"^ and
some parts of Africa, it is considered respectful to turn
)'our back to a superior. The Todas of the Xeilgherry
Hills are said to show respect by ' raising the open right
' hand to the brow, resting the thumb on the nose ' ; and
it has been asserted that in one tribe of Esquimaux it
is customary to pull a person's nose as a compliment,
though it is but right to say that Dr. Rae thinks there
was some mistake on the point ; on the other hand, Dr.
JUackmore mentions that 'the sign of the Arapahoes,
' and from which they derive their name,' consists in
seizing the nose with the thumb and forefinger.^

It is asserted that in China a coffin is regarded as an
appropriate present for an aged relative, especially if he
be in bad health.

' The Basutos, by the Itev. K - Dubois, he. cit. p. 210.

Casnlis, p. 2:54. ' Trans. I-^thn. Soc. IHCO, p. ;^.10.

ii'

CHAPTHK II.

AET AND ORNAMENTS.

THE earliest traces of art yet discovered belong to
the Stone Age — to a time so remote that the rein-
deer was abundant in the south of France, and that pro-
bably, though on this point there is some doubt, even the
nuimmoth had not entirely disappeared. These works
of art are sometimes sculptures, if one may say so, and
sometimes drawings or etchings made on bone or horn
with the point of a flint.

They are of peculiar interest, both as being the ear-
liest works of art known to us — older than any Egyp-
tian statues, or any of the Assyrian monuments, and
also because, though so ancient, they show really con-
siderable skill. There is, for instance, a certain spirit
about the subjoined group of reindeer (tig. 1), copied
from a specimen in the collection of the Marquis de
Mbraye. The mammoth (pi. I.) represented on the
opposite page, though less artistic, is perhaps even
more interesting. It is scratched on a piece of mam-
moth's tusk, and was found in the cave of La Madelaine
hi the Dordogne.

It is somewhat remarkable that while even in the
Stone Period we find very fair drawings of anim.nls,
yet in the latest jiart of the Stone Age, nnd tliroughout
tliat of Bronze, they are ahnost entirely wanting, and

ong to
le rcin-
lat pro-
ven tlie
i works
•;o, {ind
)r liorn

he car-

Epyp-

ts, and

y con-

i spirit

coi)ied

[uis dc

^. the

even

iiiam-

elnine

m the

liintds,

o'hont

T^, and

m
;=:

-I

rn
-i
O

H
:r

.•■-1'..i: ■■«;Ci'-.' ■>;,,. -.. - vsfl' ■■'■■-.. ■■"■'•'

tS^

SiKil^i.

*»V'''«^'<i:>;?C' ■ ' ■■•■••■ - ' ■ ■■• ■■'■ ■ ■ ■■"■ ^i'-'-''''wlil«'t

■<M^r-' \ -.c-'*;o' -;*-i-;:'-- ;■ '■ ■■<^. ;5?;/i- ;..'./; :*-:;^?Bi

AUT AS AN ETHNOLOaiCAL i'llAHACTEU.

the orimmontiitioii is confined to various combinations
of straiglit and curved lines and geometrical pjitterns.
This, I believe, will eventually l)e found to imply a
difference of race ])etween the population of Western

Fig. 1.

GROUP OF REINDEER.

Europe at these different periods. Thus at present
the Esn- 'maux (see figs. 2-4) are very fair draughts-
men, while the Polynesians, though much more
advanced in many Avays, and though skilful in orna-
menting both themselves and their Aveapons, have very
little idea indeed of representing jinimals or plants.
Their tattooings, for instance, and the patterns on their
weapons, are, llVe the ornaments of the Bronze A^Q^
almost invariably of a geometrical character. Kepre-
sentations of animals and plants are not, indeed, entirely
wanting ; but, whether attempted in drawing or in
sculpture, they are always rude and grotesque. With
the Esquimaux the very reverse is the case : among
them w'* find none of those graceful spirals, and otiier

[VI

AUT AS AX

F/nixowa TCA l rir.i ir i ruin.

freometrical patterns, so characteristic of Polynesia ;
but, on the other hand, their weapons are often covered
Avith representations of animals and hnntin<^ scenes.
Thus JU'cehey,^ describing the weapons of tlie Ksqui-
nianx at Uothani's Inlet, savs; —

' On the outside of this and other instruments there
' were etched a variety of figures of men, beiists, birds,
' &c., with a truth and a character which showed the
' art to be common among them. The reindeer were
' generally in herds; in one picture they were pursued
' by a man in a stooping posture, in snow-shoes ; in
' another lie had approached nearer to his game, and was
' in the act of drawing his bow. A third represented the
' manner of taking seals with an inflated skin of the same
' animal as a decoy; it was placed upon the ice, and not
' far from it was a man lying upon his belly, with a har-
' poon ready to strike the animal when it should make
' its appearance. Another was dragging a seal home
' upon a small sledge ; and several baidars were em-
' ployed harpooning whales which had been previously
' shot with arrows ; and thus, by comparing one with
' another, a little history was obtained which gave us a
' better insight into their habits than could be elicited
' from any signs or intimations.' Some of these draw-
ings are represented in figs. 2-4, which are taken from
specimens presented by Captain Beech ey to the Ash-
molean Museum at Oxford.

Hooper''^ also mentions drawings among the Tuski,
especially 'a sealskin tanned and bleached perfectly white,
' ornamented all over in painting and staining with

' Narrative of <a Voyage to the Pacific, vol. i. p. 2ol.
2 Tents of the Tu.ski, p. (Jo.

ART AS AN ETHNOLOQICAL OnATiACTER.

' fi;:^urcs of men, boats, animals, id dulinoations of
' Avlialc-fisliinu', &o. — a valiial)l(3 cmosity.'

In tlie s'lmu way we may, I tlilnk, fairly li()])e even-
tually to obtain from the ancient drawings of the hone
caves a better insight into the habits of onr predecessors
in Western Europe ; to ascertain, for instance, whetlier
their reindeer were domesticated or wild. As yet,
however, mere representations of animals have been
met with, and nothing has been found to supplement
in any way the evidence derivable from the imple-
ments, &c.

But though we thus find art — simple, indeed, but
by no means contemptible — in very ancient times, and
among very savage tribes, there are also other races
who are singularly deficient in it.

Thus, though some Australians are capable of mak-
inn^ rude drawings of animals, &c., others, on the con-
trary, as Oldfield ^ tells us, ' seem quite unable to
' realise the most viv* " artistic representations. On
' being shown a. lar^ >loured engraving of an ab-
' original New Hollander, one declared it to be a ship,
' another a kangaroo, and so on ; not one of a dozen
' identifying the portrait as having any connection with

* himself. A rude drawing, with all the lesser parts
' much exaggerated, they can realise. Thus, to give
' them an idea of a man, the head must be drawn dis-

* proportionately large.'

Dr. Collingwood,^ speaking of the Kibalans of For-
mosa, to whom he showed a copy of the ' Illustrated
London News,' tells us that he found it ' impossible to

» Trans. Ethn. Soc. N. S. vol. iii. p. 227.
2 Ibid. vol. vi. p. 139.

)

Aivr IX A Fine J.

' iiiterot tlicMii l)v |)()intiii«; out (lie; most strikin«>' illiis-
' trations, which they did not a|)[)('iu' to comprchuncl.'

DciiliJini, ill hi8 'Travels in Central Africa,' says that
nookhalooni, a man otherwise of considerable intelli-
gence, though he readily recognised figures, could not
understand a landscape. ' I could not.' he says, ' make
' him understand the intention of the i)rint of the sand-
' wind in the desert, which is I'jally so well described
' by Ca})tain Lyons' drawing; he would look at it up-
' side down ; and when I twice reversed it for him, he ex-
' claimed, " Why ! why ! it is all the same." A camel or
' a human figure was all I could make him understand,
' and at these he was all aojitation and deli";ht — " (jieb!
' " gieb ! " — Wonderful ! wonderful ! The eyes first too'.
' his attention, then the other features ; at the sight of
'the sword he exclaimed, "Allah! Allah!" and, on
' discovering the guns, instantly exclaimed, " Where is
' •' the poAvder ? " ' i

So also the Kaffir has great difficulty in understanding
drawings, and perspective is altogether beyond him.
Central and Southern Africa seem, indeed, to l)e very
backward in matters of art. Still the negroes are not
altoixetlier deficient in the idea. Their idols cannot be
called indeed works of art, but they often not only
represent men, but give some of the African charac-
teristics with grotesque fidelity.

The Kaffirs also can carve fair representations of
animals and plants, and are fond of doing so. The
handles of their spoons are often shaped into unmistake-
able likenesses of giraffes, ostriches, and other animals.

As to the Bushmen, we have rather different

' Denham, Travels in Africa, vol. i. p. 107.
1)2

THE QUirPV.

accounts. It has been stated by some tliat they have
no ideii of perspective, nor of how a curved surface can
possibl}'^ be represented on a flat piece of paper ; wliile,
on the contrary, other travellers assert that they readily
recognise drawings of animals or flowers. The Chinese,
although so advanced in many ways, are, we know,
ver}^ deficient in the idea of perspective.

Probably no race of men in the S',:one Age had at-
tained the art of communicating facts by means of
letters, nor even by the far ruder system of picture-
writing ; nor does anything, perhaps, surprise the
savage more than to find that Ivuropeans can com-
municate with one another by rieans of a few black
scratches on a piece of paper.

Even the Peruvians had no better means of recording
events thar the Quippu or Quipu, which was a cord
about two feet long, to which a number of different
coloured threads were attached in the form of a fringe.
These threads were tied into knots, whence the name
Quippu, meaning a knot. These knots served as cyphers,
and the various threads had also conventional meanings
attached to them, indicated by tlie various coloiu's.
This singular and apparently very cumbersome mode of
assisting the memory reappears in China and in Africa.
"J'hus, 'As to ^ the original of the Chinese characters,
' before the conunencement of the monarchy, little cords
' with sliding knots, each of which had its particular
' signification, were used in transacting business. These
' are rejiresented in two tables l)y the Chinese^ called I/o-
' tti^ and Lo-slni. The first colonies who inhabited aS'<?-
' chwcn had no other literature besides some arithmcticsd

' A.itley's Colloction of Vi\vn<rt>.'<, vol. iv. p. 104.

riCTUUE. WHITING.

* sets of counters made with little knotted cords, in inii-
' tation of a string of round beads, with which they cal-
' culated and made up all their accounts in commerce/
Again, in West Africa, we are told that the people of
Ardrah' 'c{.n neither write nor read. They use small
' cords tied, the knots of which have their signification.

* These are also used by several savage nations in Ame-
' rica.' It seems not impossible that tyiog a knot in a
pocket-handkerchief may be the direct lineal representa-
tive of this ancient and widely extended mode of assist-
inof the memorv.

The so-called picture-writing is, however, a great ad-
vance. Yet from representations of hunts in general,
such us those of the Esquimaux (see tigs. 2-4), it is
indeed but a step to record pictorially some particular
hunt. Again, the Kscpnmaux almost always places his
mark on his arrows, but I am not aware that any Poly-
nesian ever conceived the idea of doing so. Thus we
get among the Esquimaux a double commencement, as
it were, for the representation of ideas l)y means of

signs.

This art of pictorial writing wjis still more advanced
among the Red Skins.

Thus Carver tells us that on one occasion his Chipe-
way guide, fearing that the Xaudowcssies, a hostile tribe,
might accidently fall in with and attack them, ' peeled
' the bark from a large tree near the entrance of a river,
' and with wood-coal mixed with bear s grease, their
' usual subfe'^itute for ink, made in an uncouth but ex-
' pressive manner the figure of the town of the C-.ta-
Ile then formed to the left a man dressed

' AstK-y's Collection ol' Vuyftges, vol. iii. p. 71.

gaumies.

1 IJM

: I

pTCTniE'WnrriNG.

' in skins, b}' which he intended to represent u Xau-
' dowessi'', with a line drawn from his mouth to tliat of
' a deer, the symbol of the Chipeways. After this he
' depicted still farther to the left a canoe as proceedini^
' np the river, in ^\hich he placed a man, sitting with
' a hat on; this figure was designed to represent an
' Englishman, or m}self, and my Frenchman was drawn
' with a handkerchief tied round his head, and rowing

* the canoe ; to these he added several other significant
' emblems, among which the pipe of peace appeared
' painted on the prow of the canoe. The meaning he
' intended to convey to the Naudowessies, and which I
' doubt not appeared perfectly intelligible to them, was
^ that one of the Chipeway chiefs had received a speech
' from some Naudowessie chiefs at the town of the Otta-
' gaumies, desiring him to conduct the Englishman, who
' had lately been among them, up the Chipeway river;

* and that they thereby required that the Chipeway,
' notwithstanding he was an avowed enemy, should not
' be molested by them on his passage, as he had the
' care of a person whom they esteemed as one of their
' nation.' ^

An excellent account of the Ked Skin pictorial art
is given b}' Schoolcraft in his ' History of the Indian

* Tribes in the United States.'

Fig. 5 represents the census-roll of an Indian band
at Mille Lac, in the territory of Minnesota, sent in to
the United States agent by Nago-nabe, a Chippewa
Indian, during the progress of the annuity payments in
1841). The Indians generally denote themselves by their
' totem,' or family sign, but in this case, as they all had

' Carver's Travels, p. -118.

INDIAN CENSUS ROLL.

Fig. 6.

I \A

INDIAN TOMBSTONES.

I'.

the same totem, he had designated eacli family by a sign
denoting the common name of the Chief. Thus iiumber
b denotes a catfish, and the six strokes indicate that
the.Catfisli's family consisted of six individuals; 8 is a
beaver skin, 9 a sun, 13 an eagle, 14 a snake, 22 a
buffalo, 34 an axe, 35 the medicine-man, and so on.

Fig. is the record of a noted chief of the St. jMary's
band, called Shin-ga-ba-was-sin, or the Image-stone, who
died on Lake Superior in 1828. lie was of the totem
of the crane, as indicated by the figure. The six strokes
on the right, and the three on the left, are marks of
honour. The latter represent three important general

Fic. (>.

Fig. 7.

INDIAN oRAVK-rosTs. (Sclioolcraft, vol. i. pi. 50.)

treaties of peace in wliich he had taken part at various
thnes.^ Amonir the former marks are included his

' Schoolcrnft, Indian Tribes, vol. i. p. '557.

PICTURE-WRITING.

presence under Tecums. at the battle of Moraviantown,

where lie lost a brother. '

Fig. 7 represents the adjedutig, or tomb-board, of
VV abojeeg, a celebrated

Fig. a

war-chief, who died ou
Lake Siii:)erior, about
1793. He was of the
family or clan of tlie
reindeer. Tliis fact is
symbolized by the
figure of tlie deer.
The reverse position
denotes death. His
own personal name,
which was the White
Fisher, is not noticed.
The seven marks on
the left denote that he
had led seven war
])arties. The three
perpendicular lines be-
low the totem repre-
sent three wounds re-
ceived in battle. The
figure of a moose's
head relates to a des-
perate conflict with an
enraged animal of this
tind. Fig. 8 is copied
from a bark letter
which was found above St. Anthony's Falls, in 18'>0
It consisted of white birch bark, and the figures Imd

;j^

I i

i
' 1

1 '
►

1 >

■

i 1

TICTURE-WBITING.

* been carefully drawn. No. 1 denotes the flag of the
' Union: No. 2 the cantonment, then recently established
' at Cold Spring, on the western side of the cliffs, above
' the influx of the St. Peters : No. 4 is the symbol of the
' commanding officer (Colonel H. Leavenworth), under
' whose authority a mission of peace had been sent into
' the Chippewa country : No. 1 1 is the symbol of Cha-
' kope, or the Six, the leading Sioux chief, under whose
" orders the party moved: No. 8 is the second chief,
' called Wabedatunka, or the Black Dog. The symbol
' of his name is No. 10; he has fourteen lodges. No. 7

* is a chief, subordinate to Chakope, with thirteen

* lodges, and a bale of goods (No. 9), which was devoted
' by the government to the objects of the peace. The
' name of No. 6, whose wigwam is No. 5, with thirteen
' subordinate lodges, was not given.' ^

This was intended to imply that a party of Sioux,
headed by Chakope, and accompanied or at least coun-
tenanced by Colonel Leavenworth, had come to this
spot in the hope of meeting the Chippewa hunters and
concluding a peace. The Chippev/a chief Babesacundabee,
who found this letter, read off:* its meaning without doubt
or hesitation.

On one occasion a party of explorers, with two Indian
guides, saw one morning, just as they were about to
start, a pole stuck in the direction they were going, and
holdmg at the top a piece of bark, covered with draw-
ings, which were intended for the information of any
other Lidians who might pass that way. This is repre-
sented in fig. 9.

' Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, vol. i. pp. 352, '363,

PICTURE. WRITING.

iian

ind

iw-

Ire-

No. 1 represents tlie subaltern officer in command of
the party. He is drawn with a sword to denote his
rank. No. 2 denotes the secretary. He is represented
as holding a book, the Indians having understood him
to be an attorney. No. 3 represents the geologist,
appropriately indicated by a hammer. Nos. 4 and 5
are attache's ; No. 6 the interpreter. The group of
figures marked 9 represents seven infantry soldiers,

Fig. 9.

^ 'fi*^

INDIAN BAKK LETTER.

each of whom, as shown in group No. 10, was armed
with a musivct. No. 15 denotes that they had a sepa-
rate fire, and constituted a separate mess. Figs. 7 and
8 represent the two Chippewa guides. These are the
only human figures drawn without the distinguishing
symbol of a hat. This was the characteristic seized on
by them, and generally employed by the Indians, to
distinguish the Bed from the White race. Figs. 11 and
12 represent a prairie hen and a green tortoise, which
constituted the sum of the preceding day's chase, and
Avere eaten at the encampment. The inclination of the
pole was designed to show the course pursued, and
there were three hacks in it below the scroll of bark, to
indicate the estimated length of this part of the journey,
computing from water to water. The following figure

INDIAN BIOailArUY.

(fig. 10) gives the biography of Wiiigemund, a noted
chief of the Delawares. 1 shows that it belonged to
tlie oldest branch of the tribe, which use the tortoise on
their symbol ; 2 is his totem or symbol ; 3 is the sim,
and the ten strokes represent ten war parties in which
he was engaged. Those figures on the left rei)resent
the captives which he made in each of his excursions,

Fig. 10.

INIUAN BARK LETTER.

the men being distinguished from the women, and the
captives being denoted by having heads, while a man
without his head is of course a dead man. The central
figures represent three forts which he attacked ; 8 one
on Lake Erie, 9 that of Detroit, and 10 Fort Pitt, at the
junction of the Alleghany and the Monongahela. The
sloping strokes denote the number of his followers.^

Fig. 11 represents a petition presented to the Presi-
dent of the United States for the right to certain lakes
(8) in the neighbourhood of Lake Superior (10).

No. 1 represents Oshcabawis, the leader, who is of the

" Schookraft, vol. i. p. .'»53.

INDIAN VETITIOX

h^.

4<j

ROCK SCULPTURES.

Crane clan. The eyes of his followers are all con-
nected with his to symbolise nnity of views, and their
hearts to denote unity of feelin^j^. No. 2 is Wai-mit-
tig-oiizh, whose totem is a marten ; No. 3 is Ogemagee-
zhig, also a marten ; 4 is another marten, Muk-o-mis-
ud-ains, the Little Tortoise; 5 is O-mush-kose, the Little
Elk, belonging, however, to the Bear totem ; G belongs
to the ^lanfish totem, and 7 to the Catfish. Tlie eye
of the leader has a line directed forwards to the Presi-
dent, and another backwards to the lakes (8).

Li some places of Western Europe, rock sculptures
have been discovered, to which we cannot yet safely
ascribe any meaning, but on which perhaps the more
complete study of the picture-writing of modern
savages may eventually throw some light.

We will now pass to art as applied to the purposes
of personal decoration. Savages are passionately fond of
ornaments. In some of the very lowest races, indeed,
the women are almost undecorated, but that is only
because the men keep all the ornaments themselves.
As a general rule, we may say that Southerners orna-
ment themselves, Northerners their clothes. In fact,
all savage races w^ho leave much of their skin uncovered
delight in painting themselves in the most brilliant
colours they can obtain. Black, white, red, and yelloAv
are the favourite, or rather, perhaps, the commonest
colours. Although perfectly naked, the Australians
of Botany Bay were by no means without ornaments.
They painted themselves with red ochre, white clay,
and charcoal ; the red was laid on in broad patches,
the white generally in stripes, or on the face in spots.

SAVAGE ORNAMENTS.

lits.
ay,

les,

)t8.

often with a circle round each eye •/ through the septum
of tlie nose they wore a bone as thick as a man's linger
and five or six inches long. Tliis was of course very
awkward, as it prevented them from breathing freely
through the nose, but they submitted cheerfully to the
inconvenience for the sake of appearance.

They had also necklaces made of shells, neatly cut
and strung together ; earrings, bracelets of small cord,
and strings of plaited human hair, which they wound
round their waists. Some also had gorgets of large
shells hanojino; from the neck across the breast. On all
these things they placed a high value.

Spix and Martins'^ thus describe the ornaments of a
Coroado woman. ' On the cheek she had a circle, and

* over that two strokes ; under the nose several marks

* resembling an M ; from the corners of the mouth to
' the middle of the cheek were two parallel lines, and
' below them on both sides many straight stripes ;

* below and between her breasts there were some con-

* nected segments of circles, and down her arms the
' figure of a snake was depicted. This beauty wore no
^ ornaments, except a necklace of monkeys' teeth.'

The savage also wears necklaces and rings, bracelets
and anklets, armlets and leglets — even, if I may say so,
bodylets. Round their bodies, round their necks,
round their arms and legs, their fingers, and even their
toes, they wear ornaments of all kinds. From their
number and weight these must sometimes be very
inconvenient. Lichtenstein saw the wife of a Beetuan
chief wearing no less than seventy-two brass rings.

' Ilawkesworth's Voyages, vol. iii. p. 635.
'^ Travels in Brazil, vol. ii. p. 224,

' I,

i;'

CITEEK SrrHS. LAIiJiETS,

i h

Nor are tlicy particiihir as to the nuiterial: copper,
])rass, or iron, leather or ivory, stones, sliells, fflass, bits
of wood, seeds, or teetli — iiotli'n«i^ comes amiss. In
Soutli Kast Island, one of the J^^nisiade Archipehii^o,
]\I'(iillivray e.ven saw several bracelets made each of a
lowei' hnman jaw, crossed by a collar-bone ; ami other
travellers have seen brass cnrtain rin«^s, the brass plates
for keyholes, the lids of sardine cases, and other snch
incongrnous objects worn with mnch gravity and pride.

The Felatah ladies in Central Africa spend several
hours a day over their toilet. In fact they begin over-
night by carefully wrapping their fingers and toes in
henna leaves, so that by morning they are a beautiful
purple. The teeth are stained alternately blue, yellow,
and purple, one here and there being left of its naturid
colour, as a contrast. About the eyelids they are very
particular ; pencilling them with sulphuret of anti-
mony. The hair is coloured carefully with indigo.
Studs and other jewellery are worn in great profusion.^

Not content with hanging things round their necks,
arms, aiK'les, and in fact wherever nature has enabled
them to do so, savages als^ cut holes in themselves for
the purpose.

The Esquimaux from Mackenzie Kiver westward
make two openings in their cheeks, one on each side,
which they gradually enlarge, and in which they wear
an ornament of stone resembling in form a large stud,
and which may therefore be called a cheek stud.

Throughout a great part of Western America, and
again in Africa, we also find the custom of wearing a
piece of wood through the central part of the lower lip.

' Laird, I'^xpoilition into the Interior of Africa, vol, ii. ]>. 04.

. J.

•I

OhN.UrEXTATTOX OF THE SKIN.

tor

id,

nd
a
lip.

A small hole is made in the lip during infancy, and it is
then extended by doii'recs until it is sometimes as much
as two inches long.

Some races extend the lobe of the oar until it reaches
the shoulder ; others tile the teeth in various manners.

Thus, among the Rejangs of Sumatra, 'both sexes
' have the extraordinary custom of filing and otherwise
' disfiguring their teeth, which are naturally very white
' and bejiutiful, from the simplicity of their food. For
' files they make use of small whetstones of difierent
' degrees of fineness, and the patients lie on their backs
' during the operation. Many, particularly women of
' the Lampong country, have their teeth rublicd down
' quite even with the gums ; others have them formed
' in points, and some file off no more than the outer
' coat and extremities, in order that they may the
' better receive and retain the jetty blackness with
' which they almost universally adorn them.' ^

Dr. J. B. Davis has a Dyak skull in which the six
front teeth have each been carefully pierced with a
small hole, into which a pin Avith a spherical brass head
has been driven. In this way, the upper lip behig
raised, the shining knob on eacli tooth would be dis-
played.' Some of the African tribes also chip their
teeth in various manners, each comnmnity luiving a
fashion of its own.

Ornamentation of the skin is almost universal amonjr
the lower races of men. In some cases every individual
follows his own fancy ; in others, each clan has a
special pattern. Thus, speaking of Abeokuta, Captain

' Mnrsdeu's History of Sumatra, p o2.
, - Thesaurus Craniorum, p. 289.

ii ,'i

I I

r>{)

TRTDE MAVKS.

liiirtun^ says : — ' There was a vast variety of tattcjos
' and oriiaiiieiitation, ren(!(;rin^tliein a serious difficulty
' to strauf^ers. The skin patterns were of every variety,
' from the diminutive prick to the ffriat j>asli and the

arge

boil-like h

They affected

figures —

)ou-.>'Ke lumps, iliey atrectea various
' tortoises, alligators, and the favourite lizard, stars,
' concentric circles, lozenges, right lines, welts, gouts of
' gore, marble or button-like knobs of flesh, and ele-
' vated scars, resembling .scalds, wliicli are opened for
' tlie intrt)duction of fetisli medicines, and to expel evil
^ influences. In tliis country every tribe, sul>-tribe, and
' evei family, has its bhizon,- whose infinite diversifi-
' cations maybe compared with the lines and ordinaries
' of I'^uropean heraldry.'

In South Africa the Nyambanas are characterised by
;i row of pimples or warts, about the size of a pea, and
extending from tlic upper part of the forehead to tlie
tip of the nose. Among the l>achapin Kaffirs, those who
liave disthiguislied themselves in battle are allowed
the pri\ilege of marking their thigh with a long scar,
Avhieh is rendered indelible and of a bluish colour by
rul>bing ashes into the fresh wound.

The tribal mark of the Bunns*' (Africa) consists of
tlu'cc slashes from the crown of the head, down tlie
face towards the mouth ; the ridges of flesh stand out
in I)()ld relief. This painful ()[>eration is performod by
cutting the skin, and taking out a strip of flesh ; palm
oil and wood aslies are then rubbed into tlie wound,,
thus causing a thick ridge.

' Abook.itn, vol. i. p. lot. ciiiUy 450.

'^ iSiMi also IJisikir's ]vv|iloriiiL:' "' Trims. Mlliii, Sue. vol. v, p. SO,

\ iiviific. ])|i. 77. i".il. •J'lO. !•!'.;! i'si»('-

TATTOOING.

.rti,

i>y

dm
id,

The Bornouese in Central Africa have twenty cuts or
lines on eacli side of the face, which are drawn from
tiie corners of tlie mouth towards the angles of the
lower jaw and cheekbone. They have also one cut in
tlie centre of tlie foreliead, six on each arm, six on each
leg, four on oacli breast, and. nine on each side, just
al)ove the liips. Tliis makes 91 large cuts, and the
process is said to be extremely painful on account of the
heat and flies/

The islanders of Torres Straits ornament themselves
by a large oval scar, slightly raised, and neatly made.
It is situated on the riglit shoulder, but some of them
have a second on the left. At Cape York many of the
natives also had two or three long transverse scars on
the chest. Manv had also a two-Lorned mark on each
breast, but these difl'erenccs seemed to depend on the
taste of each individusd.

The custom of tattooing is foi.nd almost all over tlie
world, though, as might be expected, it is most de-
veloped in hot countries. In Siberia, however, the
Ostiak women tattoo the backs of the hands, tlie fore-
arm, and the front of the leg. Th>^ men only tattoo,
on the wrist, the mark or sign which stands as their
siii'nature.'"^

Among the Tuski "^ ' the faces of the women are tat-
* tooed on the chin in diverging lines; men only make
' a ]>ermanent mark on the face for an act of prowess
' or success, such as killing a bear, capturing a whale,
' tVc, and ]H)ssibly also, in war time, for the death of
' an encmv.'

|S().

' Di'dIuiiii, Vol. iii. p. 175

^ I'jlUllH, V. J. 11. *»<5.

Iloopor. The iauin of the Tuski,

K 2

I I

! !

" A

rj2

TATTOOINC.

The women of P>rumer Islaiirl, on the south coast of
New Guinea, Avere tattooed on the face, arms, and front
of the body, but generally not on the back, in vertical
strij)es less than an incli apart, and connected by zigzag
markings. On the face these are more complicated,
and on the forearm and wrist they were frequently so
elaborate as to resemble lace-work.' The men were
more rarely tattooed, and then only with a few lines or
stars on the right breast. Sometimes, however, the
markings consisted of a double series of large stars and
dots stretching from the shoulder to the pit of the
stomach.

The inhabitants of Tanna have on their arms and
chests elevated scars, representing plants, flowers, stars,
and various other figures. ' The inhabitants of Tazo-
' van, or Formosa, by a very })ainful operation, impress
' on their naked skins various figures of trees, flowers,
' and animals. The great men in Guinea have their
' skin flowered like djunask ; and in Decan, the women
*■ likewise have flowers cut into their flesh on the fore-
' head, tlie arms, and the breast, and the elevated scars
' are painted in colours, and exhibit the appearance of
' flowered damask.' "■^

In the Tonga Islands ' the men are tattooed from the
' middle of the tliigh to above the hips. The women
' arc only tattooed on the arms and fingers, and there
' very slightly.' ^ In the Feejee Islands, on the contrar}',
the women are more tattooed than the men. When
tastefully executed, tattooing has been regarded by

• Mc(tillivr.av'.s Voyage of the iugaVoynge round tlio World, p. 588.
IJattlosnalit', V(d. i, p. 2(i2. ^ Cook's Voyage towards the

- I''i)rster'.'?<>l}.servnlionsuindL'diir South Toh', vol. i. p. L'ls.

TATTOO rxa.

ire
len

iiany travellers as a real ornament. Tluis Laird says
that some of the tattooing in West Africa ' in the ab-
sence of clothincf srives a finish to Ihe skin

' I

'O P)

In the Gambier Islands, Beechey says,^ ' tattooing is
so universally practised, that it is rare to meet a man
without it ; and it is carried to sueli an extent that
the figure is sometimes covered with small checkered
lines from the neck to the ancles, though the breast is
generally exempt, or only ornamented with a single
device. In some, generally elderly men, the face is
covered below the eyes, in which case the lines or net-
work are more open than on other parts of the body,
probably on account of the pain of the operation, and
terminate at the upper part in a straight line fvoui ear
to ear, passing over the bridge of the nose. With
these exceptions, to which we may add the fashion,
with some few, of blue lines, resembling stockings,
from the middle of the thigh to the ankle, the eflect is
becoming, and in a great measure destroys the a[)pear-
ancc of nakedness. The patterns which most improve
the shape, and which appear to me peculiar to this
group, are those which extend from the armpits to
the hips, and are drawn forward with a curve whicli
seems to contract the waist, and at a short distances
gives the figure an elegance and outline, not unlike
that of the figures seen on the walls of the Egyptian
tombs.'
Fig. 12 represents a Caroline Islander, after Fre}'-
cinet, and gives an idea of the tattooing, though it

[88.

' NaiTiitive of an I'.xpodition into the InloriDr of Afrioa. vol, i. p. 'JOl.
^ Beechey, vol. i. p. 1:58.

'I!

I'l

TATTOOlSd.

cannot be taken as representing the I'unn or features
characteristic of those islanders.

The tattooing of the San(hvieh Islanders is less orna-

Fio. 12.

CAK(»LIXK ISLAXDKIl.

mental, the devices being, according to Arago, ' un-
' meaning and whimsical, without taste, and in general
' badly executed.' ' Perhiips, hov.cver, the most beau-
* tiful of all was that of the Xew Zealunders (see iigs.

' VmfTo's LotttMs. I't. II. p. 117.

V i

. 1 RTTFTCI. \L A LTEn. I TION OF FORM.

1/5 and 14), who were ffenernlly tattooed in curved or
spiral lines. Tlie process is extremely i»ainfiil, |»arti-
cularly on the rn)s ; l)nt to shrink from it, or even to
show any signs of snffering while under the operation,

Fio. l;j.

Ki.i. 14.

rillAI) OK X1,\V ZKAt.AXItKH.

in: \i> •ti' Ni:\v /i:ai.ani)i:i!.

n-
al

would he thouiiht verv unmaidx'. The natives used
the ' Moko ' or pattern of their tattooing' as a kind of
signature. The women have their lips tattooed with
horizontal lines. To have red lips is thought to he m
great reproach.

Manv similar cases miftht be iriven in which suvaaes
ornament themselves, as they suppose, in a niamiei* which
nuist be very painful. IV'rhaps none is more remarkable
than the ])ra('tiee which we find in several parts of the
world t>f modifying the human form by means ot' tight
b.'uidaues. The small size of the Chinese ladies' fci t is
a well-known case, but is scarcely less mischiexDus than

i i !

ITA IRDRESSIXa.

the compres.sioii of tlie waist as practised in I'.urope.
Some of the Ainericiin tribes even modified the form of
the head. One wo(dd have supposed that any such
compression would havo exercised a Xiivy prejudicial
effect on the inteHect, but as far as the existing evidence
goes, it does not appear to do so.

Tlie mode of dealing Avith the hair varies very nnich
in diiferent races. Some races remove it almost entirely,
some leave a ridge along the top of the head ; the Catfre
wears a round ring of hair; the Xorth American Indian
regards it as a point of honour to leave one tuft, in case
he ever has the misfortune of being defeated, for it would
be mean to cheat his victor of the scal[), the recognised
emblem of con((uest.

The Islanders of Torres Straits twist their hair into
long pipe-like ringlets, and .also wet./ a kind of wig pre-
pared in the same fashion. Sometimes they shave the
head, leaving a transverse crest of hair. At Cape York
the hair is almost always kept short. ^

The Feejeeans give a great deal of time and attention
to their hair, as is shown in PI. II. Most of the chiefs
have a special hairdresser, to whom they sometimes
devote several hours a day. Their heads of hair are
often more than three feet in circumference, and ^Ir.
Williams measured one which was nearly five feet round.
This forces them to sleep on narrow wooden pillows or
neck rests, which must be very uncomfortable. They
also dye the hair. Black is the natural and favourite
colour, but some ju'efer white, flaxen, or bright red.

' On one head,' says Mr. Williams,- ' all the hair is of

' Mcriillivray's Voyago of tlip linttlesimke, 11, l.'{.
^ l''iji nnd the Fijiaiis, vol. i. p. loH.

J-'EE.IEEAN .aODES OF DKEStJINC- TH3 HAIR.

1:'

/'/,/', //

1 r

FEEJEE TIEAD-DUESSES. 57

' a uniform lieiolu ; but one-third in front is ashy or
' sandy, un.l the rest bhick, a sharply defiued separation
' dividing tlie two colours. Not a few are so ingeniously
' gTotesrpie as to appear as if done purposely to excite
' laughter. One has a large knot of fiery hair r . hig
' crown, all the rest of his head being bald. Another
' has the most of his hair cut away, leaving three or four
' rows of small clusters, as if his head were -lanted with
' small paint brushes. A third has his head'bare except
' where a large patch projects over each temple. One,
' two, or three cords of twisted hair often fall from the
' right temple, a foot or eighteen inches long. Some
' men wear a number of these braids so as to form a
' curtain at the back of the neck, reaching from one ear
' to the other. A mode that requires great care, has
' the hair brought into distinct locks radiating from the
' head. Each lock is a perfect cone about seven inches
' long, having the base outwards ; so that the surface of
' the hair is marked out into a great number of small
' circles, the ends being turned in in each lock, towards
' the centre of the cone.'

ft«

rilAPTEH Til.

MAHKIAGE AND IJELATIONSIIM'.

'YI'OTITIXri, pcrhaj)s, fjivos a more instnictivo iiisifrjit
-^^ into tlie true condition of siivaircs tlmn tlioir ideas
on the subject of relationship and marriage ; nor cjui tlie
great advantages of civilisation be more coi.clnsivcly
[)roved than by the imj)rovement which it has effected
in the rehition between the two sexes.

Marriage, and tlie relationshi]) of a child to its fatlier
and mother, seem to us so natural and obvious, that we
are apt to look on them as aboriginal and general to the
human race. This, however, is very far from being the
case. The lowest races have no institution of marriafje ;
true love is almost unknown among them; and marriage
in its lowest phases, is by no means a matter of affection
and companion8hi[).

The Hottentots, says Kolben,' ' are so cold and indif-
' ferent to one another that you would think there was
' no such thing as love between them.' Among the
Koussa Kaffirs, Lichtenstein asserts that there is ' no
' feeling of love in marriage.'- In North America, the
Tinne Indians had no word for 'dear' or 'beloved;'
and the Algoiuiuin language is stated to have contained
no verb meaning ' to love ;' so that when the Uible was

• Kolbeii's Hist, of the Capo of - Travels in ^oiith Africa, vol. i.

(lood Hope, vol. i. p. 1(52. p. i*(il.

Tlfl'] POSITION OF WOMI'JX A MONO SAVAOHS.

•.'.t

ti'iiiislatod by tlio niissionsiries into that ]siii<^niag'o it was
lUH'os.sary to invent a word for the i)ur|)osc'.

Thouiili till' s()n;,^s of savn^'es arc generally devoted to
the ehase, wnr, or women, they can very rarely be called
love songs. J)r. Mitchell, for instance, who was I'or
several years chairman of the Tnited States Sennte
Committee on Indian Affairs, mentions that ^ neither
amoncf the Osages nor the Cherokees, conld there be
fonnd a single poetical or mnsical sentiment, fonnded
on the tender i)assion between the sexes. Thon^h
often asked, they produced no songs of love.' '

In Yariba,'*^ says Lander (Centnd Africa), ' marriage
is celebrated by the natives as unconcernedly as pos-
sible : a man thinks as little of taking a wife as of
cutting an ear of corn — affection is altogether out
of the question.' The King of 15oussa,^ he tells us in
another place, ' when he is not engaged in public affairs,
usually employs all his leisure hours in superintendifig
the occup.'itions of his household, and making his own
clothes. The Midiki (queen) and he have distinct
estaV)lishments, divided fortunes, and separate inter-
ests ; indeed, they appear to have nothing in common
with each other, and yet we have never seen so friendly
a couple since leaving our native country.' Among the
Mandingoes marriage is merely a form of regulated
slavery. Husband and wife ' never laugh or joke to-
gether.' ' I asked Baba,' says Caillie, ' why he did not
sometimes make merry with his wives. He replied
that if he did he should not be able to manage them,

' Archneol. Americana, v. i. p. '{17. ^ Ibid. vol. ii. p. 100. See also p.

^ 11. and J. Lander's Niger Expe- 107.
dition, vol. i. p. ]CA.

(JO

Ansj':\(!i<: of affectios is mauuluh:.

' for tlicy would luiigli at liim when he ordered them
' to do aiivthiii^i-.' '

In In<lia the Hill tril)es of Chittivn^onf'*, 8fiys Captain
Lewin, re^jiird marriage 'as a mere animal and con-
' venient connection ;' as the 'means of «^etting their
' dinner cooked. They have no idea of tenderness, nor
' of chivalrous devotion.'^

Arnon*^ the Gnyacurus of Paraguay ' the bonds of
' matrimony are so very sli«;'ht, that when the parties do
' not like each other, they separate Avithout any further
' ceremony. In other respects they do not appear to have
' the most distant notions of that bashfulness so natural
' to the rest of mankind.' ' The Guaranis seem to have
been in a very similar condition.'*

Among the Samoyedes " of Siberia the husbands show
little affection for their wives, and, according to Pallas^
' daignent a peine leur dire ime parole de douceur.'

In Australia ' little real affection exists between hus-
' bands and wives : and young men value a wife princi-
' pally for her services as a slave ; in fact, when asked
' why they are anxious to obtain wives, their usual reply
' is, that they may get wood, water, and food for them,
'and carry whatever property they possess.'" The
position of women in Australia seems indeed to be
wretched in the extreme. They are treated with the
utmost brutality, beaten and speared in the limbs on
the most trivial provocation. Few women, says Eyre,
' will be found, upon examination, to be free from

' Travels, vol. i. p. nno.

2 Hill Tracts of Chittagong, p. 1 IG.

* Loc. cit. p. 352.
•■' Pallas's Voyagea, vol. iv. p. 04.
' Charlevoix, Hist, of Paraguay, " Eyre's Discoveries, vol. ii. p. 321.

vol. i. p. 01. See notes.

in:LArn)xsifiJ' .i.vo.w/ sa wiaHs.

rhc

Ithc

loin

•

' frightful sours u[U)n the head, or tlie marks of spear
' wounds about tlie l)ody. I have seen a youiii:; woinan

* wlio Iroin tlie number of tliese marks, appeared to liave
' been ahnost riddled witli spear \voun«ls. If at all

* good -look in ix their position is, if possible, even worse

* than otherwise.'

Ai;ain, our family system, which regards a child as
equally related to his father and his mother, seems so
natural that we experience a feeling of surprise on meet-
ing with any other system. Vet we shall find, I think,
reason for concluding that a man was first regarded as
merely related to his family ; then to his mother but not
to his father ; then to his father and not to his mother ;
and only at last to both father and mother. Even
among the Romans, the word ' familia ' meant ' slaves,'
and a man's wife and children oidy formed a i)art of his
family inasmuch as they were his slaves ; so that a son
who was emancipated — that is to say, made free — had
no share in the inheritance, having ceased to belong to
the family. We shall, however, be better able to under-
stand this part of the question when we have considered
the various phases which marriage presents ; for it is
by no means of an uniform character, l)ut takes almost
every possible form. In some cases nothing of the sort
appears to exist at all ; in others it is essentially tem-
porary, and exists only till the 1)irth of the child, when
both man and woman arc free to mate themselves afresh.
In others, the man buys the woman, who becomes as
much his property as his horse or his dog.

In Sumatra there were formerly three perfectly dis-
tinct kinds of marriage: the ' Jugur,' in which the man
j)urchased the woman : the ' Ambcl-anak,' in which the

ii<

BIFFEREKT h'lXDS OF MARUIAaE.

woman purcliasi'l the iniin ; nnd the ' Semando,' in
Avhicli tliey joined on tenns of ccjuality. In the mode
of niarrianci l)y Aml)el-anak, says Mar.«den/ 'the father
' of a virgin nnikes elioiee of some young man for her
' luisband, oenei'ally from an inferior family, whieli re-
' noniiees all furtlier right to, or interest in, liim ; and
* lie is taken into the house of his father-in-law, Avho
' killB a burt'alo on the oecasion, and reeeives twenty
' dollars from his son's relations. After this, the buruk
' balk' nia (the good and bad of him) is invested in the
' A' iff's family. If he murders or robs, they pay the
' hafigun, or tine. If he is murdered, they receive
' the bangun. They are liable to any debts he may
' contract in marriage; those prior to it remaiiiiug with
' his parents, lie lives in the family, in a state between
' that of a son and a debtor. He partakes as a son of
' what the house aflords, but has no property in himself.
'His rice ]>lantation, the produce of his pepper garden,
' with everything that he can gain or earn, belongs
' to the family. lie is liable to be divorced at their
' pleasure, juid though he has children, must leave all,
' and return naked as he caine.'

' The Semando'"* is a regular tretity between the
*■ parties, on the footing of e([uality. The adat paid to
' the girl's friends has usually been twelve dollars.
' The agreement stipulates that nil effects, gains, or
' earnings are to be equally the property of both; and,
' in case of divorce by mutual consent, the stock, debts,
' and credits are to be equally divided. If the man
' onl}' insists on the divorce, he gives the woman he'*

' .MnrMtlfM's llif.1. of Smuatrii. p. L'(5L'.

■' lhi\f. ]\ -JC.:;.

hlFFEUEST KIXDS OF MJniiTA(JE.

0:1

'ir
ill,

ic
to

•s.
or

ts.

llll

■(.>»•

' liiilf of tlio cffect8, jiiid loses the twelve dolhirs lie hits
' paid. If the woniiin only elniins tiie divoree. sh<i ior-
' felts her rii;ht to the proportion of the effects, hut
' is entitled to keep her tikar, luintsd, and dandan
' (para[)hernalia), und her relations are liahle to pay
' hack the twelve dollars ; hut it is sehloia ('eiuanded.
' This mode, douhtless the most eonforinahlc to onr
' ideas of conjugal right and felicity, la that whieh the
' chiefs of the Ifejang conntry have formally consented
' to estnhlish thron«;iiout their jurisdiction, and to their
' orders tlie influence of the Malayan priests will eon-
' trlhute to ^ive cfHcacy.'

The JufTiu' niiirriagc need not be })articularly
descrihed.

The llassiinlyeh Arabs have a very curious form of
marriage, whieh may be called ' threc-cpiarter ' mar-
rlnge ; that is to say, the woman is legally married for
three days out of four, remaining perfectly free for the
fourth.

In Ceylon there were two kinds of marriage — the
J)eega marriage, and the l)eena marriage. In the
former tlu^ woman went to her Imsband's hut; in the
hitter the man tnmsferred liimself to that of the W( una n.
Moreover, according io l^-'ivy, marriages in Ceylon were
])rovisional for tlic fir.>t fortnight, at the expiration of
which they were either annulled or conlirmed.'

Among the Keddies^ of Southern India a very
.singular custom prevails: — 'A young woman of six-
' teen or twenty years of age may be riarried to a boy
' ot live or six years! She, however, lives with some

I'livv'p ('evil HI, p. '2M.
Sliorll, 'I'liiii'-. I'ltlm. S

ew Scrio, \<<\. \ ii. jt

I'.U.

POLY AN DRY.

I U I

* otiier adult male — perhaps a maternal unele or cou.siii
' — l)nt is not allowed to form a connection with the
' fatlier's relatives; occasionally it may be the boy-
' husband's father himself — that is, the woman's father-
' in-law! Should tliere be children fnmi these liaisons,
' they are fathered on the boy-hursband. When the boy
' grows u}) the wife is either old or past child-bearing,

* when he in his turn takes up with some other "boy's"
' wife in a manner ])recisely simihu* to his own, and
' pnjcreates children for the boy-husband.'

Polyandry, or the marriage of one woman to several
men at once, is more common than is generally sup-
posed, thoiigh jnuch less so than polygamy, which is
almost imiversally permitted among the lower races of
men. One reason — though I do not say the only one
— for this is obvious when pointed out. Long after our
chiMren are weaned milk remains an imi)ortant and
necessary part of their food. We supply this want with
cow's milk ; but among people who have no domes-
ticated animals this cannot, "f course, be done, and
c()nse(|uentlv the chihlren are not weaned until thev
are two, three, or even four years ohl. During all this
period the husband and wife gener.iUy reinjiin apart,
and consecpiently, unhss a man has several wives, he is
often left without any at all. Thus in lu;ejce ' the rela-

* tives of a woman take it as a public insult if any child

* should be worn bcfon* the custoMiary three or four

* years have elapsed, and they considcM' themselves in
' duty bound to avenge it in an e(pially public manner.'^

It seems to us natural ;iiid projter that husband and
wife sliouhl enjoy as much as possible the society of
' .St'fniitiui, A Mission tn Fiji, \\. Ivj.

Si:rARATlON OF JirsilAMt AM) WIFE

i>o

ii-

ild

Mir

ill

\u\
of

oiiL' anollier; but, ainon.ir tlic Turkomans, accordtni;' to
Fraser, tor sixniuntlis or a year, or (.'vcu sometimes two
ye.'U'.s, ath-r a marriaLie, the luislnuid was ouly allowed to

vi^it his wi

fe 1)V stealth

IS wiie oy sre;

Klenim states that tlie same is the ease amoiiu" *^he
Circassians until the lirst ehild is horn. Amonii" the
Feejeeans hu>1)ands and wives do not usually s[)end. the
nisj'ht tou'ether. in rhiiiau'onu" ( India), although, "ae-
' eordiu,!"" to European ideas, the standard of nioridity
' anion^ii' the Kyounu'tha is low,' yet liushand and wife
are oil no ueeounr Mei'mitted to slee}) togetlier until
seven days after !:iarria,ui'.'

ihu'ekhardl -' states, that in Arahia, after ihe weddinu",
if it eau he ealled so. the fi'ide returns to hei* mother's
tent, but ai^aiii rui:< away in the ewuiuL'', and re[)eats
these fli<i'hts sevei'al tinus, till slie hnally returns to her
tent. She does not i»'o to livi- in her Iiiishand's lent for
some months, perhaps not even till a lull year, from the
weddiuiT-daw

l.alitau iufoi'ms us tliat anuiuu' the Xorth Ameriean
Indians tlu- husband onlv \isiis ilie wiie as it wen- by
stealth : — ' ils n'osent alier ihms leseabaJU's partieulieres,
^ oil habitent leurs epoust's, (pie durant Tobseurife de la
' luiit .... ee serait \u\v tietion extraordinaire de s'v
*■ presenter le joiu'.' "'

!n l''uta, one of the \\\'-' Afriv-an ki!iLi'dom>, it is
said that no husband is allowed lu sen.' hi- wife's faee
iur.il he !i;:s been ihree years married.

in Sparta, iuid in Crete, aci-urdiug' to Xintv[)hon an<l

' I.owiiiV Hill '^^.u;.^ nf Cliiua-
■ iUircKliuuU'- N«iU'.'*, vii], \i. p.

>'<i!t. fjiioti'd in M'l,riiniin'> rriiiiiliv'
M;iriiii;jf, ]). .'lOl'.

' /.. i; \r\, i. p. ."irCi.

It*

(iC

AiisUxci': (ft'' MAinnAdi: rEUEMoxy.

|ft«H

Striilx), married peoj>lo wore for some time after the
Avecldin*>' oiih' allowed to sec one another as it were
elandestinely; and a similar eiistom is said to liavc
existed among the Lyeians, So far as I am aware, no
satisiju'tory cxj)lanation of this eustom has yet heen
j^iven. I shall, however, presently venture to suggest
one.

There are man\' cases in whieli savages have no sncli
thin.<j:as anv eeremonv of nwuTiaiie. I ha\e said nothinir,
says Metz, ' ahont the Jiiari'iage eeremonies of the liada-
' gas (Hindustan), because they can scarcely be said to
' have any.' 'J'lie Kui'uiiil)as, another tribe of the Neil-
gherry Hills, 'liave no marriage ceremony.' ' According
to C(donel I Walton,'"' IIh." Keriahs of Central India ' \\\\\v no
' word for marriage in tlw'ircMvn language, and the onl}'
' ceremony used appeal's to be little more tlum a sort oi'
' public recognition of the llict.' So idso the S[)anish
missionai'ies ibund no woivl for marriage, nor any mar-
riau'e eeremonv, among tlu' [ndians of California.' J'\ar-
Iher north, among the KutcliiTi (ndians, 'there is no
' cei'eiin.r.v observed at mai-riaii'e or birth.'"*

The marital rite, savs Sclioolcraft, ' among our tribes '
(i.e. the l*edski?!s of the United States) " is nothing more
' than tlr.,' personal consent of the ])arties, without re-
' (juiring any concurrent act of a priesthood, a magistracy,
' or witnesses; tiic act is .assumed by the parties, without
' the necessity of any extraneous sanction.'^

Accordiiiu' to Ih'etr, there is no marriau'e eeremonv
ainou:^ flu; Arawaks of South Aniei'ica.'' .Martins makes

' TniDH. r.tliji. Sue. vul. vii. p. •_'7(i,
'■' lliiil. vol. vi. ]i. li").

r»ii;;ii<'it. Siiiitli.>i((ii"uiii IJi'|ii'it.

' Siiiillisniiiiiii 1».^ .»rt,1-i;c».j».:!L'<i.
'' Iiiiliiiii Tiilti-i, |>]t. "Jl^. l;iJ.
' < iiiiiina, p. 'f'l.

Isd.".,

.•{CS.

yl7?s7vAT'7? OF MAIUUAGE CEREMOSY.

hiiy
[kcs

4
1^ %

t]i(» s.'iino assertion with reference to the I'ra/iliini trihes
LreneriiUy,^ jiiid it is also the case Avith sonic of the

Australian tril)es.''

Til

lere is, savs TV.'uce, ' no si

ich tl

unir as niarriairc ni

Ahyssinia, nnless that which is contracted hy nuitual
consent, without otlier lonu, snhsistin;^' only till dis-
solved hy dissi'nt of one or other, and to hi; renewed
or repeated as often iis it is nurceahle to bcfh parties,
who, when tlu'V idciisc, live tofxether aunin ;;s man and
wife, after havini;" been divorced, had children hy others,
or whether thev havo been married, or had children
with others or not. I rememher lo have once hccn at
Koscnm in j)resence of the Ite^ulie (tlic queen), when,
in the circle, tln-re wns a woman of <4"reat quality, and
.seven men who had all been her husbnnds, none of
Avhom was the h:!p[)y s])ouse at that time.''' '>\iid yet
there is no country in the world where there are so

manv c

hurcl

les.

Aminiir the licdonin Arabs thei'e i;

a niari'iiige cerenivjuy in the case of a Li'irl, but the re-
m.-ii'riauc of a widow is not thouiiht sutlicientK' i;n-
portant (o deserve one. Speke says, 'there an; no such

nuiTs as marriau'cs ui I iianda

Of the jNIandinii'oes (West Africa), ('ailli;'-'' says that
husband and wife are not r.niti'd bv an\' (•« '" .non\": and
jlutton ' makes the same statement .iS re_;ards the Ash-
antces. In ('oii2(> and AiiL!;>la '^ ' iliev nse no jieculiar
' ceremonies in marri.iue, nor scarce trouble tlu-mselvos
' for consent of friends.' I a N'aillant says thnt there ar(^

V.:l.

1. n. :;■)(

2 KyroV I)i!*cov('i'ii'.«,»('l. ii.p, .^10. ' Kl.'miu, Ciilnird. Mi'iisclion, vol.

' Hnicr's Travels, vol. i\, p. 4-

' Ii>ill. V..1. V. p. I.

■ iiHIlllI, ])

■■JOl.

1!1

11. UK).
* A.xllt'y'i'Ciill. i>f \'iiv;i.i.'t'^, vol.iii

r »

;

, ■

1 '

li:

}tAKUL\(lE CElU:.M(iXli:s.

girl.''

no marrhigc ceremonies jiinong the Hottentots; ' and the
Uusiimen, acconHii"; to Mr. Wood, iiad in theii hinuua<:e
no means of distinii-nishin;!^ an unmarried from a married

Vet we must not assume that marriage is necessarily
and always lightly regarded, where it is unaccompanied
hy ceremonial. Thus 'marriage in this island (Tahiti),
' as aj)})eared to us,' says Cook, "is nothing more than
' an agreement between the man and woman, with which
' the priest has no concern. Where it is contracted it
' aj)[)ears to Ijc pretty well kept, though sometimes
' the parties separate l)y mutual consent, and in that
' case a divorce takes j)lace witli ms little trouble as
* the marriage. Ihit though the j)riesth(>od has laid
' tlie people under no tax for a nuj)ti;d benediction,
'thi're are two o])erations wliith it has appropriated,
' and fi'om which if derives considerable advantages*.
'One is tattooing, ;uid the other circumcisioi.' ' Vet
he elsewhei'c inibrms us that married women in Tahiti
are as faithful to their husband.s as in any other part of
the world.

A\'e nni." t bear in mind that there Is a great di.>tinction
b(.'tween what UKiy be called 'liix'and 'brittle' mar-
riages. In some countries the mar.'iage tie may be
br(;I<en with the greatest ease, and yet, as long as it lasts,
is strictly respected; while in other countries the vei'N'
reverse is the case.

I'erhaps on t!ie whole an\' marriage ceremony is better

' ynvil.uc.-, \ <'l. ii, j». •'■'^.

" NaUiral Ili>toiy nl' Man, veil. i.
' L'odIv's N'nva'jf K'Uiml thf Wmlil.

Uawki'-wiU'tli'.-, \'iiyai:L'.>, vol. ii. p.
:'|i>. I'ur ( 'ariiliiHi Islands, aco
l\!fiaui, ('(/<. lit, vi)!. i\\ ]). SiD'J.

Ansicxci: or MAUuiAdi:.

' J

(liiiii none at all, but some races liavi' practices at mar-
rinue which are extremely ohjectionable. Some, also,
are very curious, and no doubt symholienl. Thus, amoii<'-
the Caniuliaii Indiims, Carver' says thai wlicn ihe ehiet"
ha-; pronounced the |);iir to he m;M'rIe(l, ' the l)i'i<lcnroom
' turns round, and, heiidini:^ on his hody, takes his wile
' on his h:iek, in whicli minuier he ciirrics licr, amidst
' the acclamnlions of the spectators, to his tent.' lii'ucc.
in Ahyssinia, observed an identical custom. \\ hen the
ci'remony is over, he says, 'the bride^uroom taia-s his
' lady on iiis shoulders, and carries her oil' to his hoiisi-.
' ir it be at fi distance he does the same thinn', but only
' ii'oes entirely round id)out the bride's house.' '"

Jn Cliina, wIumi tlie l)i-idal ])rocession reach(!s the
bridegroom's house, the bride is carried into the house;
by a matron, Jind ' lifted ovei* a j)au of charcoal )it the

' door.' '

We sIimII j)resently see that these are no isol;it(>(l cases,
nor is the act of liftini;" the bride over the brideuroom's
threshold an act without a meaning. I shall shoi'ilv
mentit)n many allied customs, t«) the importance and sig-
nificance of which our ill tention has recently been ciiUed
1)V l\Ii'. M'l.emian, in his masterly work on ' Primitive
' Marriage.'

I will now attempt to trace up the custom of marriiigc
in its lii'avlual (leyeloi)ment. There is slroni; evidence
that the lowest races of men live, or did live, in a stiite
of wiiat mny i)erha|)s bi' cnlh'd ' Conumuud ^larria<''e.'

In the Andiiiuan islands,' Sir ildward lieleher stales
that the ctistom is lor the man and woman to remain

' Triivols, 1). .".r I

Vi.l.

vii. p. i'u.

I>avis.

■Cli

most', vol. 1

■_'s.'

'I'raii.s. ]')tliii. Sue. vol. v. \>. 4*'>,

111

.inSh'Xri'] OF AXY SAM/-: FOR MARltLXai:.

>. ^

to^a'ther until tlic child is wciuicmI, wlieii tlioy f^eparato
as a matter of course, and each socks a new partner.
The Itushnien of South Africa are stated to be entirely
without marriage. Among the Xairs (hulia),as JUichnnan
tells us, ' no one knows his father, and evciy man looks
' on his sister's children as his heirs.' The Teehurs of
Oude ' live together almost indiscriminately in large
' connnunities, and even wlnni two peo[)le are regarde<l
' as married the tie is but nominal.' '

In China, ctnnnnuial mari-iage is stated to have pre-
vailed down to the time of Foulii,-' and in (Jrceceto that
of Cecrops. The j)i.assagetie,'' and the Auses,' an Kthio-
pian tribe, had, according to Herodotus, no marriage, a
statement which is confirmed l)y Strabo as regards the
former. Strabo and Solinus make the same statement
as regards the (.iaramantes, another Kthio})ian tribe.
In California, according;' to 15aei>ert ,'' the sexes met
without any Ibrmalities, and their vocabuhu'y did not
even contain the words ' to marry.'

The backwardness (until lately) of the Sandwich
Islanders in their social relations, is manifested in their
lanuuaue. Tiiis is shown from the followin;^ table ex-
tracted from a longer one, given by ^Ir. ^Morgan in a
most interesting memoir on the Origin of the Classifi-
catory System of llelationship."

1 The IVoplo (if India, h\ J. F.
Watfjon. and .1. W. Kavr, puldislicd
by tilt" IikUiiu UovuinniLiit, vul.ii. pi.

'^ (idgiifl, li'Oii^ine di'n Loi.-, dos
Arts ct dos >ScicuLe.-<, vol. iii. p. .'ii'S.

=> (iio. i. 21(5.

' .Mt.diioiui'iio, iv. ISO.

^ Lw: lit. \\ :J(W.

" i'mc. of (liu AnnT. Acatl. of
Arl.-i and Sciences, I SOS.

EELATIONSlTfl'S INDIJl'JLMJhWT OF M.lh'RLU;!:. 7\

llawaUiu,

Kiipuna sin-iii/ies

F.niflitih.

'Great jjjrjindfatlior
(iroat groat mu;lo
Groat j;raii(Iinotlii'i'
(Jroat .i!;raii(laiint
GraiKllathor
GraiMluncIe
(Jraiulinotlior
.Ciraiidauiit

Makua kaiia =

Malvua wall CO na =

Kalkoc kaiia =

Father

Father's brother
Father's hrothor-in-hiw
Mother's brother
."Mother's brother-iu-Iaw
LGrandfatlier's brollier's son.

'Mother

Mother's sister
! brother's sister-in-law

Father's sister
t. Father's sister-in-law.

''Son

Sister's son
Brother's son
lirother's son's son
IJrother's daughter's son
Sister's son's son
Sister's daughter's son
Mother's sister's son's son

I Mother's brother's son's son.

Ilun

ona

rUrotlier's son's wife
= I JJrother's daughter's husband
j Sister's son's wife
I Sister's daughter's husband.

SOJ'TIl SKA SYSTEM nl' HELATIOXSIirV.

rWifc-

Wife's sister
lirolhor's wile

AVal

u'on.'i

- Wifi

•!

>tl

c s nrotiiers wile

Father's brother's son's wife
Father's sister's son's wife
Mother's sister's son's wile
.MotI

ler's hr<»lher s son s wilt

Ilushiind

ana

=r 'II

nsi)anil

ister

hroll
hns))an(I.

I or

I'unalna
Kaikoaka

=: Wirc'ssister'shnshan(l(l)rotlicr-in-law).
=: AVife's hrollier.

Tlio key of tills Iliiwainii or SiiiKlwicli Ishmd ' systoin

is tile idcii c'oiiN i'\('<l ill llic word walici'iiii (woman.)

Tims—

j-WiCe
_ ! AN'ife's sistei'
I llrollier's wiCe
(^^Vi^e's brother's wile.

"Waheona

All tlu^so aro ('(luallv related to cac-li imshaiid. ITcncc
the word —

Kaikec = Child, al-o siu^nifies the brothers wife's ehikl ;

ntid IK) dotiltt the wife's sister's child, and the wile's
brother's wife's child. So, also, as the sister is wife io
the lu'other-iii-law (though not to liei' brother), and as
the brother-in-law is husband to his brother's wife, he is
consc(iuenth' a lather to his brother's ehihbvn. Hence
' Ivaikee ' also means 'sister's son' and ' brothei-'s son.'
In fact 'Kaikee' and ' Waheeiia ' coiTi-pond to our
words '■child' and 'woman,' and tln.!rc are apparenily

' .Miiin-jni, I'roL'i'odinjrs 111' the AiiiiMifnii As.^(ici;itiiin, \>^i'\-\

V).

Ill

SOUTH si:a sYSTi:.y i>r ui:i,atihssiuv. 7.1

no wonls aiHworlii;? to 'son,' ' fliiunlitcr,' ' wii'c,' or
' liuslianil.' Th:il iJils docs not iirisi' iVoni poverty ol"
lMn!j;uii_ir(' is cviilcnt, lu'cansc the s.iiuc system dis-
rriniinulcs lu'tv/cpii oilier i'eliitionsliips wliieli we do not
distiii^ni.^li.

]*erli)i[»s the contnist is most cleMrly sliown in the
tiM'ms i'or hrother-indaw and sister-in-hi

'J'lms, when a woman is speakin*:^-

SiHter-iii-lnw = liusl»;iii(rs hroilicr's wire = pimahia.

Si'Jtcr-iii-law = luishand's sister

= kaiknuk.'i.

l>iit hr(»lher-iii-l;i\v whetiicr si~!(>r s 1 , • i i i

\ = kaiKi, !.(>. Iuisl)aiiil.

Iiiishiiiul or liusi)iin(l s hrotlu-r J
When, oil tlu' e<^iitrary. a man is speaking" —

Sister-in-law = wile's sister = waheonn. I.e. wife.
Sister-in-law = hrotlier's wife = wahecna, i.e. wll'e.

And

Pii'otlier-in-law = wi fci's hrolli

= kalkoaka.

lirother-in-law = wile's sister's Imshand = pu'ialua.

Tims a woman has hnshmids and sisters-in-law, bnt
no l)i-otliers-iii-Iaw ; a man, on the contrary, has wives
a!i<l l)rothers-in-law, hnt no sisters-indaw. The sani(.'
idea runs thron^irli all otlier relationships: eonsins, i'or

instance, are called hrolhers and sisters.

So apiin, while the I{(>mans distin^Miished between tlie

Father's hrothcr = patnius. and the mother's hrotlier =

avnneiihis
Father's sister = ainita. and the mother's sister —

niatertiM'a ;

the first two in llawaiiin are niakna, kaiia, which also

■>.

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

I.I

1.25

It:

UiM2^ |2.5

|50 "^ !■■

U 11.6

WUu

>♦■

Hiotographic

Sciences

Corporation

23 WEST MAIN STREE:

WEBSTER, N.Y. \45K

(716) •72-4503

TOD A SYSTEM OF RELATIONSHIP.

f »

['!!" '■

higiiilies fVither ; and the last two are makua waheeiia,
which also means mother.

Thus the idea of marriage does not, in fact, enter
into the llawaian system of relationship. Uncleship,
auntship, cousinsliip, are ignored ; and we have only —

Grandparents

Parents

Brothers and sisters

Children and

Grandchildren.

Here it is clear that the child is related to the group.
It is not specially related either to its father or its
mother, who stand in the same relation as mere uncles
and aunts ; so that every child has several fathers and
several mothers.

There are, I think, reasons in the social habits of
these islanders which go far to explain the persistence
of this archaic nomenclature. From the mildness of
the climate and the abundance of food, children soon
become independent ; the prevalence of large houses,
used as mere dormitories, and the curious prejudice
against eating in common, must also have greatly
tended to retard the development of special family
feelings. Yet the system of nomenclature above men-
tioned did not correspond with the actual state of
society as found by Captain Cook and other early
voyagers.

Among the Todas of the Xeilgherry Hills, however,
when a man marries a girl she becomes the wife of all
his brothers as they successively reach manhood, and
they also become the husbands of all her sisters as they
become old enough to marry. In this case ' the first-

I ^

PBEVALENGE OF ADOPTION.

ly
1-

' born child is fathered upon the eldest brother, the
' next-born on the second, and so on thronghont the
' ser'^s. Notwithstanding this unnatural sj'-stem, the
' Todas, it must be confessed, exhibit much fondness
' and attachment towards their offspring, more so than
' their practice of mixed intercourse would seem to
* foster.' ^

In the Tottiyars of India, also, we have a case in
which it is actually recorded that ' brothers, uncles,
' and nephews hold their wives in common.' ' So also,
according to Nicolaus,'' the Galactophagi had commu-
nal marriage, 'where they called all old men fathers,
' young men sons, and those of equal age brothers.'
' Among the Sioux and some other North American
' tribes the custom is to buy the eldest of the chiefs
' daughters ; then the others all belong to him, and are
' taken to wife at such times as the husband sees fit.'"*

Such social conditions as these tend to explain the
frequency of adoption among the lower races of men,
and the fact that it is often considered to be as close a
connection as real parentage. Among the Esquimaux,
Captain Lyon tells us that 'this curious connection
' binds the parties as hrmly together as the ties of
' blood ; and an adopted son, if senior to one by nature,
' is the heir to all the family riches.' ^

In Central Africa, Denham states that ' the practice
' of adopting children is very prevalent among the
' Felatalis, and though they have sons and daughters of

> Shortt, Trans. Ethu. Soc. N.S.
vol. vii. p. 240.

* Dubois' Description ot the People
of India, p. 3.

' Bachofen, Das Mutterreclit,p. lU.
■* Ethn. Journal, 18GU, p. 280.
* Journal, p. 353. ISee 3^5.

T/fT;; MTLK-TIE.

' tlieir own, tlie aclopted child generally becomes heir
' to the Avhole property.' ^

' It is a custom,' says Mariner,^ ' in the Ton<>;a Islands
' for women to be what tliey call mothers to children or
' grown-ii]) young pei'sons who are not their ow^i, for
' the purpo.^e of providing them, or seeing that they
' are provided, with all tiie conveniences of life ;' this is
often done even if the natural mother be still living;, iu
wliich case the adopted mother ' is regarded the same
' as tlic natural mother.' Among the liouinns, also,
adoption was an important featui'e, and was effected by
the S3'mbol of a mock birth, without which it was not
regarded as complete. This custom seems to have con-
tinued dowm to the time of Nerva, Avho, in adopting
Trajan, transferred the ceremony from the marriage-
bed to the temple of Jupiter.^ Diodorus^ gives a \Q.vy
curious account of the same custom as it existed anions:
the Greeks, mentioning that Juno adopted Hercules by
going through a ceremony of mock birth.

In other cases the symbol of adoption represented
not the birth, but the milk-tie. Tims, in Circassia, the
woman offered her breast to the person she was
adopting. In Abyssinia, Parkyn tells us that ' if a man
* wdshes to be adopted as the son of one of superior
' station or influence, he takes his hand, and, sucking
' one of his fingers, declares himself to be his " child by
' " adoption," and his new father is bound to assist him
' as far as he can.' ^

The same idea underlies, perhaps, tlie curious

' Donlmm's Travels in Africa, vol.
iv. p. 181.

'^ Mariner's Tonga Islands, vol. ii.
p. 08.

^ Das jMutterrecht, p. 254.

^ IV. .•'.'.>. See Notes.

* Parkyn's Abyssinia, p. 108.

OliiaiNAL OR COMMUNAL MARiilAClB.

ing

J^squiinaiix Labit of licking anytiiiiig \vliicli is presented
to them, apparently in token of ownership. '

Dieffenbacli ■^ also mentions the practice of licking ;i
present in Xew Zealand ; here, however, it is the donor
who does so. In the Tonga Islands, Captain Cook tells
us that tlie natives 'have a singular custom of putting
' everything you give them to their heads, b}' way of
' thanks, as we conjectured.'"'

Assuming, then, that the communal marriage system
shown in the preceding pages to prevail, or have pre-
vailed, so widely among races in a low stage of civilisa-
tion, represents the primitive and earliest social con-
dition of man, we now come to consider the various
ways in which i ma}' have been broken up and replaced
by individual marriage.

Montesquieu lays it down almost as an axiom, that
' Tobligation naturelle qu'a le pere de nourrir ses
' enfants n fait etablir le mariage, qui declare celui qui
' doit remplir cette oblio'ation.''^ Elsewhere he states
that ' 11 est arrive dans tons les pays et dans tons les
' temps que la religion s'est melee des mariages.'^ How
far these assertions are from the truth will be conclu-
sively shown in the following pages.

Bachofen," M'Lennan," and Morgan, tlie most recent
authors who have studied this subject, all agree i\\vX
the primitive condition of nuui, soci tdly, was one of
pure Iletairism,** when marriage did not exist, or, as

or convenience call it, of Connnunal

ay perhap

» Franklin's Journeys, 181U-22,
veil. i. p. 34.

- Now Zealand, V(>1. ii. p. 104.
^ Voyng'L' towards the Souili Pole,

•^ Esprit dcs L lis, vol. ii. p. ISO.
^ Loc. cit. p. 2U0.
'' i)i!s MuLterrcclit.
" I'liniitive lUairiiijie.

:].

.)•)

Ihid.

xvni. -MX.

i 1

T !!

I! ' '

i ^1

78 omam of mabbiage.

iiiaiTian:c, where fill the men and women in a small
community were regarded as equally married to one
another.

Bachofen considers that after a while the women,
shocked and scandalised by such a state of things,
revolted against it, and established a system of marriage
with female supremacy, the husband being subject to
the wife, property and descent being considered to go
in the female line, and women enjoying the principal
share of political power. The first period he calls that
of ' Hetairism,' the second of ' Mutterrecht,' or ' mother-
' right.'

In the third stage he considers that the ethereal
influence of the father prevailed over the more material
idea of motherhood. Men claimed pre-eminence, pro-
perty and descent were traced in the male line, sun
worship superseded moon worship, and many other
changes in social organisation took place, — mainly
because it came to be recognised that the creative
influence of the father was more important than the
material tie of motherhood. The father, in fact, was
the author of life, the mother a mere nurse.

Thus he regards the first stage as lawless, the second
as material, the third as spiritual. I believe, however,
that communities in which women have exercised the
supreme power are rare and exceptional, if indeed they
ever existed at all. We do not find in history, as a
matter of fact, that women do assert their rights, and
savage women would, I think, be peculiarly unlikely to
uphold their dignity in the manner supposed. On the
contrary, nmong the lowest races of men, as, for
instance, in Australia, the i)osition of the women is one

OlUaiN OF MART! r ACE.

of com})letc subjection, and it seems to me perfectly
clear that the idea of marriage is founded on the rights,
not of the v\''oman, but of the man, being an illus-
tration of

the good old plan,
That lie should take who has the i)owcr,
And he shoukl keep who can.

Among low races the Avifc is indeed b'terally the
property of the husband. As Petruchio sa}'s of
Catherine :

I will be master of what is mine own.

She is my fjoods, my chattels ; she is my house,

My household stuff, my field, my harn,

ISIy horse, my ox, my ass, my anything.

So thoroughly is this the case that, as I have already
mentioned, a Roman's ' family ' originally, and indeed
throughout classical times, meant his slaves, and the
children only formed part of the family because they
were his slaves ; so that if a father freed his son, the
latter ceased to be one of the family, and had no part
in the iidieritance. Nay, even at the present day, in
some parts of Africa, a man's property goes, not to his
children, as such, but to his slaves.

Ilearne tells us, that among the Hudson's Bay Indians
' it has ever been the custom for the men to wrestle for
' any woman to whom they are attiiched ; and, of course,
' the strongest party alwaj's carries off the prize. A
' weak man, miless he be a o'ood hunter and well

•mitted tc '

pel

:ccp

strono'cr man thuiks worth his notice.

IS cus-

tom prevails throughout all their tribes, and causes a
great S])irit of enudation among their youth, who are

JJACHOFEN'S VUnVS.

' upon iiU occasions, from their childhood, trying their
' strength and skill iii wrestling.' ' Franklin also says
that tlie Copper Indians hold women in tlie same low
estimation as the Chipewyans do, ' looking upon them
' as a kind of pro])erty, which the stronger may take
' from the weaker ; ' '-' and liichardson^ ^ more tlian once
' saw a stronger man assert his riu'ht to take the wife
' of a weaker countryman, .\iiyone mav challenirc an-
' other to wrestle, and, if he overcomes, may carry oif
' the wife as tlie pri;:e.' Yet tlie women never dream
of protesting agahist this, which, indeed, seems to them
perfectly natural. The theory therefore of Dr. Bacho-
fen, and. the sequence of social customs suggested by
him, although supported with much learning, cannot, I
think, be reu'ardecl as correct.'^

}.rLemian, like Bachofen and ^lorgan, starts with a
stau'e of Iletairism or communal marriage. The next
stage was, in his opinion, tliat form of polyandry in
which brothers had their v/ivcs in common ; afterwards
came that of the levirate, i.e. the system under which,
when an elder brotiier died, his second brother married
the widow, and so on with tlie others in succession.
Thence he considers that some tribes branched off into
endogamy, otliers into exogamy ; '^ that is to sa}', some
forbade marriage out of, others within, the tribe. If
either of these two s\stems was older than the otlier,
he considers that exogamy must have been the most

» Ilearne, p. 10-1-.

- .ioiirney to tlia Shores of tlie
PoIiU' Soiis, vol. viii. p. 4'-\,

•' KicliiirJsuii'c Ijoid Joiiruey, vul.
ii. p. 2-1.

^ SfO for iiist.'inco Lewiu's Hill
Tracts of Cbittaguuir, pp. 47. 77, 80,
{.'-•J, 'JS, lOi.

'•' Zoc. cit. p. lit).

.V„

M'LENNAN'S VIEWS.

11.
Ito

tic

St
tu

ancient. Exogamy was based on infanticide,^ and led
to the practice of marriage by capture.''^

In a further stage the idea of female descent, pro-
duchig as it would a division in the tribe, obviated
the necessity of capture as a reality and reduced it to
a symbol.

In support of this view Mr. M'Lennan has certainly
brought forward many striking facts ; but, while ad-
mitting that it probably represents the succession of
events in some cases, I cannot but think that these are
exceptional. Fully admitting the prevalence of in-
fanticide among savages, it will, I think, be found that
among the lowest races, boys w^ere killed as frequently
as girls. Eyre expressly states that this was the case
in Australia.^ In fact the distinction between the sexes
implies an amount of forethought, and prudence, which
the lower races of men do not possess.

For reasons to be given shortly, I b?lieve that com-
munal marriage was gradually superseded by individual
marriage founded on capture, and that this led firstly to
exogamy and then to female infanticide ; thus reversing
M'Lennan's order of sequence. Endogamy and regu-
lated polyandry, though frequent, I regard as excep-
tional, and as not entering into the normal progress of
development.

Like M'Lennan and Bachofen, I believe that our
present social relations have arisen from an initial stage
of Hetairism or communal marriage. It is obvious,
however, that even under communal marriage, a warrior
who had captured a beautiful girl in some marauding

1 Loc. cit. p. 188. 2 l^^^ ^.-f p J4Q

* Discoveries, &c., vol. ii. p. 324.

•»i|

1 1

J- I

■ h

] iiji

H'J

TTTE TRUE EXP LAN AT I ON.

c*,\[)edition would cljiim a, peculiar i'ii2,iit to her, and,
when possible, would set custom at detiancc. We have
already seen that there are other cases of the existence
of marriage under two forms side by side in one coun-
try; and there is, therefore, no real difficulty in as-
suming the co-existence of connnunal and individual
marriage. It is true that under a communal marriage
system no man could appropriate a girl entirely to him-
self without infringing the rights of the whole tribe.
Such an act would naturally be looked on with jealousy,
and only regarded as justilial le under peculiar circum-
stances. A war-captive, however, was in a peculiar
position : the tribe had no right to her ; her capturer
might have killed her if he chose ; if he preferred to
keep her alive he was at liberty to do so ; he did as he
liked, and the tribe was no sufferer.

M'Lennan,^ indeed, says that ' it is impossible to
' believe that the mere lawlessness of savtiges should
' be consecrated into a legal symbol, or to assign a
' reason — cout is be believed — why a similar symbol
' should not appear in transferences of other kinds of
' property.' The symbol of capture, however, was not
one of lawlessness, but, on the other hand, of — accord-
ing to the ideas of the time — lawful possession. It did
not refer to those from whom the captive was taken,
but was intended to bar the rights of the tribe into
which she was introduced. Individual marriage was,
in fact, an infringement of communal rights ; the man
retaining to himself, or the man and woman mutually
appropriating to one another, that which should have
belonged to the whole tribe. Thus, among the Anda-

' Loe. cit. p. 44.

ORlillN OF MARIUAGE BY CAVTUIiE.

e to

lOlllcl

Til a
Tibol
of

not
ord-

did
■ken,

into

*vas,
an

I'y

ave
da-

.«

nianers, any woman who attempted to resist the marital
privileges claimed by any member of the tribe was
liable to severe punishment.^

Nor is it, I think, difficult to understand why the
symbol of capture does not appear in transferences of
other khids of property. Every generation requires
fresh wives ; the actual capture, or at any rate the sym-
bol, needed therefore repetition. This, however, does
not apply to land ; when once the idea of landed pro-
perty arose, the same land descended from owner to
owner. In other kinds of property again, there is an
important, though different kind of, distinction. A
man made his own bow and arrows, his own hut, his
own arms ; hence the necessity of capture did not exist,
and the symbol would not arise.

M'Lennan supposes that savages were driven by fe-
male infanticide, and the consequent absence or paucity
of women, into exogamy and marriage by capture.
I shall presently give my reasons for rejecting this
explanation.

He also considers that marriage by capture followed,
and arose from, that remarkable custom, — namely, of
marrying always out of the tribe, for which he has pro-
posed the appropriate name of exogamy. On the con-
trary, I believe that exogamy arose from marriage by
capture, not marriage by capture from exogamy : that
capture, and capture alone, could give a man the right
to monopolise a woman, to the exclusion of his fellow-
clansmen; and that hence, even after all necessity for
actual capture had long ceased, the symbol remained ;

' See Trans. Ethn. Soc. N. S. vol. ii. p. ,'i5.
u 2

r i

ruEVALF.NrE OF MATfj^r.uir: jiv cm'TiiU'I.

i 'i^i

capture having, by long habit, come to be received ns a
necessary preliminary to marriage.

That marriage by capture has not arisen from female
modesty is, I think, evident, not only because we have
no reason to suppose that such a feeling i)revails spe-
cially among the lower races of man, but also, firstly,
because it cannot explain the mock resistance of the
relatives, and secondly, because the very question to be
solved is why it became so generally the custom to win
the female not by persuasion but by force.

Mr. M'Lennan's view throAvs no light on the remark-
able ceremonies of expiation for marriage, to which I
shall presently call attention.

I will, however, first proceed to show how widely
* capture,' either actual or symbolical, enters into the
idea of marriage. Mr. M'liCnnan was, I believe, the
first to appreciate its importance. I have taken some
of the followini>' instances from his valuable work,
adding, however, several additional cases.

It requires strong evidence, which, indeed, exists in
abundance, to satisfy us that the origin of marriage was
independent of all sacred and social considerations; that
it had nothing to do with mutual affection or sym-
pathy ; that it was invalidated by any appearance of con-
sent; and that it was symbolised not by any demon-
stration of warm affection on the one side and tender
devotion on the other, but by brutal violence and
unwilling submission.

Yet, as already mentioned, the evidence is overwhelm-
ing. So completely, for instance, did the Caribs supply
themselves with wives from the neighbouring races, and
so little communication did they hold with them, that

' ft

OiiWINALLY A UKALITY.

H')

on-
on-

Im-

)lv
|nd

the men 'a\\(\. women actuiilly spoke different languages.
80 again in Australia the men, says Oldfield, ' are
in excess of t!ie other sex, and, eonsecjuently, many
men of every tribe are unprovided with that especial
necessary to their comfortable subsistence, a wife ;
who is a slave in the strictest sense of the word, being
a beast of burden, a provider of food, and a ready
ooject ou which to vent those passions that the men
do not dare to vent on each other. Jlence, for tliose
covethig such a luxury, arises the necessity of stealing
the women of some other tribe ; and, in their expedi-
tions to effect so laudable a design, they will cheerfully
undergo privations and dangers equal to those they
incur when in search of blood-revenge. When, on
such an errand, they discover an unprotected female,
their proceedings are not of the most gentle nature.
Stunning her by a blow from the dowak (to make her
love them, perhaps), they drag her by the hair to the
nearest thicket to await her recovery. When she
comes to her senses they force her to accompany them ;
and as at worst it is but the exchange of one brut.'d
lord for another, she generally enters into the spirit of
the affair, and takes as much pains to escape as though
it were a matter of her own free choice.' ^
The following is the manner in which the natives
about Sydney used to procure wives: — ' The poor
' wretch is stolen upon in the absence of her protectors.
' Being first stupefied with blows, inflicted with clubs or
' wooden swords, on the head, back, and shoulders,
' every one of which is followed by a stream of blood,
' f?he is then dragged through the woods by one arm,

^ Trans. Ethn, Soc. vol. iii. p. 250,

?1EK1!;1

jii

'mS

1 :

tfi

SUBSEQUENTLY A FORM.

' with a perseverance and violence that it nnight be snp-
' posed would displace it from its socket. The lover,
' or rather the ravisher, is regardless of the stones or
' broken pieces of trees which may lie in his route,
' being anxious only to convey his prize in safety to his
' own party, when a scene ensues too shocking to relate.
' This outrage is not resented by the relations of the
' female, who only retaliate by a similar outrage when
* they find an opportunity. This is so constantly the
' practice among them that even the children make it a
' play-game, or exercise.' ^

In Bali also,^ one of the islands between Java and
New Guinea, it is stated to be the practice that girls
' are stolen away by their brutal lovers, who sometimes
' surprise them alone, or overpower them by the way,
' and carry them off with dishevelled hair and tattered
' garments to the woods. When brought back from
' thence, and reconciliation is effected with enraged
' friends, the poor female becomes the slave of her rough
' lover, by a certain compensation-price being paid to
' her relatives.'

So deeply rooted is the feeling of a connection
between force and marriage, that we find the former
used as a form long after all necessity for it had
ceased ; and it is very interesting to trace, as Mr.
M'Lennan has done, the gradual stages through which
a stern reality softens down into a mere symbol.

It is easy to see that if we assume the case of a coun-
try in which there are four neighbouring tribes, who
have the custom of exogamy, and who trace pedigrees

^ Collins's English Colony in New ^ Notices of the Indian Archi-
South Wales, p. 302. P^higo^ p. 90.

SUBSEQUENTLY A FORM.

fchi-

through the mother, and not through the father — a
custom which, as we shall presently see, is so common
that it may be said to be the usual one among the
lower races — after a certain time the result would be
that each tribe would consist of four septs or clans, re-
presenting the four original tribes, and hence we should
find communities in which each tribe is divided into
clans, and a man must always marry a woman of a
different clan. But as communities become larger and
more civilised, the actual ' capture ' became inconvenient,
and at last impossible.

Gradually therefore it came to be more and more a
mock ceremony, forming, however, a necessi;ry part of the
marriage ceremony. Of this many cases might be given.
Speaking of the Khonds of Orissa, Major-General
Campbell says that on one occasion he 'heard loud
cries proceeding from a village close at hand ; fearing
some quarrel, I rode to the spot, and there I saw a
man bearing away u}X)n his back something enveloped
in an ample covering of scarlet cloth ; he was sur-
rounded by twenty or thirty young fellows, and by
them protected from the desperate attacks made upon
him by a party of young women. On seeking an ex-
planation of this novel scene, I was told that the man
had just been married, and his precious burden was
his blooming bride, whom he was conveying to his
own village. Her youthful friends (as it appears is
the custom) were seeking to regain possession of her,
and hurled 8):ones and bamboos at the head of the
devoted bridegroom, until he readied the confines of
his own village.' ^

' Quoted ill M'Leiinau'tJ Primitive Maningc, p. 28.

il!

1 1

HINDOSTAN— MALAY PF.N INSULA .

Ii!

t-l :

;r^

Sir W. Elliot also mentions tliat not only amongst
the Khonds, but also in 'several other tribes of Central
' India, the bridegroom seizes his bride by force, either
' affected or real ;' ^ and the same was customary
among the Badagas of the Neilgherry Hills.'^

Dalton mentions that among the Kols of Central
India, when the price of a girl has been arranged, ' the
' bridegroom and a large party of his friends of both
' sexes enter with much singing and dancing, and
' sham fighting in the village of the bride, where they
' meet the bride's party, and are hospitably entertained.'^

M. Bourien^ thus describes the marriage ceremony
among the wild tribes of the Malay Peninsula: —
' When all are assembled, and all ready, the bride and
' bridegroom are led by one of the old men of the
' tribe, towards a circle more or less great, according
' to the presumed strength of the intended pair ; the
' girl runs round first, and the young man pursues a
' short distance behind ; if he succeed in reaching her
' and retaining her, she becomes his wife ; if not, he
' loses all claim to her. At other times, a larger field
' is appointed for the trial, and they pursue one another
' in the forest. The race, according to the words of the
' chronicle, " is not to the swift nor the battle to the
' " strong," but to the young man who has had the good
* fortune to please the intended bride.'

Among the Kalmucks, Dr. Hell tells us that, after the
price of the girl has been duly agreed on, when the

I- '

' Trans. Ethn. Soc. 1809, p. 125. ^ Trans. Ethn. Soc. vol. vi. p. 24.

"^ Metz. The tribes of the Neil- See also p. 27, and the 'J'ribea of

glierries, p. 74. See also Lewin's India, vol. i. p. lo.
Jlill Traet.^^ of Chittagong, pp. 3(5, >^0. ' Trans. Ethn. Soc. 18U5, p. 81.

fli

KALM UGKS—TUNG USES— KAMCII AD ALES.

the

.68 a

her

eld

her

the

:ood

the
the

24.

39 of

bridegroom comes with his friends to carry off his bride,
' a sham resistance is always made by the people of her
' camp, in spite of which she fails not to be borne away
' on a richly caparisoned horse, with loud shouts and
' feu de joie.' ^

Dr. Clarke ^ gives a charmingly romantic account of
the ceremony. ' The girl,' he says, ' is first mounted,
' who rides off at full speed. Her lover pursues ; if he
' overtnkes her, she becomes his wife, and the marriage
' is consummated on the spot ; after this she returns
' with him to his tent. But it sometimes happens that
' the woman does not wish to marry the person by
' whom she is pursued ; in this case, she will not suffer
' him to overtake her. AVe were assured that no in-
' stance occurs of a Kalmuck girl being thus caught,
' unless she have a partiality to the pursuer. If she
' dislikes him, she rides, to use the language of English
* sportsmen, "neck or nought," until she has completely
' effected her escape, or until her pursuer's horse be-
' comes exhausted, leaving her at liberty to return, and
' to be afterwards chased by some more favoured
' admirer.'

' Among the Tunguses and Kamchadales,' says Ernan,"'
' a matrimonial engagement is not definitely arranged
' and concluded until the suitor has got the better of his
' beloved by force, and has torn her clothes.' Attacks
on women are not allowed to be avenged by blood un-
less they take place within the yourt or house. The
man is not ref!:arded as to blame, if the woman ' has

^ M'Lennan's Primitive Marriage, " Travels in Siberir, vol. ii. p. 442.

p. 30. See also Kaines' History of Man, vol.

'^ Travels, vol. i. p. ;J.32. ii. p. 58.

f 1

!t3

(! •■

'I;!

MONGOLS - ESQ UIMA UX.

* ventuvQcl to leave her natural place, the sacred and
'• protecting hearth.' Pallas observes that in his time,
marriage by capture prevailed also among the Samo-
vedes.' ^

Among the Mongols''^ when a marriage is arranged,
the q\v\ ' flies to some relations to hide herself. The
' bridegroom coming to demand his wife, the father-
' in-law says, " My daughter is yours ; go, take her
' " wherever you can find her." Having thus obtained
' his warrant, he, with his friends, runs about searching,
' and having found her, seizes her as his property, and

* carries her home as it were by force.

' In the Korea when a man marries, he mounts on
' horseback, attended by his friends, and, having ridden
' about the town, stops at the bride's door, where he is
' received by her relations, who then carry her to his
' house, and the ceremony is complete.' ^

Among the Esquimaux of Cape York (Smith Sound),
according to Dr. Hayes,* ' there is no marriage cere-

* mony further than that the boy is required to carry
' off his bride by main force ; for, even among these

* blubber-eating people, the woman only saves her mo-
' desty by a sham resistance, although she knows years
' beforehand that her destiny is sealed, and that she is
' to become the wife of the man from whose embraces,

* when the nuptial day comes, she is obliged by the
' inexorable law of public opinion to free herself if pos-

* sible, by kicking and screaming with might and main,

* until she is safely landed in the hut of her future lord,

• Vol. iv. p. 07. See also Astley'a
Collection of Voyages, vol. iv. p. ^>1~>.

* Astley, vol. iv. p. 77.

" Ihid. p. 342.

' Open Polar Sea, p. 4.^2.

^ ImI|I

fl '

r--

SO UTII AMER WANS—FEEJEEANS.

' when she gives up the combat very cheerfully and takes
' possession of her new abode.'

In Greenland, according to Egede, ' when a young
' man likes a maiden he commonly proposes it to their
' parents and relations on both sides ; and after he has

* obtained their consent, he gets two or more old women
' to fetch the bride (and if he is a stout fellow he will

* fetch her himself). They go to the place where the

* young woman is, and carry her away by force.' ^

We have already seen (p. 69) that marriage by cap-
ture exists in full force among the Northern Redskins.

The Aborigines of the Amazon Valley, says Wallace,^
' have no particular ceremony at their marriages, except
' that of always carrying away the girl by force, or
' making a show of doing so, even when she and her

* parents .ire quite willing.'

M. Bardel, in the notes to D'Urville's Voyage, men-
tions that among the Indians round Conception, in South
America, after a man has agreed on the price of a girl
with her parents, he surprises her, and carries her off to
the woods for a few days, after which the happy couple
return home.^

In Tierra del Fuego, as Admiral Fitzroy tells us,* as
soon ' as a youth is able to maintain a wife by his
' exertions in fishing or birdcatching, he obtains the
' consent of her relations, and .... having built or
' stolen a canoe for himself, he watches for an oppor-
' tunity, and carries off his bride. If she is unwilling
' she hides herself in the woods until her admirer is

'\ i

' Ilistoiy of Greenland, p. 143.
'^ Travels in the Amazons, p. 407.
» Vol. iii. p. 277, and 22.

* Voyage of the Adventure and
Beagle, vol. ii. p. 182.

.* if

rOLYxWESIANS.

1 '■
.1

-.1

■ 1

, 1

■ 1

: j

' heartily tired of looking for her, and gives up the pur-
' suit, but this seldom happens.'

Williams mentions that among the Feejeeans, the cus-
tom prevails ' of seizing upon a woman by apparent or
' actual force, in order to make her a wife. On reaching
' the home of her abductor, should she not approve of
' the match, she runs to some one who can protect her ;
' if, however, she is satisfied, the matter is settled forth-
' Avith ; a feast is given to her friends the next morning,
' and the couple are thenceforward considered as man
' and wife.' ^

Earle^ gives the following account of marriage in New
Zeal.'uid, which he regards r s ' most extraordinary,'
while in reality it is, as we now see, nothing of the
sort : ' The New Zealand method of courtship and ma-
trimony is,' he says, ' most extraordinary ; ,.o much so
that an observer could never imagine any affection
existed between the parties. A man sees a woman
whom he fancies he should like for a wife ; he asks the
consent of her father, or, if an orphan, of her nearest
relation ; which, if he obtains, he carries his " intended"
off by force, she resisting with all her strength ; and,
as the New Zealand girls are generally pretty robust,
sometimes a dreadful struggle takes place ; both are
soon stripped to the skin ; and it is sometimes the work
of hours to remove the fair prize a hundred yards. If
she breaks away she instantly flies from her antago-
nist, and he has his labour to commence again. We
may suppose that if the lady feels any wish to be
united to hei* would-be spouse she will not make too
violent an opposition ; l)Mt it sometimes happens that

' Fijiaiul theFijiinitJ, vol.i. p. 17-1. - IIosi(lenceinNewZealiuid,p. 244.

1 i

^ : I.

,V':

POLYNESIANS.

igo-
IWc
be
I too
mat
I4.

* she secures her retreat into her father's house, and the
' lover loses all chance of ever obtaining her ; whereas,
' if he can manage to carry her in triumph into his own,
' she immediately becomes his wife.'

Even after a marriage, it is customary in New Zea-
land to have a mock scuffle. Mr. Yate ' gives a good
illustration. There was, he says, ' a little opposition to
the wedding, but not till it was over, as is always the
custom here. The bride's mother came to me the
preceding afternoon, and said she was well pleased in
her heart that her daughter was going to be married
to Pahau ; but that she must be angiy about it with
her mouth in the presence of her tribe, lest the natives
should come and take away all her possessions, and
destroy her crops. This is customary on all occasions.
If a chief me< ts with an accident he is stripped, as a
mark of respect ; if he marries a wife he has to lose
all his property ; and this is done out of respect — not
from disrespect, as it was once printed, inadvertently,
in an official publication. A chief would think himself
slighted if his food and garments were not taken away
from him upon many occasions. To prevent this
Manga, the old mother, acted with policy. As I was
returning, therefore, from the church with the bride-
groom and bride, she met the procession and began to
assail us all furiously. She put on a most terrific
countenance, threw her garments about, and tore her
hair like a fury ; then said to me, " Ah, you white
" missionary, you are worse than the devil : you first
" make a slave-lad your son by redeeming him from his
" master, and then marry him to my daughter, who is a
1 Yate's New Zealand, p. 96.

' i

i '

{

,1 i:

1 1'"

I 111 •

;!!(

riiiLirriNE islanvehs—neghoes.

' " lady. 1 will tear your eyes out ! I will tear your eyes
' " out ! " The old woman, suiting the action to the word,
'' feigned a scratch at my face, at the same time saying
' in an under tone that it was " all mouth " and that
' she did not mean what she said. I told her I should
' stop her mouth with a blanket. " Ha, ha, ha ! " she
' replied ; " that was all I wanted : I only wanted to
' " get a blanket, and therefore I made this noise." The
' whole affair went off after this remarkably well ; all
' seemed to enjoy themselves ; and everyone was satis-
' lied.' It is evident, however, that Yate did not
thoroughly understand the meaning of the scene.

Among the Ahitas of the Philippine Islands, when a
man wishes to marry a girl, her parents send her before
sunrise into the woods. She has an hour's start, after
which the lover goes to seek her. If he finds her and
brings her back before sunset, the marriage is acknow-
ledged ; if not, he must abandon all claim to her.

In the West African kingdom of Futa,^ after all other
preliminaries are arranged, ' one difficulty yet remains,
' viz., how the young man shall get his wife home ; for
' the women-cousins and relations take on mightily,
' and guard the door of the house to prevent her being
' carried away. At last, by the bridegroom's presents
' and generosity, their grief is assuaged. He then pro-
' vides a friend, well mounted, to carry her off; but as
' soon as she is on horseback the women renew their
* lamentations, and rush in to dismount her. However,
' the man is generally successful, and rides off with his
' prize to the house prepared for her.'

I ■:.

i ;'i

' Astlcj-'s Collection of Voyages, vol. ii. p. 240.

.t>;

MANDINGOS^CIRCASSIANS.

for

tily,

eing

ints

)ro-

leir

^er,

his

Gray mentions' that aMandingo (West Africa) wish-
ing to marry a young girl at Kayaye, applied to her
mother, Avho ' consented to his obtaining her in any
' way he could. Accordingly, when the poor girl was
' employed preparing some rice for supper, she was
' seized by her intended husband, assisted by three or
' four of his companions, and carried off by force. She

* made much resistance, by biting, scratching, kicking,
' and roaring most bitterly. Many, both men and
' women, some of them her own relations, who ^vit-
' nessed the affair, only laughed at the farce, and con-
' soled her by saying that she would soon be reconciled

* to her situation.' Evidently therefore this was not,
as Gray seems to have supposed, a mere act of lawless
violence, but a recognised custom, which called for no
interference on the part of spectators.

Denham,'^ describing a marriage at Sockna (North
Africa), says that the bride is taken on a camel to the
bridegroom's house, ' upon which it is necessary for her
' to appear greatly surprised, and refuse to dismount;
' the women scream, the men shout, and she is at
' length persuaded to enter.'

In Circassia weddings are accompanied by a feast, ' in
' the midst of which the bridegroom has to rush in, and,
' with the help of a few daring young men, carry off the
' lady by force ; and by this process she becomes the

* lawful wife.' ^ According to Spencer, another im-
portant part of the ceremony consists in the bridegroom
drawing his dagger and cutting open the bride's corset.

' Gray's Travels in Western Africa, ^ Moser, Tlie Caucasus and its

p. 50. People, p. 31 j quoted by M'Lennan,

2 L. c. vol. i. p. 39.

/. c. p. 3G.

U USSIA— NORTH GERMANY— Jih'ITA IN.

'I :

I \l

;;/

As regards Europe, Plutarch ' tells us that in Sparta
the bridegroom usually carried off his bride by force,
evidently, however, of a friendly character. The Ro-
mans, also, had a very similar custom. In North
Friesland, ' a young fellow called the bride-lifter lifts
' the bride and her two bridesmaids upon the waggon
' in which the married couple are to travel to their
' home.' ^ M'TiCnnan states that in some parts of
France, down to the seventeenth century, it was cus-
tomary for the bride to feign reluctance to enter the
bridegroom's house.

In Poland, Lithuania, Russia, and parts of Prussia,
according to Seignior Gaya,^ yowiig "^cn used to carry
off their sweethearts by force, and then apply to the
parents for their consent.

Lord Karnes,* in his ' Sketches of the History of
Man,' mentions that the following marriage ceremony
was, in his day, or at least had till shortly before, been
customary among the Welsh : — ' On the morning of
' the wedding-day the bridegroom, accompanied by his
' friends on horseback, demands the bride. Her friends,
' who are likewise on horseback, give a positive refusal,
' on which a mock scuffle ensues. The bride, mounted
' behind her nearest kinsman, is carried off, and is pur-
' sued by the bridegroom and his friends, with loud
' shouts. It is not uncommon on such an occasion to
' see 200 or 300 sturdy Cambro- Britons riding at full
' speed, crossing and jostling, to the no small amusement
' of the spectators. When they have fatigued them-

' See alfo Herodotus, vi. G5. also Olaiis Magnus, vol. xiv. chap-

2 M'l.oiiiiiin, I. ('. p. m. ter 9.

^ Marriage Ceremonies, p. 35. See * History of Man, vol. ii. p. 59.

UXl'LAXATfON OF MAUniACil'] CUSTn}fS.

r of
ony
een
of
his
ds,
sal,
ted
ur-
ud
to
•ull
nt
m-

[ap-

* selvGH and their horses, the bridegroom is suffered to
' overtake liis bride. He leads her uway in triumph,
' and the scene is conchided with feasting and festivity.'

Tluis, then, we see that marriage by capture, eithei'
as a stern reality or as an important ceremony, prevails
in Australia and among the Malays, in Ilindostan,
Central Asia, Siberia, and Kamskatka; among the
]*]squimaux, the Northern Kedskins, the Aborigines of
lirazil, in Chile and Tierra del Fuego, in the Pacific
Islands, both among the Polynesians and the Feejeeans,
in the Phill})pines, among the Arabs and Negroes, in
Circassia, and until recently, throughout a great part of
Europe.

I have already referred to the custom of lifting the
bride over the doorstep, which we find in such different
and distant races as the Uomans, Ivcdskins of Canada,
the Chinese, and the Abyssinians. Hence, also, i)erhiips
our honeymoon, during which the bridegroom keei)s
his bride away from her relatives and friends; hence
even, perhaps, as Mv. M'Leiman supposes, the slipper
is in mock anger thrown after the departing bride and
bridegroom.

The curious custom which forbids the father and
mother-in-law to speak to their son-in-law, and vice
versa, which I have already shown (p. 9) to be very
widely distributed, but for which no satisfactory ex-
planation has yet been given, seems to me a natural
consequence of marriage by capture. When the capture
was a reality, the indignation of the parents "vvould also
be real; when it became a mere symbol, the parental
anger would be sj'mbolised also, and would be con-
tinued even after its origin was forgotten.

((.

« t.'i

I 1
i [

III

! ' I

MAimiAatl BY CONFAJih'EATIO.

The separation of husband and wife, to which also I
liavc referred (p. 05), may also arise from the same
custom. It is very remarkable indeed, how persistent
are all customs and ceremonies connected with marria<;c.
Thus our * bride cake,' which so invariably accompanies
a wedding, and which must always be cut by the bride ^
may be traced back to the old Roman form of marriage
by ' confarreatio ' or eating together. So also among
the Iroquois, bride and bridegroom used to partake to-
gether of a cake of ' sagamitc,' ^ which the bride offered
to her husband. The Feejee Islanders ^ have a very similar
custom. Again among the Tipperahs, one of the Hill
tribes of Chittagong, the bride prepares some drink,
* sits on her lover's knee, drinks half, and gives him the
' other half ; they afterwards crook together their
' little fingers.' ^ In one form or another a similar
custom is found among most of the Hill tribes of India.

Mr. M'Lennan conceives that marriage by capture
arose from the custom of exogamy, that is to say, from
the custom which forbad marriage within the tribe.
Exogamy, again, he considers to have arisen from the
practice of female infanticide. I have already indicated
the reasons which prevent me from accepting this
explanation, and which induce me to regard exogamy
as arising from mariiage by capture, not marriage by
capture from exogamy. Mr. M'Lennan's theory seems
to me quite inconsistent with the existence of tribes
which have marriage by capture and yet are endoga-
mous. The Bedouins, for instance, have unmistake-
ubly marriage by capture, and yet the man has a right

Lafitau, vol. i. pp. o'JO, 071.
Fiji uud the Fijians, vol. i. p. 17 \

^ Lewin's Hill Tincts of Cliitta-
ooiijr, pp. 71, 80.

I'JXJ'IATION IVU MAlililAai:.

if only he be willing to give tl

|»gamy
'•e hv
seems
tribes
loga-
ttake-
iriglit

Chitta-

to marry liis cousin
price demanded for her.*

Mr. ]\I'Lennan, indeed, feels the difficulty which
wotdd be presented by such cases, the existence of
which he seems, however, to doubt; adding, that if the
symbol of capture be ever found in the marriage
ceremonies of an endogamous tribe, we may be sure
that it is a relic of an early time at which the tribe was
organised on another princi[)le than that of exogamy.'"'

That marriage by capture has not arisen merely from
female coyness is I think evident, as already mentioned,
firstly, because it does not account for the resistance of
the relatives, and secondly, because the very question
to be solved is why it has become so generally the
custom to win the wife b}' force rather than by
persuasion.

The explanation which I have suggested derives addi-
tional probability from the evidence of a general feeling
that marriage was an act for which some compensation
was due to those whose rights were invaded.

The nature of the ceremonies bv which this was
effected makes me reluctant to enter into this part of
the subject at length ; and I will here therefore merely
indicate in general terms the character of the evidence.

I will firstly refer to certain details given by
Dulaure^ in his chapter on the worship of Venus,
of which he re2:ards these customs merelv as one

CD ^

illustration, although they have, I cainiot but think, a
signification deeper than, and different from, that which
he attributes to them.

^ See Kleuim, AUg. Cultarg. d.
Meuscli. vol. iv. p. 140.

'^ Loc. cit. p. 53.

'' Ilidt. nbregoo dos dilF. Cultes.

u 2

'i< ll

Vl,

100 BABYLON: i, AliMENI i, JiJTITIOriA, GREECE.

We must remember that the better known savage
races have, in most cases, now arrived at the stage
in which j^aternal rights are recognised, and hence that
fathers can and do sell their daughters into matrimony.
The price of a wife is of course regulated by the
circumstances of the tribe, and ever}^ or nearly every,
industrious young man is enabled to buy one for liim-
self. As long, however, as communal marriage rights
were in force this would be almost impossible. That
special marriage was an infringement of these com-
munal rights, for which some compensation was due,
seems to me the true explanation of the offerings which
virgins were so generally compell(>d to make before
being permitted to marry.

In many cases the exclusive possession of a wife
could only be legally acquired by a temporary recogni-
tion of the pre-existing communal rights. Thus, in
Babylonia, according to Herodotus,^ every woman was
compelled to offer herself once in the temple of A enus,
and only after doing so was she considered free to
marry. The same was, according to Strabo, the law in
Armenia.*'^ In some parts of Cyprus also, among the
Nasamones,^ and other ^Ethiopian tribes, he tells us
there was a very similar custom, and Dulaure asserts
that it existed also at Carthage, and in several parts of
Greece. The account which Plciodotus gives of the
Lydians, though not so clear, seems to indicate a
similar law.

The customs of the Thracians, as described by Hero-
dotus,'^ point to a similar feeling. Among races somc-

^ Clio, 100.
« Strabo, lib. 2.

* ^lolponiciio, 17:,'.
■* Terpsichoi'o, v. U.

"If

%#■ ^

TIINDOSTAN, NORTH AMERICA, GREENLAND. 101

of
the

U'o-
iic-

what more advanced, the symbol supersedes the reality
of this custom, and St. Augustine found it necessary
to protest against that which prevailed, even at his
time, in Italy. ^

Diodorus Sicuhis mentions that in the Balearic
Islands, Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica, the bride was for
one night considered as the common property of all the
guests present ; after which she belonged exclusively
to her husband.^

In India, according to Grosse,^ and particularly in
the valleys of the Ganges, virgins were com[)elled before
marriage to present themselves in the temples dedicated
to Juggernaut, and the same is said to liave been cus-
tomary in Pondicherry and at Goa.*

Among the Sonthals, one of the aboriginal Indian
tribes, the marriages take place once a year, mostly
iii January. ' For six days all the candidates for
' matrimony live together ....;' after which only
are the separate couples regarded as having established
their right to marry .^

Carver mentions^ that while among the Naudowessies,
he observed that they paid uncommon respect to one of
their women, and found that she w^as considered to be
a person of high distinction, because on one occasion she
invited forty of the principal w\arriors to her tent, pro-
vided them with a feast, and treated them in every
respect as husbands. On enquiry he was informed that
this was an old custom, but had fallen into abeyance, and

1 Dulaure, loc. cit. vol. ii. p. 160.
See App.

2 Diodorus, v. 18.

' Ilistoire abr^gee des Ciiltes, vol.
i. p. 431.

•» Ihid, vol. ii. p. 108.

5 The People of India, by J. F.
Watson and J. W. Kaye, vol. i. p. 2.

° Travels in North America, p. 245,
See also Notes.

102 surriYiNa guests with tempobary wives.

* scarcely once in an age any of the females are hardy
' enough to make this feast, notwithstanding a husband
' of the first rank awaits as a sure reward the success-
' ful giver of it.'

Speaking of the Greenland Esquimaux, Egede ex-
pressly states that 'those are reputed the best and
' noblest tempered who, without any pain or reluctancy,
' Avill lend their friends their wives.' ^

The same feeling, probably, gave rise to the curious
custom existing, according to Strabo,^ among the (Par-
thian) Tapyrians, that when a man had had two or three
children by one wife, he was obliged to leave her, so that
she might marry some one else. There is some reason
to suppose that a similar custom once prevailed among
the Romans; thus Cato, who was proverbially austere
in his morals, did not think it right permanently to
retain his wife Martia, whom his friend Hortensius
wished to marry. This he accordingly permitted, and
Martia lived with Hortensius until his death, when she
returned to her first husband. The high character of
Cato is sufiicient proof that he would not have per-
mitted this, if he had regarded it as wrong; and Plutarch
expressly states that the custom of lending wives existed
among the Romans. Akin to this feeling is that which
induces so many savage tribes ^ to provide their guests
with temporary wives. To omit this would be regarded
as quite inhospitable. The practice, moreover, seems
to recognise the existence of a right inherent in every

' History of Greenland, p. 142.
^ Strabo, ii. pp. 516, o20.
^ For instance, the Esquimaux,
North and South American Indians,

Polynesians, Australians, Eastern and
Western Xegroes,Arabs, Abyssinians,
Catllrs, Mongols, Tutski; &c.

f ij

; f 1(1 »

ind

RESPECT FOR COUnTESANS.

103

member of the community, and to visitors as temporary
members; which, in the case of the latter, could not be
abrog.ated by arrangements made before their arrival,
nnd, consequently, without their concurrence. The
prevalence of this custom brings home to us forcibly
the difference existing between the savage and the
civilised modes of reGfardinn^ the relation of the sexes to
one another.

Perhaps the most striking case of all is that afforded
by some of the Brazilian tribes. Tlie captives taken
by them in war used to be kept for some time and fatted
up; after which they were killed and eaten. Yet even
here, during the time that they had to live, the poor
wretches were always provided with a temporary
wife.^

This view also throws some light on the remarkable
subordination of the wife to the husband, which is so
characteristic of marriage, and so curiously inconsistent
with all our avowed ideas ; moreover it tends to explain
those curious cases in which Hetaira? were held in
greater estimation than those women who were, as we
should consider, properly and respectably married to a
single husband.^ The former were originally fellow-
countrywomen and relations; the latter captives and
slaves. And even when this ceased to be the case,
the idea would long survive the circumstances which
gave rise to it

Wek

now

that

Athens courtesans we
spected. ' The daily conversation they listened

highly

re-

to,' says

* Lafitau, Mceurs des Sauv. anier.
vol. ii. p. 294.

- Bachofon, Das Mutterrecbt, pp.

125.

XIX. l'^'). Burton's Lake Regiona
of Africa, vol. i. p. 198.

1 ■

lii f

101

liESPKCT FOR COURTESANS.

Lord Karnes/ 'on philosopliy, politics, poetry, en-
' lightened their understanding and improved their taste.
' Their houses became agreeable schools, where everyone
' might be instructed in his own art. Socrates and
' Pericles met frequently at the house of Aspasia, for
' from her they acquired delicacy of taste, and, in
' return, procured to her public respect and reputation.
' Greece at that tune was governed by orators, over
' whom some celebrated courtesans had great in-
' flncnce, and by that means entered deep into the
' government.'

So also it was an essential of the model Platonic
Republic that * among the guardians, at least, the
' sexual arrangements should be under public regu-
' lation, nnd the monopoly of one woman by one man
' forbidden.' ^

In Java, we are told that courtesans are by no means
despised, and in some parts of Western Africa the negroes
are stated to look on them with respect; while, on the
other hand, oddly enough, they have a strong feeling
against musicians, who are looked on as ' infamous, but
' necessary tools for their pleasure.' They did not even
permit then to be buried, lest they should pollute the
earth.''

So also in India, various occupations which we regard
as useful * and innocent, if humble, are considered to be
deoradino; in the highest deo:ree. On the other hand, in
the famous Indian city of Vesali, ' marriage was forbid-
' den, and high rank attached to the huly who held office
* as Chief of the Courtesans.' When the Holy Buddha

' History of Man, vol. ii. p. 50.
■■* r»ain'.s Meiitnl and >[ornl Science.

^ Wait's Anthropology, p. 317.
' Astley, V. ii. p. 279.

rd
be
in
d-
le

RELIGIOUS CHARACTER OF COURTESANS. 105

(Sakyamuni), in his old age, visited Vesali, 'he was
' lodged in a garden belonging to the chief of the
' courtesans, and received a visit from this grand lady,
' who drove out to see him, attended by her suite
' in stately carriages. Having approached and bowed
' down, she took her seat on one side of him and listened

' to a discourse on Dharma On entering the town

' she met the rulers of A^esali, gorgeously apparelled ; but
' tlieir equipages made way for her. They asked her to
' resign to them the honour of entertaining Sakyamuni;
' but she refused, and the great man himself, when soli-
' cited by the rulers in person, also refused to break his
' engagement with the lady.' ^

Until recently the courtesans were the only educated
women in India.^ Even now many of the great Hindoo
temples have bands of courtesans attached to them, who
* follow their trade without public shame. It is a strange
' anomaly that, while a courtesan, born of, or adopted
' into, a courtesan family, is not held to pursue a shame-
' less vocation, other women who have fallen from good
' repute are esteemed disgraceful.' ^ There is in reality,
however, nothing anomalous in this. The former con-
tinue the old custom of the country, under solemn reli-
gious sanction; the latter, on the contrary, have given
way to lawless inclinations, have outraged public feel-
ings, have probably broken their marriage vows, and
brought disgrace on their families. In Ancient Egypt,
again, it would appear that illegitimate children were.

Life in Ancient

^ Mrs. Spier's
India, p. 281.

2 Dubois' People of India, pp. 217,
402.

^ The People of India, by J. F.
Watson and J. W. Kaye, vol. iii. p.
105.

■;i

PI'

i I'l

106

EXOGAMY.

under certjiiu circumstances, preferred over those born
in wedlock.^

When the speci.al wife was a stranger and a shive, while
the communal wife was a relative and a freewoman, such
feelings would naturally arise, and would, in some cases,
long survive the social condition to which they owed
their origin.

I now pass to the curious custom, for which IM'Lennan
has proposed the convenient term 'exogamy' — that,
namely, of necessarily marrying out of the tribe. Tylor,
who called particular attention to this custom in his
interesting work on ' The Early History of Man,' which
was published in the very same year as M'Lennan's
'Primitive Marriage,' thought that 'the evils of niar-
' rying near relatives miglit be the main ground of this
' series of restrictions.' Morgan^ also considers exogamy
' as explainable, and oidy explainable, as a reformatory
' movement to break up the intermarriage of blood re-
' lations,' and which could only be effected by exogamy,
because all in the tribe were regarded as related. In fact,
however, exogamy afforded little protection against the
marriage of relatives, and, wherever it was systematised,
it permitted marriage even between half brothers and
sisters, either on the father's or mother's side. Where an
objection to the intermarriage of relatives existed, ex-
ogamy was unnecessary ; where it did not exist, exogamy
could not arise.

M'Lennan says, ' I believe this restriction on marriage
' to be connected with the practice in early times of
' female infanticide, which, rendering women scarce, led

* Bachofen, Das Mutterreclit, p. " Proc. Amer. Acad, of Arts and
125. Sciences, 186G.

> 4

e born

, while
ri, such
1 cases,
J owed

^ennan
— that,
Tylor,
in his
' which
[innan's
)f niar-
of this
oogamy
matory
ood re-
ogamy,
n fact,
nst the
atised,
rs and
lere an
d, ex-
ogamy

image

Lrts and

ORKUN OF J'JXOGAMY.

107

' at once to polyandry within the tribe, and the captur-
' ing of women from without.' ^ He has not alluded to
the natural preponderance of men over women. Thus,
throughout Europe, the proportion of boys to girls is as
lOG to 100.' Here, therefore, even without infanticide,
we see that there is no exact balance between the sexes.
In many savage races, in various parts of the world, it
has been observed the men are much more numerous,
but it is difficult to ascertain how far this is due to an
oria;inal difference, and how far to other causes.

It is conceivable that the difference between endo-
gamous and exogamous tribes may have been due to
the different proportion of the sexes : those races tend-
ing to become exogamous where boys prevail ; those, on
the other hand, endogamous where the reverse is the
case.^ I am not, however, aware that we have any
statistics which enable us to determine this point, nor
do I believe that it is the true explanation of the
custom.

Infanticide is, no doubt, very prevalent among
savages. As long, indeed, as men were few in number,
enemies were scarce and game was tame. Under these
circumstances, there was no temptation to infanticide.
There were some things which women could do better
than men, some occupations which pride and laziness,
or both, induced them to leave to the women. As
soon, however, as in any country population became
even slightly more dense, neighbours became a nuisance.
They invaded the hunting grounds, and disturbed the
Hence, if for no other reason, wars would arise.

game.

' Loc. cit. p. 138.

See Das Mutterrecht, p. 109.

Wait's Anthropology, p. 111.

■\y

|::

\h '

II ■■: '

(1 F

■1 ■, : '

n 1 V,

ii:

^ ' 1

108

ORIGIN OF EXOGAMY.

I! '■

. '

Once begun, tliey would continually break out again
and again, under one pretence or anotlier. Men for
slaves, women for wives, and the thirst for glory, made
a weak tribe always a temptation to a strong one.
Under these circumstances, female children became a
source of weakness in several ways. They ate, and did
not hunt. They weakened their mothers when young,
and, when grown-up, were a temptation to surrounding
tribes. Hence female infjxnticide is very prevalent, and
easily accounted for. Yet I cannot regard it as the
true cause of exogamy. On the other hand, we must
remember that under the communal system the women
of the tribe were all common property. No one could
appropriate one of them to himself without infringing
on the general rights of the tribe. Women taken in
war were, on the contrary, in a different position. The
tribe, as a tribe, had no right to them, and men surely
would reserve to themselves exclusively their own
prizes. These captives then would naturally become
the wives in our sense of the term.

Several causes would tend to increase the importance
of the separate, and decrease that of communal mar-
riage. The impulse which it would give to, and re-
ceive back from, the development of the affections ; the
convenience with reference to domestic arrangements,
the natural wishes of the wife herself, and last, not
least, the inferior energy of the children sprung from
' in and in ' marriages, would all tend to increase the
importance of individual marriage.

Even were there no other cause, the advantage of
crossing, so well known to breeders of stock, would
soon give a marked preponderance to those races by

P!'

,ii. >,

ts.

VREVALENCE OF EXOGAMY— AUSTIiALIA. 109

whom exogamy was largely practised, and for several
reasons therefore we need not be surprised to find exo-
gamy very prevalent among the loAver races of man.
When this state of things had gone on for some time,
usage, as M'Lennan well observes, would ' establish a
' prejudice among the tribes observing it — a prejudice
' strong as a principle of religion, as every prejudice
' relating to marriage is apt to be — against marrying
' women of their stock.' ^

We should not, perhaps, have a priori expected to
find among savages any such remarkable restriction, yet
it is very widely distributed ; and from this point of
view we can, I think, clearly see how it arose.

In Australia, where the same family names are com-
mon almost over the whole continent, no man may
marry a woman whose family name is the same as his
own, and who belongs therefore to the same tribe.^
' No man,' says Mr. Lang, ' can marry a woman of the
* same clan, though the parties be no way related ac-
' cording to our ideas.' ^

In Eastern Africa, Burton* says that ' some clans of
' the Somal will not marry one of the same, or even of
' a consanguineous family ; ' and the Bakalari have the
same rule.^

Du Chaillu,^ speaking of W^estem Equatorial Africa,
says, ' the law of marriages among the tribes I have
' visited is peculiar; each tribe is divided into clans;
' the children in most of the tribes belong to the clan of

* Loc. cit, p. 140.

"^ Eyre's Discoveries in Australia,

vol. ii. p. .'^•20. frvpy's Joiirnfil, p. 242,

^ The Aborigines of Australia, p. 10.

^ First Footsteps, p. 120.
^ Trans. Ethn. Soc. N. S., vol. i. p.
.121 .

« IhUl. p. 307.

I! I

110

AFJ?ICA~1IJ^W0STAN.

!■ f/

* tlic inotlicr, and these cannot l)y any possible laws

* marry among themselves, however removed in degree

* they may have been connected : it is considered an

* abomination among them. But there exists no ob-
'jection to possessing a father's or brother's wife. I
' could not but be struck with the healthful influence
' of such re<jrulations a^jrainst blood marriages amon<»:
' them.'

In India the AVarali tribes arc divided into sections,
and no man may marry a woman belonging to his own
section. In the Magar tribes these sections are called
Thums, and the same rule prevails. Col. Dalton tells
us that ' the Hos, Moondahs, and Oraons are divided
' into clans or keelis, and may not take to wife a girl of
' the same keeli.' Again the Garrows are divided into
' maharis,' and a man may not marry a girl of his own
' mahari.'

The Munnieporees and other tribes inhabiting the
hills round Munniepore — the Koupooees, Mows, Mn-
rams, and Murrings — as M'Lennan points out on the
authority of M'Culloch, ' are each and all divided into
' four families : Koomrul, Looang, Angom, and Nhig-
' tliaja. A member of any of these families may marry
' a member of any other, but the intermarriage of mem-
' bers of the same family is strictly prohibited.' ^ On
the contrary the Todas, says Metz,'*^ ' are divided into
' five distinct classes, known by the names Peiky, Pekkan,
' Kuttan, Kennae, and Tody; of which the first is rc-
' garded as the most aristocratic. These classes do not

[:i

' Account of the Valley of ^lun-
uiepore, 1850, pp. 40, CO.

^ Tribes of the Noilgherry Hills,
p. 21.

NORTHERN ASIA— CHINA— ClliCASSlA.

Ill

' even intcnnarry with cacli other, and can therefore
' never lose their distinctive characteristics.'

Tiie Khonds, as we are informed by General Camp-
l)ell, ' regard it as degrading to bestow their daugliters
' in marriage on men of their oAvn tnbe; and consider
' it more manly to seek their wives in a distant coun-
' try.' ' Mnjor ^I'Pherson also tells us that they con-
sider marriage between people of the same tribe as
wicked, and punishable with death. The Kalmucks,
according to De Hell, are divided into hordes, and no
man can marry a woman of the same horde. The
bride, says Bergman, speaking of the same people, is
always chosen from another stock ; ' among the Derbets,
' for instance, from the Torgot stock, and among the
' Torgots from the Derbet stock.'

The same custom prevails among the Circassians and
the Samoyeds.^ The Ostyaks regard it as a crime to
marry a woman of the same family or even of the same
name.^

When a Jakut (Siberia) wishes to marry, he must,
says Middendorf,^ choose a girl from another clan. No
one is permitted to marry a woman from his own. In
China, says Davis,'"^ ' marriage between all persons of the
' same surname being unlawful, this rule must of course
' include all descendants of the male branch for ever;
' and as, in so vast a population, there are not a great
' many more than one hundred surnames throughout
' the empire, the embarrassments that arise from so
' strict a law must be considerable.'

s i

Ills,

' M'Lennan, p. 05.
^ Pallas, vol. iv. p. 90,
=' Rid. vol. iv. p. (JO.

■* Sibirisclie Keise, p. 72.
^ The Chinese, vol. i. p. 282.

J12

nxna.ufY m north ameuwa.

V \V{

IP*:

Amonjjst the Tinnc Indijins of North-west America,
a Chit-sangh cannot, by their rules,' marry a Chit-
sangh, althou<^li the rule is set at nought occasionally ;
l)ut when it does take place the persons are ridiculed
and laughed at. The man is said to have married his
sister, even though she may be from another tril)e,
and there be not the slightest connection by l)lood
between them. The same way with the other two
divisions. The children are of the same colour as their
mother. They receive caste from their mother ; if a
male Chit-sangh marry a Nah-tsingh woman, the chil-
dren are Nah-tsingh, and if a male Nah-tsingh marry
a Chit-sangh woman, the children are Chit-sangh, so
that the divisions are always changing. As the fathers
die out the country inhabited by the Chit-sangh be-
comes occupied by the Nah-tsingh, and so ince versa.
They are continually changing countries, as it were.'
Among the Kenaiyers (N. W. America), ' it was the
custom that the men of one stock should choose their
wives from another, and the offspring belonged to the
race of the mother. This custom has fallen into disuse,
and marriages in the same tribe occur ; but the old
people say that mortality among the Kenaiyers has
arisen from the neglect of the ancient usage. A man's
nearest heirs in this tribe are his sister's children.'*'^
The Tsimsheean Indians of Pritish Columbia^ are
similarly divided into tribes, and totems or ' crests,
' which are common to all the Irlies. The crests are

1 Notes on tlie Tinneli. Ilftrdistv.
Smithsonian Report, 1800, p. Slo.
^ Ilicbartlsuu's Boat Joui'ut;y, vol.
p. 400. See also Smithsonian Re-

port, 18G0, p. ,120.

^ Metluhkatlah, published by the
Church Missionary Soc. 18U0, p. 0.

an s
fn.
are

ksts.
arc

the
6.

■^

EXOGAMY IN NOUTJI AND SOUTH AMERICA. 113

' the whale, the i)orpoisc, the eagle, the coon, the wolf,

* and the fi'og. In connection with these crests, several
' very important points of Indian character and law are
' seen. The relationship existing between persons of

* the same crest is nearer than that between members

* of the same tribe, which is seen in this that members
' of the same tribe may marry, but those of the same
' crest are not allowed to do so under any circumstances ;
' that is, a whale may not marry a whale, but a whale
' may maiTy a frog, &c.'

Indeed, as regards the Northern Kedskins generally,
it is stated' in the Archa3ologia Americana that ' every
nation was divided into a number of clans, varying in
the several nations from three to eight or ten, the
members of which respectively were dispersed indis-
criminately throughout the whole nation. It has been
fully ascertained that the inviolable regulations by
which these clans were perpetuated amongst the south-
ern nations were, hrst, that no man could marry in
his own clan ; secondly, that every child should belong
to his or her mother's clan.*

The Indians of Guiana" 'are divided into families,
each of which has a distinct name, as the Siividi, Ka-
ruafudi, Onisidi^ &c. Unlike our families, these all
descend in the female line, and no individual of either
sex is allowed to marry another of the same family
name. Thus, a woman of the Siwidi family bears the
same name as her mother, but neither her father nor
her husband can be of that family. Her children and

* Sallatin, I. c. v. 11, p. 109, La- ' Brett's Indian Tribes of Guiana,
fitau, vol. i. p. 558. Tanner's Narra- p. 98,
live, p. 313.

I .

•I

Uii

114

THE CAUSES OF POL YG A MY.

;(-'

'( ,

1 ' i'r

'It

' the children of her danglitcrs will also be called Siwidi,
' but both her suns and daughters are prohibited from
' an alliance with imy individual bearinii^ the same name ;
' though they may marry into the family of their father
' if they choose. These customs are strictly obscived,
' and any breach of them would be considered as
' wicked.'

Lastly, the Brazilian races, according to Martins,
differ greatly in their marriage regidations. In some of
the very scattered tril)es, who live in small families far
remote from one another, the nearest relatives often in-
termarry. In more populous districts, on the contrary,
the tribes are divided into families, and a strict sysvem
of exogamy prevails.^

Thus, then, we see that this remarkable custom of
exogamy prevails throughout AVcstern and Eastern
Africa, in Circassia, Hindostan, Tartary, Siberia, China,
and Australia, as well as in North and South i\n^.erica.

The relations existing' between husband and wife in
the lower races of Man, as indicated in die preceding
pages, are sufficient to remove all surprise at the preva-
lence of polygamy. There are, howe\'cr. other causes,
not less powerful, though perhaps less prominent, to
which much influence must be ascribed. Thus in all
tropical regions girls become marriageable very young;
their beauty is acquired early, and .^oon fades, while
men, on the contrary, retain their full powers much
longer. Hence when love depends, not on similarity of
tastes, pursuits, or sympathies, but entirely on external
attractions, we cannot wonder that every man who is
able to do so, pi )vides himself with a succession of

* Loc. fit. p. Gi5,

POLYANVh'Y.

llo

H'eva-
luses,
I it, to
lin all
^ung ;
while
uracil
lity of
Icriuil
llio is
In of

favourites, exeu when the first wife remains not only
nominally the head, but really his confidant and adviser.
Another cause has no doubt exercised great influence.
Milk is necessary for children, and in tlie absence of
domestic animals it consequentl}^ follows that they are
not weaned until they are several years old. The effect
of this on the social relations has been already referred
to (ante p. 64).

Polyandry, on the contrary, is ftxr less common, tliough
more frequent than is generally su})posed. M'Lennan
and Morgan, indeed, both regard it as a phase through
which human progress has necessarily passed. If, how-
ever, we define it as the condition in which one woman
is married to several men, but (as distinguished from
communal man'iage) to them exclusively, then I am
rather disi)Osed to regard it as an exceptional pheno-
menon, arising from the paucity of females.

M'Lennan, indeed,^ gives a long list of tribes which
he regards as polyandrous, namely, those of Thibet,
Cashmeer, and the Himalayan regions, the Todas,
Coorgs, Nairs, and various otlier races in India, in Ceylon,
in New Zealand '• and one or two other Pacific islands,
in the Aleutian Archipelago, among the Koryaks, the
Saporogian Cossacks, on the Orinoco, in parts of Africa,
and in Lancerota. To these he adds the ancient Britons,
some of tlie Median cantons, the Picts, and the Gete.s,
while traces of it occurred among the ancient Germans.
To these I may add that of some families among the
Iroquois. On the other hand, several of the above cases
are, I think, merely instances of conununal marriage.

^ Zoc. cU. p. 180.

"^ Lalitau, luc. cil. vol. i. p. ooo.

'in

f: '

■■ V '

. (■ ■

110

rOLYANDltY EKCEPTIONAL.

Indeed, it is evident that wlicre our inforiaation is in-
complete, it must often be far from easy to distinguisli
between communal marriai^e and true polyandry.

If we examine the above instances, some of them will,
I think, prove untenable. The passage referred to in
Tacitus^ does not appear to me to justify us in regarding
tlie Germans as having been polyandrous.

Erman is correctly referred to by Mr. M'Lennan as
mentioni ig the existence of ' lawful polyandry in the
' Aleutian Islands.' He does not, however, give his
authority for the statement. The account he gives of
the Koryaks by no means, I think, proves that poly-
andry occurs among them. The case of the Kalmucks,
to judge from the account given by Clarke,^ is certainly
one in which brL,.hers, but brothers only, have a Avifc in
common.

For Pol^-nesia, ]\I'Lennan relics on the Legend of
Rupe, as told by Sir G. Grey.^ liere, however, it is
merely stated that two brothers named Ihuatamai and
Ihu ware ware, having fovnid Hinauri, when she was
throw . by the surf on the coast at Wairarawa, ' looked
' upon her Avith pleasure, and took her as a wdfe
' between them both.' This seems to me rather a case
of communal marriage than of polyandry, especially
Avhen the rest of the legend is borne in mhid. Neither
is the evidence as regards Africa at all satisfactory'.
The custom referred to by Mr. M'Lennan' probably
r.i'jginatcs in the subjection of the woman which is there
implied by marriage, and wdiich may l)e regarded as

inconsistent with high rank.

' norm. XX.

■' Tmvols, vol. i. p. 241.

^ INilyniv^laii ^lyiliolofiT, p. ■'^l.
■^ Ixoado'a Savnfjo Africa, p. -l.").

i'lV

ENDOGAMY.

117

nd of

it is

and

WJIS

)oked

wife

case

nally

lither

|tory.

Jably

Ihorc

Polyandry is no doubt very widely distributed over
India, Thibet, and Ceylon. In the latter island the
joint husbands are alwayj' brothers. ' But, on the whole,
lawful polyandry (as opposed to mere laxness of
morality) seems to be an exceptional system, generally
intended to avoid the evils arising from monogamy
Avhere the number of women is less ihan that of men.

Passing on now to the custom of endogamy, ]\['Lenn:ui
remarks that ' the se])arate endogamous tribes arc
' nearly as nianerous, and they are in some respects as
' rude, as the separate exogamous tribes.'^

So far as my knowledge goes, on the contrary',
endogamy is much less prevalent than exogamy, and it
seems to me to have arisen from a feeling of race-pride,
and a disdain of surrounding tribes which were either
really or hypothetically in a lower condition.

Thus, among the Ahts of X. W. America, as men-
tioned by Sproat, ' though the different tribes of the
' A lit nation are frequently at war with one another,
' women are not captured from other tribes for marriage,
' but only to be kept as slaves. The idea of sla\ ery
' connected with capture is so common, that a free-born
' Alit would hesitate to marry a woman taken in war
' whatever her rank had been in her own tribe.' '^

Somo of the Indian races, as the Kocchs and the
Hos, * . iorbidden to marry excepting within the tribe.
The iui! r at least, however, are not truly endogamous,
mentioned, thev are divided hito 'keelis'

idy

or clans, and ' may not take to wife a girl of their own
' keeli.'* Thus they are in fact exogamous, and it is

o«n

Davy's Ceylon, j).

Sproat, Scenes and Studies of Savage Life, p. 98.

iiff!

i'i

Luc. fit. p. 14i"

Aiiti', p. do.

',' 1

I't

118

ENDOGAMY.

possible that some of the otlier cases of endogamy
might, if we were better acquainted .vith them, present
the same duplex phenomenon.

Among the Yerkahis ^ of Southern India ' a custom
' prevails by which the first two daughters of a family
' may be claimed by the maternal uncle as wives for his
' sons. Tlie value of a wife is fixed at twenty pagodas.
' The maternal uncle's rio-ht to the first two dauo-hters
' is valued at eight out of twenty pagodas, and is
' carried out thus : — if he urges his preferential claim,
* and marries his own sons to his nieces, he pays for
' each only twelve pagodas ; and, similarly, if he, from
not having sons, or any other cause, forego his claim,
he receives eight paq-odas of the twenty paid to the
girls' parents by anyL: Ise who may marry them.'

The Doingnaks, a brthich of the Chukmas, appear
also to have been endogamous, and Captain Lewin
mentions tliat tliey ' abandoned the parent stem during
' the chiefship of Jaunbux Khan, about 1782. The
' reason of this split was a disagreement on the subject
' of marriages. The chief passed an order that the
' Doingnak should intermarry with the tribe in general.
' This was contrary to ancient custom, and caused dis-
' content and eventually a break in the tribe.' ^ This is
one of the very few cases where we have evidence of a
change in this respect. The Kalangs of Java are also
endo2:amous, and when a man asks a fiirl in marnaire he
must prove his descent from their peculiar stock.''

The Mantchu Tartars forbid marriages between those

» Shortt. Trans. Ethn. Soc. X. S.
vol. vii. p. 187.

- Lewin'a Hill Tracts of Cliitta-

gong, p. Go.

^ Radios' History of Java, vol. i.
p. :V28.

THE MILK.TIE.

110

those

wliose family names are different/ In Guam brothers
and sisters used to intermarry, and it is even stated
that such unions were preferred as being most natural
and proper.^ Endogamy woukl seem to have prevailed
in the Sandwich Islands,'' and in Xew Zealand, whore,
as Yate mentions, ' great opposition is made to anyone
' taking, except for some political purpose, a wife from
' another tribe, so that such intermarriages seldom
' occur.' ' On the whole, however, endogamy seems a
far less common custom than exogamy.

The idea of relationship as existuig amongst us,
founded on marriage, and implying equal connection of
a child to its father and mother, seems so natural and
obvious that there are, perhaps, many to whom the
possibility of any other has not occurred. The facts
already recorded will, however, have prepared us for
the existence of peculiar ideas on the subject of relation-
ship. The strength of the foster-feeling — the milk-tie
— amonsT the Scotch Ilio'hlanders is a familiar instance
of a mode of regarding relationship very different from
that prevalent anion; ;st us.

We have also seen that, under the custom of com-
munal marriage, a child was regarded as related to the
tribe, but not specially to any particular father or
mother. It is evident that imder communal marriage
— and little less so wherever men had many waives — the
tie between father and son must have been very slight.
Obviously, however, there are causes in operation
which always tend to strengthen the connection be-

) «'i

, .:si

I vol. i.

' M'Lennftn, loc. clt. p. 140.
^ Arago's Let*-ers. Freycinet's
Voyage, vol. ii. p. 17.

=» Ilml. p. 94.

' New Zealand, p. 09.

h ' t

I J

I'f f

! >

t ^

■Itl

120

INHERITANCE THROUGH FEMALES.

tween the parent and offspring, and especially between
the mother and her child. Among agricultural tribes,
and under settled forms of government, the chiefs often
have very large harems, and their importance even is
measured by the number of their wives, as in other
cases by that of their cows or horses.

This state of things is in many ways very prejudicial.
It checks, of course, the natural affection and friendly
intercourse between man and wife. The King of
Ashantee, for instance, always has 3,333 wives, but no
man can love so many women, nor can so many women
cherish any personal affection for one man.

Even among hunting races, though men were unable
to maintain so many wives, still, as changes are of
frequent occurrence, the tie between a mother and child
is much stronger than that which binds a child to its
father. Hence we find that among many of the lower
races relationship through females is the prevalent
custom, and we are thus able to understand the curious
practice that a man's heirs are not his own, but his
sister's children.

Montesquieu ^ regarded relationship through females
as intended to prevent the accumulation of landed pro-
perty in few hands — an explanation manifestly inap-
plicable to many, nay the majority, of cases in which
the custom exists, and the explanation above suggested
is, I have no doubt, the correct one.

Thus, when a rich man dies in Guinea, his property,
excepting the armour, descended to the sister's son,
expressly, according to Smith, on the ground that he

■ Esprit des Lois, vol. i. p. 70.

\\\

JtELATIONSnir THROUail FEMALES.

121

lap-
lich
sted

must certainly be a relative.^ Battel mentions that tlie
town of Longo ( Loango) ' is governed by four chiefs,
' which are sons of the king's sisters ; for the king's
' sons never come to be kings.' ^ Quatremere mentions
that ' Chez les Nubiens, dit Abou Selah, lorsqu'un roi
' vient a mourir et qu'il laisse un fils et un neveu du
' cote de sa scDur, celui monte sur le trone de prc-
* ference a I'heritier naturel.' ^

In Central Africa, Caillie * says that ' the sovereignty
' remains always in the same family, but the son never
' succeeds his father ; tliey choose in preference a son of
' the king's sister, conceiving that by this method the
' sovereign power is more sure to be transmitted to
' one of the blood royal ; a precaution which shows how
' little faith is put in the virtue of the women of this
' country.' In Northern Africa we find the same
custom among the Berbers;'' and Burton mentions it as
existing in the East.

Herodotus^ supposed that this custom was peculiar to
the Lycians, who have, he says, ' one custom peculiar to
' themselves, in which they differ from all other nations ;
' for they take their name from their mothers, and not
' from their fathers ; so that if anyone asks another who
' he is, he will describe himself by his mother's side, and
* reckon up his maternal ancestry in the female line.'
Polybius makes the same statement as regards the Lo-

•ty.

ton,
he

^ Smith's Voyage to G uinea, p. 143.
See also Pinkerton'3 Voj'nges, vol.
XV. pp. 417, 421, 528. Astley's Col-
lection of Voyages, vol, ii. pp. 6.3, 256.

* Pinkerton's A'oyages, vol. xvi.
p. 331.

M^m. g^ogr. sur I'Egypte et sur " Clio, 173.

quelques contrives voisines. Paris,
1811. Quoted in Bachofen's Mut-
ter reclit, p. 108.

" Caillie's Travels, vol. i. p. 163.

'' La Mere chez certains peuples
de I'Antiquit^, p. 45.

* H

{ !

I *

i^}

122

RELATIONSIITF TIinOUGH FEMALES.

criaus; and on l']trnscan tombs descent is stated in the
female line.

In Athens, also, relationship thron<,di fem.'des pre-
vailed down to the time of Cecrops.

Tacitus,^ speakinij^ of the Germans, says, ' children

* are regarded with equal affection by their maternal

* uncles as by their fathers ; some even consider this as

* the more sacred bond of consanguinity, and prefer it

* in the requisition of hostages.' He adds, ' a person's

* own children, however, are his heirs and successors ;

* no wills are made.' From this it would appear as if
female inheritance had been recently and not universally
abandoned. Again, ' In the Pictish Kingdom, until the
' close of the eighth centurj', no son is recorded to have
' succeeded his father.' ^

In India the Kasias, the Kocchs, and the Nairs have
the system of female kingship. Buchanan ^ tells us that
among the Bantar in Tulava a man's property does not
descer i to his own children, but to those of his sister.
Sir W. Elliot states that the people of Malabar all
' ajxree in one remarkable usaoe — that of transmittino;
' property through females only.' ^ He adds, on the
authority of Lieutenant Conner, that the same is tlie
case in Trivancore, among all the castes except the
Ponai.s and the Namburi Brahmans.

As Latham states, ' no Nair son knows his own father,

* and, vice versa., no Xair father know\s his own son.
' What becomes of the property of the husband? It
' descends to the children of his sister.' ^

' De Mor, Germ. xx.

2 Crania Britannica.

3 Vol. iii. p. 10.

•* Trans. Ethn. Soc. 18G9, p. 110.
^ Descriptive Ethnology, vol. ii. p.
40.^

CAUSES AND WIDE DISTRIBUTION OF THE CUSTOM. 123

Among the Limboos (India), a tribe near Darjeeling,'
the boys become the property of the father on his paying
the mother a small sum of money, when the child is
named, and enters his father's tribe : girls remain with
the mother, and belong to her tribe.

Marsden tells us,^ that among the Battas of Sumatra,
' the succession to tlic chiefshi])s does not go, in tlic
' first instance, to the son of the deceased, but to the
' ne})hew by a sister; and that the same extraordinary
' rule, with respect to the property in general, prevails
' also amongst the ]\[alays of that part of the island, and
' even in the neifjhbourhood of Padan<»;. The authori-
' ties for this are various and unconnected with each
' ^"kher, but not sutBciently circumstantial to induce me
' to admit it as a generally established practice.'

Among the Kenaiyers at Cook's Inlet, according to
Sir John Richardson, property descends not to a man's
own children, but to those of his sis^3r.^ The same is
the case w^ith the Kutchin.'*

Carver^ mentions that among the Hudson's Bay
Indians the children ' are always distinguished by the
' name of the mother ; and if a woman marries several
' husbands, and has issue by each of them, they are all
' called after her. The reason they give ?o^ this is,
' that as their offspring are indebted to the father for
' their souls, the invisible part of their essence, and to
' the mother for their corporeal and apparent part, it is
' more rational that they should be distinguished by the

' Campbell, Trans. Etlin. Soc.
N. S, vol. vii. p. 155.

' Marsden's History of Sumatra,
p. 37G.

'^ Boat Journey, vol. i. p. 40O.

* Smithsonian Report, 18GG. p.
320.

5 Carver, p. 378. See also p. 250;
also antb, p. 08.

I'M
til

4; ■1.'

i ;1!

ll>i

NEOL KC/V OF r. I TFRN. I /> /,' IJLA 77n.V.

it I

* m

* Uiunc of tlie latter, from win mi tlicy indubitably derive

* their beinnf, than by that of the father, to whieh a
' doul)t mif,dit sometimes arise whether they are justly

* entitled.' A similar rule prevailed in Haiti and
IVIexico. '

As regards Polynesia, ^Mariner states that in the
Friendly or Tonga Islands ' no1)ility descends by the
' female line, for when the mother is not a noble, the
' children are not nobles.' - It Avoidd seem, however,
from another passage, that these islanders were passhig
the stage of relationship through females to that through
males. The existence of inheritance through females
is clearly indicated in the Feejeean custom known as
Vasu.

So also in Western Australia, ' children, of either sex,
' always take the family name of their mother.'^

Among the ancient Jews, Abraham married his half-
sister, Xalior married his brother's daughter, and
Amram his father's sister ; this was permitted because
they were not regarded as relations. Tamar also evi-
dently might have married Amnon, though they were
both children of David : ' Speak unto the king,' she
said, ' for he will not withhold me from thee ; ' for, as
their mothers were not the same, they were no relaLions
in the eye of the law.

Solon also permitted marriage with sisters on the
father's side, but not on the mother's.

Here, therefore, we Lave abundant evidence of the
second stage, in which the child is related to the mother,
and not to the father; whence a man's heir is his sister's

' Miiller, Gescli d. American. Ur-
religionen, pp. 167, 539.

2 T(Miga Islands, vol. ii. pp. 89, 91.
^ Eyre, luc. cit. p. 330.

OliliUN OF UELATlONSmV IN THE MALE LINE. 125

he
he

ir's

|91.

child, who is his ne[)hL'W, — not his own chikl, who is in
some cases regarded as no reUition to him at alL

When, however, marriage became more respected,
and the family aii'ections stronger, it is easy to see that
the rnle nnder which a man's property went to his
sister's children, wonld become nn])opnlar, both with
the father, who wonld naturally wish his children to
inherit his property, and not less so with the children
themselves.

M. Girard Tenlon, indeed, to whom we are indebted
for a very interesting memoir on this snbject, ^ regards
the first recognition of his parental relationship as an
act of noljle self-devotion on the part of some great
genius in ancient times. ' Le premier,' he says, ' qui
' consentit a se reconnaitre pere fut un homme de genie
' et de ccrur, un des grands bienfaiteurs de I'humanite.
' Prouve en effet que Tenfant t'appartient. Es-tu sur
' qu'il est un autre toi-mcme, ton fruit ? que tu I'as
' enfante ? on bien, a I'aide d'une genereuse et volon-
' taire credulite, marches-tu, noble inventeur, a la
' conquete d'un but superieur ?'"

Bachofen also, while characterisino- the chanoe from
male to female relationship as the ' wichtigsten Wende-
' pimkt in der Geschichte des Geschlechts verhiiltnisses,'
explains it, as I cannot but think, in an altogether erro-
neous manner. He regards it as a liberation of the
spirit from the deceptive appearances of nature, an
elevation of human existence above the laws of mere
matter, as a recognition that the creative power is the
most important ; and, in short, as a subordination of the

' La Mere chez certains peuples de rAntiquite.
"^ Loc. cit. p. 32.

Ifi

[

I '

I !

120 CIlANai'] FROM FEMALE TO MALE KINSHIP.

material to the spiritual part of our nnture. IJy this
step, he says, ' Mau durchbricht die Bandcn des Tellur-
' isiuus und erliebt scineu Blick zu den luihern Regionen
' des KosMios.'*

This seems to me, I confess, a very curious notion,
mid one with which I cannot at all af^rree. The recoff-
nition of paternal responsibility grew up, I believe,
gradually and from the force of circumstances, aided
by the impulses of natural affection. On the other
hand, the adoption of relationship through the father's
line, instead of through the mother's, was probably
effected by the natural wish which everyone would feel
that his property should go to his own children. It is
true that we have very few cases like that of Athens,
in which there is any record of this change, but as it is
easy to see how it might have been brought about, and
difficult to suppose that the opposite step can ever have
been made ; as, moreover, we find relationship through
the ftither very general, not to say universal, in civilised
races, while the opposite system is very common among
savages, it is evident that this change must frequently
have been effected.

Taking all these facts, then, into consideration, when-
ever we find relationship through fem.'des only, I think
we may safely look upon it as the relic of an ancient
barbarism.

As soon as the change was inade, the father would
take the place held previously by the mother, and he,
instead of she, would be regarded as the parent. Hence,
on the birth of a child, the father would naturally be

' Lacliofou, Dus Muttcrruclit, p. xxvii.

ll:V

V'- I

SYSThJM OF KLXSIlll' Til ROUGH MALllS,

127

)ng

Ibe

very curc'tul wliat lie did, juid what lie ate, for fear the
child should be injured. Thus, I believe, arises the
curious custom to which I referred in my first chapter.

Relationship to the father at first excludes that to
the mother, and from having been regarded as no
relation to the former, children came to be looked on as
none to the latter.

In South America, where it is customary to treat
ca[)tives well in every res[)ect for a certain time, giving
them clothes, food, a wife, &c., and then to kill and eat
them, any children they may have arc killed and eaten
also.' In North America, as we have seen, the system
of relationship through females prevails among the rude
races of the North. Further south, as Lafitau long ago
pointed out, we find a curious, and, so to say, interme-
diate, system among the Iroquois and Hurons, to whom,
as Mr. jMor;Tjan has shoAvn, we mav add the Tamils of
India.* — A man's brother's children are reckoned as his
children, but his sister's children are his nephews and
nieces, while a woman's brother's children are her nephews
and nieces, and her sister's children are her children.'^

The curious system thus indicated is shown more
fidly in the following table, extracted from Mr. Mor-
gan's very interesthig memoir : ^ —

Ilauih

Red Skin,

' Father, and also
Father's brother

Father's father's brother's son, and
so on.

^ Lafitau, vol. ii. p. 307.
"^ I'roc. American Academy of
Arta and Sciences, 1800^ p. -iOU.

3 Lafitau, vol. i. p. 552.
■* Loc, cit. p. 450,

> 1 '

128

SYSTEM OF KINSHIP THROUGH MALES.

r. *

I' ■

(,'

Noyeh

Ilaje

Ilarakwuk

Takkappan

Tay

Tamaiyan

IMakj

(Mother, und also
_ j Mother's sister
"~ I Mother's ivother's sister's (laughter,

[ and so on.

''Brother '''^Ider), and also
= -! Father's brother's son

(^Mother's sister's son, and so on.
Son
= J. Brother's son (male speaking)
[Sister's son (female speaking)

Tamil.

'Father, and also
Father's brother
= -! Father's father's brother's son, and
I so on.

(^ Mother's sister's husband.
Mother, and also
Mother's sister
Father's brother's wife
Mother's mother's sister's daughter,
and so or.
jf Brother (elder), and also
= -I Father's brother's son

1^ Mother's sister's son, and so on
rSon
=. -i Brother's son (male speaking)
1^ Sister's son (female speaking)

That the.:e names really imply ideas as to relation-
ship, and have not arisen from mere poverty of language,
is shown by the fact that in other respects their nomen-
clatni'e is even richer than ours. Thus they have
different words for an elder brother and a younger
])rother, an elder sister and a j'oungcr sister ; so again
the names for a brother's son, a brother's daughter, a
sister's son, and a sister's daughter depend on whether
the ])erson speaking is a man or a woman. Thus they

NEGLECT OF THE ^[ATEBNAL RELATION.

120

lon-

in-
Lve

\\n
II

distinguish rclatioiisliips which wc correctly regard as
C([uivaleiit, and confound others which are really
distinct. Moreover, as the languages of distinct and
distant races, such as the Iroquois of America and the
T.'.mil of Southern India, agree in so many points, we
canixvjt dismiss these peculiarities as mere accidents, but
must regard them as founded on similar, though pecu-
liar, views on the subject of relationsliip.

That in the case of the Iroquois this system arose
from that of relationsliip throtigh females, and did not
degenerate from ours, is evident, because in it, though
a man's sister's children ore his nephews and nieces, his
sister's grai'dchildren are also his grandchildren, indi-
cating the existence of a period when his sister's
children were his children, and, consequently, when
relationship was traced in the female line. A man's
])rotlier's children are his children, because his brother's
wives are also his wive;,. I have already mentioned
{ante^ p. 113) that relatioriship through females is the
rule amoni? the American tribes.

How com})letely the idea of relationship through the
father, when once recognised, miglit re[)lace that through
the mother we may see in the very curious trial of
(h'estes. Agamenuion, having been murdered by his
wife Clytemnestra, was avenged l)y their son Orestes,
who killed his mother for the murder of his father.
For this act he v/as prosecuted before the tribunal of
the gods by the Krinnyes, whose function it was to
those who shed the blood of relatives

puni.'

In I

defence, Orestes asks tiiem why they did not punisli
Clytenniestra for the nuu'der of Agamemnon, and when
they reply that miU'rlMge does not constitute ])lood rela-

J \

■"■■ »

U '

It ,

^ I

THE VEESENT 8 /STEM.

tionslii]^, — ' Sho Avas not the kindred of the mnn
' M'hoin she ^^le\v,' — he pleads that by the same rule
they cannot touch liiw,, because a man is a relation to
his father, but not to his mother. This view, 'vhich
seems to us so unnatural, was supported by Apollo and
Minerva, and l)eing adopted by the majority of the
gods, led to the acquittal of Orestes.

Hence we see that the views prevalent on relationship
— views ';y wliich the whole social organisation is so
profoundly affected — are by no means the same among
difi'erent races, nor uniform at the same historical period.
AVe ourselves still confuse affinity and consanguinity ;
but into this part of the question it is not my intention
to enter : the evidence brought forward in the pre-
ceding pages is, however, I think sufficieni to show that
children Avere not in the earliest times rei''arded as re-
lated equally to their father and tlieir mother, but that
the natural progress of ideas is, first, that a child is re-
lated to his tribe generally ; secondly, to his mother, and
not to his father ; thirdly, to his father, and not to his
motlier; lastly, and lastly only, that he is related to
both.

!li

131

CHAPTEK IV.

RELIGION.

rrilE religion of ravages, though of peculiar interest

.. ni n,any respects, perhaps, the most difficul

part of n,y whole subject. I shall endeavour to avoid

as far as possible, anything which might justly give pain

to any of mv readers Htn.,,, ; i i ^ " ^

y ly leaueis. Jlany ideas, however, which

have been, or are, prevalent on religious matters are so
utterly opposed to our own that it is impossible to dis-
cuss the subject without mentioning some things which
are very repugnant to our feelings. Yet, while savages
show us a melancholy speet.aele of gross supcrstitio",
and ferocious forms of worshi,., the religious mind can-
not but fee a peculiar satisfaction in tracing „p the
gradual evolution of more correct ideas nn,l ^.f nobl
creeds. ^ ^

M. Arbronsset quotes the following tou,l,i„„- remarks
made to im by Sekesa, a very respectable Kaifi;' . ,
^ t. Iiugs, be said, ' arc what I want ; an,. I was seeking
before I knew you, a. you shall l,ear and ju.l.re ft,;
J^nrsclves. Twelve years ago I went to fee.l , iv [lock,
J e weather was hazy. I sat down upon a r^l- a ,i
: "^'"'^ '"^•^^■'f — vf" 1"-tions ; ye ' sorrowful be-
cause I w.as u.ml.le to answer them. " Who has

' 1''h- IJusut().s. CasalLs, p. >2:\[).

K 2

I f,

;/i

f) I

».

!■

132

MENTAL INACTIVITY OF tAVAr/L'S.

' '* tou'jhed the stnrs with his luiiids ? On what pillars
' " do they rest ? " I asked myself. " The waters are
' " never weary : they know no other law than to flow,
' " witliout ceasing, from morning till night, and from
' "night till morning; but where do they stop? and
' " who makes them flow thus ? The clouds also come
' " and go, and burst in water over the earth. AVhence
' " come they ? AVho sends tliem ? The diviners cer-
' " tainly do not give us rain, for how could they do it ?
' " and why do I not see them with my own eyes
' " when they go up to heaven to fetcli it ? I cannot
'*" sec the wind, but what is it ? Who brings it, makes
' " it blow, and roar and terrify us ? Do I know how
' " the corn sprouts ? Yesterday there was not a blade
' " in my field ; to-day I returned to the held and found
' " some. AVho can have given to the earth the wisdom
' "and the power to produce it?" Then I buried my
' face in both my hands.'

This, however, was an exceptional case. As Ji
general rule savages do not set tliemselves to thhik out
such questions, but ado[)t the ideas which suggest them-
selves most naturally ; so that, as 1 shall attempt to
show, races in the similar state of mental development,
however distinct their origin ma}- be, and however
distant the regions they inhabit, have very similar re-
ligious conceptions. Most of those wlio have endea-
voured to account for the various superstitions of
savage races have done so l)y cnMlitinu them witli a
nuich more elaborate system of ideas tlian they in
reality possess. Tiius Lafitau supposes tliat fire was
worshipped because it so Avell rei)rcsents 'cetfe supreme
' intelligence degagee de la nature, dont la ])uissaiieeest

I i

»■ (

}!ELTaiOUS CIIAnACTEniSTirS OF SAVAaES. 133

' toujoiirs active.'^ Again, "witli rcic'rence to idols, he
observes '^ tliat ' La cU'peiidance que nous avons de
' rimagination et des sens nc nous permettaut pas de
' voir ])ieu autrement qu'eu enignic, connne parle saint
' Paul, a cause une espece de necessite de nous le
' montrer sous des images sensibles, lesquelles fiissent
' autai t de syniboles, qui nous elevassent jusipia lui,
' conime le portrait nous reniet dans I'idee de celui
' dont il est la peinture.' l*lutarch, again, supposed
that the crocodile was worshipped by Egypt because,
having no toigue, it was a type of ^he Deity who made
laws for naU;re by his mere will! Explanations, how-
ever, such as these are radically wrong.

I have felt doubtful whether this chapter should not
be entitled ' the superstitions ' rather than ' the re-
' ligion' of savages ; but havo preferred the latter,
partly because many of the superstitious ideas pass
gradually into nobler conce})tions, and partly from a
reluctance to condemn any honest belief, however
absurd and imperfect it may be. It nuist, however, be
admitted that religion, as understood by the lower
savage races, differs essentially from ours ; nay, it is
not only different, but even opposite. Thus their
deities are evil, not good ; they may be forced into
compliance with the wishes of man ; they reipjire
bloody, and rejoice in human, sacrihces ; they are
mortal, not immortal ; a part, not the author, of
nature :

ley

appr(

i-y

than by })rayers ; and often approve what we call vice,
rather than what we esteem as virtue.

In fact, the so-called religion of the lower races bear;:

Manila ties Suuvagos nnioiicaiiii», vol. i. p. 102.

- L. c. p. li'l._

w'i

i \

■ I

I !

t J

'■ 1

llELiaiOUS CIIARACTf'Jh'ISTICS OF

Bomewliat the same relation to rc^ligioii in its higher
forms that astrology does to astrononi}', or alchemy to
chemistry. Astronomy is derived from astrology, yet
their spirit is in entire opposition ; and we shall find
the same difference between the relimons of backward
and of advanced races. We regard the Deity as good ;
they look upon him as evil ; we submit ourselves to
him; they endeavour to obtain the control of him ;
we feel the necessity of accounting for the bless-
ings by which we are surrounded ; they think the
blessings come of themselves, and attribute all evil to
the interference of malignant beings.

These characteristics are not excei)tional and rare.
On the contrary I shall attempt to show that, though
the religions of the lower races have received different
names, they agree in their general characteristics, and
are but phases of one sequence, having the same origin,
and passing through similar, if not identical, stages.
This will explain the great similarities which occur in
the most distinct and distant races, which have puzzled
many ethnologists, and in some cases led them to
utterly untenable theories. Thus even Robertson,
though in many respects he held very correct views as
to the religious condition of savages, remarks that Sun-
worship prevailed among the Natchez and the Persians,
and observes,^ ' this surprising coincidence in senti-
' ment between two nations in such different states of
' improvement is one of the many singular and unac-
' countable circumstances which occur in the history of
' human affairs.'

Although however we find the most remarkable

' History of America, book iv. p. 127.

|yii

tut: lower Pi aces oe man.

185

as
lin-

^ti-
of
ic-
of

)le

coiiicuk'nces between tlie reH.u^Mons of distinct races, one
of the peculiar dilHculties in the study of reliuion arises
from the fact that, while each nation has generally but
one language, we may almost say that in religious
matters, (jitot Jiomines tot sententicv ; no two men having
exactly the same views, however much they may wish

to agree.

Many travellers have pointed out this difficulty.
Thus Captain Cook, speaking of the Soutli Sea
Islanders, says: ' Of the religion' of tliese peo|)le we
' were not able to accpiire any clear and consistent
' knowledge ; we found it like the religion of most other
' countries — involved in mystery and perplexed Avith
* apparent inconsistencies.' Many also of those to
whom we are indebted for information on the subject,
fully expecting to find among savages ideas like our
own, obscured only by errors and supersiition, have
put leading questions, and thus got misleading answers.
We constantly hear, for instance, of a Devil, but in
fact no s[)iritual being in the mythology of any savage
races possesses the characteristics of Satan. Agjiin, it is
often very diiTicult to determine in what sense an object
is worshipped. A mountain, or a river, for instance,
may be held sacred either as an actual Deity or merely
as his abode ; and in the same way a statue may be
actually worsliipped as a god, or merely reverenced as
representing the Divinity.

To a gi'eat extent, moreover, these difficulties arise
from the fact that when Man, either by natural [)rogress
or the influence of a more advanced race, rises to the
conception of a iiighcr religion, he still retains liis old

* ira\vktM\voith'.s Voviigt's, vol. ii. p. :.''»7.

1 1

II h

l^i; CLASSIFICATION OF THE LOWEll liETJOIOXS.

beliefjs, wliicli long liuoer on, side l)y side with, and }'ct
ill ulter opposition to, tlic higher creed. Tlie new and
more powerful Spirit is an addition to the ohl Paniheon,
and diminishes tl\e importance of the older deities ;
gnulually the worsliip of the Litter sinks in the social
scale, and becomes confined to the ignorant and the
young. Thus a belief in -witchcraft still flourishes
among our agricultural labourers and the lowest
classes in our great cities, and the deities of our ances-
tors survive in the nursery tales of our children. We
must therefore expect to find in each race traces — nay,
more than traces, of lower religions. Iwen if this were
not the case we should still be met by the diiliculty
that there are few really sharp lines in religious
systems. It might be supposed that a belief in the im-
mortality of the soul, or in the eiiicacy of sacrifices,
would give us good lines of division ; but it is not so :
these and many other ideas rise gradually, and even
often appear at first in a form very different from that
wliicli they ultimately assume.

Hitherto it has been usual to classif\' religions accord-
ing to the nature of the object worshipped : ^^Y'tichism,
for instance, being the worship of inanimate objects, Sa-
bieism that of the heavenly bodies. The true test, how-
ever, seems to me to be the estimate in which the Deity
is held. The first great stages in religious thought may,
I think, be regarded as —

Atheism ; understanding by tlils term not a denial of
the existence of a Deity, but an absence of any definite
ideas on the subject.

Fetichism; the stage in which man supposes he can
force the Deity to comj)ly with his desires.

' i

i :*

RELJaiONS AcronniKn to SAKcnoNJATiin. vat

of
itc

»■
k

Nature-icorship, or Toteinism ; m 'svliicli iiatnr{\l objects,
trees, lakes, stones, uiiiiiials, &:c., are worshipped.

ShanKwi.sin ; in whicli the superior deities are f'jir more
powerful than man, and of a different .'latnre. Their
place of abode also is I'ar away, and accessible only to
Shamans.

Iilolatnj^ or Antlirojnmiorphi^ni) in which the g(»ds
take still more com^^etely the nature of men, be'ng, how-
ever, more powerful. They are still amenable to j)er-
suasion ; they are a part of nature, and not creators.
They are represented b}' images or idols.

In the next stage the Deity is regarded as the author,
not merely a part, of nature, lie becomes for the first
time a reall}' supernatural being.

The last stage to which I will refer is that in which
morality is associated with religion.

Since the above was written, my attention was called
by De Brosse's ' Culte des Dieux fetiches' to a passage
in Sanchoniatho, quoted by Eusebius. From his de-
scri[)tion of the first thirteen generations of men I extract
the following passages : —

Generation 1. — The 'first men consecrated the plants
' shooting out of the earth, and judged them gods, and
* worshi})ped them, ui)on whom they themselves lived.'

Gen. 2. — The second generation of men ' were called
' GenusandCiienea,and dwelt in Phoenicia; but when great
' droughts came, they stretched their hands up to heaven
' towards the sun, for him they thought the only Lord of
' Heaven.'

Gen. 3. — Afterwards other mortal issue was begotten,
whose names were Plios, Pur, and Phlox (i.e. Light, Lire,
and Flame). These found out the way of generating fire

! li!

« !

1 .
I -

I ,

i;5« in:Lj(irn^s Accomnxr; to s.ixcrroxrATno.

liy lliL' rubbing of [ncccs of wood ngaiiist eacli other, and
tiiii;4lit men tlie use tliereof.

(Jen. 4. — The fourth generation consists of giants.

Gen. 5. — Witli reference to tlie iifth he mentions the
existence of conminnal marriage, and tliat Usous 'con-
' secrated two piUar.s to Fire and Wind, and bowed down
' to tliem, and poured out to them tlie blood of such Avild
' beasts as had been caught in hunting.'

Gen. G. — Hunting and fishing are invented; which
seems rather hiconsistcnt with the preceding statement.

Gen. 7. — Chrysor, whom he affirms to ])e Vulcan,
discovered iron and the art of forn-inu:. ' AVherefore he
' also was Avorshipped after his death for a god, and they
' called him Diamichius (or Zeus Alichius).'

Gen. 8. — Pottery was discovered.

Gen. \). — Now comes Agrus, * who had a mueh-
' worshipped statue, and a temple carried about by one
' or more yoke of Oxen in Phariicia.'

Gen. 10. — Villages were formed, and men kept
flocks.

Gen. 11. — Salt was discovered.

Gen 12. — Taautus or Hermes discovered letters.
The Cabiri belonii' to this ^-eneration.

Thus then we find mentioned in order the worship of
plants, heavenly bodies, i)illars, and men; later still
comes Idolatry coupled with Temples. It will be
observed that he makes no special mention of Sha-
manism, and that he regards the worship of plants as
aboriginal.

The opinion that religion is general and universal has
been entertained by many high authorities. Yet it
is op|)Oj;'d to the evidence of numerous trustworthy

JiELTOrorS CONDITION OF THE LOWEST h'ACES. l.V.i

trs.

ill

Ibc

llJl-

ias
it

iiy

ol).survers. Sailors, tnulcrs, {ind philosophersi, KomMii
Catliolic priests and Protestant missionaries, in ancient
and in modern times, in every part of the glol)e, luue
concurred in stating tliat there are races of men alto-
jzether devoid of reli<i;ion. The case is the stronuer
hecausc in several instances the fact has greatly surprised
him Avho records it, and has been entirely in opposition
to all his preconceived views. On the other hand, it
must he confessed that in some cases travellers denied
the existence of religion merely because the tenets
Avere nnlikc ours. The question as to the general
existence of religion among men is, indeed, to a great
extent a m.atter of definition. If the mere sensation of
fear, and the recognition that tliere are probably otlier
beings more [)o\verful than oneself, arc sufficient alone to
constitute a religion, then we must, I think, admit that
religion is general to the human race. But when a
child dreads the darkness, and shriidvs from a liirhtless
room, we never rej^'ard that as an evidence of relif^ion.
]\Ioreover, if this definition be adojjted, we cannot
longer regard religion as peculiar to man. We must
admit that the feeling of a dog or a horse towards its
master is of the same character ; and the baying of a
dog to the moon is as much an act of worship as some
ceremonies Avhich have been so described by travellers.
In ' Prehistoric Times,' ^ I have quoted the followin*'
writers as witnesses to the existence of tribes without
religion. For some of the Esquimaux tribes. Captain
Ivoss ; ^ for some of the Canadians, Ilearne ; for the
Californians, IJaegert, who lived among them seventeen

' I'rehidtoric Times, 2u(l edition, ^ Sec .also FraiiKlin's .lomiiey to

p. 504. the Polar Sea, vol. ii. p. 2(i."5.

'i i'U

•^

f. m

110

A ns ENCi: o F L' /-; r k no x.

u ;

y en r.^, Mild T.n Pcroiiso; for ninny of tlie I'nizilijui ti'il)es,
S[)ix and Martins, Tjiites and Wallace; for Paraguay,
DobritzlioH'cr; for some of the Polynesians, Williams'
^Missionary I'nterpriscs, the Voyage of the Novara,
and |)ieflV'nl)acli ; for Daniood Island (north of Aus-
tralia), Jukes (Voyage of the Fly); for the Pellew
Islands, Wilson ; for the Aru Islands, A\'allace ; for
tlie Andamuiers, Mouatt; for certain tribes of llindos-
tan, Hooker and Shortt; for some of the eastern African
nations, IJurton and Grant; for the ]>achapin Kaffirs,
Ijurchell; and for the Hottentots, Lc Vaillant. 1 will
liere only give a few instances.

' It is evident,' says M. liik,^ ' that the Arafuras of
' Vorkay (one of the Southern Arus) pos "ess no religion
' whatever. ... Of the immortality of the soul they
' liave not the least conception. To all my enquiries
' on this subject they answered, " No Arafura has ever
' " returned to us after death, therefore we know nothing
' " of a future state, and this is the first time we have
' " heard of it." Their idea was, Mati, Mati sudah
' (AVhcn you are dead there is an end of you). Xeithcr
' have they any notion of the creation of the world.
' To convince myself more fully respecting their want
' of knowledge of a Supreme Being, I demanded of
' them on whom they called for help in their need, when
' their vessels were overtaken by violent tempests. The
' eldest among them, after having consulted the others,
' answered that they knew not on whom they could call
' for assistance, but begged me, if 1 knew, to be so good
' as to inform them.'

'The v.'ilder Bedouins,'-^ says Burton, 'will enquire

1 Quoted in ]volfl"8 Voyages of the Dourgn, p. 150.
* J'"irst l''iM)lsi!'i)s ill lOust AlVicfi. \^. r»i>.

It:

Anstixri'! OF ni'irjarny.

I'U

lien

lie

)0d

lire

where Alliih is to be found : wlien asked the object of
the qnehtlon, they reply, " If the l''.esa could but catcli
'' him they would spear liini upon tlie s[)ot,— wlio but
" lie lays waste their lionien and kills their ealtle and
"wives?" He also eoiisiders that atheism is 'the
natural condition of the savage and uninstructed mind,
the night of s[)iritual existence, which disaj)i)ears be-
fore the dawn of a belief in things unseen. A Creator
is to creation what the ciiusc of any event in life is to
its etfect ; those familiar to the .se(]uence will hardly
credit its absence from the minds of others.'^

Among the Koossa KalHrs, Lichtenstein''^ atTirms that
there is no ap[>earance of any religious worshi[) what-
ever.'

' It miglit be the proper time now,' says Father
Iiaegert, 'to speak of the form of Government and the
religion of the Calil'ornians previous to their conversion
to Christianity; but neither the one nor tlie other ex-
isted among them. They had no magistrates, no police,
and no laws; idols, temples, religious worship or cere-
monies, "were unknown to the'vi, and they neither
believed in the true .'ind only (lod, nor adored false
deities. ... I made dilige'it enrpiiries, among those
with whom I lived, to ascertain whether they had any
conce[)tion of God, a future life, and their own souls,
but I never could discover the slightest trace of such
a knowledge. Their langunge has no words for " God "

n 3

aiK

sou

Although, as Captain John Smith * quaintly puts it,
there was ' in Virginia no place discovered to be so

Aheolviita, vol. i. p. 170.

' Baoirort. Rinitli«Joiii;m Tr.iii*.

Lielitt

iis'.ein, vo

111. i. p. 'Jo.'].

18(

I.)-

!)0

i^il

iivniros 111 \ irLriiiM,

lit

112

JJISENCLJ OF RELJaiON.

f I

ill

' savapjc in wliicli tliey had not u rcli^Lrion, Decrc, and
' bows and arrows,' still the ruder tribes in the far
North, according to the testimony of Ilearnc, who knew
tlieni intimately, had no religion,

Several tribes, snys Robertson,' ' have been vliscovered
' in America, which bnve no idea whatever of a Supreme

' Being, and no rites of religious worship

' Some rule tribes have not in their language any name
' for the ])eity, nor have the most accurate observers
' been abL* to discover any practice or institution which
' seemed ta imply that they recognised his authority, or
' were solicitous to obtain his favour.'

Tn tlie 'ace of such a crowd of witnesses it may at
first Fjight seem extraordinary that there can still be
any difference of opinion on the sulyect. Tliis, however,
arises partly from the fact that the term ' Religion' Ikis
not always been used in the same sense, and })artly from
a belief thiit, as has no doubt happened in several cases,
travellers may, from ignorance of the Inngunge, or from
sliortnc^^s of residence, hnvc overlooked u religion which
reall}^ exist(Ml.

For instance, the first describers of Tahiti asserted
that Tiie natives had no religion, whicli subsequently
proved to be a coin[>lete mistake ; and several other
similar cases nught be quoted. As regards the lowest
races of men, however, it seems to me. even a priori^
verydiihcult tu suppose tliat a ])eo[)le so bnckward as to 1)0
unahle to count their own hngers should be sul^'ciently
Jidvanced in tlieir intellectual concept'ons as to have
any system of belief worMi) of the name of a religion.

We shal , however, obl-iln a clearer view of tlie (pies-

' Hisliirv nf All' 'vidi. l)'«il< iv. ". li'i'.

R UDIMKNTAUY RELHUOX,

1:5

licli

'ted
:itly
ilier

'est

()1)C

,tly

('S-

ti(jn if wc codsitler tlio superstitions of tliosc races wliicli
liave a riKliineiitary religion, and endeavour to trace
these ideas up into a more developed condition.

Here again we shall perhaps be met by the doubt
whether travellers have correctly understood the ac-
counts given to them. In many cases, however, when
the nari'ator had lived for months, or years, among
those whom he was describing, we Ticed certainly feel
no suspicion, and in otliers we sliall obtain a satis-
factory result by comparing together the statements of
diilerent observers and using tiiem as a check one upon
tlie otlier.

Tlie religious theories of savages are certainly not
tlie result of deep thouglit, nor nuist tliey be regarded
as constituting any elal)orate or continuous theorv. A
Zulu candidlv said to Mr. Callawav/ ' Our kiiowledi»-e
' docs not urge us to search out the roots of it ; we do
' not try to see them; if anyone thinks ever so little,
' he soon gives it up, and i)asses on to what lie sees
' with his eyes; and he docs not understand tlie real
' state of even what he sees.' Hulaure- trulv observes,
that the savage 'aime mieux soumettre sa raison, souvent
' revoltee, a ce que ses iiistitutions ont (h' plus absiirde,
' que (le se livrer a Texamen, parce (pie ce travail est
' toujoursp('nil)le [)our celui qui ne s'y est point exerce.'
A\'ith this statement I entirely concur, and 1 l)elieve
tliat through all the vai'ious reliiiious svstems of the
lower rac'?s may be traced a natural and unconscious
process of devel(,pment.

The ideas of religion among the lower races of man

' I'll!' Iti'liirious System of the Amiiziilii, )). I'J.

- in>tnir,. il,.> Ciiltci

vui. 1, |i, J:

li ■.:

: I

I l'

ili

111. uI'UjKhous ideas as suaoESTinj uy sleep

arc intiiuatdy associated witli, if indeed they have not
oi'i<^inatcd from, the condition of man during sleep, and
especially from dreams. Sleep and death have always
been regarded as nearly related to one another. Thus,
in classical mythology, Somnus, the god of sleep, and
Mors, the god of death, were both fabled to have been
the children of Xox, the goddess of night. So, also,
the savage would naturally look on death as a kind of
sleep, and woul*l expect — hoping on even ngjiinst hope
— to see his friend awake from the one as he had so
often done from the other.

Hence, probably, one reason for the great importance
ascribed to the treatment of the body alter d(jath. But
what happens to the spirit during sleep? The body lies
lifeless, and the savage not unnaturally concludes that
the spirit has left it. In tliis he is confirmed by the phe-
nomena of di'cams, wiiich consequently to the savage
have a renlity and an importance which we can scarcely
a[)prcciatc. During sleep the spii'it seems to desert the
body; and as in dreams we visit other localities and even
other Avorlds, living, as it were, a se[)arate and different
life, the two [)henomena are not unnaturally regarded as
the com[)lements of one another. Hence the savage con-
siders tlie events in his dreams to be as real as those of
his waking Ijours, and hence he naturally feels that lie
has a spirit which can quit the body. ' Dreams,' says
liurton, ^according to the Vorubans (West Africa) and
•• to nuuiy of our fetichists, are not an irregular action
' and partial activity of the brain, but so many revela-
' lions broui^ht bv the nuiiies of the dcparteil." So

' A1)L'. kulil, Vnl. i, p. -Joj.

;arccly
rt the
I even
Fere lit
led as

cou-
rse of
lat lie

Hays
I) and

etioii

vela-
So

liFTAGIOnS IDEAS AS SUGGESTED J;Y DR]':A}[S. Mo

strong- was the Xorth American faith in dreams that on
one occasion, when an In lian dreamt he was taken
ca[)tive, he indnced his friends to make a mock attack
on him, to bind liim and treat liim as a captive, actually
submittinii; to a considendjle amount of torture, in the
hope thus to fuUil his dream.' The Greenlanders''^ also
believe in the reality of dreams, and think that at nig-ht
tliey go hunting, visiting, courthig, and so on. It is
of course obvious that the body takes no ]:art in these
nocturnal adventures, and hence it is natural to conclude
that they have a spirit which can quit the body.

In !^^adagascar^ ' the people throughout the whole
' island ])av a reliixious reu'ard to dreams, and ima2:inc
' that their good demons (for I cannot tell what other
' name to give their inferior deities, which, as they say,
' attend on their owleys,) tell them in their dreams
' what ought to be done, or warn them of what ought to
' be avoided.'

Lastly, when they dream of their dei>arted friends or
rehatives, savages firmly believe themselves to be visited
by their spirits, and hence believe, not indeed in the
immortalitv of the soul, but in its survival of the body.
Thus the \'eddahs of Ceylon believe in sjnrits, because
their deceased relatives visit them in dreams,'* and the
^langanjas (South Africa), exju'essly ground their
belief in a future life on the same fact. Au'ain, savau'es
are rarely ill; their suilerings generally arise irom
wounds; their deaths are u'enerallv violent. As an ex-
tenial injury received in war causes pain, so when they

' Lafitnu. lor. cit. vol. i. p. "(SO. Prurv, p. 171. Sconlsopp. 17(», '272,

' rrant/, l'n\ cit. vol. i. p. L'OO. ' Huilcy in Tmiiy. Mtli. Soc. X. S.

' TiiL' Adveutuiv.'- ol' Koljoi't v>l ii. p. :]()i.

J;i

i 5

I ;■

140

NiailTMAliE.

suffer internally tlicy attribute it to some internal
enemy. Hence wlien tlie Australian, perhaps after too
lieavy a meal, has his slumbers disturbed, he never
doubts the reality of what is passing, but considers that
he is attacked by some being whom his companions
cannot see.

Tliis is well illustrated in the following passage from
the ' United States Exploring Expedition :'^ ' Sometimes,
' when the Australians are asleep, Koin makes his ap-
' pearance, seizes upon one of them and carries him off.
* The person seized endeavours in vain to cry out, being
' almost strangled. At daylight, however, he disappears,
' and the man linds himself conve}'ed safely to his own
' fireside. From this it woidd appear that the demon
' is here a sort of personification of the nightmare — a
' visitation to which the natives, from their habits of
' gorging themselves to the utmost when they obtain a
' supply of food, must be very subject.'

Speaking of the North-Western Americans, jNIr.
Sproatsays:^ ' The apparition of ghosts is es})ecially
an occasion on which the services of the sorcerers, the
old women, and all the friends of the ghost-seer ure in
great rccpiest. Owhig to the cpiantit}' of indigestible
food eaten by the natives, they often dream that they
are visited by ghosts. After a supper of blubber, fol-
lowed by one of the long talks about departed friends,
which take place round the fire, some nervous and
timid })erson may fancy, in the night time, that he
sees a ghost.'
In some cases the belief that man possesses a spirit

• T.nt . <if. vol. \i. ]i. 1 H>.

'■' Sceiius uikl Sliiuii;.- ui' Savtijii; Lil\'. \). 17-'.

THE SIT ADO ir- THUNDER.

orruil
iT too
never
s tliJit
iiuoiis

i from
itimcs,
Ills ap-
im otF.
, being
ppeai'f^,
118 own
demon
Hire — a
ibits of
)btaiii a

IS, ^Ir.

^)ecially

Ts, the

are in
iiestible
at tliev
|)er, fol-
Iriends,
Ills and

liat he

la s[)irit

scorns to liavc been sugircsted by the shadow. Tluis,
among the Feejeeans/ ' some speak of man as liaving
' two s})irits. His shadow is called " the dark spirit,"
' which they say goes to 1 hides. The other is his like-
' ncss reflected in water or a h)oking-g]ass, and is sup-
' posed to stay near the place in which a man dies.
' Probably tliis doctrine of shadows lias to do with the
' notion of inanimate o])jects having spirits. I once
' placed a good-looking native snddenly Ijefore a mirror.
' lie stood delighted. " Now," said he softly, " I can
' " see into the world of s])irits.'' '

The North American Indians also consider a man's
slijidow as his soul or life. ' I have,' says Tanner,
' heard them rei)roacli a sick person for what they
' considered imprudent ex})Osure in convalescence, tell-
' iiig him that his shadow was not well settled down
' in him.' ^

The natives of Benin ' call a man's shadow his pass-
' adoor, or conductor, and believe it will witness if he
' li\ ed well or ill. If well, ho is raised to great happi-
' ness and dignity in the place Ijefore mentioned ; if ill,
' he is to perish with hunger and poverty.' ^ They are
indeed a most superstitious race ; and Lander mentions
a case in which an echo Avas taken for the voice of a
Fetich.''

Thunder, also, was often regarded either as an actual
deity, or as a iieavenly voice. ' One night," says
Tanner, ' JMcheto (a North American chief) becoming

' Williimis' Fiji and the Fijiiins, rj31. See also CalLnvny On tlio
vol. i. p. 'J 11. liulijriiuia System of the Ania/ulii,

•' Tanm>r'8 Captivity, p. 2SU.

•' .Vstlcy's Ci'llocliiiii of Vityn<i'es,
Vol. iii. )>. '•>{), riiikcrtuii, vnl. xvi. p.

■i'

p. 01.

■• Niger E.xpeditioai, vol. iii. p.

lis

SriniTS REG Alii) El) AS EVIL.

W II

,1 ^ I

1 ii

ii '

i I

' mucli aliirmcd at the violence of tlie storm, got up
' and offered some tobacco to the thunder, entreating it
' to stoj).' '

I have ah'eady mentioned that savages ahnost always
regard spirits as evil i)eings. We can, I think, easily
understand why this should be. Amongst the very
lowest races every other man — amongst those slightly
more advanced, every man of a different tribe — is
regarded as naturally, and almost iiecessarily hostile.
A stranger is synonymous with an enemy, and a spirit
is but a member of an invisible tribe.

The Hottentots, according to Thunberg, have very
vague ideas about a good Deity. ' They have much
' clearer notions about an evil spirit, whom they fear,
' believing him to be the occasion of sickness, deatli,
' thunder, and every calamity that befalls them.'- The
Bechuanas attribute all evil to an invisible god, whom
they call Murimo, and ' never hesitate to show their
' indignation at any ill experienced, or any wish uiiac-
' complished, by the most bitter curses. They haA'c no
' religious worship, and could never be persuaded by
' the missionaries that this was a thing dis[)leasing to
God.'3

The Abi])ones of Souti; America, so well described by
Dobritzhoffer, had some vague notions of an evil spirit,
but none of a good one.'* The Coroados^ of 1 Brazil
' acknowledge no cause of good, or no God, but only an
' evil principle, which .... leads him astray, vexes

' Tanner's Xavrntivo of n Cap-
ti\ity among the lmlian,«, p. l-'JC).

'■* Tliiinljcrg. I'iiikerlon's A'ny-
ngos, vol. .\v, p. 142. A.xtlt'v, A'c
vU, p. oUO,

•' liichtenstfin, vol. ii. p. .182.
' DobritzholU'i', lov. cit. vol ii,
pp. '•]'}, (!4.

■' Spix and .Martin.s, vol. ii. p. 21."J.

I,"

.11' to

y an

L'XGS

ol ii.

1. 2-1;].

SriT?TTS JlEaAUDlW AS EVIL

11)

' liiin, brings him into difficulty and danger, and tven
' kills liiin.'

\n A'irginia and Florida tlic evil spirit was wor-
slii]t])('d and not the good, because the former might be
ju-opitiated, Avhile the latter was sure to do all the good
he could/ So also the ' Cemis ' of the West Indian
Islands were regarded as evil, and ' re[)utetl to be the
' authors of every calamity that allects the Inunan
' race."' The Hedskiu, says Carver,'"^ ' lives in continual
' ap])r('hension of tlie unkind attacks of sj)irits, and to
' avert them has recourse to ch:u'ms, to the fantastic
' ceremonies of his priest, or the powerful influence of

* his manitous. Fear has of course a greater share in
' his devotions than gratitude, and he pays more atten-
' tion to dejirecating the wrath of the evil than securing
' the favour of the <j:ood beinn-g.' The Tartars of Kats-
chiutzi also considered the evil spirit to be more powerful
than the irood.^ The West Coast Xe<2:roes, according: to
Artus,'^ repi'csent their deities as ' black and mischievous,
' delighting to torment them various ways.' They said
' that the ]']uro[>ean8' God was very good, who gave them

* such blessings, and treated them like his children.
' Others asked, munnuring, why God was not as kind to
' them? Why did not l^c sup[)ly them with woollen
' and linen cloth, iron, bmss, and such things, as well as
' the Dutch? The Dutch answered, that God had not
' neglected them, since he had sent them gold, palm-
' wine, fruits, corn, oxen, goats, hens, and many other
' thinirs necessai

' Miillcr's Gosch. d. Americnn. Ur-

mty

3 Travels,

1S8.

rel

iifionon

lol

Kobortsou's America, book iv,

124.

< Pallas, vol. iii. p. 4.1.3.
•'' Astley's Collection of Voyages,
vol. ii. p. 004.

5i^

. I

lo(j srilUTS UKUAliDEl) AS CAUSING JJfSEASIJ.

' there was no persuading them these thhigs came from
' God. 1'hey said the earth, and not God, gave them
' ffohl, which was du^f out of its bowels : that the eartli
' yichled them maize and rice ; and that not without
' tlie liel[) of tlieir own labour; that for fruits they were
' obliged to the Portuguese, who had planted the trees ;
' that tlieir cattle brought them young ones, and the
' sea furnished them with fish ; that, however, in all
' tlicsc their own industry and labour was required, with-
' out which thev must starve; so that they could not sec
' how they were obliged to God for auy of tliose benefits.'

When Burton spoke to the Eastern Negroes about
the Deitv, they ea^'erlv asked where he was to be found,
in order that they might kill hhn ; for they said, 'AVho
' but he lays waste our homes, and kills our wives and
cattle ?'

The following expression of Eesa feelings, overheard
bv r)urton, iiives a dreadful illustration of this idea.
An old woman, belongiug to that Arab tribe, having a
toothache, offered up the following prayer : 'Oh, Allah,
' may thy teeth ache like mine ! Oh, Allah, may thy
' gums be as sore as mine!' Can this l)e called 'religion' ?
Surely in spirit it is the very reverse.

In New Zealand ^ each disease was re^jarded as beinii:
caused by a particular god; thus ' Tonga was the god
' who caused headache and sickness : he took up his
' abode in the forehead. Mako-Tiki, a l.zard god, was
' the source of all pains in the breast ; Tu-tangata-kino
' was the god of the stomach; Titi-hai occasioned j)ains
'in the ankles iuid feet; Uongomai and Tuparitapu

■ Tiiylor'a Now Zouliind and its Inhabitants, p. 31.

SPIIi'ITS UEaAnVKD AS CAUSINd JUSEASl-:. \'A

• were tliL'^ods ol' t'<)iisiiin|>tinn ; Korokio presided over
' childhlrtli.'

' Sickness,* snys Yate,' ' is broui^lit on by tlio
' " Atuii," wlio, wliGii he is JiDi^'ry, comes to them in tlie
' form of Ji lizard, enters tlieir insi(h3, and preys ui)on
' tlieir vitals till they die. Hence they nse incantations
' over the sick, with the expectation of either })ropi-
' tiatinu' the aniiry deitv or of drivinn" him away ; for
' the latter of which pnrposes they make nse of the
' most iiireatcninf? and (Mitrai^'cons lanL!'naii-e.' The
Stiens of Cambodia believe, ' in an evil genius, and
' attribute all disease to him. If anyone be suffering
' from illness, they say it is the demon tormenting
' him; and, with this idea, mnkc, night and day, an
' insupportable noise around the patient.' '^

The Koussa Kaffirs,'^ says Lichtenstein, ascribe all
their diseases 'to one of three causes : either to being
' enchanted by an enemy; to the anger of certain beings,
' whose abode appears to be in the ri\ers : or to the
' power of evil sjnrits.' Among the Kols of Nag[)ore,
as Coh)nel E. T. Dalton tells us, 'all disease in men
' and hi cattle is attributed to one of two causes, the
' wrath of son)e evil spirit who has to be a])peased, or
' the spell of some witch or sorcerer ; ' ** the Circassians*''
and some of the Chinese^ have also the same belief.

Hence it is that mad peo[)le are in many countries
looked on with so nnicli reverence, since they are re-

' Yato's New Zealand, p. 141.

' Mouhot's Travels in the Cen-
tral i'urta of ludo-China, vol. i. p.
250.

* Lichtenstein, vol. ii. p. 2')o.

^ Trans. Ethn. Soc. N.S. 18GS, p.
80.

^ Klemin, All},'. Cult. d. Mensch.,
vol. iv. p. .'50,

« Trans, lilthn. Soc. 1870, p. 21.

DISltKLlEF AMON(} SAVAdKS IN TJIl'J

l! '

fjardcd ms the special abode of some Deity.' Savaj^vs wlio
believe that diseases are owing to magic, naturally con-
clude that death is so too. Far from havini>" realised to
themselves the idea of a I'uture lil'e, they have not even
learnt that death is the natural end (tf this. We fuid a
very ii'eneral conviction am()n;x savau'es that there is no
such thing as natural death, and that when a man dies
without being wounded, he must be the victim of
magic.

Thus, Mr. Lang,^ speaking of the AuNtralians, says,
that whenever a native dies, ' no m.itter how evident it
' may be that death has been the result of natural
' causes, it is at once set down that the defunct was
' bewitched ])y the sorcerers of some neighl)ouring tribe.'
Among the natives of Southern Africa no one is sup-
posed to die naturally. •'' The licchuanas, says IMiilip,
' and all the Kaflir ti-lbes, have no idea of any man
' dying except from hunger, violence, or witchcraft.
' If a man die even at the age of nine! if he do not die
' of hunger or by violence, his death is imputed to
' sorcery or to witchcraft, and blood is recpiired to
' expiate or avenge it.' '^ So also IJattel tells us that
on the Guinea Coast ' none on any account dieth,
' but that some other has bewitched them to death.'*
Dobritzhoifer ^ mentions that, 'even if an vVbi[)on die
' from being [)ierced with many wounds, or from hav-
' ing his house broken, or his strength exhausted by

' Hee Cook, \'oyago to the I'lvcilio, vol. i. p. 47.
vol. ii. p. 18. ■* Philip's South Allien, vol. i. p.

'-' Lecture on the Abovinino.s of IIS.
Au.-traliii, p. 14. See a!*-.) Oldlicld.s ■'■ A'lvonturoa of Andrew ra'tol,

'i'lau!?. Ethu. tSoc. N.S. vol. iii. p. rinkerton, vol. xvi.p. ."J-U. .See als t

2m. Astley, vol. ii. p. .'iUO.

^ Chnpuian'a Travels in Afii( a, *^' Lov. cif. vol. ii. p. 84.

I' i!

JJXISTl'JXCl-J OF NATirh'Ah PHATlf.

\:,\i

' 5

:t.-l,

I ,♦

' oxtrcmc old .•i<i'e, liis coiintrymoii sill dcnv flwit womuls
' oi" Avcakiu'ss occMsioiu'd his death, and aiixioiislv trv to
' discover hy which of the jiifrjiler.s, and inr what reason,
' lie was killed.' Stevenson ' states that in Sonth Ame-
rica, 'The Indians never hiTieve that death is owini: to
■• natnral causes, hut that it is the ell'ect of sorcery ami
' witchcraft. Thus on the death of an individual one
' or more diviners are consulted, who ijenerallv name
' the enchantei', and are so implicity helieved, that the
' nid'orlunate object of their caj»rice or mali(a' is certain
'to fall a sacrifice.' Wallace" found the same idea,
among the tril)es of the Amazons; Midler' mentions it
as prevalent amonii" the Dacotahs; llearne * among the
Hudson's l>av Indians.

]iut though spirits are natiu'ally much to he dreaded
on various accounts, it by no means ibllows that they
should be conceived as necessarily wiser or more power-
ful than men. Of this our table-turners and spirit-
rap[)ers give a modern illustration. The natives of
the Xicobar Islands were in the habit of }>utting \i\)
scarecrows to frighten the ' Eewecs ' away from their
villages."'* The iidiabitants of Kamtschiitka, according
to Kotzebue,^ insult their deities if their wishes are
unfullilled. They even feel a contempt for them. If
Kutka, they say, had not ])een so stupid, would he
have made inaccessil)le rocks, and too rapid rivers ?''
The La])ps, according to Klemm, made idols for their
deities, and placed each in a separate box, on which

' Travels in South America, vol. i. •' Voyage of the Xovara, vol. ii.

p. GO. p. (iO.

- Loc. (it. p. r)()0. c j^y(._ ,./^ y„i ji p ];3

^ Amor. Urrelifiioiien, p. 82. ' Klcium, Cult. d. MuiLsclieii, vul.

' Loc. (it. p. :j:38. ii. p. :U8.

I :

I .'. I

mw //)/;. IN OF sriii'iTs

f i

)

t\wy iii(licjitc'<l the n.inic of tliu dififv, so tliiil cu-li
iiii;j:lit know its own box.'

N'nnconvcr- inontionn tluit the inliiil)itnnts of Owliylicn
wen; Korionsly olKcndctl with thuir deity i'or jtcnnittinii^
the (K'iith of a popidar yonng chief named Wliokaa.
^'ate observes'' tiiat the Xew Zealaii(k'rs, atti'il)ntiii_i;*
eertain diseases to the attacks of tiie Atua, endeavour
either to jjropitiate or (h'ive liini away; in the hitter
case ' tliey make use (»f the most threateniuL^' and
' outra;^'cou8 lanu'iia^^e; sometimes telliiiL;; tlieir deity
' that they will kill and eat him.'

In India tlie seven '^•reat ' IJisliis ' or ]ienitents arc
described in some of the po])ular talcs as even superior
to the Gods. One of them is said to have 'paid a visit
' to each of the three priiieii»al tlivinities of India, and
' began his interview l)y giving each of them a kick !
' His object was to know how thev would demean them-
' selves, and to find out their temper, by the conduct
' which they "would a,dopt upon such si salutation. The
' penitents always maintained a kind of superiority over
' the fifods, and i)unished them severely when thev found
' them in fault.' "^

The negro of Guhica beats his Fetich if his wishes
are not complied with, and hides him in his waist-cloth
if about to do anything of which he is ashamed, so that
the Fetich may not be able to see what is going on."^

During a storm the Bechuanas cursed the deity for
sending thunder ; " and the Namaquas shot poisoned

■ Loc. cit. vol. iii. p. 81. ' J)iilj(iis, he. vit. p. .'>04.

"^ Voyiigo of Discovery, vol. iii. p. •' Astley's Collection of V^oyages,

14. * ' vol. ii. p. COS.

^ Account of New Zoalnml, p. 111. " Chnpnian's Travels in \fricca,

D'Urville's \'oynge de rAstiolabe, vol. i. p. 45.
vol. iii. pp L>4o, 4-J(>, 470.

EXTl'l /.' T. UN!-: If II Y SA VA( ! i:s.

\:,r,

arrows iit storms to drive tliein uwuy.' When tliu liusuto
(Kjiffir) is on a maraudin;,^ expedition, lie '*]ri\'es utter-
' ancc to those cries and hisses in which cattk! di'ivers
' indulge wlien they drive a herd before thein ; thiid^iii;^*
' in this maimer to persnadc the [)()or divinities (of the
' conntry tliey arc attaekin^z) that he is l)rin;;in_«;' cattle
' to their worshippers, instead (jf coming to take it from
' them.' '-^

Accordiii<^ to Thomson,*^ the natives of Camljodia
assnmed that the Deity did not nnderstand foreign
hmgnni^es. Franklin"* says tliat the Crec Indians treat
their deity, whom they call Kepoochikawn, ' with con-
' siderable familiarity, interlardin*^ their most solenni
' s[)eeches with exi)ostulations and threats of neglect if
' he fails in complying with their rcqnests.'

The Xorth Anstralian native^ will not <xo near ^rraves
' at night by himself; but when they are obliged to pass
' them they carry a fire-stick to keep off the Fpirit of
' darkness.'

The Kyoungtha of Chittagongarc Huddhists. Their
village temples contain a sn. ill stjuid of bells and an
image of Boodh, which the villagers generally worship
morning and evening, ' first ringing the bells to let him
' know that they are there.' ^ The Sinto temples of the
Sun Goddess in Japan also contain a bell, ' intended to
' arouse the goddess and to awaken her attention to the
' prayers of her worshippers.' ^

^ Wood's Natuml History of Man, ^ Keppel's Visit to the Indian

vol. 1. p. .iU/.

- Tasalis' llasiitos, p. '2oi],

Arcliipelngo, vol. ii. p. 1S2.

« Lowin's IliU Tracts of Cliitta-

Tians. I'itliii. Soc. vol. vi. p. gonfr, p. Ji'.>.

50.

•* Vi.-^it to the Pohir Seas, vol. iv.
I. 140.

' Smith's Ten Weeks in .fapan,

4\).

^lf'

ir,r, TJii-:in f.ovr rnxr>:i"n(h\ or rin-uit deities

Accordliiii" to tlic lirjihniaus/ 'two thiiiixs are indis-
' pcnsjibly iieoessiiry to the sacrifice!' in performing tlie
* ceremony : several lighted lamps, and a bell.'

The Tartars of the Altai picture to themselves the
I)eity as an old man, with a long beard, and dressed in
the uniform of a IJussian ollicer of Oragoons.'^

Even the Oreeks and liomans belit'vcd stories verv
derogatory not only to the moral character, but to the
intellect and power, of their deities. Thus they were
liable to defeat from mortals : Mai's, though the (Jod of
War, was wounded by Diomede and fled away ho "litig
with pain. They had little or no power over tlu; ele-
ment's, they had no foreknowle jm\ and were often
represented as infei'ior, both morally and mentally, to
men. I'.ven Homer does not seem to have endjraced
the idea of ()nmi[)otence.'' In fact, it may truly be said
that the savage has a much greater respect for his chief
than for his god. *

This low estimate of spirits i shown in a very striking
manner by the l)ehaviour of savages during eclipses. All
ON er the world we find races of men who believe th/it
the sun and moon are alive, a^d who consider that during
eclipses they are either (piarrelling witli each othei' or
attacked by the evil spirits of the air. Hence it naturally
follows, altiiough to us it seems abstu'd, that the savage
endeavours to assist the sun or moon. The (Ireen-
landers^ regard the sun and nuum as sister and brother ;
the former being the female, and being constantly pur-

' Dubois, The Peoiilo .il" I.i-lin, p. 1\)S, L^i^S.

•l(i(). * Sco llurtoirs Al)b(Mil(iita, vnl i.

- Kl.'imii, Cult. (I. Mou.srli. nl. p. IsO. Dulxiis, lor. tit. pn. :!0t,

iii. p. SC. |;!0.

^ (JliMlstone's.Iuventua JIuutIi, pp. - Crantz, vol. i. p. '2l\'2.

or
[illy

\vn-
\vv ;

n] I

AS EVIDENCED DUIUXC ECfJ.'SEH.

ir,7

sued ly the hitter. During an eclipse they think the
moon '<^oes about among" the liouses to pilfer their skins
' iuid eatables, and even to kill those })e<)[)le that have
' not duly observed the rules of abstinence. At such
' times they hide away everything, and the men carry
' chests and kettles on the top of the house, and rattle
' and beat upon them to frighten away the moon, and
' make him return to his place. At an eclii)se of the
' sun the Avomen })iucli the dogs by the ears ; if the\
' cry, 'tis a sign that the end of the world is not yet

' come.'

The Iiwjuois, says Dr. ]Mitchili,' believe th:it eclipses
are caused bv a bad si)irli,, 'who mischievouslv inter-
' cepts the light intended to be sli d upon the earth and
' its inliabitants. I'pon such occasions tiie greatest
' solicitude exists. All the individuals of the tribe feel
' a strong desire to drive away the demon, and to re-
' move tlierel)}- the impediment to the transmission of
' bimiuous rays. For this ])ur[)Ose they go Ibi-th, and,
' bv cr\ing, shoutini'', drunmiiui!-. ;iiid the iiriim'of iiuus,
' endeavour to friiihten him. 'rhe\' never I'ail in iheir
' object ; i'or by courage ,Md perseverance, they iniliHi-
' bl\" drive him off. His retieat is succee<led by a
' return of the obst'Micted light.'

Tl.tc Caribs, says Latitat!, accoiuited for eclipses by
suj)posiug either that the moon was ill, or that she was
attiicked bv enemies ; these thev endeavoured to drive

• ' •

away by dancc"^, by cries, and ))y the sacred rat tie. -
The Chi([uito Indians,"' according to Dobrit/.hoil'er,

' AnliirMl.Aiiicnciiiui, vol.i.] ."'•'I.

■' l.lllit.lll. vnl, i. Jip, -Jl^, -'t'J.

Tfitiv, Ilisluiy >)!' lliL' ('aribliy

I.-liiti(Is, |). \17-. l>t'ji(i:is' Tiav.
S, A;'i"iici\, v.il. i >). IVl .
•' y.uc. <<V. viil. li. p Si.

Ill

, ■

1 :

;i ,

\i i

1
1

i 1

ir>8 77//;//.' /.()]r roNCEPTroN of tiieiu deittes.

think tlijit tlic sun aii<l moon (lurinij^ eclipses arc 'cruelly
' torn ])y (logs, with Avliich tlie}think tluit the air abounds,
' when they see their light fail ; attributing their blood-
' red colour to the bites of these aninuds. Accordingly,
' to defend their dear planets from those aei'ial mastiffs,
' they send a sliower of arrows up into the sky, amid
' ioud vociferations, at the thne of the ccli[)se.' When
the (luaycurus, says Charlevoix, ' think themselves
' tlu'catened with a storm, they sally out of their towns,
' the men armed with their mancanas, and the women
' and children howling with all their might ; for they
' believe that, by so doing, they put to flight the devil
' that intended to excite it.'^ The ancient IN.'ruvians,
also, used to beat their dogs during eclipses, in order,
apparently, that by their bowlings they might frighten
away the evil spirits.'- '/he Chinese oi' Kiatka thought
that ccli]»ses Avere caused by the evil spirit placing his
hand on the moon, in whose defence they immetliately
made as much noise as jtossible.'* The Stiens of Cam-
bodia,' like the Cambodians themselves, account lor
eclipses by the h}pothesis ' that some being has swal-
' lowed \\\) the sun and the moon ; and, in order to deliver
' them, they made a frightful noise, beat the tam-tam,
' uttered savage cries, ami shot arrows into the air, until
' tlic sun reapj)eared.'

During an eclipse the Sumatrans'' also 'make a
' loud noise with sounding ip.^trumenTs, to jirevent one
' luminar\- from devouring the othei*, as the Ihinese, to

' History of I*iiruj.'uay, vol. i. jt
\>-J. >^w also p. i'();5.
•■ Martin^ Ice <//. p. tV2.
I'allas, vol. iv. p. -J'JO.

' Mouliot's Travels in Iiulo-
( 'liiiui, \o]. i. p. 1'.").'!.

■ Marsiltii'.s Ili>lory of Stiiiiatra,
II. liJ-J.

1 ii

' \

Ill: LIEF IN ^, HOSTS.

150

one
h to

' IVIglitcn Jiwriy the dragon ; a Mipcrstitioii tliat lias its
' .source in tlie ancient systems of astronomy ([nirticularly
' ihe Hindu), where the nodesoftlie mfton are identified
' with the dragon's liead and tail. They tell of a man
' in the moon who is continually employed in spinning
' cotton, but that every night a rat gnaws his thread,
' and oljlii-es him to bei>'in his work afresh.'

' In I'astern Africa,' Speke' mentions that on one
occasi(jn, 'as there was a j^artial eclipse of the moon, all
' the Wanguana marche(l up and down from IJumunika's
' to Xnanimi's huts, sinirinn- and heating our tin cookini''-
' pots to frighten off the sjiirit of the sun from consum-
' ing entirely the chief (;hject of reverence, the moon.'
l^ander- mentions that at IJoussa, in Central Africa, an
eclipse was attributed to an attack made by the sun on
the moon. J)uring the whole time the eclipse lasted the
natives made as nuicli noise as possible, ' in the hope of
' being able to frighten away the sun to his ])r()per s[»here,
' and leave the moon to enlighten the world sis at other
' times.'

One of the ditiiculties in ari'iviiigat any eh'.ir concep-
tion of tlie religions system of the lower races arises tVom
a confusion betA\ecn a l»eHef in ghosts and tliat in an
immurlid s])iril. ^ el the two are essentially distinct;
and the spirit is not necessarily regarded as iinmortal
becauise it dues not perish with the l»od\'. The iKvroes,
i\>y instance, sa}'s one t)f our kr('ne>t ohservi'rs. Captain
Burton, 'believe in a ghost, l)nt not in spirit; in a

'sent innnatei'ial, but not in a future.

iilni,

' Snel

■■' 1
ilitiiii

l>eUf, p.

'jr.i

I I'illl.s.

.tliii. Si

X.S. vol.

1. p.

k. am

I I. IhIIi.1

I. N

I HI. is;

,u,.,-

.X-

]<:o ADSKNCE OF lUUJF.F IN A ll'TlJUF STATE.

\ "

Counting on nothing uf'tc!!' the present life, there is
for tliem no ho})e beyond the grave. They wail find
sorrow wi til u burden of despair. 'Amekwisha' — 'he

* is finished' — is the I'^ast Afriean's last word concern-
ing ])arent or friend. ' All is done f(^r ever,' sing the
West Africans. The least allusion to loss of life makes
their black skins pale. ' Ah,' they exclaim, 'it is bad

* to die: to leave house and home, wife and children ;
' no more to wear soft cloth, nor eat meat, nor smoke
' tobacco.' '

The Hudson's ])ay Indians, according to llearne," a
good observer and one who had ample means of judging,
had no idea of any life after death.

In othrr cases the s[)ii'it is su[)j)osed to survive the
bodv for a certain time, and to liiiLier about its old
abode.

Ask the negro, says i\I. Du (Miaillu,'' 'where is the
' spirit of his grert-grandfather? he says he does not

* know ; it is <lone. vVsk him about the spirit of his
' lather or brother who died yesterday, then he is full
' of fear aiul terror ; he bi'lieves it to be generally near
' the place where tlK3 body has been buried, and among
' many tribes the village is I'emoved iimnediatel}' alter
' (he di'ath of one of the inhabitants.' The same belief
})revails among the Ama/ulu K'allii's, as has been well
shown by Mr. Callaway.' '[\\vy b(Tn'\-e that the
spirits of their deceased iathei\s and brothers still li\e,
because they ai)[)ear in dreams; l)y inverse reasoning,

' I'urtiin, Trails. I'.tliii. Shc, vol. •' 'rriiu.s. Mtlm. Smc. X,S. vol. i. ]).

^ Lor. lit. Y. AW. ' Tlio IN'lijiious .'Systoiu of tl;c

Aniii/.ulu, ISO! I.

i. !>. :iJ;i.

FfTUnr: JJl'E DEPKNVENT ON MODE OF DF \TTI. If.l

-1)

ICI'O IS

il a; id
_' he
icern-
lii' the
mnkes
is l)acl
kh'cii :

smoke

rue," a
(Iging,

vc the

its ohl

is the

)cs not

of his

is full

y near

among

y {\i\vr

' ])elicf

u well

it the

11 live,

oniug,

Ynl. i. )).

nf the

lio-\vevcr, trrand fathers arc i^encrallv roijarded as haviiifj
coiisod to exist.

liosman mentions tliat on tlic Ciiiinea Coast, when
' any considerahle [)ers(m dies, tliey perplex one another
' with liorrid fears, ja-oceeding from an o[ani(m tlnit lie
' a])pears for se\'eral niglits snecessively near Ills late
' dwelling.'^ Tims it seems that the power of a ghost
after dejilh benrs some relation to that whieh the man
possessed when alive. Ot'ier negroes think that after
death they become white men' — a cnrions idea, whieh
also occurs in Anstrnliju Among the Tippcrahs of
Chittngong, if a man dies away from home, his relatives
stretch a thread over nil the intermediate streams, so
that the s[)irit of the d<:i<1 mnn may retui'n to his own
village; it being supj-'oscd that 'without assistance
' spirits are nnable to cross running water ; therefore;
' the stream here had been bridged in the manner afoi'c-
' said.'^ Wc know that a somewhat similar idea existed
in Murope, and it occurs also, as we shall see (p. Kw),
in the Feejee Islands.

Again, some modes of deatli are supjiosed to kill not
only the body but the spirit also. Thus a Ihislmian
liaving put to death a woman, who was a magician,
dashed the head of the corpse to pieces with large stones,
buried her, and made a large lire over the grave, for fear,
as he explained to Lichtenstein, lest she should rise again
;md ' tro'd)le him.' ' ICven the New Zenland(!rs believed
that a ma.\ Avho was eaten was destroyed both body and
spirit. The same idea evidently inlluenced the Cali-

> 1

• r...s,,in, ,'(.". (if. p. 102.

' I, (■ win's Hill rriu'fs (if ('lii(ta{ronj-, \>. Si,

' >,i('ht. i stfiii. vipI, ii. p. ('>|,

-' Lor. (it. p. 10 1,

il'

l»i

llHLIi:!'' IS' THE rLVUAI.lTY OF SOTLS.

loniiuii wlio, as rccordt'd hy Mr. (iil)l)L% tlid nut (lis[)nte
tlie iinmortality of tlic whites wlio buried their dead,
but could not believe the same of his own people, because
they were in the habit of burning them.^

In these cases it will be observed that the existence
of the ghost depends upon the manner of death, and tlie
mode of burial. This is no doubt absurd, but it is not
illogical. The savage's idea of a spirit is something
ethereal indeed, but not altogether immaterial, and con-
sefpiently it may be injured by violence. So.nc races
believe in "jhosts of the livinjj^ as well as of the dead.
For instance, the Foejeeans'^ believe 'that tJie spirit of
' a man who stili lives will leave the body to trouble
' other people when asleep. When anyone faints or
' dies, their spirit, it is said, m.ty sometimes be brouglit
' back by calling after it.'

Even when the ideas of a soul and of future life arc
more developed, they are liir from always taking the
direction of our beliefs.

Thus the Caribs and IJedskins l)c'lieve that a man
has more than one soul ; to this they are probably led
by the pulsation of the heart and the arteries, which
they regard as evidences of independent life. Thus
also they account for inconsistencies of behaviour.

The belief in ghosts, then, is essentially different from
our notions of a future life, (ihosts are mortal, they
haunt burial-grounds and hover round their own graves,
I'^ven when a higher stage lias been gained, the place of
departed souls is not a heaven, but merely a better
earth.

' Sc'ho()lnal;'s liidiaii Tiibt'H, I't.
III. p. 107.

• Fiji ftiul tlu' Fijiiuis, vol. i. j)

1>IVL\ATI()X.

ir.:{

iispiite

(k'iul,

icciiusc

istencc
[Xh\ the
is not
lething
id coh-
e racers
i (lend,
spirit of
trouble
lints or
brouglit

I lie arc
ing tlie

a man
il)ly led

which
Thus
r.

it from
il, they
Igraves.
llacc of

better

Divination .'ind sorcery arc very widely distributed.
Their characteristics are so well known and so similar
all over the world, tiiat 1 shall only give a few suggestive
illustrations.

Wiiipple' thus describes a scene of divination among
the Cherokees. The priest having concluded an elo-
quent address, took 'a curiously wrought l)uwl, alleged
' to be of great anticpiity ; he tilled it with water and
' placed th<! Idack substance within, causing it to move
' from one side to the other, and from bottom to to[),
' by a word. Alluding, then, to danger and foes, the
' enchanted mineral fled, from the ])oiiit of his knife ;
' but as he began to speak of peace and security, it
' turned toward and clung to it, till lilted jntirely
' from the water. The priest linally interpreted the
* omen by informing the peo[)le that [)eace was in the
' ascendant, no enemy being near.'

Jn West Africa- they have a mode of divination with
nuts, ' which they prcstend to take up by gucr:;s, and list
' fall again; after which they tell them, and form their
' answers according as the numbers are even or odd.'
The ne<::roesof J'^i^ba^ consult Slamoo by ' throwin^: six-
' teen pierced cowries: if eight fall U[)wards and eight
'• downwards, it is [tcace ; if all are upwards, it is also a
' good sign ; and rict' versu^ if all fall with their teeth
' lo the ground, it is war.'

The Lap[)s have a curious mode of divination. They
[)Ut a shoulder-blade in the tire, and then foretell the
fuiiU'c by the arrangement of the cracks (iigs. 1.V17).

il. i, p.

' l?f']iitrt on tlio Iiulian Tribes, p. .'{/>.

* A.xtloy's C\illi«c'tio!i of Voyngo-', vol. ii. p. 074.

•' Abla'dkiitii, vol. i. p. ISS.

M •_'

1(1

hi I

DIVINATION.

The same ciiHtom exists ainoiij^' the ^lon^^ols' and Tuii-
*5U.ses of Siberia,'^ and the IJedouins. Tlie Hues vary of
conrse greatly, still there arc certain principal cracks
which usually occur. The following figures of Kalmuck

Fi.i. w.

'^).l\iA\W

j^^^^^^'tr

_J:T;^v'

' ~:f{''''^:E.

I-'IG. 10

Bnoi'LDER-nLAnEs ruF.i'ARr.n for rvixATioy. (Klt'uiiii, Culturjj. dor
Menscfibi'it, vol. iii. p. 200.)

specinions are copied from Klemm, who cxj)lains, after
l*allas, the meaning of the various lines. The Chipe-
wyans of Xorth America also make their magic drawings
ou shoulder-blades, which they then throw into the
fire.^ Williams'* describes various modes of divination
practised in Feejec.

' Kk'iiini, Cult, dor Monsch., vol. • Fiji niul (ho Fijiims, vol. i. p.

iii. p. 101). '■22K. See aho Miiiinor'd Toiijja

■' Ihid. p. 100. I. ■elands, vol. ii. p. SV.).
•• 'I'iUiiU'r's Nanativc, p. l!>2.

i'.

HOnCEUY.

If,

„ after

^'liipc-

hvii\i;'s

lo tlic

latiou

[)1. i. p.

111 New Zej'.hiiKl, i)cfore a warlike expedition is under-
taken, sticks are sometimes stuck \\\) in the ground in
two rows, one of wliich denotes their own party, the
other that of tlie enemy. I i' tlie wind l)lows the enemy's
sticks l)aekwar(ls, tliey Avill be defeated ; if forwards,
tliey will he victorious ; if ol>liquely, the expedition
will he indecisive. The same criterion is applied to
their own sticks.'

This is a case of divination, but from it to sorcery is
a short and obvicnis step. When once it is granted that
the fall of a stick certainly preludes that of the person
it re})resents, it follows that by U[)settin<i; the stick, his
death can be eaused.

\Ve tiiid a very similar idea in the Western High-
lands of Scotland, in tlie 'Sea Maiden' a mermaid
ap[)ears io a fisherman, and. iveshim three seeds, which
ai'c to produce three trees, which 'will be a siii;n, when
'■ one of the sons dies, one of the trees will wither ;' and
this accordinu'ly took j)lace.'"

A supposed prophet of the Shawnees (North America)
sent word to Tanner that the lire in his lod»(e was inti-
mately connected with his life. ' Henceforth,' said he,
' tlie lire nmst never be sulfcred to/i^ooutin your lod_<;!;e.
' Summer and winter, day miuI niiiht, in the storm, or
' wlien it is calm, you must remember that the life in
' vour bodv and the fire in your iod^e are the same.
' If you suircr your fn-e to be extinguished, at that
' moment your life will be at an end.'-'

Father MuroUa mentions a case in which a Conijfo
(negro) witch tried to destroy him. With this object

' Yiito's Ni'w /ciilaiul, p. '.M.

-■ Cii;npbi'U"s T.ilod of llie Wo-H

Hi;.'li lands, vol. i. p, 71.

iiiiior's N'aiTiitiv((, p. l-ni.

hA\

HOUChlltV.

It ;;

;

! rt

she (\\\g a liolo in the ^jroinul, and I resolved, says the
worthy Fatlier,' ' not to stuiid lon^ in one phice, thereby
' to avoid tlie desi_L(n wlie liiid upon me to Ix'witeli nie
' to (h.'utli, th.it luivinuf l)een the reason of her niakin,!^ a
' hole in the earlh. It seems their eustom is, that when
' they have a mind to bewiteh anyone mortally, they
' pnt a certain herb or ])lMnt into the hole they have so
' dn<jf; whieh, ns it perishes or deeays, so the vi<ionr
' and spirits of the person they have a desiirn upon will
' fail and decay.' In Keejee '" 'one mode of operating*

* is to bury a cocoa-nut, Avith the eye upwnrds, beneath
' the tem[)le-hcarth, on whieh a fire is kept constantly

* burninu"; iind sis the lii'e of the luit is desti'oyed, so
' the health of the person it re})resents will fail, till
' death ensues. At ^^atuku there is a urove sacred
' to the ^nod Tokaliiu, the wind. The priest promises
' the destruction of anv hated i)crson in four da\s if
' those who Avish his denth brin,Lr 'i portion of his h.'iii',
' dress, or food which he has left. This ])riest keeps ji
' tire burnii)_L;', and :jpj)roaches the ])lnee on his hands
' and knees. Jf the victim bathe l)ef()re the fourth day,
' the spell is l)rokcn. The most conmion method, how-
' ever, is the Niikadi'iinikau, or compounding' of certain
' leaves snj)jiose(l to jm^sscss a UKi^'icnl poAver, and Avhicii
' are Avrap[)cd in other Icnes, or put into a small bam-
' boo case, and bui'ied in the irarden of the person
' to be bewitched, or hidden in the thatch of his
' house. The native inuiuination is so {d)solntely under
' the control of the fear of these charms, that jiersons,
' heai'ing that they Avere tiie objects of such spells,

' TinkiTton, vol. xvi. p. i^lK).

- Fiji ami tln' Fijimis, ynl. j. p. -Jis,

(
II)

son('}':i:Y.

If,:

cps u
;m(ls
(lay,
liow-
rtaiii
ivliicli
)ain-
rsoii
r liis
iiidcr
sons,
■Us,

' luivc lain (h)\vii on their mats, and died throu;^li
' luar. Tiiosc who ha\i! rcsisoii to suspect others of
' [)lottinLr airainst them, avoid eating in their presence,
'or are cai'einl to leave no tVa_i:inent of iood hehind ;
' they also dispose their ^'•arments so th.'it no part can
' he removed. Most natives on cuttini;- their hair hide
' whatiscut oil' in thi' thatch ol' their own Iiousck. Sonic
' hiiild themsi'lves a snisdl house, and surround it with
' a moat, helievin;r that a little water will neutralise the
' charms which are dirt^cted ;i<2ainsl them.' In North
America, to ensure a successful war, courtship, or hunt,
the Indians maki- a rude drawinii;, or a little ima;;e to
represent the man. woman, or animal; then medicine is
ap[)lied to it, or, if the desiuii is to cause death, the
heart is pierced.' The IJomans, when saeriliees were
foi'hidden, used as a suhstitute to throw dolls into the
Tiher, and in India the mairicians make small li<:ures
of nuul, on the l)reasts of which they write the names
of those whom the\' wish to annoy. Thev then ' |)i'jrce
' the iniaucs, with thorns, or mutilate them, so as to
' connnunicate a correspond ini^' injury to the person
' represented.' -

III other cases, the possession of a person's name is
sullicieiit, and indeed, ;dl over the world we find more
or less confusion hetween a thin*:; or ;i pei'son, jind its
or his name. Ili'iice the importance at tached amon«x
the Xoi'tii American Indians jmkI South Sea Islanders
to an exchaiiiLje of names. Hence, as ali'eady mentioned,
we often fmd a ))erson\s real name concealed, lest u
knowledn'e of it slaadd uive a nower over the nerso

'rnmii'r'.s NiuniliM-. )i. 171.

ll||l...is 'I'll.' I'.Ml.lf n| III, I

IM.

'->.

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-S)

1.0

I.I

IA£IM I2..5

|50 "^^ II^H

■^ 1^ 12.2

|L25„U |,.6

-< 6"

Photographic

Sdences

Corporation

23 WIST MAr^ JTREIT

WEBS1!R,N.V. 1 45*0

(716) 873 4ii03

1G8

CONFUSION OF NAME AND THING.

Even the Komans when they besieged a town, hud a
curious ceremony founded on the same idea. They
invoked the tutehu' deity of the cit}', and tempted him
by the offer of rewards and sacrifices 'to betray his
' friends atid votaries. In that ceremony the name of
' the tutehir deity was thouglit of importance, and lor
' that reason the tutelar deity of Home was a profound
' secret.'^

Sumatra gives us a curious instance of long survival
of this idea in a somewhat advanced community. 'A
Sumatran^ ever scrupulously abstains from pronounc-
ing his own name; not, as I understand, from any
motive of superstition, but merely as a punctilio in
manners. It occasions him infinite embarrassment
when a stranger, unacquainted with their customs, re-
quires it of him. As soon as he recovers from his con-
fusion, he solicits the interposition of his neighbour.
He is never addressed, except in the case of a superior
dictating to his dependent, in the second [)erson, but
always in the third ; using his name or title instead of
the pronoun ; and when these are unknown, a general
title of respect is substituted, and they say, for instance,
" apa orang kaya punia suka," " what is his honour's
" pleasure," for " what is your, or your honour's
" pleasure." When criminals or other ignominious
persons are spoken to, use is made of the pronoun
personal kau (a contraction of angkau), particularly
expressive of contempt.'

Generally, however, it was considered indispensable
that the sorcerer should possess ' sometliing connected

\lh'

^ Lord Kaiiios' History of IMan,
vol. iv. p. 2l'0.

- MiU'iJtlf'n's History of Siuniitra,
p. 280.

CONFUSION OF FABT AND WHOLE.

VjO

blc
ted

litni,

with the body of the object of vengeance. The parings
of the nails, a lock of the hair, the saliva from the
mouth, or other secretions from the body, or else a
portion of the food which the person was to eat. This
Was considered as the vehicle by which the demon
entered the person, who afterwards became possessed.
It was called the tuba, growing or causing to grow.
When procured, the tara was performed; the sorcerer
took the hair, saliva, or other substance that had
belonged to his victim, to his house, or marae, per-
formed his incantations over it, and offered his prayers ;
the demon was then supposed to enter the tubu, and
through it the individual, who afterwards became
possessed.' ^

Speaking of New Zealand, Tylor''^ says that a ' per-
son who wished to bewitch another, sought to obtain
something belonging to him — a lock of hair, a portion
of his garment, or even some of his food; this being
possessed, he uttered certain karakias over it, and then
buried it; as the article decayed, the individual also
was supposed to waste away. This was sure to be
the case if the victim heard of it; fear quickly ac-
complishing his enemy's wish. The person who be-
witched another, remained three days without eating ;
on the fourth he ate, and his victim died.'

So also Seemann* tells us that ' if a Feejeean wishes
to cause the destruction of an individual by other
means than open violence or secret poison, the case is
put in the hands of one of these sorcerers, care being

' Williams' Polynesian liescarcbes, pp. 80, 107.
vol. ii. p. 2L>8. a A Mission to Viti, p. 180.

-' New Zealand and its Inhaljitants,

it I

/ i

f I

fi!

: il

'»;^1

170

SIMILARITY OF WITCHCRAFT

' taken to let this fact be generally and widely known.
' The sorcerer now proceeds to obtain any article tliat
' lias once been in the possession of the person to be
' operated upon. These articles are then burnt with
' certain leaves, and if the reputation of the sorcerer be
' sufficiently powerful, in nine cases out of ten the
' nervous fears of the individual to be punished will

* bring on disease, if not death : a similar process is
' applied to discover thieves.'

Sir G. Grev thus describes a scene of witchcraft in
New Zealand : ' The priests ^ then dug a long pit, termed
' the pit of wrath, into which by their long enchant-
' ments they might bring the spirits of their enemies,
' and hang them and destroy them there ; and when
' they had dug the pit, muttering the necessary incanta-
' tions, they took large shells in their hands to scrape
' the spirits of their enemies into the pit with, whilst
' they muttered enchantments; and when they had
' done this they scraped the earth into the pit again to

* cover them up, and beat down the earth with their
' hands, and crossed the pit with enchanted cloths, and
' wove baskets of flax-leaves to hold the spirits of the
' foes which they had thus destroyed, and each of these
' acts they accompanied with proper spells.'

In North America, also, ' a hair from the head of the
' victim' is supposed to increase greatly the efficacy of
charms, and the same idea occurs at the Cape ; indeed,
no one can read a book of African travels without
being struck by the great dread of witchcraft felt by the
natives of that continent.

We cannot wonder that savages believe in witchcraft,

' PolyiU'.-iiUi >rytliol(>;.ry, p. 108.

W VATUOUS PARTS OF THE WORLD.

the
3y of
Iced,
lliout

the

Iraft,

since evoti the most civiUsed races have not long, nor

entirely, feeased to do so.

Like our spirit-rappers and table-turners, the Chinese

magicians,^ ' though they have never seen the person
who consults them, they tell his name, and all the
circumstances of his family ; in what maimer his house
is situated, how many children he has, their names
and age ; with a hundred other i)articulars, which may
be naturally enough supposed known to the demons,
and are strangely surprising to weak and credulous
minds among the vulgar.

' Some of these conjurers, after invoking the demons,
cause the figures of the chief of their sect, and of their
idols, to appear in the air. Formerly they could make
a pencil /rite of itself, without anybody touching it,
upon pnpcr or sand, the answers to questions. 'J'hey
likewise cause all people of any house to pass in review
in a large vessel of water; Avherein they also show the
changes that shall happen in the empire, and the ima-
ginary dignities to which those sliall be advanced who
embrace their sect.'

In all parts of India, says De Faira,^ ' there are pro-
dis^ious wizards. When Vasco de Gama was sailinir
upon that discovery, some of them at Kalekut showed
people, in basins of water, the three ships he had with
him. When Don Francisco de Almeyda, the first
viceroy of India, was returning to Portugal, some
witches of Kochin told him he should not pass tlic
Cape of Good Hope ; and there he was buried.' (This

is strained a little; for he did pass the Cape, and was

t ii>

ifc'i

'I''

' Astley's Collection of Voyages*,
vol. iv. p. 20').

^ Quoted in Astley's Collection of
Voyage.?, vol, i. p. (>•''.

172

BELIEF IN WITCHCRAFT

I i

buried at the bay of Saklaiina, some leagues beyond, as
will be seen hereafter.) ' What follows is still more
' extraordinary. At Maskat there arc such sorcerers

* that they eat the inside of a thing, only fixing their
' eyes upon it. With their sight they draw out the
' entrails of any human body, and so kill many people.
' One of these fascinators, fixing his eyes on a bateka, or

* water-melon, sucked out the inside; for, being cut
' open to try the experiment, it was found empty;
' and the wizard, to satisfy the spectators, vomited it up

ao'ain.

Father Mcrolla,^ a Capuchin ' missioner,' tells quite
gravely the following story. The army of Sogno having
ca})tured a neighbouring town, found in it a large cock
with a ring of iron round one leg. This they killed,
cut in pieces, and put into a pot to boil; when, however,
they thought to eat it, ' the boiled pieces of the cock,
' thouah sodden, and near dissolved, beo;an to move
' about, and unite into the form they were in before,
' and being so united, the restored cock immediately
' raised himself up, and jumped out of the platter upon
' the ground, where he walked about as well as when he
' ^vas first taken. Afterwards he leaped upon an ad-
' joining wall, where he became new-feathered all of a
' sudden, and then took his flight to a tree hard by,
' where, fixing himself, he, after three claps of his wings,
' made a most hideous noise, and then disappeared.
' Everyone may easily imagine what a terrible fright
' the spectators were in at this sight, who, leaping with
' a thousfind Ave-Mai'ias in their mouths from the place

^ Voyago to Congo, Pinkerto!!, vol. xv. p. 22\K

|(!.''

871 ABED BY EUIiOPEAN TB AVE LIE US,

173

Lid, as

more
sercrs

their
t the
eople.
jka, or
g cut
mpty;
I it up

quite
liaving
;'e cock
killed,
wevcr,
i cock,
move
efore,
iately
: upon
len lie
m ad-
1 of a
•d by,
kings,
leared.
Ifriglit
^vitll
place

' wlicre this had happened, were contented to observe
* most of the particulars at a distance.'

To doubt the reality of witchcraft, says Lafitan,^ ' est
une Industrie des athees, ct un effet de cet esprit d'irre-
ligion qui fait aujourd'hui des progres si sensibles dans
le monde, d'avoir detruit en quehpie sorte dans I'idee
de ceux memes qui se piquent d'avoir de la religion,
' qu'il se trouve des hommes qui ayent commerce avec
' les demons par la voye des enchantemens et de la magic.
' On a attache a cette opinion une certaine faiblesse
' d'esprit a la croire, qui fait qu'on ne la tolere plus que
' dans les femmelettes et dans le bas peuple, on dans les
' pretres et dans les religieux, qu'on suppose avoir in-
' teret a entretenir ces visions populaires qu'un homme
* de sens auroit honte d'avouer. Pour etablir cependant
' cet esprit d'incredulitc, il faut que ces pretendus esprits
' forts veuillent s'aveugler au milieu de la lumiere, qu'ils
' renversent I'Ancien et le Xouveau Testament, qu'ils
' contredisent toute I'antiquite, I'histoire sacree et la
' profane. On trouve partout des temoignages de ce
' commerce des hommes avec les divinites du paganisme,
' ou pour mieux dire avec les demons.*

He does not deny that some wizards were impostors,
but he maintains that ' ce seroit rendre le monde trop
' sot, que de vouloir le supposer pendant plusieurs siecles
' la dupe de quelques miserables joueurs de gobelets.'
Nay, he even maintained^ that America was, for some
mysterious reason, handed over to the devil, and ac-
counted for the remarkable similarity between some of
the religious ceremonies, &c., in the new and old worlds,
by the hypothesis that ' le demon, jaloux de la gloire de

' Loc. cit. vol. i. p. 374. « y^.A. i. p. aG;").

W I ,

I ,

' 1

! t

V ,

174 SORCEIiEh'S NOT NEGESSAUTLY IMlVSTOnS.

' Dieii, ct (lu boiiliour do riioinine, a toiijours 4t6 atten-
' tif a (ItTober a Tun le cultc qui lui est dfi, et a perdre
' I'aiitre, en Ic rendant son adoratenr. Pour cela il a
' erigo antcl contre antel, et a affecte de maintenir le
' ciilte qu'il vouloit se faire rendre par les efFets d'une
* puissance surliuniaine, qui iniposassent par le incr-
' veilleux, et qui fussent iniites et copies d'apres ceux
' dont Dieu donnoit h son peuple des temoignages si
' autlientiques par I'evidence des miracles qu'il faisoit en
' sa faveur.'

Father Labat ^ also observes, ' qu'on exagere souvent
' dans ce qu'on en dit ; mais je crois qu'il faut convenir
' que tout ce qu'on dit n'est pas entierement faux, quoi-
' qu'il ne soit peut-ctre pas entierement vrai. Je suis
' aussi persuade qu'il y a des faits d'une verite tres-con-
' stante ; ' and after mentioning four of these supposed
facts, he concludes, ' il me semble que ces quatre faits
' suffisent pour prouver qu'il y a veritablement des gens
' qui ont commerce avec le diable, et qui se servent de
' lui en bien des choses.'

Some, even of our recent missionaries, according to
Williams, believed that the Polynesian wizards really
possessed supernatural powers, and were ' agents of the
' infernal powers.'^ Nay, Williams himself thought it
' not impossible.'

We mny well be surprised that Europeans should
believe in such things, and missionaries so credulous
and ignorant ought, one might suppose, rather to learn
than to teach ; on the other hand, it is not surprising

' Voyage aux lies tie rAnnJrique, * Polynesian Researclies, vol. ii.
vol. ii. p. 57. p. 220.

<i^-se^r

;2^»*«i<«it^- ■■ -f'W., -^ -

SOllCEUlUiS NOT NECJ'JSSAniLY Lm'OSTOUS. 175

that savages should beUcve in witchcraft, nor even that
the wizards should believe in themselves.

We must indeed by no means suppose that sorcerers
were always, or indeed generally, impostors.

The Shamans of Siberia are, stiys Wrangel,^ by no
means ' ordinary deceivers, but a psychological pheno-
' menon, well deserving of attention. Whenever I have
' seen them operate they have left me with a long-con-
' tinned and gloomy impression. The wild look, the
' bloodshot eyes, the labouring breast and convulsive
' utterance, the seemingly involuntary distortion of the
' face and the whole body, the streaming hair, even the
' hollow sound of the drum, all contributed to the effect ;
' and I can well understand that the whole sliould aj)-
' pear to the uncivilised spectator as the work of evil
' spirits.'

Speaking of the Ahts in North-west America, it is
undoubtedly a fact, says Mr. Sproat,^ ' that many of the
' sorcerers themselves thoroughly believe in their own
' supernatural powers, and are able, in their preparations
' and practices, to endure excessive fatigue, want of food,
' and intense prolonged mental excitement.'

Dobritzhoffer also concludes that the sorcerers of the
Abipones^ themselves 'imagine that they are gifted
' with superior wisdom ;' and Midler also is convinced
that they honestly believe in themsehes.^

We should, says Martins,^ 'do them an injustice if
' we regarded the Brazilian sorcerers as mere impostors,'

k' ^ il

1 Siberia, p. 124. * Gesch. d. Amer. Urrelig. p. 80.

'^ Scenes and Studies of Savage ^ Von d. Rechtszus. unter den (Jr.

Life, p. 170. Brasiliens, p. 30,

3 Lot', fit. vol. ii. p. G8.

I !

17(1

FASTING.

u <

i".

' '!

\'\ ^

!! illl;

thon«>li, he adds, they do not scruple to cheat where
they can.

Williams, also, who was by no moans disposed to
take a favourable view of the native sorcerers, admits
that they believed in themselves, i fact which it is only
fiiir to bear in mind. ^

This self-deception was much facilitated by, if not
mainly due to, the very general practice of fasting by
those who aspired to the position of wizards. The
Greenlander, says Cranz,^ who would be an angekok,
' must retire from all mankmd for a while into some
' solitary recess or hermitage, must spend the time in

* profound meditation, and call upon Torngarsuk to
' send him a torngak. At length, by abandoning the

* converse of men, by fasting and emacijiting the body,
' and by a strenuous intenseness of thought, the man's
' imagination grows distracted, so that blended images

* of men, beasts, and monsters appear before him. Pie
' readily thinks these are real spirits, because his
' thoughts "- •' "nil of spirits, and this throws his body
' into great jgularities and convulsions, which he
' labours to cherish and augment.'

Among the North American Indians,^ when a boy
reaches maturity, he leaves home and absents himself
for some days, during which he eats nothing, but lies
on the ground thinking. When at length he falls asleep,
the first animal about which he dreams is, he thinks,
ordained to be his special protector through life. * The

^ Polynesian Researches, vol. ii. p. vol. i. p. 36.
220. * Lafitau, loc. cit. vol. i. pp. 207,

"^ History of Greenland, vol. i. p. 290, 3ol, and especially pp. 330 and

210. 370.

* Catlin's North American Indians,

IWSTIXH.

i I

Icep,

[nks,

The

207,
kO nmi

(Ircfim itself lio looks on ns w rcvclntion. Iiidciid \\w
iJcdskins fust before any great expedition, thinking tlint
dnring their dreams they receive indications as to the
course of action which they should pursue. '

Among the Cherokees also fasting is very prevalent,
' .nnd an al)sthience of sfiven days renders the devotee
' famous.'-

The Flatheads of Oregon have a very similar custom.
Here, however, a number of youths retire together.
' They spend three days and nights in the performance
' of these rites, without eating or drinking, l^y the
' languor of the body and the higli excitement of the
' imagination ])roduced duiing this time, their sleep
' must be broken and visited by visions ada])ted to
' their views.' ^ These, therefore, they not unnaturally
look on as the visits of spirits.

Those who by continued fasts have thus purified and
cleared their minds from gross ideas, are supposed to be
capable of a clearer insight into the future than that
which is accorded to ordinary men, and are called
' Saiotkatta ' by the Hurons, and ' Agotsinnachen ' by
the Iroquois, terms which mean literally ' seers."*

In Brazil, a young man who wishes to be a paje
dwells alone in some mountain, or in some lone place,
and fasts for two years, after which he is admitted with
certain ceremonies into the order of pajes.'^ Amono-
the Abipones" and Caribs^ those who aspire to be
' keebet ' proceed in a similar manner. Among the

1 Carver's Travels, p. 285. ^ Martins, Recht. unter d. I'r.

"^ Whipple's Report on Indian Bras. p. 30.

Tribes, p. 36. « Dobritzhofter, vol. ii. p. 07.

3 Dunn's Oregon, p. 320. 7 jjy Tertre, History of the Carib-

* Lafitau, vol. i. p. 371. by Islands, p. 342.

'ii

ill

./:

178

TiKLJajOJTfi Th\NrKFi.

Soiitli Anif'ri(^fiM Indians of tlic Fvio de la I'lata tlio
Mcdicinc-nicn wore prepared tor tlieir oflico by a loii^"
fast.' Anioii<T tlio Tia])ps, also, would-be wizards pre-
])are themselves by a strict fast.'-^

At first sii>lit the introduction of the ' dance ' may
seeni out of place here. Anioni;- sava,i>'es, however, it is
lo mere anuisement. It is, says Kobertsou,'*^ ' a serious
and important occupation, which minfrles in eveiy
occurrence of public or private life. If any intercourse
be necessary between two American tribes the ambas-
sadors of the one approach in a solemn dance and
present the calumet or end)lem of peace ; the sachems
of the other receive it with the same ceremony. If
war is denounced against an enemy, it is by a dance,
expressive of the resentment which they feel, and of
the vengeance which they meditate. If the wrath of
their gods is to be appeased, or their beneficence to be
celebrated — if they rejoice at the birth of a child, or
mourn the death of a friend, they have dances appro-
priated to each of these situations, and suited to the
different sentiments with which they are then ani-
mated. If a person is indisposed a dance is prescribed
as the most effectual means to restore him to henlth ;
and if he himself cannot endure the fatigue of such an
exercise, the i)hysician or conjurer performs it in his
name, as if the virtue of his activity could be trans-
ferred to his patient.'
Among the Kols of Nagpore Colonel Dalton^ describes

^ Lafitau, vol. i. p. 8.^5. 133. See also Schoolcraft, he, cit.

^ Klemm, Cult, der Mens., vol. iii. vol. iii. p. 488, on the Sacred Dances

p. H.'j. of the Kedskins.

' Robertson's America, bk. iv. p. * Trans. Ethn. Soc. vol. vi. p. 30.

Ik' '

u ELK nor s hAxri'is.

17!'

ita tlio
SI louo"
Is pro-

! ' may
M', it is
serious
evci'y
rcourso
ambns-
cc mid
aclierns

dance,

and of

rath of

e to be

lild, or

appro-

to the

n ani-

<cribed

on Ith ;

ich an

in his

trans-

icrihes

he. cit.
Dances

1. p. 30.

iii

N 'J

* ' I

180

SMOKING AS A RELIGIOUS FORM.

'i '

: .1

'i '

several dances which, he says, *are all more or less
' connected ^yith some religious ceremony.'

The Ostyaks also perform sacred sword dances in
honour of their god Yelan. ^

Fig. 18 represents a sacred dance as practised by the
natives of Virginia. It is very interesting to see here
a circle of u])right stones, which, except that they are
rudely carved at the upper end into the form of a head,
exactly resemble our so-called Druidical temples.

In Brazil, again, ' some of the tribes had no other
' worship than dancing to the sound of very noisy
'• instruments.' ^

The idea is by no means confined to mere savages.
Even Socrates^ regarded the dance as a part of religion,
and David, we know, did so too. ^

As sacrificial feasts so generally enter into religious
ceremonials, we need not wonder that smoking is
throughout America closely connected with all rehgious
ceremonies, just as incense is used for the same purpose
in the Old World. ^ Among the Sonthals also, one of
the aboriginal tribes of India, the whole of their
religious observ'ances ' are generally performed and
' attended to by the votaries whilst in a state of intoxi-
' cation ; a custom which reminds us of the worship of
' Bacchus among the Greeks and Romans.' "

* Erman, vol. ii. p. 52.

' Depons, Tr. in S. America, i. p.
198.

3 Soc. apudAthen. lib. 14, p. G28.
Quoted in Lafitau, vol. i. p. 200.

* 2 Sam. vi. U, 22.

° Lafitau, vol. ii. p. 103.

« Tlie People of India, by J. F.
Watson and J. W. Kave, vol. i.
p.l.

181

J. F.

tol. i.

CHAPTER y.

liELTGiON (continued)

I HAVE already observed that any rational classifica-
tion of religions should be founded, not so much on
the nature of the object worshipped, as on the con-
ception formed of the nature of the Deity. In support
of this view I will now quote some illustrations to show
how widel}^ distributed is the worship iA' various mate-
rial objects, and how much they are interwoven with
one another.

How ready Savages are to deify objects, both animate
and inanimate, is well shown in the following story
from Lander's ' Niger Expedition.'

In most African towns and villages, says Lander,^ ' I
' was treated as a demigod.' He mentions that on one
occasion, having landed at a village which white men
had never visited before, his party caused great astonish-
ment and terror. When at length they succeeded in
establishing a communication with the natives, the
chief of the village gave the following account of what
had taken place. ' A few minutes,' ^ he said, ' after
' you first landed, one of my people came to me and
' said, that a number of strange people had arrived at
' the market-place. I sent him back again to get as near

• II. and .1. Lander's ^igor Expedition, vol. iii. p. 108.
- Loc. cif. vol. iii. p. 78.

182

ANBLAL wonsinr.

':,■

t i i

;i I'

' to you as he coiikl, to lieiir what you intended doing.
' He soon after returned to me and said that you spoke
* a language which lie could not understand. Not
' doubting it was your intention to attack my village at
' night and carry off my people, I desired them to get

' ready to fight But when you came to

' meet us unarmed, and we saw your white faces, we
' were all so frightened that we could not pull our
' bows, nor move hand or foot ; and when you drew
' near me, and extended your hands towards me, I
' felt my heart faint within me, and believed that you
' were " children of Heaven," and had dropped from
' the skies.'

The worship of animals is very prevalent among
races of men in a somewhat higher stage of civilisa-
tion than that characterised by Fetichism. Plutarch,
lono' a2^o, suo'oested that it arose from the custom of
representing animals upon standards ; and it is possible
that some few cases may be due to this cause, though it
is manifestly inapplicable to the majority, because in
the scale of human development, animal worship mucii
precedes the use of standards, which, for instance, do not
appear to have been used in the Trojan war.^ Diodorus
explains it by the myth that the gods, being at one
time hard pressed by the giants, concealed themselves
for a while under the form of animals, which in con-
sequence became sacred, and were worshipped by men.
This absurd theory needs no refutation.

Another ancient suggestion was that the Egyptian
chiefs wore helmets in the form of animals' heads, and

(ioguet, loc, rit, vol. ii, p. :)l)4.

ORIGIN OF ANIMAL WORSHIP.

]S3

^e 111

riucli

3 not

orus

one

Ives

con-

nen.

kiaii
and

that hence these animals were worshipped. This theory,
however, will not apply generally, because the other
races which worship animals do not use such helmets,
and even in Egypt there can be little doubt that the
worship of animals preceded the use of helmets.

Plutarch, as already mentioned, supposed that the
crocodile was Avorshipped because, having no tongue,
it was a type of the Deity, who makes laws for nature
by his mere will ! This far-fetched explanation shows
an entire misconception of savage nature.

The worship of animals is, however, susceptible of a
very simple explanation, and has, I believe,^ really
originated from the practice of naming, first individuals,
and then their families, after particular animals. A
family, for instance, which w^as called after the bear,
would come to look on that animal first with interest,
then with respect, and at length with a sort of awe.

The habit of calling children after some animal or
plant is very common, which amongst the lowest races
might naturally be expected from the poverty of their
lano[ua<>e.

The Issinese of Guinea name their children ' after

* some beast, tree, or fruit, according to their fancy.
' Sometimes they call it after their fetich or some

* white, who is a Mingo, that is friend to them.' ^

The Hottentots also generally named their children
after some animal.^ In Congo ^ ' some form of food
' is forbidden to everyone : in some it is a fish, in others
' a bird, and so on. This is not, however, expressly
' stated to be connected with the totem.'

I i

^ Astley's Collection of Voyages,
vol. ii. p. 4.'}0.

^ Ihiil. vol. iii. p. .357.
3 Ibid. p. 282.

HI I -s

ill

,1 !

I' s

If (
I

III

'I ^
1/

fill

ISi

THE KOBONO. THE TOTEM.

Ill Suiithcrn Africa the JJechiiaiias are subdivided
into men of the crocodile, men of the fish, of the monkey,
of the hutfulo, of tlie elej)hant, ])orciipiiie, lion, vine,
and so on. No one dares to eat the flesh, or wear
the skin, of the animal to the tribe of which he
belongs. In this case, however, the totems are not
Avorshipped.^

In China also the name is frequently ' that of a
' flower, animal, or such-like tiling.'^ In Australia we
seem to find the totem, or, as it is there called, kobong,
almost in the very moment of deification. Each family,
says Sir G. Grey,^ ' adopts some animal or vegetable,
' as their crest or sign, or kobong as they call it. I
' imagine it more likely that these have been named
' after the families, than that the families have been
' named after them.'

' A certain mysterious connection exists between the
family and its kobong, so that a member of the family
' will never kill an animal of the species to which his
' kobong belongs, should he find it asleep ; indeed, he
' always kills it reluctantly, and never Avithout aftbrd-
' ing it a chance of escape. This arises from the
' family belief, that some one individual of the species
' is their nearest friend, to kill whom would be a great
' crime, and to be carefully avoided. Similarly a native
' Avho has a vegetable for his kobong, may not gather
' it under certain circumstances, and at a particular
' period of the year.'

Here we sec a certain feeling for the kobong or totem,

' Tlif« Iksutos, liov. E. Casalis, vol. iv. p. 01.
p. ill. ^ Two Expeditious in Australia,

- Ai-llev'sj Colloctiou ui" \'ova;^es, vol, ii. p. 228.

)

TUTEMISM IN AMERICA.

185

not

3111,

though it does not amount to worship.^ In America,
on the other hand, it has developed into a veritable
religion.

The totem of the Redskins, says Schoolcraft,'-^ is a
symbol of the name of the progenitor, — generally
some quadruped, or bird, or other object in the anunal
kingdom, which stands, if we may so express it, as the
surname of the family. It is always some animated
object, and seldom or never derived from the ina-
nimate class of nature. Its significant importiiiice is
derived from the fact, that individuals unhesitatingly
trace their lineage from it. By whatever names they
may be called during their lifetime, it is the totem,
and not their personal name, that is recorded on the
tomb, or adjedatig, tliat makes the place of burial.
Families are thus traced when expanded into bands
or tribes, the multiplication of which, in North Ame-
rica, has been very great, and has increased, in like
ratio, the labours of the ethnologist. The turtle, the
bear, and the wolf appear to have been primary and
honoured totems in most of the tribes, and bear a
significant rank to the traditions of the Iroquois and
Lenapis, or DelaAvares ; and they are believed to
have more or less prominency in the genealogies
of all the tribes who are organised on the totemic
principle.'
Thus again the Osages ^ believe themselves to be de-
scended from a beaver, and consequently will not kill
that animal. So also among the Khoiids of India, the

F' I'V

lulia,

' See Eyre, vol. ii. p. •'328.
^ Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, vol.
ii. p. 40. See alio Lafitau, vol. i.

pp. 4()4, 467.
^ Schoolcraft, vol. i. p. 320.

18G

HINDOSTAN.

different tril)es * take their designation from various
' animals, as the bear tribe, owl tribe, deer tribe,'
&c. &c.^

The Kols of Xagpore also are divided into ' keelis '
or clans, generally called after animals, which in
consequence they do not eat. Thus the eel, hawk,
and heron tribe abstain respectively from the flesh of
these animals.^

If, moreover, we bear in mind that the deity of a
savage is merely a being of a slightly difterent nature
from — and generally somewhat more powerful than —
himself, we shall at once see that many animals, such as
the bear or elephant, fulfil in a great measure his
conception of a deity.

This is still more completely the case with nocturnal
animals, such as the lion and tiger, w^here the effect is
heightened by a certain amount of mystery. As the
savage crouching at night by his camp fire, listens to
the cries and roars of the animals prowling about, or
watches them stealing like shadows round and round
among the trees, what wonder if he weaves mysterious
stories about them ; and if in his estimate of animals he
errs in one direction, we perhaps have fallen into the
opposite extremci

As an object of worship, however, the Serpent is
2)re-eniinent among animals. Not only is it malevolent
and mysterious, but its bite — so trifling in appearance
and yet so deadly — producing fatal effects, rapidly, and
apparently by no adequate means — suggests to the

* Early Ilacco of Scotland, vol. ii. '^ Dalton, Trans. Etlin. Soc. N.S.

p. 405. vol. vi. p. 3G.

SEIiPENT-WOliSniP

187

It is
ilent

nice
land

the

IN.S.

savage almost irresistibly the notion of something divine,
accordhig to his notions of divinity. There were also
some lower, but powerful, considerations which tended
greatly to the development of serpent-worship. The
animal is long-lived and easily kept in captivity; hence
the same individual might be preserved for a long time,
and easily exhibited at intervals to the multitude. In
other respects the serpent is a convenient god. Thus in
(jruinea, where the sea and the serpent were the principtd
deities, the priests, as Bosman expressly tells us, en-
couraged offerings to the serpent rather than to the sea,
because, in their latter case, ' there happens no re-
' mainder to be left for them.' ^

AVe are indebted to Mr. Fergusson for a special work
on tree and serpent-worship. 1 cannot, however, agree
with him in supposing that the beauty of the serpent,
or the brilliancy of its eye, had any part among
the causes of its original deification. Nor do I believe
that serpent-worship is to be traced up to any common
local origin; but, on the contrary, that it sprang up
spontaneously in many places, and at very different
times. In considering the wide distribution of serpent-
worship, we must remember that in the case of the
serpent we apply one name to a whole order of animals;
and that serpents occur all over the world, except in
very cold regions. On the contrary, the lion, the bear,
the biill^have less extensive areas, and consequently
their worship could never be so general. If, however,
we compare, as we ought, serpent-worship with quad-

* Pinkertou, vol, xvi. p. oOO.

i ,

/ V

188

A;nA. AFRICA.

Vm i

n'l

f '1

S I

riipcd worship, or bird- worship, or sun-worship, we
shall find that it has no exceptionally wide area.

Mr. Fergiisson, like previous writers, is surprised to
find that the serpent-god is frequently regarded as a
beneficent Joeing. MUller, in his Scientific Mythology,
has endeavoured to account for this by the statement
that the serpent typified, not only barren, impure,
nature, but also youth and health. This is not, I think,
the true explanation. It may be the serpent-god com-
menced as a malevolent being, who was flattered, as
cruel rulers always are, and that, in process of time, this
flattery, which was at first the mere expression of fear,
came to be an article of faith. If, however, the totemic
origin of serpent-worship, as above suggested, be the
correct one, the serpent, like other totemic deities,
would, from its origin, have a benevolent character.

As mentioned in Mr. Fergusson's work, the serpent
was worshipped anciently in Egypt,^ in India,'"^ Phoe-
nicia,^ Babylonia,^ Greece,^ as well as in Italy,'' where,
however, it seems not to have prevailed much. Among
the Lithuanians ' every family entertained a real
' serpent as a household god."'

We may now pass on to those cases in which the
serpent is now worshipped, or was so until lately.

In Asia evidence of serpent-worship has been found

' Herodotus, Euterpe, 74,

* Tertullian, de Prescript. Ilereti-
corum, c. xlvii. Epiphanius, lib. 1,
Ileres, xxxvii. p. 207, ct scrj.

^ Eusebius, Vrve. Evan., vol. i.
p. 9. Maurice, lud. Antiq., vol. vi.
p. 27.'].

* Bel and Dragon, v. -'•>.

^ Pausanias, vol. ii. pp. 1.37, 17o.
yElian de Animal, xvi. 39. Herodo-
tus, viii. p. 41.

^ yElian, Var, Hist., ix. p. 10.
Propertius, Eleg. viii. p. 4.

^ liord Kanies' History of Man,
vol. iv. p. 103.

EGYFT. ATIYSSINIA. (U'JKEA.

isit

real

in Persia/ Cashmere,' Cambodia, Thibet,^ India,'* China

(traces),'' Ceylon," and among the Kalmucks^

In Africa the serpent was worshipped in some parts

of Upper Egypt,^ and in Abyssinia.^ Among the

negroes on the Guinea coast it used to be the principal
deity.io

Smith, in his Voyage to Guinea,'^ says tliat the natives
' are all Pagans, and worship tlu'ce sorts (>f deities. The
' lirst is a large beautiful kind of snake.^ which is in-
' offensive in its nature. These are kept in iittish-
' houses, or churches, built for that purpose in a grove,
' to whom they sacrifice great store of hogs, sheep,
' fowls, and goats, &c., and if not devoured by the
' snake, are sure to be taken care of by the fetish-men
' or pagan priests.' From Liberia to Benzuela, if not
farther, the serpent was the principal deity, ^^ and, as
elsewhere, is regarded as being on the whole beneficent.
To it they resort in times of drought and sickness, or
other calamities. No negro would intentionally injure
a serpent, and anyone doing so by accident would as-
suredly be put to d'^ath. Some English sailors once

i7, 175.

lerodo-

p. 16.

)f Man,

' Mogruil, loO, Windisclimann,
n7, Shah Nanieh, Atkiuson's Trans-
lation, p. 14.

* Asiatic Res. vol. xv. pp. 24, 25.
Aveen Akbaree, Gladwin's Trans.,
p.' 107.

^ niouen-Thsan<r, vol. i. p. 4.

* Fergusson's Tree and Serpent
Worship, p. 56.

^ Ibid. p. 51.

^ History and Doctrine of Budd-
hism in Ceylon, Uphani.

^ Klemra, Cult. derMens., vol.iii.
p. 202.

^ l^oeocke, Pinkerton's Voyages,
vol. XV. p. 2(59.

^ Dillmann in Zeitscli. der Mor-
genlandischen Gesells. vol. vii. p.
3.'38. Ludolf. Coinnient. vol. iii, p.
284 ; Bruce's Travels, vol. iv. p. .35.

"^ Astley's Voyages, vol. iii. p.
480 ; Burton, vol. ii. p. 1.30 ; Smith,
he, cit. p. 195.

" Smith's Voyage to Guinea, p.
195. See also Bosnian, Pinkerton's
Voyages, vol. xvi. p. 184, vt seq.

'^^ Bosnian, loc. cit. pp. 494-499.
Smith, h)c. rit. p. 195.

' 'A i

I'.m

}f '

i I :

"''•"•/.;.(. KAPn.mA.

havino- J;ill(,l one „.l,ieh tl.,.v <• , •

consulted as oradcs. "' '"'^ frequently

In luWitioii to those smnll i, ^

fi^eneer with large court "! ""■■'''''-■ "'""■'"■

n-"orou.s attendants. S eh Tr;,""'' '''""'"""*^' ■■>-'

«Peeial snake. That of Whtht *""'*^ ''"'' »

appeared to the armv d.S ' '"''''"'^^^ '" ''■''ve

-- .-.-nrded as a p^ "Hr.^'''^'^- "" ^-'.a. It

eoura^od the SOL- J ZMhe/" ''' "■'''^'' ^° --
'■"'• "«nee this fetieh ^ "^ ""''' ""'"^^"^ •^"'=<=--
"fhers, and an annu ,1 '■''''■™'^^^' ''^.''""d all
^-Ple .-ith „H,eh e e no f " ^™^ ""-'« '° '^^

f;; 7 yonn, .onrXo ^l^ ^TZ '"'''''"'
«ff to the snake's house to be euml r ""■' *"'^'^"

* -ice the attendants el.-^'. lZ:'Z':X

;;Meh has se,. ents anoTa 'ds cJn ^ °' '^■''^•""'••
(%• 19), presents a remaSl "f "'" "^''^ ''«"'''
Ae Hindoo idols. ^*'' '""'^'"■''y *" some of

The Kaffirs of South Afi-- i

* Je spirits of their aneesto Zj:: ^^r"! "^^''^^ *'>nt
of serperits.4 ^^'"'^'^ ^^ ^^em m the form

' A.stJey, /o.. cif. pp. 2r, ;io

^''w^/. p. 20.
' Astloy, /„p. ,,v. ,.^j ...

^^^-ii.vBa.„to,p.oy^-;:tp.

")»n's Travel., vol. i. p jc,. p „

-.;«Hei;,..s,.e!:;^;^LS:t:

!ii

^rADAGASCA^!. FEVJEE TSLAXhS.

101

loiisc, wore
1 them fill,
r nre small
e attended
frequently

es, which,
)le mno'ni-
ents, and
3S had a
cl to have
rdra. It
!i so en-
r snccess-
yond all
e to its
nspicious
pe taken
nestion-
to the

nly ai'o
hydnh,
s head''
ome of

ef that
3 form

Cnlla-
e Ama-

lagascar

the nati

js rcgar

I'llis mentions that in ^ladr
rlicm 'with a sort of superstition.' ^

In Feejee, ' the god'^ most generally known is

lM(i. 10.

Ik. ^—^

AfiOYK, AN IDOL OF wniDDAH. (Astloy's Collection of Voyages.)

' Xdengei, who seems to be an impersonation of the

' Three Visits to :^[atlagascar, p. « Fiji and the Fijians, vol ii

14.-?. . p. 217."

I 1

I ,

% ■
i ■

i^'

?!>2

( I

'■»l,YX,.;su, .U„,n,aA.

ilF

: "'«' -Ptilo, the ret on t™'!'^'"'' "'■ '■''^ ''""y o*-
' ""<= of overiastin. and n . ?^ ''°"^' ^'"Wcm-
' 1--B a monoton;,!!. 1 "'^■■"''« ''"■•"^-"- Ho

' evinch,;. no interest i„ anyonrL'ri" ""'""'"^ '"'''^" '
«nJ givin.. no si.„s of V^ "'tend^'nt, Uto,

' the other.' " ° '"' 1'"""°" fwm one side to

4e;!l^'"''^^^^-^-''--er.nake.as„„eh

&c. ' ^'" '''^' Monitanis, « Ma„dans>

' residence of a'^ontro,, T ""' "" '*^^"P'« «-l
'*-f« i.ad chosen trir'T^: ^'■''°'" *'- "'habi-

' ^■"'"-n flesh. He wa a "Lvf """^' ■''"'' '''' -'*

' «"d-twe„ty feet Ion! ^ , ''f -^^ ™ -. »-l -ven-

: very fierce though "^r* ir"^ >- ^-H and

extended, disjJayed t,ro mnl ^' •'"''''' '"lien

' -hoie body, Lept tir : ' I'r'"' ''"''■ ^i-

i taiJ, whieh was smooth, was

■ Mariner, vol. „. p. j^^

wJVcr™ 7"' ^«"P™" Ul-
rica y Crouologica de las Pedra,
oe Mexico, IftlQ „ Of. "^"ras

Omz, p. 12.? ' '^' " ' ^'™»1

0"eii, p. aOO.
* /*«V/. p. ({0
^ -^<^/</. p. 2-21.
" Kleiimi, vol. ii. p. ]oo
' ^*'V/. p. 10.3,

' Ch/irlevoix's History of Pn,.o
P-"ay, vol. i. p. no. "'^'

THI': WORSHIP OF OTHER ANDfALS.

193

lie subjoct

te cxcc[)t

^nbol of

traditions

c body of

emblem-

ion, lie

i cavern ;

ant, Uto,

nswcrirm-

le side to

^as mucli

Aztecs, 2
[and

iins.

ru from
iple and
inbabi-
d with
[i seven-
fid, and
when
The
[h, was

* covered with round scales of a p^reat thickness. The
' Spaniards, tliough they could not be i)ersuaded by the
' Indians that this monster delivered oracles, were
' exceedhigly terrified at the fu-st sight of him ; and
' tlR'ir terror was greatly increased, when, on one of
' them having fired a blunderbuss at him, he gave a
' roar like that of a lion, and with a stroke of his tail
' shook the whole tower.'

The worship of serpents being so widely distributed,
and presenting so many similar features, we cannot
wonder that it has been regarded as something special,
that attempts have been made to trace it up to one
source, and that it has been regarded by some as the
primitive religion of man.

I will now, however, proceed to mention other cases
of zoolatry.

Animal worship was very prevalent in America. ^
The Redskins reverenced the bear,'^ the bison, the
hare,^ and the wolf,* and some species of birds. ^ The
jaguar was worshipped in some parts of Brazil, and
especially in La Plata. ^ In South America birds and
jaguars seem to have been the specially sacred animals.
The owl in Mexico was regarded as an evil spirit y in
South America toads, ** eagles and goatsuckers were much
venerated." The Abipones^^ think that certain little
ducks ' which fly about at night, uttering a mournful
' hiss, are the souls of the departed.'

;i' i

If Piim-

' Miiller, Am. Urr., p. GO, ct seq.
2 Ihid. p. 01.

' Schoolcraft, vol. i, p. .310.
" Miiller, he. ct't. p. 2o7.
^ ]\Iiiller, Am. Urr., p. 1.34. Klemm,
loc. cit. vol. ii. p. 104.

8 Loc. cit. p. 250.
'' Prescott, vol. i. p. 48.
8 Depons, Tr. in South America,
veil. i. p. 198.

" Miiller, Amer. Urr., p. 237.
^° Loc. cit. vol. ii. p. 74.

194.

AMERICA.

!•'

V^ ill

'^I'i.

In Yucatan it was customary to leave an infant alone
in a pla».e sprinkled with ashes. Next morning the
ashes were examined, and if the footprints of any
animals were found on them, that animal was chosen as
the deity of the infant. ^

The semi-civilised races of Mexico ^ and Peru were
more advanced in their religious conceptions. In tlie
latter the sun was the great deity.'' Yet in Peru,*
even at the time of the conquest, many species of
animals w^ere still much reverenced, including the fox,
dog, llama, condor, eagle, and puma, besides the
serpent. Indeed, every species of animal was supposed
to have a representative, or archetype, in heaven.^ In
Mexico a similar feeling prevailed, but neither here nor
in Peru can it truly be said that animals at the time of
the conquest "were nntionally regarded as actual deities.

The Polynesians, also, had gencrall}^ advanced beyond
the stage of Totemism. The heavenly bodies Avere not
worshipped, and wdien animals were reirarded with ven-
eration, it was rather as representatives of the deities,
than with the idea that they were really deities. Still
the Tahitians^ had a superstitious reverence for various
kinds of iish and birds ; such as the heron, kingiisher,
and woodpecker, the latter apparently because they
i'requented the temples.

The Sandwich Islanders' seem to have reo'arded tlie
raven as sacred,** and the New Zealanders, according- to

^ De Brosses, Du Culte dos Dieux ° Polyiiortian llosearches, vol. ii.

Fetiches, p. 40. p. 208.

^ Miiller, /(»(•. (vV. p. 481. ^ Cook's 'I'hird Voyage, vol. ili.

" Pre.scott's 1 lihtoiy of I'eru, p. 88. p. 1 GO.

-' Miiller, p. 300. » Cook's ^'oyage to the Pacific,

^ Prescott's History of Peru, p. 87. vol. iii. p. 101.

1% \

PACIFIC ISLANDS. SIBERIA.

105

fant alone
rning the
?. of any
chosen as

*eru were

In the

n Peru/

pecies of

the fox,

sides the

supposed

en. ^ In

here nor

2 time of

1 deities.

1 beyond

vere not

ith ven-

deities,

. Still

various

f^'ii slier,

they

L'd tlie
ihvj; to

vol. ii.
Ivol, ili.
iPaciflc,

Forster, regarded a species of tree-creeper as the ' bird
of the divinitv.'^ Tlie TonQ-ans considered that the

leities ' sometimes come into the living bodies of
lizards, porpoises, and a species of water snake ; hence
these animals are much respected.' '
The Bishop of AVcllington informs ns that ' spiders
were special objects of reverence to Maoris, and as the
priests further told them that the souls of the faithful
went to heaven on gossamer threads, they were very
careful not to break any spiders' webs, or gossamers.
Lizards were also supposed to be chosen by the Maori
gods as favourite abodes.'^

In the Feejee* Islands, besides the serpent, 'certahi
birds, iish and plants, and some men, are supposed to
have deities closely connected with or residing in
them. At Lakemba, Tui Lakemba, and on ^^mua
Levu, Ivavuravu, claim the linwk as their abode ;
A^iavia, and other gods the shark. One is sup])osed to
inhabit the eel, and another the common fowl, and so
on, until nearly eveiy animal becomes the shrine of
some deity. He who worships the gud dwelling in
the eel must never eat of that iish, and thus of the
rest ; so that some are Tabu from eatin"' human
flesh, because the shrine of their i»:od is a man.'

In Siberia Erman mentions that ' the Polar bear, as
the strongest of God's creatures, and that which seems
to come nearest to the human being, is as much
venerated by the Samoyedes, as his black congener by
the Ostyaks. Tlic}^ even swear by the throat of this

' Voyage round the World, vol. i.

- .Miiriuer, fw: rif. vol. ii. p. lOO. vol. i. p. iM'J

o 2

3 Trans. Ethn. 8oc. 1870, p. .".07.
' Williams' l-'iji and the Fijians,

S^ ir; II

W il

[I' ll.J

i 111

II!

'il

.' '(

196

INDIA. AFRICA. MADAGASCAK

^h ::-:J

«:

1!. I

* strong animal, whom they kill and eat ; but when it

* is once killed, they show their respect for it in various
' ways.'^

Each tribe of the Jakuts ' look on some particular
' creature as sacred, e.g. a swan, goose, raven, &c., and
' such is not eaten by that tribe, though the others may

* eat it.'^ The same feeling extends even to plants, and
in China, when the sacred apricot tree is broken to
make the spirit pen, it is customary to write an apology
on the bark. ^

The Hindus, says Dubois,^ ' in all things extravagant,
' pay honour and worship, less or more solemn, to almost
' every living creature, whether quadruped, bird, or
' reptile.' The cow, the ape, the eagle (known as garu-
da), and the serpent, receive the highest honours; but
the tiger, elephant, horse, stag, sheep, hog, dog, cat, rat,
peacock, cock, chameleon, lizard, tortoise, fish, and even
insects, have been made objects of worship.

The ox is held especially sacred throughout most of
India and Ceylon. Among the Todas ^ the ' buffaloes

* and bell are fused into an incomprehensible mystic

* whole, or unity, and constitute their prime object of
' adoration and worship.' . . . . ' Towards eveninjij the
' herd is driven back to the tuel, when such of the male
' and female members of the family as are present
' assemble, and make obeisance to the animals.' The
goose is worshipped in Ceylon,'' and the alligator in the
Philippines.

- Erninn, vol. ii. p. oo.
• Strablenberg, p. 3H3.
^ Tylor, Roy. Inst. Journ. vol. v.
p. 527.

•* Luc, cit. p. 445.

* Trana. Etlin. Soc. N.S. vol. vii.
pp. 2oO, 2'')". See also Ethn. Journ.
18(39, p. 97.

" Teuucut'a Ceylon, vol. i. p. 484.

* * (,

but

ost of
does
lystic
lect of
ir the
male
esent
The
ill the

fol. vii.
I Journ.

|p. 484.

APOLOGISING TO ANIMALS.

197

The ancient Egyptians were greatly addicted to aminal
worship, and even now Sir S. Baker states that on the
White Nile the natives will not eat the ox.^ The com-
mon fowl also is connected with superstitious ceremonies
among tlie Obbo and other Nile tribes.''*

The King of Ardra, on the Guinea Coast, had certain
black birds for his fetiches,^ and the negroes of Benin
also reverence several kinds of birds.

The negroes of Guinea regard ^ ' the sword-fish and
' the bonito as deities, and such is their veneration for
' them, that they never catch either sort designedly. If
' a sword-fish happen to be taken by chance, they will
' not eat it till the sword be cut off, which, when dried,
' they regard as fifetisso.^ They also regard the croco-
dile as a deity. On the Guinea Coast, says Bosman, ' a
' great part of the negroes believe that man was made
' by Anansie, that is, a great spider.' ^

In Madagascar, Ellis ^ tells us that the natives regard
crocodiles ' as possessed of supernatural power, invoke
' their forbearance with prayers, or seek protection by
' charms, rather than attack them; even the shaking of
' a spear over the waters would be regarded as an act of
' sacrilegious insult to the sovereign of the flood, im-
' perilling the life of the offender the next time he should
' venture on the water.'

The nations of Southern Europe had for the most
part advanced beyond animal worship even in the
earliest historical times. The extraordinary sanctity

* Albert N'yanza, vol. i. p. GO. '^ Pinkerton, loc. cit. vol. xvi, p.

2 Baker, loc. cit. vol. i. p. 327. 30G.

3 Astley's Collection of Voyages, « Three Visits to Madagascar, p.
vol. iii. pp. 72, 99. 297.

■» Astley, vol. ii. p. GG7.

lil

ifi

\\i

198

THE CUSTOM OF ArOLOaiSTNG

i I 1 *

' i.l

attributed, in the Twelfth Odyssey, to the oxen of the
sun, stands ahnost alone in Greek mythology, and is
regarded hy i\[r. Gladstone as of Phoenician origin. It
is true that the liorse is spoken of with mysterious
respect, and that deities on several occasions assumed,
the form of birds ; but this does not amount to actual
worship.

Tlie deification of animals explains prob.ably the
curious fact that various savage races habitually apolo-
gise to the animals which they kill in the chase; thus,
the Yogulitzi^ of Siberia, when they have killed a bear,
address it formally, and maintain ' that the blame is to
' be laid on the arrows and iron, which were made and
' forged by the Russians.' Pallas'"^ narrates a similar
action on the part of an Ostyak. Schoolcraft' men-
tions a case of an Indian on the shores of Lake
Superior begging pardon of a bear which he had shot.

Before engaging in a hinit the Chippeways have a
' medicine ' dance in order to propitiate the spirits of the
bears or other game.'^ So also in British Columbia,^
when the fishinfi^ season commences, and the hsh beo;in
coming up the rivers, the Indians used to meet them,
and 'speak to them. They paid court to them, and
' would address them thus: "You lish, j^ou fish; you
' " are all chiefs, you are; you are all chiefs." '

The Koussa Kaffirs ^ had a very shnilar custom.
' Before a party goes out hunting, a very odd ceremony
' or sport takes place, which they consider as absolutely

' Stralilenberg's Voyage to Siberia,
p. 07.

^ Vo)ages, vol. iv. p. 85.

^ Schoolcraft'.-) Indian Tribes, vol.
iii. p. 22'.).

■* Catlin's Amer. I.id. vol. ii. p.
248.

5 Metlalikatlah, p. 00.

" Liohtenstt'in's Travfils vol, i, p.
200.

«l '

it>>:

TO ANIMALS FOU JULLIXn TTlim.

100

you

Itom.
lony
itely

|ii. p.
i p.

' necessary to ensure success to the undertaking. ( )ne of
' them takes a handful of grass into his mouth, and crawls
' about upon all-fours to represent some sort of game.
' The rest advance as if they would run him through
' witli their spears, raising the lumthig cry, till at lengtli
' lie fulls upon the gi'ound as if dead. If tliis man aftor-
' wards kills a head of game, he hangs a claw upon liis
' arm as a trophy, but the animal must be shared witli
' the rest.' Lichtenstein also mentions tliat ' if an
' elephant is killed after a very long and wearisome
' chase, as is commonly the case, they seek to exculpate
' themselves towards the dead animal, by declaring to
' him solennily, that the thing happened entirely by
* accident, not by design.' ^ To make the apology more
complete, they cut off the trunk and bury it carefully
with much flattery.

Speaking of a Mandingo who had killed a lion, Gray
says: 'As'-^ I was not a little surprised at seeing the
man, whom I conceived ought to be rewarded for hav-
ing first so disabled the animal as to prevent it from
attacking us, thus treated, I requested an explanation ;
and was informed that being a subject only, he was
guilty of a great crime in killing or shooting a sove-
reign, and must suffer this punishment until released
by the chiefs of the village, avIio, knowing the deceased
to have been their enemy, would not only do so imme-
diately, but commend the man for his good conduct.
I endeavoured to no purpose to find out the origin
of this extraordinary mock ceremony, but could only
gain the answer, frequently given by an African,
" that his forefathers had always done so." '

* Liclitenstein's Travela, vol. i. p. 254.

' Grny's Travels in Western Afrirn, p. 143.

I*! •!•

!h^

'',

200

THE WORSHIP OF INANIMATE OBJECTS.

The Stieiis of Cambodia ^ believe that ' animals also
' have souls which wander about after their death ; thus,
' when they have killed one, fearing lest its soul should
' come and torment them, they ask pardon for the evil
' they have done to it, and offer sacrifices proportioned
' to the strength and size of the animal.'

The Sumatrans speak of tigers ^ ' with a degree of awe,
' and hesitate to call them by their common name (rimau
' or machang), terming them respectfully satwa (the wild
' animals), or even nenek (ancestors); as really believing
' them such, or by way of soothing and coaxing them.
* When an European procures traps to be set, by means
' of persons less superstitious, the inhabitants of the
' neighbourhood have been known to go at night to the
' place, and practise some forms, in order to persuade
' the animals that it was not laid by them, or with their
' consent.'

The deification of inanimate objects seemsat first some-
what more difficult to understand than that of animals.
The names of individuals, however, would be taken not
only from animals, but also from inanimate objects, and
would thus, as suggested at p. 196, lead to the worship
of the latter as well as of the former. Some of them,
moreover, are singularly lifelike. No one, I think, can
wonder that rivers should have been regarded as alive.
The constant movement, the ripples and eddies on their
surface, the vibrations of the reeds and other water
plants growing in them, the murmuring and gurgling
sounds, the clearness and transparency of the water,

* Mouhot's Travels in the Central 292. See also Depons, Travels iu
Parts of Indo-China, vol. i. p. 252. S. America, vol. i. p. 199.
'^ Marsden'a Ilist. of Sumatra, p.

THE WOltSniP OF INANIMATE OBJECTS.

201

combine to produce a singular eiFect on the mind even
of civilised man.

Seneca long ago observed, that ' if you walk in a
' grove, thick planted with ancient trees of v^nusual
' growth, the interwoven boughs of which exclude the
' light of heaven ; the vast height of the wood, the
' retired secrecy of the place, the deep unbroken gloom
' of shade, impress your mind with the conviction of a
' present deity.'

. The savage also is susceptible to such influences, ard
is naturally prone to personify not only rivers but also
other inanimate objects.

Who can wonder at that worship of the sun, moon,
and stars, which has been regarded as a special form of
religion, and is known as Saba3ism? It does not,
however, in its original form, essentially differ from
mountain or river worship. To us, with our knowledge
of astronomy, the sun worship naturally seems a more
sublime form of religion, but we must remember that
the lower races who worship the heavenly bodies have
no idea of their distance, nor consequently of their
magnitude. Hence the curious ideas with reference
to eclipses which I have already mentioned (p. 156).
Again, the .New Zealanders believed that Mawe, their
ancestor, caught the sun m a noose, and wounded it so
severely that its movements have been slower, and the
days consequently longer, ever since. ^

According to another account, Mawe ' tied a string to
' the sun and fastened it to the moon, that as the
' former went down, the other, being pulled after it by

* Polynesian Mythology, p. 35.

ill

liJi

202

HAVACIJ'J TEMUIXCY TO DEIFKWTIOX.

'( J

I'l.

! )

' the superior power of tlie sun, mny rise nnd give liglit
' durinn; his absence.'^

AVe must always l^ear in mind that the sava,ire notion
of a deity is essentially different from that entertained
])y higher races. Instead of beino; supci-natural, he is
merely a part of nature. This goes far to explain the
tendency to deification which at first seems so strange.

A good illustration, and one which shows how easily
deities are created by men in tliis frame of mind, is
mentioned by Lichtenstein. The king of the Koussa
Kaffirs having broken off a piece of a stranded anchor,
died soon afterwards, upon which all the Kaffirs looked
upon the anchor as alive, and saluted it reii;^^ctfully
Avhenever they passed near it.^ Again, the natives
near Sydney made it an invariable rule never to whistle
when beneath a particular cliff, because on one occasion
a rock fell from it and crushed some natives who were
whistling underneath it."'

A very interesting case is recorded by ]\Ir. Fergus-
son.* ' The following instance of tree-worship,' he says,
' which I myself witnessed, is amusing, even if not
' instructive. AVhile residing in Tessore, I observed at
' one time considerable crowds passing near the factory
' I then had charge of. As it might be merely an
* ordinary fair they were going to attend, I took no
' notice ; but as the crowd grew daily larger, and
' assumed a more religious character, 1 enquired, and
' was told that a god had appeared in a tree at a place
' about six miles off. Xext mornino,' I rode over, and

' Yate, he. cit. p. 143.

2 Travels, vol. i. p. 2o4.

3 Collins's English Colony in N.S.

Walos, p. 382.

* Tree and Serpent Worship, p.
74,

'?*--

LIFE ATTlllBUTED TO TNANUrATh: OllJECTS. '203

not

id at

fcoiy

and

Hace

found a large space cleared in a village I knew well,
in the centre of which stood an old decayed date tree,
hung with garlands and offerings. Around it houses
were erected for the attendant lirjihmins, and a great
deal of business was o'oinii: o'^ iii ollerinrrs and ViiyX.
On my enquiring how the god manifested his presence,
I wjis informed that soon nftcr the sun rose in the
morning the tree raised its head to welcome him, and
bowed it down again when he departed. As this was
a miracle easily tested, I returned at noon and foimd
it was so! After a little study and investigation, the
mystery did not seem difficult of explanation. The
tree had originally grown across the principal pathway
through the village, but at last hung so low, that in
order to enable people to pass under it, it had been
turned aside and fastened parallel to the road. In the
operation the bundle of fibres which composed the
root had become twisted like the strands of a rope.
AYhen the morning sun struck on the upper surface of
these, they contracted in drying, and hence a tendency
to untwist, which raised the head of the tree. AVith
the evening dews they relaxed, and the head of the tree
declined, thus proving to the man of science as to the
credulous Plindu, that it was due to the direct action
of the Sun God.'
The savage, indeed, accounts for all movement by
life. Hence the Avind is a living being. Nay, even
motionless objects are regarded in a particular stage of
mental progress as possessing spirits. The chief of
Teah could hardly be persuaded but that Lander's
watch was alive and had the power of moving. ^ It is

' Niger Expedition, vol. ii. p. 220.

:.•!'

, ,

h '1

201

SOULS ATTinnUTED TO

( I

probably for this reason tliat in most languages inani-
mate objects are distinguished by genders, being at first
regarded as either male or female. Hence also the
practice of bre.iking or burning the weapons, &c. buried
with the dead. It has been generally supposed that
this was merely to prevent them from being a tempta-
tion to robbers. This is not so, however ; savages do
not invade the sanctity of the tomb. Just, however, as
they kill a man's wives and slaves, his favourite horse
or dog, that they may accompany him to the other
world, so do they ' kill ' the weapons, that the spirits
of the bows, &c. may also go with their master, and
that he may enter the other world armed as a chief
should be. Thus the Tahitians^ believed 'that not
' only all other animals, but trees, fruit, and even
' stones, have souls which at death, or upon being con-
' sumed, or broken, ascend to the divinity, with whom
' they first mix, and afterwards pass into the mansion
' allotted to each.'

The Feejeeans^ considered that 'if an animal or a
* plant die, its soul immediately goes to Bolotoo ; if a
' stone or any other substance is broken, immortality is
' equally its reward ; nay, artificial bodies have equal
' good luck with men and hogs, and yams. If an axe
' or a chisel is worn out or broken up, away flies its
' soul for the service of the gods. If a house is taken
' down, or any way destroyed, its immortal part will
' find a situation on the plains of Bolotoo.'

Sproat,^ speaking of N. W. America, says, that 'when

* Cook's Third Voyage, vol. ii. p. ' Sproat's Scenes and Studies of
166. Savage Life, p. 213.

* Mariner, loc. cit.ydl. ii. p. 137.

INA NDFA TE OBJECTS.

205

the (lead are/buried, the friends often burn bhmkets
with them, for by destroying the blankets in this
upper world, they send them also with the departed
soul to the world below.*

In China, ^ ' if the dead man was a person of note, the
Bonzes make great processions ; the mourners follow-
ing them with candles and perfumes burning in their
hands. They offer sacrifices at certain distances, and
perform the obsequies ; in which they burn statues of
men, women, horses, tsaddles, and other things, and
abundance of paper money j all which, they believe,
in the next life, are converted into real ones, for the
use of the party deceased.'
Thus then by man in this stage of progress every-
thing; was reo^arded as havinoj life, and bein"" more or
less a deity.

In India, says Dubois,^ ' a woman adores the basket

* which serves to bring or to hold her necessaries, and
' offers sacrifices to it; as well as to the rice-mill, and
' other implements that assist her in her household
' labours. A carpenter does the like homage to his

• hatchet, his adze, and other tools ; and likewise offers
' sacrifices to them. A Brahman does so to the style
' with which he is going to write ; a soldier to the arms
' he is to use in the field ; a mason to his trowel, and a
' labourer to his plough.'

Sir S. Baker ^ says, ' Should the present history of
' the country be written by an Arab scribe, the style of
' the description would be purely that of the Old Tes-

» Astley, vol. iv. p. 94. =» The Nile Tributaries of Abys-

* People of India, p. 373. See sinia, by Sir S. W. Baker, p. 130.
also pp. 383, 38U.

h H

20()

TliKlUWOliSIIlV.

|l! «

'4 !

: ■

' tamcMit, jiiid tho various calamities or the goud fortunes
' that liave in the course of nature befallen both the
' tribes and the individuals, would be recounted either
' as si)ecial visitations of Divine wrath, or blessings for
* good deeds performed. If in a dream a particular
' course of action is suf^fjested, the Arab believes that
' God has spol'en and directed him. The Arab scribe
' or historian would describe the event as the " voice of
' " tlie Lord" (Kallam el Allah) having spoken unto
' the i)erson: or, that God a[)peared to him hi a dream
'and " .sa/J, &;c." Thus, much allowance would be
' necessary, on the part of a Euro[)ean reader, for the
' figurative ideas and expressions of the people.'

Mr. Fergusson, indeed, regards tree-worship, in asso-
ciation with serpent-worship, as the primitive faith of
mankind. Mr. AVake^ also says, ' How are we to account
' for t!ie Polynesians also affixing a sacred character to
' a species of the banyan, called by them the ava tree,
' and for the same phenomenon being found among the
' African tribes on the Zambesi and the Shire, among
' tlie negroes of Western equatorial Africa, and even in
' Northern Australia? Such a fact as this cannot be
' accounted for as a mere coincidence.'

Since, however, tree-worship equally prevails in
America, we cannot regard it as any ' evidence of the
' common origin of the various races which practise' it.
It is, however, one among maivy illustrations that the
human mind, in its upAvard pi'ogress, everywhere passes
through the same or very similar phases.

Tree- worship formerly existed in Assyria, Greece/'^

' Clmptoi's on Man, p. i^ijO.

^ Uiuim culturf dor Ilcllcncu, Eotticlicr. 1850.

TUKiuwoiismv Tx FAJiiori:.

i>(»7

roluiid,' and France. Jii Persia the lluiiia ov Soma wor-
ssliip was ])cr]irt|>s a case in point; Tacitus*'* mentions the
sacred «^roves of (lennany, and tiiosc of Kn^land an;
familiar to everyone. In the eii^lith century, St. Uoni-
face found it necessary to cut down a sacred oak, and
even recently an oak copse at Locli Siant, in the Isle of
Skye, was held so sacred that no ])erson would venture
to cut the smallest branch from it."*

At the present day trce-worshi[) prevails throughout
Central Africa, south of Egypt and the Sahara. The
Shangallas in Bruce's** time worshipped ' trees, serpents,
' the moon, planets, and stars.'

The negroes of Guinea^ worshi])ped three deities,
— serpents, trees, and the sea. Park" observed a tree
on the confines of ])ondou, hung with iimumerable
offerhigs, princi])ally rags. ' It had,' he says, ' a very
' singular ap[)earance, being decorated with innumerable
' rags or strips of cloth, which persons travelling across
' the wilderness had tied to the branches.'

Chapman mentions a sacred tree among the Kaffirs,
which was huuij: with numerous offerin<2's.''

The iicii-roes ofConi>'o" ^ adored a sacred tree called
' ]\Iirronc.' One is generally planted near the houses,
' as if it were the tutelar god of the dwelling, the Gentiles

iV.

iisses

lece,

' Glaus Magnus, bk. iii. Ch. I.

^ Tacitus, Gerinania, ix.

^ ]<]arly liacos of Scotland, vol. i.
p. 171.

' Travels, vol. iv. p. '35. See also
vol. vi. p. 344.

'" Voyage to Guinea, p. lOo. IJos-
inan, I'inkerton's Voyages, vol. xvi.
p. 4'J4. MeroUa, Pinkerton's \'oy-
ages, vol. xvi. p. -'30.

c Travels, 1817, vol. i. pp. 04,
10(5. See also Caillio, vol. i. p.
ir,0.

"' Travel.-), vol. ii. p. oO. Klenuu
quotes also \'illau]t, IJel. des Co.stes
d'Afrique S., pp. 2(J-"», l'(>7.

** Merolla's A'oyage to Congo,
Pinkerton, vol. xvi. p. 2-"jO. AstU'y's
Collection of Voyages, vol. ii. pp.
y.j, 97.

208

AFRICA. INDIA. CEYLON.

' ).

('(

1 1

1 !'

* adoring it as one of tlieir idols.' They place calabashes
of palm wine at the feet of these trees, in case they
should be thirsty. Bosman also states that along the
Guinea coast almost every village has its sacred grove/
At Addacoodah, Oldfield^ saw a 'gigantic tre( , twelve
' yards and eight inches in circumference. I soon found
' it was considered sacred, and had several arrows stuck
' in it, from which were suspended fowls, several sorts
' of birds, and many other things, "which had been

* offered by the natives to it as a deity.'

The Bo tree is much worshipped in India ^ and
Ceylon.* ' The planting of the Rajayatana tree by
Buddha,' says Fergusson, ' has already been { lluded
to, but the history of the transference of a branch of
the Bo tree from the Buddh-gya to Anuradhapura, is
as authentic and as important as any event recorded
in the Ceylonese annals. Sent by Asoka (250 B.C.), it
was received with the utmost reverence bv Devanam-
piyatisso, and planted in the most conspicuous spot in
the centre of his capital. There it hat been reverenced
as the chief and most important " numen " of Ceylon
for more than 2,000 years, and it, or its lineal de-
scendant, sprung at least from the old root, is there
worshipped at this hour. The city is in ruins ; its
great dagobas have fiillen to decay ; its monasteries
have disappeared; but the great Bo tree still flourishes
according to the legend, — Ever green, never growing
or decreasing, but living on for ever for the delight

1 Zoc. cit. p. 399. See also Ast- ^ ^piee and Serpent Worship, p.

ley's Collection of Voyages, vol. ii. 6{.>, et seq.

P.2G. " Ibid.-^. 50.

- Expedition, vol. ii. p. 117.

SIBERIA.

209

jhip, p.

' and worship of mankind. Annuirlly thousands repair
' to the sacred precincts within which it stands, to do it
' honour, and to offer up those prayers for health and
' prosperity which are more likely to be answered if
' uttered in its presence. There is probably no older
' idol in the world, certainly none more venerated.'

Some of the Chittagong Hill Tribes worship the
bamboo.^ In Siberia the Jakuts have sacred trees on
which they ' hang all manner of nicknacks, as iron,
' brass, copper, &c.'^ The Ostyaks also, as Pallas in-
forms us, used to worship trees.^

' There was pointed out to us,' says Erman,* ' is an
important monument of an early epoch in the history
of Beresov, a larch about fifty feet high, and now.
through age, flourishing only at the top, which lias
been preserved in the churchyard. In former times,
when the Ostyak rulers dwelt in Beresov, this tree
was the particular object of their adoration* In this,
as in many other instances, observed by the Russians,
the peculiar sacredness of tlie tree was due to the
singularity of its form and growth, for about six fee^
from the ground, the trunk separated into two equal
parts, and again united. It was the custom of the
superstitious natives to place costly offerings of every
kind in the opening of the trunk ; nor have tliey yet
abandoned the usage ; a fact well known to the en-
lightened Kosaks, who enrich themselves by carrying
off' secretly the sacrificial gifts.' Ilanv/ay,^ in his

' I.ewin's Ilili Tracts of Chitta-
gong, p. 10,

^ Strablenberg, Travels in Si-
beiitv, p. 381.

' Luc. fit. vol. iv. p. 79.

* Ermau's Travels in Siberia, vjI.
i; p. 404,

^ Quoted in the Early Races of
Scotland, vol. i. p. 10.'}. See also De
iirossea, loc. cit. pp. 1 U, Liu.

n ¥

ijji I 'it;

I .!

■I i:i

i 1

I''

I ■.

210

SUM A TUA. PIlILirriNES.

ill '

;■ I

! W

Travels in Persia, mentions a tree ' to which were
' affixed a number of rao's left there as health-offerinj^'s
' by persons afflicted with ague. This was beside a
' desolate caravanserai where the traveller foimd nothing
' but water.'

In some parts ^ of Sumatra likewise ' they super-
' stitiously believe that certain trees, particularly those
' of venerable appearance (as an old jawi-jawi or banian
' tree), are the residence, or rather the material frame
' of spirits of the woods; an opinion which exactly

* answers to the idea entertained by the ancients of the
' dryades and hamadryades. At Benkunat, in the Lani-
' pong country, there is a long stone, standing on a flat
' one, supposed by the people to possess extraordinary
' power of virtue. It is reported to have been once
' thrown down into tne water, and to have raised itself
' again into its original position; agitating the elements
' at the same time with a prodigious storm. To approach
' it without respect, they believe to be the source of
' misfortune to the offender.'

Among the natives of the Philippines also we find
the worship of trees.^' They ' believed jhat the world
' at first consisted only of sky and water, and between
' these two a glede; which, weary with flying about, and
' finding no place to rest, set the water at variance with

* the sky, which, in order to keep it in bounds, and that
' it shouki not get uppermost, loaded the water with a
' number of islands, in whicli the glede might settle and
' leave them at peace. Mankind, they said, sprang out
' of a large cane with two joints, that floating about in

n\l

i- ;i I

' M;irsdeii*H Iliistory of Suinatm, p. "01.

VACIFIC ISLANVS. NORTH AMEUKW.

211

h were
ffe rings
eside a
nothing

stiper-
y those

banian
1 frame
exactly

of the
e Lani-
n a flat
•clinary
n oijce
id itself
ements
pproach
irce of

e find
world
tween
it, and
e with
d that
rvith a
e and
\f out
ut ill

' the water, ,vas at length thrown by the waves against
' the feet of the glede, as it stood on shore, which
' opened it with its bill, the man came out of one joint,
' the woman out of the other. These were soon after
' married hy the consent of their god, Bathala ^leycapal,
' which caused the lirst trembling of the earth; and
' from thence are descended the different nations of the
' world.'

The Feejeeans also worshipped certain plants.^ 'f ree-
worship was less prevalent in America. Trees and
plants wero worshipped by the Mandans and ]\Ionitarees.'-^
A large ash was venerated by the Indians of Lake
Superior.**

In North iVmerica, Franklin'^ describes a sacred tree
on which the Crees ' had hung strips of buffalo fiesli,
' and pieces of cloth.' They complahied to him of some
' Stone Indians, who, two nights before, had stripped
' their re^'ered tree of many of its offerings.'

In Mexico, Mr. Tylor*" observed an ancient cypress of
^'emarkable size : ' all over its branches were fastened
votive offerings of the Indians, hundreds of locks of
coarse black hair, teeth, bits of coloured cloth, rags and
morsels of ribbon. The tree was many centuries old, and
had probably had some mysterious influence ascribed
to it, and been decorated with such simple offerings
ig before the discovery of America.' In Nicaragua,
liV large trees, but even maize and beans, were

^ lh"'!<H

'Hi

' Fiji and tliu Fijians, vol. i. p.
219.

■^ Miillor, Amor. Unvl, p. oO.

' Miiller, he. cit. p. 1*J5.

' Joiii'Ut'^s to the Polar boji, \ol, i.

091

'■ Aimliuac, p. 215. IIo mentions
a second ca>se ol' the .'^aiue soit on
p. 205.

;' I

■

:!f

i V

t :

\ i

212

PfinU. FATACfONIA. AMERICA.

:' I;

',tl • (

vorsliipped. ^ Maize was also worshipped in the Peruvian
province of Huanca.'^
In Patag'onia, Mr. Darwin^ ..icntions a sacred tree
which the Indians reverence as the altar of Walleechu.
It is situated on a liigh part of the plain, and hence is
a landmark visible at a great distance. As soon as a
tribe of Indians come in sight of it, they offer their

adorations by loud shouts It stands by itself

without any neighbour, and was indeed the first tree
we saw; afterwards we met witli a few others of the
same kind, but they were far from common. Being
winter, the tree had no leaves, but in their place num-
berless threads, by which the various offerings, such as
cigars, bread, meat, pieces of cloth, &c., had been sus-
pended. Poor ]>oople not having any thhig better, only
pulled a thread vj F their ponchoo, and fastened it
to the tree. The IniLians, moreover, were accustomed
to pour spirits and mate into a certain hole, and like-
wise to smoke upwards, thinking thus to afford all
possible gratification to Walleechu. To complete the
scene, the tree was surrounded by the bleached bones
of the horses which had been slaughtered as sacrifices.
All Indians, of every age and sex, made their offerings;
they then thought that their horses would not tire, and
that they themselves should be prosperous. Tlie Gaii-
clio who told me this, said that in tlie time of peace he
had witnessed this scene, and that he and otiicrs used
to wait till the Indians had passed by, for the sake of
stealini!" their offeriniis from Walleechu. The Gauchos

' Miillcr, loc. .i.0. p. •l'.J4. See also •' Ilosonrclies in Goolojry ami

p. 401. Natural History, p. "'.>,

■^ Martins, loc. cit. p. 80.

% and
Giiu-

^ce lie
used

[ko of

bchos

and

EUROPE.

2l;{

' think that the Indians consider tlie tree as the god
' itself ; but it seems far more probable that they regard
' it as tlie altar,' — a distinction, however, which a Pata-
gonian Indian would hardly perceive.

The Abenaquis also had a sacred treo.^

Trees were worshipped by the ancient Celts, and De
Prosses"* even derives the word kirk, now softened into
chnr( ., from quercus an oak, that species being pecu-
liarly sacred.

The Lapps also used to worship trees. ^

Thus, then, this form of religion can be shown to be
general to most of the great races of men at a certain
stage of mental development.

We will now pass to the worship of lakes, rivers, and
springs, which we shall find to have been not less widely
distributed. It w^as at one time ^'ery prevalent in Western
Europe. According to Cicero, Justin, and Strabo, there
was a lake near Toulouse in which the neighbouring
tribes used to deposit oiFerings of gold and silver.
Tacitus, Pliny, and Virgil also allude to sacred lakes.
In the sixth cen+ury, Gregory of Tours mentions a
sacred lake on mount Helanus.

In Britanny there is the celebrated well of St. Anne
of Auray, and the sacred fountain at Lanmeur in the
crypt of the church of St. Melars, to which crowds of
pilgrims still resort.*

In our own country, traces of water-worship are also
abundant. It is expressly mentioned by Gildas,^ and is

^ De Bros^es, Du Culte des Dieux
Fetiches, p. 61. Lafitftu, vol. i. p.

"^ Loc. cit. p. .l7o.

' De Drosses, loc, cit. p. 169.
* Early Kacea of Scotland, vol. i.
p. 158.

5 Mou. IJist. Drit. vii.

II'

! I

I'-

ii'

jif :

i'f

i r

: \\

ft'

ii I I

i *

; 1 '' /

'i! !

P*^

iii

»>^ -^:^

214

WA TER. WORSin R E UJiOPE.

.said to bo dciionnced in a Saxon homily preserved in
Cambridge.^ ' At St. Fillans^ well at Conirie in Perth-
' sliire, numbers of persons in search of health, so late as
' 1791, came or were brought to drink of the waters and
' bathe in it. 7\11 these walked or were carried three
' times deasil (sunwise) round the well. They also threw
' each a white stone on an adjacent cairn, and left behind
' a scrap of their clothing as an offering to the genius of
' the place.' In the Scotch islands also are many sacred
Avells, and I have myself seen the holy well in one of
the islands of Loch Maree, surrounded by the little
offerings of the peasantry, consistirg principally of rags
and halfpence.

Colonel Forbes Leslie observes that in Scotland
' there are few parishes without a holy well ; ' nor was it
much less general in Ireland. The kelpie, or spirit of
the waters, assumed various forms, that of a man,
woman, horse, or bull being the most common. Scot-
land and Ireland are full of legends about this spirit,
a firm belief in the existence of which was general in
the last century, and is even now far from abandoned.

Of river-worship we have many cases recorded in
Greek history."* Peleus dedicated a lock of Achilles'
hair to the river Spercheios. The Pulians sacrificed a
bull to Alplieios ; Themis summoned the rivers to the
great Olympian assembl}'. Okeanos tlie Ocean, and
various fountains, were regarded as divinities. AVater-
worship in the time of Homer was, however, gradually

' Wright's Superstitions of Eng-
land.

^ Early Races of Scotland, vol. i.
p. loG.

^ See Forbes Leslie's Early Kaces
of Scotland, vol. i. p. 145. Camp-
bell's Tales of the West Ilighlauds.

^ Juvenilis Mundi, p. 100.

Ill

1 1'

11.1 TEll-WORSIl I J' FJUiOl'E.

•l\'y

I'y

Icos

cLljins; away ; and belonged rather, I think, to an
earlier stage in development, than, as Mr. Gladstone
believes, to a different race/

In Northern Asia the Tunguses worship varions
springs.^ De I>ro6ses mentions that the river Sogd was
worshipped at Samarcand.^ 'In* the tenth century u
' schism took place in Persia among the Armenians, one
' party being accused of despising the holy well of
' \\ao-arscliicbat.'

The Bouriats also, though Buddhists, have sacred
Likes, Atkinson thus describes one. In an after-dinner
ramble, he says,^ ' I came upon the small and pictur-
' esque lake of Ikeougoun, which lies in the mountains
' to the north of San-ghin-dalai, and is held in venera-
' tion. They have erected a small wooden temple on
' the shore, and here they come to sacrifice, offering up
' milk, butter, and the fat of the animals, which they
* burn on the little altars. The large rock in the lake
' is with them a sacred stone, on which some rude
' figures are traced ; and on the bank opposite they
' place rods with small silk flags, having inscriptions
' printed on them.' I^ake Ahoosli also is accounted
sacred among the Baskhirs.^

The divinity of water, says Dubois, is recognised by
' all the people of India.' ' Besides the well-known
worship of the holy Ganges, the tribes of the Neilgherry
Hills ^ worship rivers under the name of Gangamma,

^ Juventus Mundi, pp. 177, 187.
2 Talks, vol. iv . p. 041.
8 Loc. cit. p. 140

"• Whipple, Report on the Indian
Tribes, p. 44.

° Siberia, p. 445.

^ Atkinson's Oriental and Western
Siberia, p. 141.

^ The People of India, p. 125.
See also pp. M70, 410.

* The Tribes of the Neilgherry
Hills, p. 08.

'■\\
'1,4

'< :i 1

I ■1 '
■ I 1

i )

i1i

1 il

< I

I ;

'' li

216

ASIA. AFRICA.

\ 1.

: I'

'• \

and in crossing them it is usual to drop a coin into
the water as an offering, and the price of a safe passage.
In the Dcccan and in Ceylon, trees and bushes near
springs may often be seen covered with votive offerings.^
The Khonds also worship rivers and fountains.'* The
people of Sumatra ' are said to pay a kind of adoration
' to the sea, and to make it an offering of cakes and
' sweetmeats on their beholding it for the first time,
' deprecating its power of doing them harm.'^

The negroes on the Guinea Coast worshipped the
sea.^

Herodotus mentions the existence of sacred fountains
among the Libyans.^ In the Ashantee country. Bos-
man mentions ' the Chamascian river, or Rio de San
' Juan, called by the negroes Bossum Pra, which they

* adore as a god, as the word Bossum signifies.'*' The
Eufrates, the principal river of Whydali, is also looked
on as sacred, and a yearly procession is made to it.^
Phillips® mentions, that on one occasion, in 1693, when
t^-e sea was unusually rough, the Kabosheers complained
to the king, who ' desired them to be easy, and he would
' make the sea quiet next day. Accordingly he sent
' his fetishman with a jar of palm oil, a bag of rice and

* corn, a jar of pitto^ a bottle of brandy, a piece of

* paint-^d calico, and several other things to present to

* ^;he sea. Being come to the seaside (as the author was

* Early Races of Scotland, vol. i. of Voyages, vol. ii. p. 2G

p. 1G3.

2 Ihid. vol. ii. p. 497.

* Marsden, loc. cit. p. 301.

* Bosraan, Pinkerton's Voyages,
vol. xvi. p. 494. Smith's Voyage to
Guinea, p. 197. Astley's Collection

* Melpomene, clviii., clxxxi.
« Loc. cit. p. 348.
' Astley, loc. cit. p. 20.
^ Astley's Collection of Voyages,
vol. ii. p. 411.

}1\\

AFRICA.

217

rages,

' informed by his men, who saw tlie ceremony), lie made
' a speech to it, assuring it that his kino; was its friend,
' and loved the white men ; that they were honest
' fellows, and came to trade with him for what he
* wanted ; and tliat he requested the sea not to be angry,
' nor hinder them to land their goods ; be told it, tliat
' if it wanted palm oil, his king had sent it some ; and
' so threw the jar with tlie oil into the sea, as he did,
' with the same compliment, the rice, corn, pitto., brandy,
'calico, &c.' Again, A^'illault^ mentions that lakes,
rivers, and ponds come in also for their share of wor-
ship. He was present at a singular ceremony near
Akkra. A great number of blacks assembled about a
pond, bringing with them a sheep and some gallipots,
^ 'hich they offered to the pond, M. ^"illault being in-
formed ' that this lake, or pond, being one of their
' deities, and the common messenger of all the rivers of
' their country, they threw in the gallipots with tliese
' ceremonies to implore his assistuii-.e ; and to beg him
' to carry immediately that pot, in their name, to the
' other rivers and lakes to buy water for them, and
' hoped, at his return, he would pour the jwt-fuU on
' their corn, that they might have a good crop.'

Some of the Negroes on the Guinea Coast "* ' looked
' on the Winces as the gods of the sea ; that the mast
' was a divinity that made the ship walk, and the j^ump
' was a miracle, since it could make water rise up, whose
' natural property is to descend.'

In North America the Dacotahs^ worship a god of

^ Astley's Collection of Voynges, ' Sclio^ ^.craft's Indian Tribes, pt.

p oG8. iii. p. 485.

^ Astley, vol. ii. p. 105.

Ill

21S

NoliTir AMEJUCA.

■\- 1 (

tlic waters under the name of Uiiktalie. They say that
' this i^'od and its associates are seen in their dreams. It
' is the master-spirit of all their juggling and super-
' stitious belief. From it the medicine-men obtain their
' supernatural powers, and a great part of their religion
' s[)rings from this god.' Franklin ^ mentions that the
wife of one of his Indian "guides beinc: ill, her husband
' made an offering to the water-spirits, whose wi'ath he
' appreliended to be the cause of her malady. It con-
' sisted of a knife, a piece of tobacco, and some other
' trifling articles, which were tied up in a small bundle,
'and committed to the rapid.' Carver''^ observes that
when the Redskins ' arrive on the borders of Lake Su-
' perior, on the banks of the Mississippi, or any other
' great body of water, they present to the spirit who
' resides there some kind of offering, as the prince of
' the Winnebagoes did when he attended me to the Falls
' of St. Anthony.' Tamier also gives instances of this
custom.^ On one occasion a Iiedskin, addressing the
spirit of the waters, ' told him that he had come a long
' way to pay his adorations to him, .and now would
' make him the best offerings in his power. He ac-
' cordingly first threw his pipe into the stream ; then
' the roll that contained his tobacco ; after these.^ the
' bracelets he wore on his arms and wrists ; next an or-
' nament that encircled his neck, composed of beads anc*.
' wires ; and at last the earrings from his ears ; in short,
' he presented to his god every part of his dress that
' was valuable.'*

' Journey to the Shores of the ' Narrative of the C.>ptivity of

Polar Sea, i810-L>2, vol. ii. p. 245. John Tanner, p. 40.

••» Carver's Travels, p. .383. " Ihid. p. 07.

CENTRAL AM K UK' A.

•Jl;>

the
|i or-

lort,
Itlmt

Tlic Miindaiis also were in tlie Imbit of sacrilieiiii'' ((►
tlie spirit of tlie waters.'

Ill North Mexico, near the 35th Par.illel, Lieutenant
Whii)})le found a sacred spring which from time imme-
morial ' liad been hekl sacred to the rain-god.'' No
animal may drink of its waters. It nnist be amuially
cleansed with ancient vnses, which, liavhig been trans-
mitted from generation to generation by the caciques,
are then placed u})on the walls, never to be removed.
The frog, the tortoise, and the rattlesnake, represented
upon them, are sacred to ]\Iontezuma, the patron of the
place, who would consume by lightning any sacrilegious
hand that should dare to take the relics away. In Ni-
caragua rain was worshipped under the name of Quiateot.
The principal water-god of Mexico, however, w^as Tlaloc,
who was worshipped by the Toltecs, Chichimecs, and
Aztecs.'^ In New Mexico, not far from Zuni, Dr. Iiell^
describes a sacred spring ' about eight feet in diameter,
' walled round with stones, of which neither cattle nor
' men may drink : the animals sacred to water (frogs,
' tortoises, and snakes) alone must enter the pool.
' Once a year the cacique and his attendants perform
' certain religious rights at the spring : it is thoroughly
' cleared out ; water-pots are brought as an offering to
' the spirit of ^lontezuma, and are placed bottom up-
' wards on the top of the wall of stones. IVIany of
' these have been removed; but some still remain,
' while the ground around is strewn with fragments of
' vases which have crumbled into decay from age.'

' Catlin's North American Indians,
vol. i. p. IGO.
- Reportontlie ludian Tribes,p. 40.

' Miiller, Anier. Urrel. p, 496.
•» Ethn. Jouru. 18G9, p. 2i7.

li /

'\ I

220

SOUTH AMinilCA

III Pom tlie sen, uiidcr {\\v, name of Mamji Coclia, vas
tlie principal deity of tlie Cliinchas;' one branch of the
Collas deduced their oriij^in from a river, tlie others
from a spring: there was also a special rain-goddess.
Tn ]\aragnay'- also the rivers arc propitiated by offer-
ings of tobacco.

AVe will now pass to the worship of stones and moun-
tains, a form of religion not less general than those
already described.

^[. J)ulanre, hi his 'Ilistoirc Abivgec des Cultcs,'
explains the origin of Stone-worshiji as arising from the
respect paid to boundary stones. I do not doubt that
the worship of some particular stones may thus have
originated. Hermes or Termes was evidently of this
character, and hence we may i)erliaps explain the peculiar
characteristics of Hermes or Mercury, whose symbol was
an upright stone.

]\Iercury or Hermes, says Lempricre, ' was the mes-
' senger of the gods. He was the patron of travellcT-
' and shepherds ; he conducted the souls of the de;
' into the infernal regions, and not only presided over
' orators, merchants and declaimers, but he was also the
* god of thieves, pickpockets, and all dishonest persons.'
He invented letters and the lyre, and was the originator
of arts and sciences.

It is difficult at first to see the connection between
these various offices, characterised as they are by such
opposite jK^culiarities. Yet they all follow from the
custom of marking boundaries by upright stones.
Hence the name Hermes, or Termes, the boundary. In

' Miiller, Amer. Uriel, p. :1G8.

Loc. cit. p. 258.

)ersons.

THi': woii'snir of stonI'IS,

•J J I

tlie troul)lous times of old, it wu8 iisuiil, in order to avoid
disputes, to leave a truet of neutral territory between
tlie possessions of diflerent nations. These were called
marches; hence tlie title of Manpiis, which means an
oflicer a[)pointcd to watch the frontier or ' march.'
These marches not bein'4 cultivated, served as fjrazini''
iirounds. To them came merchants in order to exchano-e
on neutral ground the })roducts of their res|)ective
countries; here also for the same reason treaties were
negotiated. Here again international games and sj)orts
were held. Upright stones Avere used to indicate i)laces
of burial ; and lastly, on them were engnived laws and
decrees, records of remarkable events, and the praises of
the deceased.

Hence I\Iercury, represented by a plain upright stone,
was the god of travellers, because he was a landmark; of
shepherds, as presiding over the pastures; he conducted
the souls of the dead into the infciiial regions, because
even in very early days ui)right stones were used as
tombstones; he was the god of merchants, because com-
merce was carried on principally at the frontiers; and
of thieves, out of sarcasm. He was the messenger of
the gods, because ambassadors met at the frontiers ; and
of eloquence for the same reason. He invented the
l}re, and presided over games, because contests in music,
&c., were held on neutral ground; and he was regarded
as the author of letters, because inscriptions were
engraved on upriglit pillars.

Stone-worship, however, in its simpler forms has, I
think, a diii'ercnt origin from this, and is merely a form
of that indiscriminate Avorshi[) which characterises the
human mind in a particular pliase of development.

I '

i .

■i J

'<h >

22-1

ASIA.

\ !

V i

Piilltis states that the Osfc} ik«^ and Tunguscs worsliip
inountjiins,'-" and the Tatars stones.'* Xear Lake
Baikal "* is a sacred rock which is regarded as the .special
abode of an evil spiiit, and is consequeiitly much feared
by the natives. In India stone-worsliip is veiy preva-
lent. The Asagas of Mysore ' worship a god called

* Bhunia Devam, who is represented by a shapeless
' btone.'^ ' One thing is certain,' says ]lklr. Hislop, ' the
' worship (of stones) is spread over all parts of the
' country, from Berar to the extreme east of Bustar,
' and that not merely among the Ilinduiscd aborigines,
' Vvho had begun to honour Khandova, &c., but among

* the rudest and most savage tribes. lie is generally
' £idored in the form of an unshapely stone covered
' with vermilion."' ' Two rude slave castes in Tulava
' (Southern India), the Bakadara and Betadara, worship
' a benevolent d'^ity named liuta, represented by a stone
'kept in every house.'" Indeed, 'in every part of
' Southern India, four or five stones may often be seen
' in the ryots' field, placed in a row and daubed with
'• red paint, which they consider as guardians of the
' field and call the five Pandus.'*' Colonel Forbes
I eslie su]^])oses that this red paint is intended to re-
present blood.*^ The god of each Khond village is
represented by three stones. '^ PL III. represents a

^ Voynges de Palhis. vol. iv. p.
70.

■' Ibid. pp. 4:34, Oif<,

^ Ibid. pp. 514, r>dH.

' Hill's Travels in Siberia, vol. ii.
p. 14i>.

•' liiichanan's Jouriiov, •, ol. i. p.
Ji.'.s. (^nott'd in Ktlmol. Journ. vol.
viii. p. 'JO.

•"' Abori;:inalTribes, p. 10, Quoted
in Etliiiol. Jc'iini. vol. viii. p. 00.

^ Journ. Etlinol. Soc. vol. viii.
p. 115.

^ IIhI. vol. ix. p. 12o.

^ iMirly IJaces of Scotland, vol. ii.
p. 40i>.

"• L(jc. ci(. vol. ii. p. 4117.

_! ^

the

V
V.

c
z

w
cr.

•■ A^ 'I' ..

,■ .'-ti;;»!,w I i,

.' (

i.''i

111

r I

jirt

t't

ilU

> ' 1

(^i

■^ I,

, )

"1
J

f ■

;■ I

TIINDOSTAN.

223

group of sacred stones, near Dclgaiiin in the Dekkun,
li'om a figure given by Colonel Forbes Leslie in his
interesting work.' The three laru'est stood 'in front
' of the centre of two straight lines, each of which con-
' sisted of thirteen stones. These lines were close
• together, and the edges of the stones were placed as
' near to each other as it was possible to do with slabs
' which, although selected, had never been artilicially
' shaped. The stone in the centre of each line was
' nearly as high as the highest of the three that stood in
' front, but the others gradually decreased in size from
' the centre, until those at the ends were less than a
' foot above the ground, into which they ^\'ere all
' secured. Three stones, not fixed, were [)laced in
' front of the centre of the gronp; they occupied the
' same position,, and were intended for the same pur-
•■ poses, as those i.i the circular temple just described. All
' the stones had been selected of an angular shape, with
' somewhat of an obelisk form in general appearance.
' The central group and double lines faced nearly east,
' and on that side were whitewashed. On the white,
' near, although not reaching quite to the apex of each
' stone, nor extending altogether to tho sides, was a
' large spot of red puint, two thirds oi .vUich from tlie
' centre were blacked over, leaving only a circular
' external belt of red. This gave, as I 1)elieve it was
' intended to do, a good representation of a large spot
' of blood.'

In connection with these painted stones it is remark-
able that in New Zealand red is a sacred colour, and
' the way of rendering anything ta[)U was by making it

' Lot: (it. vol ii. p, 404.

li '

<: \

^h'l

I iVl;

V'l

''I

'I
7

224

IHNDOSTAN.

<•:■

' red. When a person died, his house was tlius painted;
' Avhen the tapu was laid on anything, the chief erected
' a post and painted it with the kura ; wherever a corpse
' rested, some memorial was set up; oftentimes the
' nearest stone, rock, or tree served as a monument;
' but Avhatever object was selected, it was sure to be
' painted red. If the corpse was conveyed by water,
' wherever they landed a similar token was left; and
' when it readied its destination, the canoe was draj^ffcd
' on shore, painted red, and abandoned. When the
' hahunga took place, the scraped bones of the chief
' thus ornamented, and wrapped in a red-stained mat,
' were deposited in a box or bowl smeared with the
' sacred colour, and placed in a painted tomb. Near
' his finid resting-place a lofty and elaborately carved
' monument was erected to his memory ; this was called
' the tiki, which was also thus coloured.' ^ Red was
also a sacred colour in Congo. ^

Colonel Dalton describes^ a ceremony which curiously
resembles the well-known scene in the life of Elijah,
when he met the Priests of Baal on the top of Carmel,
showed his superior power, and recalled Israel to the
old faith. The Sonthals of Central Hindostan worship
a conspicuous hill called ' Marang Boroo.' In times of
drought they go to tlie top of this sacred mountain,
and offer their sacrifices on a large fiat stone, playing
on drums and beseeching their god for rain. ' Tliey
' shake their heads violently, till they work themselves
' into a phrensy, and the movement bec'^)mes involuntary.
' Tliey go on thus Avildly gesticulating, till a " little
' " cloud like a man's hand " is seen. Then they arise,

' Taylor's New /t'lilniui ami tlic '21'-\,
New Zealunclors, jt. Uo. ^ Trail::-. Ktliu. Sue. X. S. vol, vi.

- Mi'ioUa, riiikerloii. vol, xvi. p

^ Trail::

p. -Jo.

JS of
ain,
ing
hey

iry.
ttle
iso,

1, vi.

niNDOSTAN. GREECE. LAPLAND.

oor,

' take lip the clrnms, and dance the knrrnn on the rock,
' till AEarang Boroo's response to their prayer is lieard
' in the distant rumbling of thunder, and they go home
' rejoicing. They must go "fasting to the mount," and
' stay there till "there is a sound of abundance of rain,"
' when they get them down to eat and drink. My in-
' formant tells me it always comes before eveninir.'

T'.G Arabians also down to the time of ^lahomet
worshipped a black stone. The Phoenicians also wor-
shipped a deity under the form of an unshapen stone.'
The god Heliogabalus was me.^ely a black stone of n
conical forn. Upright stones wore worshipped by the
Romans .i:d the Greeks, under the name of Hermes oi*
Mercury. The Thespians had a rude stone which they
regarded as a deity, and the Boeotijuis worshipped Her-
cules under the same form.'^ The Laj)landers .^Iso htui
sacred mountains and rocks.'^

In Western Europe during the middle ages we meet
with several denunciations of stone-worship, proving
its deep hold on the people. Thus 'the worship^ of
' stones was condemned by Theodoric, Archl)ishop of
' Canterbur}^, in the seventh century, and is among the
' acts of heathenism forbidden by King Edgar in the
' tenth, and by Cnut in the eleventh century. In a
' council held at Tours in a.d. 5()7 priests were admon-
' ished to shut the doors of their churches against all
' persons worshipping upright stones, and Mahe states
' that a manuscript record of the proceeduigs of a
' council held at Nantes in the seventh century makes
' mention of the stone- woisliip of the Armoricans.'

' Koniiok's rii(»'iiicia, p. •'>2.'».
• Soe IK' I'm'osscs, !(ic. n't. j). 1').'.

' Dulaurf, A«'. fvV. p. "JO.

' Korlxs L('<»lii', /ot: <if. \(A. i. p. !'•'»(>.

I \

. •

i i

i H

.1!

I'l

22G

FRANCE. IRELAND.

! 1

4 P

' Les Fran9ais,' says Dulaure/ ' adorerent des pierres
' plusieurs siccles apres rctablissement du christianisme
' parmi eux. Diverses lois civiles et religieuses attestent
' I'existence de ce culte. Un capitulaire do Cliarle-
' magne, et le concile de Leptine, de Tan 743, defendent
' les ceremonies superstitieuses qui se pratiquent aupres
' des pierres et aupres des Fans consacres a jMercure et
' a Jupiter. Le concile de Xantes, cite par Reginon, fait
' la meme defense. II nous apprend que ces pierres
' etaient situees dans des lieux agrestes, et que le peuple,
' dupe des tromperies des demons, y apportait ses voeux
' et ses offrandes. Les conciles d'Arles, de Tours, le
' capitulaire d'^Vix-la-Chapelle, de Tan 789, et plusieurs
' sy nodes, renouvellent ces prohibitions.'

In Ireland in the fifth century. King Laoghaire wor-
shipped a stone pillar called the Crom-Cruach, which
was overthrown by St. J*atrick. Another stone at
Clogher was worshipped by the Irisli under the name
of Kermand-Kelstach.'^ There was a sacred stone in
Jura ^ round which the i)eople used to move ' deasil,'
i.e. sunwise. ' In some of the Hebrides "* the people
' attributed oracular power to a large black' stone.' In
the island of Skye ' in every district there is to be met
' with a rude stone consecrated to (iruagach or ApoHo.
' The Rev. Mr. McQueen of Skye says that in almost
' every village the sun, called (irugach or the Fair-
' haired, is represented by a rude stone; and he further
' states that libations of milk were poured on the
' gruaich-stones.'

Passing to Africa, Caillie observed near the negro

' Dulauro, luc. vit. vol. i. p. n04.
•-• Dr. Todd's St. Patrick, p. li>7.
' Martin's We.<»tpvn Isles, p. 241.

'ir/

^ Forbes Leslie, loo. cit. vol, i. p.

AFRICA. rACIFIC ISLANDS.

•227

'.,i

s pierres
tianisme
xttestent

Cliarle-
L'fendent
t aupres
rcure et
non, fait

pierres
i peuple,
es va3ux
rours, le
•lusieurs

ire wor-
1, "vvliich
tone at
e name
:one in

people
le.' In
|be met

polio.

[ilmost
Fair-

-irther

II the

Inegro

lol. i. p.

village of N'pal a sacred stone, on which every one as
he passed threw a thread out of his ' pagne ' or breech
cloth, as a sort of oiFering. The natives firmly believe^
that when any danger threatens the village, this stone
leaves its place and ' moves thrice round it in the pre-
ceding night, by way of warning.' ^
Bruce observes that the pagan Abyssinians ' worship
a tree, and likewise a stone.' '^
The Tahitians believed in two principal gods; ' the
Supreme Deity, one of these two hrst beings, they call
Taroataihetoomoo, and the other, whom they suppose
to have been a rock, Tepapa.' ^

In the Feejee * Islands ' rude consecrated stones (fig.
20) are to be seen near Vuna, where offerings of food
are sometimes made. Another stands on a reef near
Naloa to which the natives tayna ; and one near Tho-
kova, Xa Viti Levu, named T ovekaveka, is regarded
as the abode of a goddess, for whom f-^od is provided.
This, as seen in the engraving, is like a round black
milestone, slightly inclined, and having a liku (girdle)
tied round the middle. The shrine of K^wau is a
large stone, which, like the one near Xaloa, hates mos-
quitoes, and keeps them from collecting near where he
rules ; he has also two large stones for his wives, one of
whom came from Yandua, and the other from Yasawa.
Although no one pretends to know the origin of
Ndengei, it is said that his mother, in the form of two
great stones, lies at the bottom of a moat. Stones are
also used to denote the localitv of some other ffods,

• Cnillie, vol. i. p. 25. p. 2.*W.

- liruci'V Travels, vol. vi. p. ^-i^. * Williiims' liji ami the Kijiiins,

^ JIawkcswoitir.o Vnyoges, vi>l. ii. vol. i. p. 2'20.

I '•.

': \

■ )• .1 1

1^ I

til X I

228

PACIFIC ISLANDS. SUMATIiA.

' and the occasioiifil restin,2:-placcs of otlicrs. On tlio
' southern beaches of Ynnua Ijevn, a large stone is soon
' which lias fallen upon a smaller one. These, it is sjiid,

Fro. 20.

ft I

^f^m

sA(i!i;i) sToxiis. (^FtH'ji't' Islands )

* represent the gods of two towns on that coast fighting,
' and their quarrel has for years been adopted by those

* towns.' On one of these sacred stones in the same
neighbourhood are circular marks, cl'"'=^ely resembling
those on some of our European menhirs, &c. The
Sumatrans also, as already mentioned (a7it<', p. 223),
liad sacred stones.

Prescott* says, that a Dacotah Indian ' will pick up
' a round stone, of any kind, and paint it, and go a few
' rods from his lodge, and clean away the grass, say
' from one to two feet in diameter, and there place his
' stone, or god, as he would term it, and make an offer-
' ing of some tobacco and some feathers, and pray to

' Si'hooloraft's Tiuliiin Tribos, vol. ii. p. 220. liaCitau, vol. ii. p. •521.

n JmII

On t\\o
is soon
is said,

fight inu',
by those
he same
iembliiip:
The
Ip. 22H),

pick up

50 .I
fass,

few

'7
Llace his

ofFe I'-

ll!

pray

p. .'5lM.

. 1 .1/ I'j n K'A . Fin E. \ I 'oRsn 1 1 \

■ t.nt

* the stone to deliver him from some danger that he
' has probably dreamed of, or fiom imriginiitiop..'

Tiie Monitarris also before any great luidertuking
were in the habit of makimi; (jfferinij^s to a sacred stnnc
named Mih Choppenish.' In Florida a Monntain called
Olaimi was worshipped, and the Natchez of Louisiatui
had a deity which was a conical stone "'

Fire-worship is so widely distributed as to be almost
universal. Since the introduction of lucifer matches we

can hardly appreciate the difficulty which a savage has
in obtaining a light, especially in damp weather. It is
said, how(!ver, that some Australian tribes did not
know how to do so, and tliat others, if their fire Avent
out, would go many miles to borrow a spark from an-
other trilie, rather than attempt to produce a new one
for themselves. Hence in several ^•ery widely separated
parts of the world we find it has been customary to tell
off some one or more persons whose sole duty it should
be to keep up a continual fire. Hence, no doubt, the
origin of the Vestal virgins, and hence also the idea of
the sacredness of fire would naturally arise.

According to Lafitau,^ M. Huet, in a work which 1
have not been able to see, ' fait une longue (Enumeration
' des peuples qui entretenoient ce feu sacre, et il cite
' partout ses autorites, de sorte qu'il paroit qu'il n'y
' avoit point de partie dii monde conim, oil ce culte ne
' flit universellement repandu. Dans I'Asie, outre les
^ Juifa et les Chaldeens dont nous venous de parler,
' outre les peuples de Phrygie, de Lycie, et de TAsie-

* Mineure, il etoit encore chez les Perses, les Medes, les
' Scythes, les Sarmates, chez toutes les nations du Ponte
' et de la Cappadoce, chez toutes celles des Indes, oil

' Klomni, Culturgcachichti', vol.
ii. p. 178.

- Lalitaii, vol. i, p. 14().
^ Ihui. p. lo-J.

Ill
^1

230

FlHE-WORSlllP.

:\k

I'on HC faisoit iin devoir du se jeter dans les flaniiiies,
et de «'y consumer en holocauste, et cliez toutes celles
des deux Arables, oil cliaque jour a certaines lieures
on faisoit un saeritice au feu, dans lequel plusieurs
pcrsonnes se devouoient. Dans I'Afrique 11 etoit non-
seulement chez les Egyptiens, qui entretenoient ce feu
immortel dans eliaque temple, ainsi que I'assure
Porpliyre, mais encore dans TEthiopie, dans la Lybie,
dans le temple de Jupiter Ammon, et chez les Atlan-
ticiues, oil Tliarbas, roy des Garamantes et des Getules,
avoit dressc cent autels, et consacre autant de feux,
que Virgile appelle des feux vigilans et les gardes
eternelles des dieux. Dans I'Europe le culte de Vesta
etoit si bien etabli, que, sans parler de Rome et de
ritalie, 11 n'y avoit point de ville de laGrece qui n'eut
un temple, un prytanee, et un feu eternel, ainsi que le
remarque Casaubon dans ses '' Ts^otes sur Atlienee."
Les temples celebres d'llercule dans les Espagnes et
dans les Gaules, celui de Vulcain au Mont Ethna, de
Venus Erycine, avoient tons leurs pyrethes ou feux
sacros. On pent citer de semblables temoignages des
nations les plus reculees dans le nord, qui etoient
toutes originaires des Scythes et des Sarmates. Enfin
M. Iluct pretend qu'il n'y a pas encore long-temps
que ce culte a etc aboli dans I'llybernie et dans la
Moscovie, qu'il est encore aujourd'hui, non-seulement
chez les Gaures, mais encore chez les Tartares, les
Ohinois, et dans I'Amerique chez les Mexiquains. 11
pouvoit encore en ajouter d'autres.'
Among the ancient Prussians a perpetual fire was kept
up in honour of the god Potrhnpos, and if it was allowed
to go out, the priest in charge was burnt to death. ^

' \'<)igt, Gescli. Proiis.sens, vol. i. p. 582. Schwenk, Die Mytliol. tier
Slawon, p. 55.

lammes,

38 celles

lieures

lusieurs

oit non-

t ce feu

rassiiiH!

L Lybie,

} Atlun-

jletules,

le feux,

gardes

e Vesta

e et de

iii n'eut

i que le

heiiee."

^ues et

ma, de

u feux

ges des

etoierit

Enfin

temps

lans la

lemeiit

'es, les

IS. 11

IS kept
lowed

liol. der

woRSiirr OF the heavenly bodies.

231

The Natchez had a temple in which they kept up a
perpetual tire. ' The Ojibwas^ maintained ' a continual
" Hre as a symbol of their nationality. They maiii-
' tained also a civil polity, which, however, was much
' mixed up with their religious and medicinal beliefs.'
In Mexico also we find the same idea of sacred fire.
Colonel McLeod has seen the .sacred fire still kept
burning in some of the valleys of South Mexico.^ At
the great festival of Xiuhmolpia, the priests and i)eople
went in procession to the mountain of liuixachtecatl ;
then an unfortunate victim was stretched on the ' stone
' of sacrifice,' and killed by a priest with a knife of
obsidian ; the dish made use of to kindle the new fire
was then placed on the wound, and fire was obtained
by friction.*

In Peru ^ ' the sacred flame was entrusted to the care
' of the virgins of the sun ; and if, by any neglect, it
' was sufl:ered to go out in the course of the year, the
' event was regarded as a calamity that boded some
' strange disaster to the monarchy.'

Fire is also regarded as sacred in Congo.

No one can wonder that the worship of sun, moon,
and stars is very widely distributed. It can, however,
scarcely be regarded as of a higher character than the
preceding forms of Totemism ; it is rare in Africa,
unknown in Australia, and almost so in Polynesia.

In hot countries the sun is generally regarded as an
evil, and in cold as a beneficent, being. It was the chief
object of religious worship among the Natchez,^ and

* Lafitau, vol. i. p. 107.

' "NVarren in Schoolcraft's Indian
Tribes, vol. ii. p. 1.38. See also Whip-
ple's Report on Indian Tribes, p. '](J.

3 Jour. Ethn. Soc. 1809, p. 225.
Sot' ' l.«o p. 24(5.

■* Humboldt's Researches, London,
1824, vol. i. pp. 225, 382. Lafitau,
vol. i. p. 170.

•' I'rescott, vol. i. p. 09.

" llobertsou's America, bk. iv. p.
120.

.■■

« I

■Hi

•_»:;j

AMEUTCA. JXIHA.

) ■

I i

was also worshippi'd by the iNavajos, and other allied
tribes in X. America.' Anion«»' the ConmnclieH of
Texas 'the sun, moon, and earth arc the principal
' objects of worship.'- Latitaii observes that the Ame-
ricans did not worship the stars and planets, but only
the sun.^ The Ahts of North-west America worship
both the sun and moon, but especially the latter. They
regard the sun as feminine and the moon as msisculine,
beino-, moreover, the husband of the sun.** It has been
said that the Esquimaux of Greenland used to worship
the sun. This, however, seems more than doubtful,
and Crantz*^ expressly denies the statement.

In South America the Coroados worship the sun and
moon, the moon being the greatest." The Abipones^
thought that they were descended ^Vom the Pleiades,
and ' as that constellation disappears at certain periods
' from the sky of South xVmerica, upon such occasions
' they supj^ose that their grandfather is sick, and are
' under a yearly ai)prehension that he is going to die :
' but as soon as those seven stars are again visible in
* the month of May, they welcome their grandfather, as
•■ if returned and restored from sickness, with joyful
' shouts, and the festive sound of pipes and trumpets,
' congratulating him on the recovery of his health.'

In Central India ' the worship of the sun as the
' Supreme Deity is the foundation of the religion of the
' Hos and Oraons as well as of the Moond'-'hs. By the
' former he is invoked as Dhurmi, the Holy One. He

* Whipple's Report on Indian
Tribes, p. iJO. Laiitau, vol, ii. p.
18U. Tertre'N History of the Ctiribby
Islands, p. 230.

^ Neighbors in Schoolcraft's Indian
Tribes, vol. ii. p. 127.

^ Lot: cit. vol. i. p. 140.

•* Sproat's Scenes and Studies of
Savage Life, p. 200.

■' Loc. cit. vol. i. p. 190. See also
Ciraah's Voyage to Greenland, p. 124.

•' Spix and Martins, vol. ii. p. 243.

' Loc. cit. vol. ii. p. 05.

1II

A Fine A. ASIA.

.>•>•<

_•!•>

, as
/fill
ipets,

the
)f the
the
He

Idies of

lee als

1-24.
. 'US.

' is tlic Creator and tlie i'reservcr, ami with rct'ci'eiui'
' to his ptu'ity, white aiiinialB are oHercd to him by his
'• votaries.'' 'I'he sun and moon are hoth reuarded as
deities hy the Klioiids,'"' Tun^jiiises, and Ihiraets.^ In
Xortliern Asia the Samoyeik'S arc said to have wor-
shini)ed the sun.

•PI

Mei

In Western Airica, according 1
' appearance of every new moon, tlicse people fall on
' their knees, or else cry out, standin;j; and chippini;'
' their hands, " So mny 1 renew my life as thou art
' " renewed," ' They do not, however, ajipcar to vene-
rate either the sun or the stars. IJruce also mentions
moon-worship as occui'ring among the Shangallas.'''
Herodotus'* mentions tlait the Atarantes curse the sun
as he passes over their heads.

It is remarkable that the heavenly bodies do not
appear to be worshi])ped by the Polynesians. Accord-
ing to Lord Kames, •• the inhabitants of Celebes formerly
' acknowledged no gods but the sun and moon.'' The
people of Borneo also are said to have done the same.

These are the principal deities of man in this stage
of his religious development. 'J'hey are, however, by
no means the only ones. The Scythians worshipped an
iron scimetar as a symbol of Mars ; ' to this scimctar
' they bring yearly sacriiices of cattle jmd horses ; and
' to these scimetars they offer more sacrifices than to
' the rest of their gods.'** In the Sagas many of the
swords have special names, and are treated with the

' Colonel Palton, Trana. Etliii.
yoc. vol. vi. p. .'{3.

- Forbes Leslie. Eiivly Races nf
Scotland, vol. ii. p. 4'.)0.

^ Klenun, Cult. d. Mcnsch. v. iii.
pp. 101, 101).

■' Voyage to Congo, Pinkerton,

vol. XV. p. ir^.

^ Travels, vol. iv. p. .35, vol. vi.
p, nj-l.

'' lleroilotu^, iv. J^'i,

' IJistury of Man, vol. iv. p. i>'}-J.

" Her. iv. 02. See also Klenun,
Werlizeiige iind Wallbn, p. '2'Jo.

b I

•'. 'i

/J !

'2134

SUNDRY woRsmrs.

} Ml
i ■

i^rojitest respect. Siniihirly the Feejeeaiis regarded
' certain clubs with superstitious respect ;' ' and the
Negroes of Irawo, a town in Western Yoruba, wor-
shipped an iron bar with ver}^ expensive ceremonies."^
The Xew Zeahinders and some of the Melanesians
worship])ed the rainbow.^

In Central India, as mentioned in p. 218, a great
variety of inanimate objects are treated as deities. The
Todas are said to worship ii buffalo-bell.' The Kotas
w^orshij) two silver plates, which they regard as husband
and wife; ' they have no otlier deity.' ^ The Kurumbas
worship stones, ^rees, and aTithilL .^ The Toreas, another
Xeilgherry Hill ti ibe, worship especially a ' gold nose-
' ring, which probably cice belonged to one of their
' women.' " Accordinir to Nonnius, the sacred Ivre sanff
tlie victory of Jupiter over the Titans, witiiout being
touched.'' Many other inanimate objects have also been
wor.shipped. l)e Brosses ev< n mentions an instance of
u king of hearts being made into a deity."

According to some of the earlier travellers in America,
('\en the rattle was regarded a.-? a deity."*

Thus, then, J hsive attempted to show that animals
j"nd plants, water, mountains and stones, fire and the
heavenly bodies, su'e, or have beci^ all very extensively
and often simultaneously worshi[)ped, so that they do
not form the basis of a natural class' ficatiun of religions.

' Fijiniul tie Fijiaiis,vol. i. p. 210.
- IJurton'M Aljbt'okutii,vol. i.p. Ii)'2.
'■' Trans. Ktlin. Soi-. Is70, p. .'5(57.
* Tin; Tribi's of the Nuilgherries,
p. lo.

^ JlmL p. 111.

" Trans. Ktlin. Soo. vul. vli.p. 278.
' The Tril 'S of the XLil^rherries,
p. (i7.
* L-jUtau, vol. i. p. liO.').
" Lor. cit. p. /j2.
'" Ibi'l. p. 211.

il, H

2:i.j

egarded
and the

•a, wor-
nor>ies."^

mesians

a great
s. Tlie
e Kotas
msbaiid
irmnbas
jinotlier
Id iiose-
of tlioir
re sang
t being
Iso l)een
a nee of

nieriea,

liniinals

|nd the

isively

lie^' do

Ugions.

fi.p. 278.
rlierrioa,

CHAPTER VI.

IIELIGION (coiiduiL'd).

I\ tracing up the gradual evohition of religious beliefs
we may begin with the Australians, who possess
merely certain vague ideas as to the existence of evil
spirits, and a general dread of witchcraft. This belief
cannot be said to influence them by day, but it renders
them very unwilling to quit the camp fire by night, or
to slee[) near a grave. They have no idea of creation,
nor do they use prayers ; tlun' have no religious forms,
ceremonies, or worship. They do not beTKne in the
existence of a Deity, nor is morality in any way con-
nected with their religion, if it can be so called, 'fhe
words 'iiood ' <)r ' bad ' had reference to taste or bodilv
comfort, and did not convey any idea of right or wrong. '
Another cm-ious notion of the Australians is that white
men are blacks who have risen from the dead. This
notion was found amon<i: the natives north of S\ dnev as
earlv as 171)'), and can scarcely, therefore, be of mis-
sionary origin.- It occurs also among the negroes of
(Juinea.'^ The ideas of the Australians on this point,
lijwcver, seem to have been very various and confused.

i I

.,1^

' ICyre, Discoveries in Central ' Smith's (riiinea, p. 21."), Uoh-

Austnilia, vol. ii. pp. Mf)-}, ;{r)r), .'{")(). man, I'inkerton's \ oyajjes, vol. xv.

'* Collins' iMiLrlish Colony in N. S. p. 10.
Wales, p. ;iO.'}.

it ■],■

•I!

^^:

1)1

•J;!r.

Ji'NIJtJfoXS OF AISTh'ALIAKS.

'VUvy had certuiiilv no livncral and <lcliiiite view on tlio
siihjec't.

As renards tlie \t)rtli Australians wc have trufc>t-
worthy accounts ;j;ivcM by a Scotcliwoiiian, Mrs. 'I'lioni-
son, who wjis wrecked on tlie Eastern Prince of Wjdes
Island. Jlcr lmsl)and and the rest of the crew were
drowned, but she was saved by the natives, and lived
with them nearly five years, until the visit of the
' J^attlcsnake,' when she escaped with some difficulty.
On the whole she was kindly treated by the men,
though the women were loug jealous of her, and be-
haved towards her with niuch cruelty. These i)eo[»li!
have no idea of a Suj)reme Being.' They do not
believe in the innnortality of the soul, but hold that
they are 'after death changed into white people oi*
' Euro[)eans, and as such [)ass the second and final
'' period of their existence ; nor is it any })art of their
' creed that future rewards and punishments are
' awarded.'^

Mrs. Thomson was supposed to be the ghost of (J iom,
a daughter of a man named Piaquai, and when she was
teased bv children, the men would often tell them to
leave her ahnie, saying, ' Poor thing! she is nothing —
*■ only a ghost.' This, however, did not prevent a man
named lioroto makins: her In's wife, which shows how
little is actually implied in the statement the Austra-
lians believe in spirits. They really do no more than
believe in the existence of men, somewhat different
from, and a little more powerful than, themselves.
The Soutii Australians, as described by Stej)hens, ha<l

■ Miicirillivniy's NuMiut' tif llie li'nltk'-^uaKf, vul. ii. p. i:'.'.
- Loc. cit. J). L'O.

on tl

|a iruiii
IS how
ustra-

tliaii
fcivnt
selves.

, liad

VT'WDATTS. CArjFOnmANS. 2:\7

no n^liolous rites, ceremonies, or worsln[); no idea of
a Snpreme IJein;^*; ])nt a vagne dread of evil spirits.'

Tlie Veddalis of Ceylon, according to Davy, believe
in evil bein<rs, bnt ' have no idea of a snin'eme and bene-
' iicent (Jod, or of a state of futnre existence, or of a
' system of rewards and |)unishmcnts; and, in conse-
' qnence, they are of o[)inion that it signifies little
*• whether they do good or evil.' '^

The Indians of California have been well described
by Father ]'>aegert, a Jesnit missionary, who lived
among them no less than seventeen years.'' .\s to
goverimient or religion, he says,^ ' neither the one nor
' the other existed amon^]^ them. Tiiev had no mauis-
' trates, no police, and no laws; idols, temples, religions
•• worsliip or ceremonies were nnknown to them, and
' tliey neither believed in the trne and onlv (iod, nor
' adored false deities. They were all eqnals, and cverv-
' one did as he pleased, withont asking his neighbonr or
' caring for his opinion, and thns all vices jmd misdeeds
' remained nnpnnished, cxc('[)titig snch cases in which
' the offended individnal or his relations took the law
' into their own lunids and revenged themselves on the
' gnilty party. The different tribes represented by no
' means commnnities of rational beings, who snbmit to
' laws and reunlations and obev their snperiors, bnt re-
' sembled far more herds of wild swine, which rini alM)nt
• according; to their own likiim", beiii^ tom'ther to(l;iv
' and scattered to-morrow, till thev meet aiiiiin by acci-
' dent at some fntnre time.

' Stt'iihciis' South Australia, p. Hiilb. ('jililornif, !"7->. 'rranslntod

iu Suiilli.s.iiiian |{r|i()rt-j, iSc;} I.
' Suiitli.xuuiun lifpovls, iStil. p.

• Prtvy's (^t'vlou. ]» I Is.

' Naclniclitfii vnu dcr Aiiicr.

!♦

ill

.•!1M».

2^S RELTGTOUS IDEAS OF THE CALTFOT^NTAXS.

I '

' 111 one word, the Calitbrnians lived, salini vcnia^ as
' though they had been freethinkers nnd materialists.

' I made dilif]^ent enquiries, among those with whom I
' lived, to ascertain whether they had any concejition of
' God, a future life, and their own souls, but I never
' could discover the sli<2;htest trace of such a knowledii;e.
' Their language has no words for " (Jod " and "soul,"
' for which reason the missionaries were compelled to
' use in their sermons and religious instructions the
' S[)anisli words Dios and alma. It could hardly be
' otlierwise with peo])le who thought of nothing but
' eating and merry-making, and never reflected on serious
' niiitters, but dismissed everything that lay beyond the
' narrow compass of their conceptions with the phrase
' aipekeriri, which means, " who knows that?" I often
' asked them whether they had never put to themselves
" the question v/ho might be the Creator and Preserver
' of the sun, moon, stars, and other objects of nature,
' but was always sent home with a vara, which means
' '' no " in their language.' They had, however, certain
sorcerers, whom they believed to possess power over
diseases, to bring small-})Ox, famine, &c., and of whom,
therefore, they were in much fear.

Mr. (lil)bs, sj)eaking of the Indians living in the
vallevs drained l)vthe Sacramento and the San ffoaquin,
says: 'One of this tribe, who had been for three or
' four years among the whites, and accompanied the
' expedition, on being questioned as to his own belief in
' a, Deity, acknowledged liis entire ignorance on the sub-
' ject. As regarded a future state of any kind, he was
'equally uninformed and indifferent; in fact, did not
' believe in any for himself As a reason wli\ liis peopK'

K '

.) li

^■^■n

CALIFOTiNIANS. BArHAnXS.

230

' (lid not ^"o to another country after tleatli, while the
" whites niijxht, he assigned that the Indians burned
' their dead, and he supposed there was an end of
' them.' ^

The religion of the Bachapiris, a Kaffir tribe, has been
described by Bureliell. They had no outward woi'sliip,
nor, so lar as lie could learn, any private devotion; in-
deed, they had no belief in a ])eneficent Deity, thouuli
tliey feared an evil J*)eini»' called ' Muleemo,' or •■ Murinio.'
They had no idea of creation. J'^ven when liurchell
suggested it to them, they did not attribute it to
Muleemo, but 'asserted that everything made itself,
•• and that trees and herbage gj'cw by their own will.' -'
They believed in sorcery, and in the efficacy of amulets.

Dr. A'anderkemp, the first missionary to the Kaflirs,
' never could perceive th.at they had any religion, or any
' idea of the existence of (Jod.' Mr. ^loffat also, who
lived in South Africa as a missionary fov many years,
says that they were utterly destitute of tlieological ideas ;
and Dr. (Iju'dner, in his ' Faiths of the World,' concludes
as follows : ' ' From all that can be ascertained on the
' religion of the Kaffirs, it seems that those of them who
' are still in their heathen state have no idea, (1) of a
' Supreme Intelligent Ruler of the universe; (2) of a
' Sabbath; (.'>) of a day of judgment; (4) of the guilt
' and ])ollution of sin; (5) of a Saviour to deliver them
' from the wrath to come.'

The Hev. Canon Callaway has recently laiblished a

•■' •/ 1-

very interesting memoir on ' The IJeligious System of
' the Amazidu,' who are somewhat more advanced in

' Schoolcraft's Iiuliuii Tribes, vol.
iii p. 107.

' TrftVL'ls, vol. ii. p. 'htO.

' r.oc. (it. p. L'r.().

^ 'Mil

\ t:

!,.'.

1: {

•'t(

21.0

AM Fi-ins.

tlioii' I'clii^ious conoGptidns. The first portion is entitled
' IJiikiilMukiilii or tlie Trsulitioii of Creation.' It does
not, however, ap})car that Unkulunkulu is rejrarded as
a Creator, or even as a Deity at all. It is simply the
Hrst man, the Zulu Adam. Some complication arises
from the fact that not onlv the ancestor of jdl mankind,
but also the first of each tribe, is called Unkuhuikulu,
so that there are many Onkuluidvulu, or Unktilunkulus.
None of them, however, have any of the characters of
Deity; no prayers or sacrifices are ofiered to them;'
indeed, they no longer exist, having been long dead."^
Unkulunkulu was in no sense a Creator,'' nor, indeed, is
any special power attributed to him.' He, i.e. man,
arose from ' Undvlanghi,' that is 'a bed of reeds,' but
how he did so, no one knew.' ]\Ir. Callaway agrees
with Casalis, that 'it never entered the heads of the
' Zulus that the earth and sky might be the work of an
" invisible Beinii'."" One nativ tlioujiht the Avhite men
made the world." They had, indeed, no idea of, or
name for God."* When Moffat endeavoured to ex[)lain
to a chief about God, he exclaimed, ' Would that I could
' catch it! I would transfix it with my s[)ear;' yet this
was a man 'whose vidgment on other subjects would
' command attention. ''

Yet they are not witiiout a belief in invisible beings.
This is founded partly on the shadow, but principally
on the dream, i hey regard the shadow as in some way
the spirit which accompanies the body (reminding us of

' Lor. (if. pp. !», U-"), :U, 7'),

-' Lor. rit. i>p. 1.'), ;l:5, {\-2.

■' I.iir. rit. p. |.I7.

■* Lor. .//. p. IS.

- lor. rit. pp. !t. 10.

♦■' Lor. rit. pp. ni, lOS.

^ Lor. rit. p. A."),

" /.or. rit. pp. 107. II.!. |. •;(■,.

" A

or. I it. p.

II.

_ »V V

|i])nlly

p Wiiy

lis ol'

KAI'TIL'S.

the sinilljir idea aiaono* tlic rirocks), and tlioy liave a
curious notion tliat a dead body casts no sliadow.^

Still more important has heen the influence of dreams.
AVhen a dead fatlier or brother appears to a man in his
sleep, he does not doubt the reality of the occurrence,
and hence concludes that they still live. Grandfathers,
however, arc by inverse reasoning regarded as generally
dead.'''

Diseases are regarded as being often caused by the
spirits of discontented relatives. In other respects
these s[)irits are not regarded as possessing any special
powers ; though prayed to, it is not in such a manner
as to indicate a belief that they have any supernatural
influence, and they are clearly not regarded as immortal.
In some cases de[)arted relatives arc regarded as rea^)-
])earing in the form of snakes,*'' which may be known
from ordinary snakes by certain signs,'* such as their
frequenting huts, not eating mice, and showing no fear
of man. Sometimes a snake is recognised as the repre-
sentative of a given man by some peculiar mark or scar,
the absence of an eye, or some other similar point of
resemblance.

In such cases sacrifices arc sometimes offered to the
snake, and when a bullock is killed part is put away for
the use of the dead or Amatongo, who are specially
invited to the feast, whose assistance is requested, and
whose wrath is deprecated. Yet this can hardly be
called ' ancestor worship.' The dead have, it is true,
the advantage of invisibility, but they arc not regarded
as omnipresent, omnipotent, or immortal. There are

' Lor. n't. p. ill.
'^ Lot: lit. p. !•>.

' /,()('. cit. p. 8.

' Luc. fit. pp. ]W, I!'!).

! i*

r '

•) 1 •)

•i

FF/VK'UISM.

even means l)y whleli troublesome spirits may be de-
stroyed or 'hiid."' Jn such cases as these, tlien, we see
religion in a very h)\\' phase; thnt in which it consists
merely of beliei' in tlie existence of evil l)eings, less
material tlian we are, l)nt mortal like ourselves, and if
more powerful than man in some resjjccts, even less so
in others.

I't

ill

FETICH ISM.

In the Fetichism of the negro, religion, if it can be
so called, is systcmatised, and greatly I'aised in import-
ance. Nevertheless from another point of view Fetich-
ism may almost be regarded as an anti-religion. It
has hitherto been deriued as the worshi[) of material
substances. This does not seem to me to be the true
characteristic. Fetichism is not truly a form of ' wor-
' ship' at all. For the negro believes that by means
of the fetich he can coerce and control his deit}'. In
fact Fetichism is mere witchcraft. AVe have already
seen that mngiciaus all over the world think that if they
can obtain a part of an enemy the possession of it gives
them a power over him. Even a bit of his clothing will
answer the pui'pose, or, if this cannot be got, it seems
to them natural that an injury even to an image would
ail'ect the original. That is to sav, a man who can
destroy or torture the image, thus '.iflicts pain on the
original, and, this l)eing magical, is independent of the
]K)wer of that original. I'^en in Europe, and in the
eleventh century, some unfortunnte Jews were accused
of having nnu'dered a certain llishop I'^berhard in this

Lor. vit. y. 1(50.

A I!

N EG HOES.

248

c cle-
^re sec

;, less
and if
CSS so

can be
inpoi't-
Fetich-

311. It
iiaterial
he true
' ' wor-
' means
y. In
already
if they
t gives
iiiig will
t seems
) wonUl
ho can
on the
of the
hi the
iccnsed
in this

way. They made a wax image of him, had it baptised,
and then burnt it, and so the bishop died.

Lord Karnes says that at the time of Catherine de
Medieis ' it was common to take the resemblance of
' enemies in wax, in order to torment them by roasting
' the figure at a slow fire, and i)ricking it with needk's.'*

In India, says Dubois,'- 'a (juantity of nnid is moulded
' into small figures, on the breasts of whicli tliey write
' tlie name of the persons whom they mean to jumoy. . .
' They piorce the images with thorns, or mutilate them,
' so as to communicate a corresponding injury to the
' person rc[)resented.'

Now it seems to me that Fetichism is an extension
of this belief. The negro supposes that the possession
of a fetich representing a spirit, makes that spirit his
servant. We know that the negroes beat their fetich if
their prayers are unanswered, and I believe they se-
riously think they thus inflict suffering on the actual
deity. Thus the fetich cannot fairly be called an idol.
The same image or object may indeed be a fetich to
one man and an idol to another ; yet the two are essen-
tially different in their nature. An idol is indeed an
object of worship, while, on the contrary, a fetich is in-
tended to bring the Deity within the control of man, an
attempt which is less al)surd than it at first sight ap-
pears, when considered in connection with their low
religious ideas. If then witchcraft be not confused with
religion, as I think it ought not to be, Fetichism ctin
hardly be called a religion ; to the true spirit of which
it is indeed entirely op[)osed.

' I.ord Kames' lliatory of Man, vol. iv. p. 201.
^ Luc. tit. \), •■Ji7.

11.

2I-I>

FirricjusM IN oTiii'jn uace^.

Anythiiipj will do for a feticli ; it need not represent
tlic huiniin fii;'urc, thonjL^di it \\\\\y do so. Even an car
of maize will answer tlie })nri)ose. If, said an intelli^^ent
ne^ro to Bosnian/ any of us is 'resolved to undertake
' anythin<^ of importance, we first of all search out a god
' to prosper our desi«^ncd undertaking ; and going out

* of doors with this design, take the first creature that
' presents itself to our eyes, whether dog, cat, or the
' most contemptible nnimal in the world, for our god :
' or perhaps, instead of that, any inanimate ol)ject
' that falls in our way, whether a stone, or piece of
' wood, or anything else of the same nature. This new-

* chosen god is immediately prest'iited with an offering,
' which is accompanied with a solemn vow, that if he
' pleasethto prosper our undertakings, for the future we
' will always worship and esteem him as a god. If our
' design prove successful, we have discovered a new and
' assisting god, Avhich is daily presented with fresh
' offerings; but if the contrary li..|)pen, the new god is
' rejected as a useless tool, and consecpiently returns to
' his primitive estate. We make and break our gods
' dail)'-, and consequently arc the masters and inventors
' of what we sacrifice to.'

The term Fetichism is generally connected with the
negro race, but a corresponding state of mind exists in
many other parts of the world. In fact, it may almost
be said to be universal, since it is nothing more nor less
than witchcraft; and in the most advanced countries —
even in our own — the belief in witchcraft has scarcely
been entirely eradicated.

^ Tlosmnn's Guinen, riiilvorlon'3 liOyor (1701), Asllty's Colledi'^n,
Voyages, vol. xvi. \i. -JS'.'t, Soe aliso vol. ii. p. 4iO.

n'csciit
an car
Uigent
Ici'tukc
t a god
ing out
ro that
or the
ir god :

object
licco of
is iiew-
Iforing,
it if he
til re we

If our
lew and
h fresh

urns to
iv gods
vontors

^ith the
ists in
ahnost
lor less
tries-
:iirccly

lollorli'Ml,

JIISDOSTAN.

24r>

The r>adngas (IliiKlostan), according to Metz, arc still
in a ' condition little al)ove fotichism. Anything witli
' them may become an olyect of adorati(m, if the head
' man or the viUagv priest should take a fancy to deil'y it.
' As a necessary consequence, however, of this state of
' things, no real res[)ect is entertained towards their
' deities, and it is not an unconnnon thing to hear the
' j)eo|)le call them liars, and use o|)prol)rious epitliets
' res[)e('tiiig tliem.' ' Ag;iin, speaking of the Chota Nug-
])()re tribes of Centrjil Iiidiii, Colonel Dalton observes
that certain ' peculiarities in the j»aganisin of the Onion,
' and only practised by Moondahs who lived in the same
' village with them, a[)[)ear ;o me to savour thoroughly

* of Fetichism.'^

In Jey[)ore^ the body of a small musk-rat is regarded
as a powerful talisman. *■ The body of this animal, dried,
' is inclosed in a case of brass, silver, or gold, according

* to the means of the individual, and is slung aroiuid

* the neck, or tied to the arm, to render the individual

* proof against all evil, not excepting sword and other

* cut, nuiskct-shot, &c.'

In all these cases the tribes seem to me to be naturally
in the state of Fetichism, disguised however and niodi-
iied by fragments of the higher Hindoo religions, which
they have adopted without understanding.

Though the IJedskins of North America have reached
a higher state of religious development, tliey still retain
fetiches in the form of ' medicine-bags.' * Every Indian,'
Bays Catlin,^ ' in his primitive state, carries his medicine-

' The Tribes of the NeilghorrieH, ' Sliortt, Trans. Ethn, Soo. vol.

p. 00. vi. p. 278.

' Trans. Ethn. Soc. N.S. vol. vi. * Anieric;m Indians, vol. i. }>. .'3(5.

■■'>
p. ■>■>.

r,';

24i]

NORTH AM Eli IC A.

' l)npf in some form or other,' iiiul to it he looks for pro-
tection and safety. Tlie nature of the medicine-bag
is tlius detennined. At fourteen or fifteen years of
a^e the boy wanders away alone ui)on the Prairie,
where he remains two, three, four, or even five days,
lying on the ground musing and fiisting. He rcmahis
awake as long as lie can, but when lu; sleeps the first
animal of which he dreams becomes his ' medicine.' As
soon as possible he shoots an animal of the species in
question, and makes a medicine- bag of the skin. To
this he looks for [)rotection, to this he sacrifices : unlike
the fickle Negro, however, the Jledskln never changes
his fetich. To him it becomes an em])lem of success,
like the shield of the Greek, or the more modern sword,
and to lose it is disgrace.

The Columbian Indians have small figures in the form
of a quadruped, bird, or fish. These, though called
idols, are rather fetiches, because, as all disease is attri-
buted to them, when anyone is ill they are beaten toge-
ther, and the first which loses a tooth or claw is supi)osed
to be the cul[)rit.^

In China,'^ also, the lower people, 'if after long praying
' to their images, they do not obtain what they desire, as
' it often happens, they turn them off as impotent gods ;
' others use them in a most reprojichful manner, loading

* them with hard names, and sometimes with blows.
' " How now, dog of a spirit ! " say they to them ; " we

* " give you a lodging in a magnificent temple, we gild
' " you handsomely, feed you well, and oflfer incense to

* " you ; yet, after all this care, you are so ungrateful as to

' Dunn's Orojron, p. 125.

"^ Aslley's Collection of Voyages, vol. iv. p. 218.

or pro-
ine-bng
cars of
Pniiric,
days,
•cinaiiis
lie first
le.' As
ecies in

111. lo

unlike
changes
success,

sword,

le form
L called
is attri-
n toge-
pposed

)raying
sire, as
gods ;
loading
blows.

((

re gild
jnse to
Id as to

rirrxA. snticniA.

'2i7

* *' refuse us what we ask of you." Hereupon they tie

* this image with cords, ])luck liim down, and drag him

* along the streets, through all the mud and dunghills^
' to pmiish him for the expense of pei I'linie whicli tluy
' have thrown away upon him. If in the meantime it
' happens that tiiey oi)tain their recjucst, then, with a
' great deal of ceremony, they wash him clean, carry

* him back, and place him in his niclie again; where
' th(!y ijdl down to him, and make excuses for what
' they have done. '' In a trnth," sny tli(;y, '' wo were

* '' a little too hasty, as well as you were somewlnit too

* " h)ng in your grant. N\ liy should you bring tliis

* " beating on yourself? lUit what is done cannot l)e

* " now undone; let us not therefore think of it any
more. If you will forget what is past, we will gild

( u

>> >

* " you over agam."

Pallas, speaking of the Ostiaks, states that, ' Malgre
' la veneration et Ic respect ([u'ils out ]H)ur leurs idoles,
' malheur a elles lors([n'il arrive un malheur a I'Ostiak,
' et que I'idole n'y remedie ))as. 11 la jette aloi's par
' terre, la frai)pe, la maltraite, et la brise en morceaux.

* Cette correction arrive irc(|uenmient. Cette colere
' est commune a tons les peuples idolatres de la
' Siberie.'^

In AVhydah (W. Africa), and I believe generally, the
negroes Avill not eat the animal or plant which they
have chosen for their fetich.-

In Issini, on the contrary, ' eating the fetich ' is a
solemn ceremony on taking an oath, or as a token of
friendship.^

' Pallas's V(\vn<^os, vol. iv. p. 70.

•■' riiillipfl, Um. A«tlcy,v<)l. ii. p. 411.

3 Lny.r, I70\,lo('. c/V. p, 4:)0.

,iH

TOTh'MlSM.

•. '}

Fcticliism, strictly s])onkin^\ lias no temples, idols,
priests, sucritices, or j)rayer. It involves no belief in
creation or in a fnture life, and a fortiori none in u
state of rewards and punislnnents. Jt is entirely inde-
])endcnt of morality. In most, however, of the powerfnl
nem'o monarchies reliuioii has made some ])ro<rress in
oruiinisation : bnt thounh wv find both s-jcred buildin<»s
and [H'iests, the rcli<'*ion itself shows little, if any, in-
tellectual improvement.

TOTEM ISM.

The next stage in religions ])rogress is that which
niiiy be called Totemism. The savage does not abandon
his l»clief in Fetichisin, from wliich indeed no race (sf
men has yet entirely freed itself, but he superinduces
on it a belief iii beings of a higher and less material
nature. ]n this stage everything may be worshipped
— trees, stones, rivers, mom lains, the heavenly bodies,
and animals, but the higher deities are no longer re-
garded as lialtle to be controlled by witchcraft. Still
they are not reganUul as i'rcators; they do not reward
virtue, or j)unish vice. Tiie s[)irits of tlie departed have
before the ;i a weary and dangerous journey, and many
])erisli by the way ; heaven, however, seems to be
merely a distant part of the eju'th.

Even the deities still inhabit this earth; they are part
of nature, noi su})ernatural : in fact we may say that
in Fetichism the deities are non-human; in Totemism,
superhuman; but do not become supernatural until a
still fiu'ther stage oi'montal development.

Again, Totemism is a deification of classes; the

TOTEMISM,

•2i0

[' part
that
|iiisni,
litil a

Feticli is an individual. Tlio ncijro wlio has, let us
say, ail car ot" inaize as a Fetich, vahu's tiiat particular
ear, more or less as the case may be, but has no feeling
for maize as a species. On the contrary, the iJedskiii
who regards the lu'ar, or the wolf, as his Totem, feels
that he is in intimate, tliough mysterious, association
with the whole species.

The name ' Totemism * is of North American origin,
and is primarily used to denote the form of reli<^ioii
widely prevalent among the Redskins of that continent,
but similar religious views are held in various other
parts of the world.

In order to realise eleai.}' the essential characteristics
of the rehgions of difierent j;ices, we nnist beju* in
mind that at the staue at wliicli wr have now arrived in
the course; of our eiKpiiry, the modifications of wliicii Ji
religion is susceptihK' may be divided into tw) chisses,
viz., develojauental and adaptatioiiid. I use the term
'developmental' to signily tiiose clianges whicli arise
from the intellectual progress of tlie race. Thus a more
elevated idea of tiic J )eity is a developmental change.
On the other hand, a lu cthern people is a[)t to look on
the sun as a beneficent deity, while to a tropical race he
would suffiiiest drouLiht and destruction. A»!ii»i uuii^^ers
tend to worship tiie moon, agriculturists the sun. These
I call adai)tational modilications. They are chanires
]>roduced, net ))y difference of race or of civilisation, but
by physical causes.

In some cases the character of the lan!]:uaLre has pro-

~ < I

bably exercised much influence over that ot rehgion. No
0!»e, for instance, can fail to be struck by the differences
existing between tiie Aryan and Semitic religions. All

•2r,o

PEVf'JLOPMEXr. I n A .\7>

jArvMU races liavc n complicated invtholonry, wliicli is
not the case with the Semitic races. Moreover, the
ciiaracter of tlie «»;()(ls is qnifo diirerciit. The latter have
Ml. Stroll,!!'; i)('I (»r Haa!, Lord; Adonis, Lord; Sla't,
Master; ]\Ioloch, Kin,u; ioim and IJiinniou, the Lxalted;
and other simihu" names I'or tiieir deities. T\iv Aiyans,
on the contrary, Zeus, the sky; IMaehns A]»ollo. the sun;
Neptune, the sea; Mars, war; \'enus, heanty, &:c. ]Ma.\
Midler' has very iniieiiiouslv iMah-avotired to explain this
(litlerence 1)\' the dillerent character of the Ian<'iia':e in
thi'sc two races.

In Semitic words the root remains ahvayr. distinct and
unmistakable. In Arxan, on tiie contrarv. it Hoon
becomes altere<l and disguised, lb-nee Semitic dic-
tionaries are mostl)' arranircd according' to the roots, a
method wliich in Ai'xan lanunaLics avduM be most in-
convenient, the root beinu' ol'len obscure, and in manv
cases doul)tl"ul. Now take such an e\j>ression as ' the
' sky thiuiders.' in any Semitic ton;^'ue, the word ' skv'
Avotild remain unaltered, and so clear in its meanim!",
that it would with dilHculty come to be thought of as
n pro[)er name. Ihit an onu" the Aryans the case was
difii'rei»t, and we iind in the earlier N'edic poetry that
the names of tlu; (Jreek (lods stand as mere words de-
notinuj natural objeei-^. Thus the Sanskrit Dyaus, tin;
skv, became the (ireek Zeus, and when thedretk said
Ztxii^ ^^nvrrl bis idea was not the sky tiir;- Icrs, but
'Zeus thuiak'rs.' When the (iods were thus oia e
created, tlie mythology Ibllows as a matter of course.
Some of the statements may be obscure, but w hen ".ve

I s

'«'o Miillt'r'd ('liij)s iV.piij ft Ci< riiiaii W^ll•k^^ll()p, vol. i. j>. .103.

A DA rTA TION. 1 L MOD lFIf\ 1 TION.

'2r,l

arc told that IIui)no.s, tlie ^^od ofsUiop, was the father of
MorpheuH, the god of dreams; or tliat ^'enuR, married
to Vulcan, lost her heart to Mars, and that the intriL'^ue
was made known to N'nlcan hy Apollo, the nun, we can
clearly sc.'c how such myths mi^ht iiave arisen.

The attitude of the ancients towanls thwmi is very
interestin*^. Homer and llesiod relate them, ai)|>arent]y
without suspicion, and we may he sure that the un-
educated pid)iic received them without a douht. So-
crates, however, explains tia; storv that IJoreas carried
otf Oreithyia from the llissos, to mcMii that Oreithyia
was blown otf the rocks hy the north wind. Ovid also
savs that under the name of N'esta, men; Wvv is to he
understood. AVe can hardly douht that mnnv others
also must have clearly ])erceived tlu; origin of at any
rate a portion of these myths, hut they wc^re pi'ohahly
restrained from exprcssin^^ their opinion hy the dread of
incurring" the odium of h('tei'i)'!oxy.

One great charm of this cxjilanjition is that W(^ tlnis
remove some of the revolting features of ancient myths.
Thus, as the sim destroys tlie dai'kness from whieh it
springs, and at. evening disapj>ears in the twilight ; so
(Milipus was fahled to have killed his father, and then
married his mother. In this way the whole of that
terriole story may he explained as arising, not from the
depravity of the human heart, hut iVom ji mistaken
application of the statement that the sun destroys the
diu'kness, and ultimately marries, as it were, the twilight
from which it sprang.

Iiut althougii Poetry may thus throw much light on
the origin of the mytiis which formed the religion of
Greece and Home, it cannot ex[)lain the origin ov

p f

Pl!i!^

(■■!

'; !

ii I

■■ i'

>|;i

2.')2

.s7/J.iriA7.S'J/".

chanictcr of reli^rion .'imonij the lower fsavaffos, because
a mytliology such as thiit of (Jreecc and Kome can only
arise anion«^st a people whuli ha\e already made con-
siderable ])r()<^res,s. Tenipfm^-, (licrefore, as it may be
to seek in the nature of language and the use of jjoetieal
expressions, an explanation of the religious systems of
the lower races, and fully adniitting the inlluence which
these causes have exercised, we must look dee[)er fur
the origin of religion, and can be satisfied only by an
explanation which is applicable to the lowest races pos-
sessing any religious opinions. In the preceding chapters
1 have attempted to do this, and to show how certain
j)hen<)mena, as lor instance sleep and dreams, pain,
disease, and deatli, have naturally created in the savage
mind a belief in tlie existence of mysterious and in-
visible JJeings.

SIIAaIAXISM.

As Totemism overlies I'etichism, so does Shamanism
overlie Toteniism. The word is derived from the name
used in Siberia, where the ' Shamans ' work themselves
up into a fury, sup[K>sing or pretending that in this
condition they are inspired by the Spirit in Mdiose name
thoy speak, and through whose inspiration they are
enabled to answer questions and to foretell the future.
In the phases of religion hitherto considered the deities,
(if indeed they deserve the name), are regarded as
visible to all, and present amongst us. Shamanism is a
considerable advance, inasmuch as it presents us with a
higher conception of religion. Although the name is
Siberian, the phase of thought is widely distributed,
and seems to be a necessary 8t:ige in the progress of

i II

,s7/>' /:;/.' /. I . (1 A' i:i:m,. i sd.

::.;]

roHgioiis devc'lopmcnt. Those wlio arc disposed to
adopt flic view advocated in tliis work will not be
sui'[)rised to find that 'Shamanism' is no definite
system of theology. \Vi'an<^el, however, n'L^ardini]^
Shamanism as religion in the ordinary sense, was
astonished i\i this: 'it is remarkable,' he says, 'that
' Shamanism has no dogmas of ai:y kind; it is not a
' system taught or hand(Ml down fi'om one to another ;
' though it is so widely spread, it seems to originate
' with each indivi(bial separately, as the fruit of a highly
' excited imagination, acted upon by external im[)res-
' sions, which closely reKend)le each other throughout
' the deserts of Northern Siberia.' '

It is far from easy in practice always to distinguish
Sliamanism from Totemism on the one hand, and
Idolatry on the other. The main dilference lies in the
concej>tion of the Deity. In Totemism the deities
inhabit our eartli, in Shamanism they Vivv. generally in a
world of their own, and trouble themselves little id)out
what is ])assing here. The Shaman is occasionally
honoured by the presence of Deity, or is allowed to
visit the heavenly regions. Among the I^sfpiimaux the

* Angekok ' answers [)recisely to the Shaman. Graah
thus describes a scene in (Jreenland.

The Angekok came in the evening, and, 'the lamps ^

* being extinguished, and skins hung befon; the windov/s

* (for <uch arts, for evident reasons, arc l)est practised
' in the dark), took his station on the floor, close ])y a
' well-dried seal-skin there suspended, and c<-iiimcnced
' r.* 'biig it, beafing the tai ibouriuc and singing, in

' Silii'i-in ami INilar Sm. \\. 1l*->. y. IJ.'J. Sci'nlsn Il'j'fdi'.M (ircinlntiiU

'* Ur;>aira Vuyagt! to (.tivoulaml, |i. 1*1, aiicl liym'n Juiini. p. •l.V.i.

> I '

■JM VAC [Fir JSLAMfS.

' wliich l.'ist ho was seconded by ull present. From
' time to time his cliant was interrupted by a cry of
' '' (loie, (loie, (ioie, (ioie, Goic, Goie ! " the meaning of
' wliich I did not comprehend, coming first from one
' corner of tlie hut, and then from tlie other. Presently
'- all was quiet, nothing being heard but the angekok
' imffiiiii: and blowinic as if strugfrliiiLT with something'
' superior to liim in strength, and then again a sound

* resembling somewhat that of castanets, whereu|)on

* eommenced once more the same song as ])ef()re, and
' the same cry of '■'(ioie, (Joie, Goie I " In this way a
' whoU' hour elapsed before the wizard could make the
'■ torngak, or spirit, obey his summons. Come he did,
' however, at last, and his approach was announced by
' a strange rushing sound, very like the sound of a
' large bird Hying beneath the roof. The angekok still
' chanting, now [jroposed his questions, Avhich were
' replied to in a voice quite strange to my ears, but
' which seemed to me to j)roeeed from the entrance
' passage, near whicli the angekok had taken his sta-
' tion.'

The account given by Crantz agrees with the above
in all essential jtarticulars.'

Williams- gives the following very similar account
of a scene in Keejee : — 'I'ubroken silence follows ; the
' priest becomes absorbed in thought and all eyes watch
' liiin with unblinking steadiness. In {i few minutes
' he ti'embles; slight distortions are seen in his face, and
' twitching movements in his limbs. 'Jhese increase
' to a violent muscular action, Avhlcli spreads until the

' llistorv of ( int'iiiiiiul, vol. i. ]». "-MO.
'■' I'iji and thf rijiuus, vul. i. ji. -'I'l.

V ^

A Fine A.

int
flic
ell

tcs
lul

use
lie

whole iVaine is strongly convulsed, and the innn bhivers
as Aviih a stroii"' a;,nie (it. Ju soiiu; iiistaiiees this is
aeeompaiiied with iininiuirs and sobs, the veins ai'c
greatly enlariiccl aiid the eirculatioii of the Mood
qniekened, 'Ihc priest is now possessed l»y his i^od,
and all his words :in<l actions are eoii>iih'rcd as no
lonner his own, hnl those of the deit\' who has entei'ed

into hiiu.

ill

in 11 cries o

oi an, Koi Mil

t •' u

It is I.

It is II" lill (h(! ail", and the _L;<»d is >nii|)osed line

to I

tilV h

lis aooro.irii

'I'l

lile uixinii,' tiie answer, tin!

priest's e\ ('s s

taial

out and ro

11 ;!s in a l\\iiz\': his

voic(! IS uiin.itnr

U'(:

i);'. . hi>> lins livid. Ili^

l)reatliin_fx depres-ed, and his entire appi'aiance like
that of a iurions uiadinaii ; the liWeat runs from every
]>ore, and tears ntart from his strained eyes ; after
which the syin])toins uradnally disappear. The priest
looks round with a \!icant stare, and, as the irod sa\'s.

I dej>art," announces his actual departure hy vio-
lently Uinnin^'' himself down on tlie mat, or hv
suddenly striking; the Lii'ound with his clnh. The
convulsive movements do not entirely disappear Jbr
•some time.' '{\\v. process dcscrihi'd hy Uohritz-
hoffer^ as occurrin[^' amon;^" the AhiponcK is also some-
what similar.

Anioni'the Xeiiroes of W . Africa Urue - mentions ;i
proj)het ' who pretendivl 'to he inspircil 1)\- the l)eit\'
in siich a manner as to know the most hidden secrets ;
and _n"o imisihh whei-i'vcr he pleased, as well as to
make his voice he he;nv'. at the u'reatest distance. His
<lisci[)les ami accomplices attested the truth of what

' Ili-tniy nl' till' .M)'ni'.iii?s. \il. ii. ■* \<Uf_v's ( 'iillif.-tiuii >>( Vovn^'os

!1. p.

Ni.

I ),

I; I

2.j»;

TXJtJA.

' lie said 1)V a thousand fal)iilous relations ; so that tlie

* coininon |>eo|)le, always ercdulous and fond uf novelty,
' readily «i;ave in to the ehcat.'

Colonel Dalton st; es that 'the pa<i;anism of the

* Ho and Moondah in all essential featin-es is bIui-

* nianistie.' '

IDOLATIIY.

The worship of Idols characterises a somewhat higher
stage of human develojjment. AVe find no traces of it
among the lowest races of men; and liafitau" says
truly, ' On pent dire en general (pie le grand nomhre des
' peu[)les saiivages n'a i>oiiit d'idoles.' The error of
regarding Molatry as the general religion of low races,
has no doubt mainlv arisen from confusing the Idol and
the Fetich. Fetichism, however, is an attack on the
l)eity, Idolatry is an act of submission to him ; rude,
no doubt, but yet humble. Hence l''etichism and
Idolatry arc not only different, but o))posite, so that
the one could not be developed directly out of the
other. We must tliereibre expect to find between
them, as indeed we do, a stage of religion without
either the one or the other.

(Captain Lyon stntes that the I'sfpiiiuiiux liave no
idols.'' ' Xeither among tin; I*>quimau.\ nor the Tinne,'
says Ivichardson, 'did 1 observe any imaue or visible
' object of worship.' "*

Carver states that the Canadian Indians had no idols ;'^

' Trnns. KtliM. Soo. 1S08, p. i]'2.
'^ Mulir-i tics Suuviigt's uiiicri-
cuinf*, \o\. i. p. \ol.

^ Jiiiinml, p. ^>7'2,

* I>(iat .Iduiiiov, vol. ii. p. •J4,

^ Trnvvl.-, p. :lfi7.

' i'\l

IDOLATUY.

'l'*7

no
Iblc

and this seems to liuvo been time of the North
American Indians generally. J^afitau mentions as an
exception the existence of an idol named Oki in
Virginia.'

In Eastern Africa lim'ton states tliat he knows ' hnt
' one people, the Wanyika, who have certain statuettes
' called Kisnkas.' Nor do the West African negroes
worship idols.- It is true that some writers mention
idols, ))nt the context almost alwavs shows tliat feticiies
are really meant, ^n the king<lom of Whydah ' Au'oyc'
was represented under the form of a deformed black
man from whose head proceed lizards and snakes,**
cllering a striking similarity to some of the Indian
idols. This is, howcvtir, an exce[)tioiial case, liiittcl
only mentions })articnlarly two idols;' and Hosman '^
expressly says that 'on the Gold Coast the nativ(!S are
' not in the least ac(|uaint('dwith image-worship;' adding,
' but at Ardra tlure are thousands of idols,' i.e. fetiches.
At Loango there was a suiall black ima^e named
C'hikokke, which was placed iu a little house close to
the ]u)rt.'' These, however, W(>re merely fetiches in
human form. Thus we are told by the same author
that in Kakouii'o, the kinudom which lies to the south
of Loango, the natives dui'ing the plague •■ burnt their
' idols, saying, f/f/n'i/ f('f'/l not help us in sucli a iiu'sfort <)h;
' as M/.v, trhcn nfii iiw (Wjiccf tlu'ij sliouhl y~ Thus, ap-
parently, doubting not so nnich their power as their

i.l sli

'ti I !i

' Vol. i. \\ IHR. ' Adventures of A. 'nnUe]. I'iii-

■ Astlt'v's Cnllectitm of Vnynurs, Ivertoii, vol. xvi. p. .''."'I.

vol. ii. p. - K) tor Fiita, nml rordiiiiiea •' rxisinairs (iiiinea. rinlurt')ii,

ax far as Ardrali, p. <!(i(!. Inc. dt. \^, -l()">.

•' Aslley's Collection of N'oynire?, " Astley, he. cif. p. L'lO.

pp. •_'() null oO. " Astlev, /nc vit. p. '2\7,

I I

' /

2oH

AJ!Si:\('l-: OF IhOLATliY

hl<

"Nvill. Airaiii, ill C()ii«:o, tlie so-cullcd idols arc plmcd in
iii'lds to protect tlic j^Towiiiuj crops.' This is -clcjirly
tlio function of n fetich, not of a true i(h)l.

Idolatry, savs Williams, of the l'\'e)eean, 'he seems
' never to have known ; for he makes no attem[)t to
'fashion material representations of liis ^ods.' '-^ As
regards the New Zealanders, Yate^ ^'ijs? that 'thouiih
' remarkably superstitious, they have no <i()ds that they
' worshi]) ; nor have they anything* to rejMesent a being
' which thev call (Jod.' Dieifenbaeh also observes that
in New Zealand ' there is no worship of idols, or of
' bodily representations of the Atoua.' *

Speaking of the Singe 1 )yaks," Sir James lirooke says,
' UeligioJi they have none ; and although they know
' the name for a god ' (which is probably taken from the
llindoos), ' they have no jH'iests nor idols, say no
' prayers, ofl'er no offerings.' lie subse(piently niodified
this opinion on some [)oints, but as regards the absence
of idols it seems to be correct.

The Kols of Central India worship) the sun, ' material
' i(U)l worshi[) they have none.''"' Originally, says
l>ubois, the lIin<loos did not rescjrt ' to images of stone
' or other materials .... but when the people of
' India had deified their heroes or other morlals, they
' began then, and not before, to have recourse to
'statues and images.'" In China 'it is observable^
' that there is not to be found, in the canonical books,

' Astlcy, h^c. ctt. vol. iii. p. i'-".». " Dalton, 'I'nins. Ktliii. Soc, N. S.,

■' I'iji aiicl tlic iMJinns, vol. i. p. l'1(5. vnl. \ i. p. :V2.

f.or. (It. p. ill.

ill'. (U

't. vol.

118.

Kcpiiol's ICxju'iUlioii to Uoniei),

vol. 1. p,

;i.

ro.

Dubois, TliL' IVoplo of Iiiiliii, p.
A.-tlfv, vol. iv. p. -'()-'5.

ill

.i.i/(>.\(/ TJII-: Lu]\'i:u j:aci:s.

259

' llic IcMst fixjt.stc)) of idolatrous wor>lii|> till the Iina^^o

t'l'iul
says
tone
I of
tlu'y
V to
l.le«
t)ks,

I ill, p.

)t' v

ot ro was l)roiigljt into thina, suvural ages alter
' Confucius.'

The Ostvaks never made an iniai^e of tlieir «;od
'Toriinii.'' In fact, id(>ls do not occur until we
arrive at the stage of the highest IV)l\nesian Islamlers.
Kven then they are often, as llllis express!}' tells us,*''
mere shapeless pieces of wood ; thus leaving much to
the imagination. It may, I think, he laid down almost
as a constant ride, that mankind arrives at the stage of
monarchy in government hefore he reaidies idolatry in
religion.

The idol usuallv assmnes the human form, and idolatrv
is closely comiected with that form ot religion which
consists in the worship of ancestors. W v liav«' already
.seen how imperfectly uncivilised man realixis the con-
ception of death ; and we cannot woii<ler thai dentil
and sleej) should long have Ixien intimately connecti'd
together in the human mind, 'i'he savage, however,
knows well that in sleep tlu; spirit lives, even though
the hody appears to he dead. Morning after mornhig
he wakes himself, and sees others rix', from slce[).
Naturally therefore he endeavours to rouse the dead.
Nor can we wondi-r at the very general custom of pro-
viding food and other necessaries for the use of the
dead. Among races leadij)g a settU'd and (piiet life
this hahit would tend to continue Iouljcm" and lonuer.
Prayers to the dead w»)uld reasonably follow fi'oni such
customs, for even without attriSuting a greater })ower
to the dead than to tlie li\ inu', they miiiht \et, from

' Kniiaii, /"(■. (il, vol. ii. p. oO.

" iViljiii;. iiiii IJi'Koaix'IioH, vol. ii. p. '2'20,

8 '2

(•■

'If

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

^-^^^4^,

< «:/^
fe

i 1.0

I.I

-r^ |25

2.2

IL25 i 1.4

1.6

HlOtDgK^kiC

Sdences
Corporation

23 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580

(716)S72-4S03

wr:

^^"^

2G0

ORIGIN OF IDOLATRY.

|) I

■ , li

their clifFcrcnt sphere and nature, exercise a consider-
able power, whether for good or evil. But it is impos-
sible to distinguish a request to an invisible being from
prayer ; or a powerful spirit from a demi-god.

The nations of Mysore at the new moon ' observe a
' feast in honour of deceased parents.' ^ The Kurum-
bars of the Deccan also ' sacrifice to the spirits of an-
cestors,' and the same is the case with the Santals.'^
Indeed the worship of ancestors appears to be more or
less prevalent among all the aboriginal tribes of Central
India.

Burton ^ considers that some of the Egba deities are
'palpably men and women of note in their day.'

The Kaffirs also sacrifice and pray to their deceased
relatives, although ' it would perhaps be asserting too
^ much to say absolutely that they believe in the existence
' and the immortality of the soul.' "* In fact, their belief
seems to go no further than this, that the ghosts of the
dead haunt for a certain time their previous dwelling-
places, and either assist or plague the living. Xo
special powers are attributed to them, and it would be
a misnomer to call them ' Deities.'

Other races endeavour to preserve the memory of
the dead by rude statues. Thus Pallas ^ mentions that
the Ostyaks of Siberia ' rendent aussi un culte a leurs
' morts. lis sculptent des figures de bois pour repre-
* senter les Oitiaks celcbres. Dans les repas de comrae-
' moration on place devant ces figures une partie des

^ Buchanan, quoted in Trans.
Ethn. 8oc., N.S., vol. viii. p. 5)0.

2 Elliott, Trans. Etlni. Soc, N.S.,
yol. viii. pp. 104, 100.

^ Abbookuta, vol. i. p. li)l.

4 The Bnsutos; Casalis, p. 24-3.
Soe also Callaway's Religious System
of the Aniiizuhi.

^ Pnllas' Voyages, vol. iv. p. 70.

■!^

nsicler-
impos-
2* from

erve a
Lurum-
of an-
mtals.^
lore or
Central

ties are

sceased
ing too
:istence
r belief
of the
elliiig-
Xo
ulcl be

lory of
IS that
a leurs
repre-
omme-
tie cles

p. 243.

s System

, p. 70.

ORIGIN OF IDOLATRY.

L>G1

' mets. Les femmes qui ont cheri leurs maris out de
' pareilles figures, les couchent avec elles, les parent, et
* ue maugent point sans leur presenter une partie de
' leur portion.' Erman^ also mentions that when a
man dies ' the relatives form a rude wooden image re-
' presenting, and in honour of, the deceased, which is
' set up in their yurt, and receives divine honours ' for
a certain time. ' At every meal they set an oftering of
' food before the image ; and should this represent a
' deceased husband, the widow embraces it from time
' to time and lavishes on it every sign of attachment.'
In ordinary cases this semi-worship only lasts a few
years, after which the image is buried. ' But when a
' Shaman dies, this custom changes, in his favour, into a
' complete and decided canonisation ; for it is not thought
' enough that, in this case, the dressed block of wood
' which represents the deceased should receive homage
' for a limited period, but the priest's descendants do
' their best to keep him in vogue from generation to gene-
' ration ; and by well-contrived oracles and other arts,
' they manage to procure offerings for these their families*
' penates, as abundant as tliose laid on the altars of the
' universally acknowledged gods. But that these latter
' also have an historical origin, that they were originally
' monuments of distinguished men, to which prescription
' and the interest of the Shamans gave by degrees an
' arbitrary meaning and importance, seems to me not
' liable to doubt ; and this is, furthermore, corroborated
' by the circumst.ance that of all the sacred yurts dedi-
* cated to these saints, which have been numerous I'rom
' the earliest times in the vicinity of the river, only one

' Ermnn, loc. cit. vol. ii. p. 51.

1 J

l i'

202

SOLOMON'S EXPLANATION.

> i y

i !.

' has been seen (near Samarovo) containing the image

* of a woman.'

It seems to me that hi other countries also, statues
have in this manner come to be worshipped as Deities.

Solomon,^ long ago, observed truly of idols that

' 13. Neither were they from the beginning, neither
shall they be for ever.

' 14. For by the vain glory of men they entered into

* the world, and therefore shall they come shortly to an
' end.

' 15. For a father afflicted with untimely mourning,
' when he hath made an imafre of his child soon taken
' away, now honoured him as a god, which was then
' a dead man, and delivered to those that were under

* him ceremonies and sacrifices.

'16. Thus, in process of time, an ungodly custom
' grown strong was kept as a law, and graven images

* were worshipped by the commandments of kings :

' 17. Whom men could not honour in presence, be-
' cause they dwelt far off, they took the counterfeit of
' the visage from far, and make an express image of a
' king whom they honoured, to the end that by this their

* forwardness, they might flatter him that was absent,
' as if he were present.

' 18. Also the sino'ular diliofence of the artificer did

' help to set forward the ignorant to more superstition.

' 19. For he, perad venture willing to please one in

* authority, forced all his skill to make the resemblance
' of the best fashion.

' 20. And so the multitude, allured by the grace of

' Wisdom, ch. xiv. p. 12.

IDOLS NOT MERE EMBLEMS.

2G3

B image

statues
Deities,
lat
neither

red into
[y to an

lurning.
n taken
as then
3 under

custom
images
gs:
ce, be-
rf'eit of
?e of a
IS their
ibsent,

er did
tition.
me in
)lance

ice of

* the work, took him now for a god, which a little before
' was but honoured as a man.'

The idol is by no means regarded as a mere emblem.
In India,^ when the oiferings of the people have been
less profuse than usual, the Brahmaiis sometimes ' put
the idols in irons, chaining their hands and feet.
They exhibit them to the people in this humiliating
state, into whicji they tell thein they have been brought
by rigorous creditors, from whom their gods had been
obliged, in times of trouble, to borrow money to sup[)ly
their wants. They declare that the inexorable creditors
refuse to set the god at liberty, until the whole sum,
with interest, shall have been paid. The people come
forward, alarmed at the sight of their divinity in
irons ; and thinking it the most meritorious of all
goo(J works to contribute to his deliverance, they raise
the sum required by the Brtjjlinans for that purpose.'
' A, statue of Hercules ^ was worshipped at Tyre, not
as a i-epresentative oithe Deity but as the Deity hhn-
self ; and accordingly when Tyre was besieged by
Alexander, the Deity was fast bound in chains, lO
prevent him from deserting to the enemy.'
It is/liard for us to appreciate the difficulty which an
undeveloped mincL4inds in raising itself to any elevated
conception. Thus Campbell mentions that a High-
lander, wishing to describe a castle of the utmost i)os-
sible magnificence, ended with this climax : ' That was
' the beautiful castle ! There was not a i?hadow of a
' thing that was for the use of a castle that was not

* in it, even to a herd for the geese.' As, however,

9 ^l'

» '

.'(I

* Dubois, The People of India, p.
407.

* Iliitory of Man, vol. iv. p. 310.

2G4

WORSIIIF OF ANCESTORS.

.': .1',

civilisation progresses, and the chiefs, becoming more
despotic, exact more and more respect, the people are
introduced to conceptions of power and magnificence
higher than any which they had previously entertained.
Hence, though the worship of ancestors occurs among
races in the stage of Totemism, it long survives, and
may be regarded as characterising Idolatry ; which is
really a higher religion, and generally indicates a more
advanced mental condition than the worship of animals
or even of the heavenly bodies. At first sight the re-
verse would appear to be the case : most Avould regard the
sun as a far grander deity than any in human form. As a
matter of fact, however, this is not so, and sun-worship
is generally, though not invariably, associated with a
lower idea of the Deity than is the case with Idolatry.

Indeed, the very circumstances which to our minds
almost render the siui worthy of deification are pre-
cisely those which made sun-worship comparatively a
rare form of religion amongst the lower races of savages.
Agc'iin, in the lowest religions, man does not form to
himself any definite conception of Deity. If we enquire
in what sense a savage regards a tree or a serpent as a
deity, we arc putting to ourselves a question which the
savafi^e does not think of askin<y. But when reliofion
acquired a more intellectual character — Avhen it included
faith as well as fi.'eling, belief as w^ell as mystery — man
first conceived the Deity as a being like himself in
form, character, and attributes, only wiser and more
poAverful. This is one reason why the deities in this
stage are anthropomorphous.

Another is the fact that the gradually increasing power
of chiefs and kings has familiarised the mind with the

WORSUIP OF MEN.

•205

and

tlie

Battel also mentions that the kini? of Loanoo '
' honoured among them as though he were agod.'-

cxistence of a power greater than any which had been
previously conceived. Thus, in AVestern Africa, the
slave trade having added considerably to the wealth
and consequently to the power of the chiefs or kings,
they maintained much state, and insisted upon being
treated with servile homage. No man was allowed to
eat with them, nor to approach them excepting on his
knees with an appearance of fear, which no doubt was
in many cases sufficiently well-founded.

These marks of respect so much resembled adoration,
that ' the individuals^ of the lower classes are persuaded
' that his (the king's) power is not coniined to the earth.'

is
lie is

so holy that no one is allowed to see him eat or drink.
The tyrants of Xatal, says Casalis, ' exacted almost

* divine homage.'^

The king and queen of Tahiti Averc regarded as so
sacred that nothing once used by them, not even tlie
sounds forming their names, could be used for any ordi-
nary purpose.^ The language of the court was cliarac-
terised by the most ridiculous adulation. Tiie king's
' houses were called the aarai, the clouds of heaven ;
' anuanua, the rainbow, was the name of the canoe in
' which he voyaged ; his voice was called thunder ; the
' glare of the torches in his dwelling was denominated

* lightning; and when the people saw them in the even-
' ing, as they passed near his abode, instead of saying the

* Proyart's History of Loiingo, - Pinkerton's Travels, vol. xvi. p.

Pinl<erton, vol. xvi. p. 577. See also 330.

Bosnian, loc. cit. pp. 488, 401. Ast- » The Basutos, p. 210.

ley's Colloction of Voyajjes, vol. iii. * Ellis' Polynesian Eesoarclios, vol.

pp. 70, 223, 220. ' ii. pp. 348, 300.

I IB'

266

wonsnip OF men.

II ' '

I ;'

' torches were burning in the palace, they wouhl observe
* that the liglitning was flasliing in the clouds of heaven.'

Man-worshi]) would not, indeed, be long confined to
the dead. In many cases it extends to the living also.
Indeed, the savage who worships an animal or a tree,
would see no absurdity in worshipping a man. His
chief is, in his eyes, almost as powerful, if not more so,
than his Deity. Yet man-worship does not prevail in
altogether uncivilised communities, because the chiefs,
associating constantly with their followers, lack that
mystery which religion requires, and which noc-
turnal animals so eminently possess. As, however,
civilisation progresses, and the chiefs separate them-
selves more and more from their sulyects, this ceases to
be the case and man- worship becomes an important
element of religion.

The worship of a great chief seems quite as natural
as that of an idol. 'Why,' said a Mongol^ to Friar
Ascelin, ' since you Christians make no scruple to adore
' sticks and stones, why do you refuse to do the same
' honour to Bayoth Noy, whom the Khan hath ordered
' to be adored in the same manner as he is himself?'
This worship is, however, almost always accompanied
by a belief in higher beings. We have already seen
that the New Zealanders and some other nations have
entirely abandoned the worship of animals, &c., with-
out as yet realising the higher stage of Idolatry, owing
probably in great measure to their political condition.
In other cases where Shamanism has not so eiFectuallv
replaced Totemism, the establishment of monarchical

Astley, vol. iv. p. 551.

t\ :

ASIA. PACIFIC ISLANDS. AFHICA.

2G7

Kving

Ition.

Iiallv

lical

government witli its usual pomp and ceremonial, led to
a much more organised worship of the old gods. Of
this the serpent-worship in Western Africa, and the
sun-worship in Peru, arc striking examples.

I do not therefore wonder that white men should
have been so often taken for deities. This was the case
with CaptJiin Cook in the Pacific, with Lander in
Western Africa, and, as already njentioned, jMrs. Thom-
son was regarded by the North Australians as a spirit,
though she lived with them for some years.

' Tuikilakila,^ the chief of Somosomo, offered Mr.
Hunt a preferment of the same sort. " If you die

* " first," said he, " I shall make you my god." In fact

* there appears to be no certain line of demarcation be-
' tween departed spirits and gods, nor between gods and
' living men, for many of the priests and old chiefs are
' considered as sacred persons, and not a few of them will
' also claim to themselves the right of divinity. " I am
' "a god," Tuikilakila would sometimes say; and he be-
' lieved it too. They were not merely the words of his
' lips ; he believed he was something above a mere man.'

It seems at first sight hard to understand how men
can be regarded as immortal. Yet even this belief has
been entertained in various countries.

Merolla tells us^ that in his time the wizards of
Congo were called Scinghili, that is to say Gods of the
Earth. The head of them is styled ' Ganga Cliitorne,

* being reputed God of all the Earth.' ' He further

* asserts that his body is not capable of suffering a
' natural death; and, therefore, to confirm his adorers in

1 Erskine's Western Pacific, p. 240. ' Pinkerton, vol. xvi. p. 22G, ct .•«««{.

t I

i i!

208

THE GREAT LAMA.

^: 'Hi

! I .]

'■ tliat opiniou, wliencver he ihids his end {ip[)ronching,
' eitlier thr()Ui»h a;:,^G or disease, he cnlls for such a one of
' his disci[)les as lie designs to succeed him, and pretends
' to communicnte to him his great powers: and after-

* wards in i)ubHc (where this tragedy is always acted) he
' commands him to tie a halter about his neck and to
' strangle himself therewith, or else to take a club and
' knock him down dead. This command being once pro-
' nounced,is soon executed, and the wizard thereby sent

* a martyr to the devil. The reason that this is done in
' pullic, is to miikc known the successor ordained by the
' last breath of the predecessor, and to show that it has
' the same power of producing rain, and the like. If
' this office were not thus continually filled, the inha-
*" bitants say that the earth would soon become barren,
' and mankind consequently perish. In my time, one

* of these magicians Avas cast into the sea, another into

* a river, a mother and her son put to death, and many
' others banished by our order, as has been said.'

So also the Great Lama of Thibet is regarded as im-
mortal; though his spirit occasionally passes from one
earthly tenement to another.

These, then, are the lowest intellectual stages through
which religion has passed. It is no part of my plan to
describe the various religious beliefs of the higher races.
I have, however, stojiped short sooner jDerhaps than I
should otherwise have done, because the worship of
personified principles, such as Fear, Love, Hope, &c.,
could not have been treated apart from that of the
Phallus or Lingam Avith which it was so intimately
associated in Greece, India, Mexico, and elsewhere; and
which, though at first modest and pure, as all religions

one
into
lany

im-
one

of
&c.,
the
tely
and
ions

THE WOItSniT OF nUXCIT'LES.

200

are in their orio'iii, led to such uboiiiinjible })racticos,
that it is one of the most painful chapters in hunuui
history.

I Avill now therefore pass on to some points intimately
connected with religion, but which could not be con-
veniently treated in the earlier part of this work.

There is no difficulty in understanding that when
once the idea of Spiritual Beings had become habitual
— when once man had come to regard them as exer-
cising an important influence, whether for good or evil
— he would endeavour to secure their assistance and
support. Before a war he woidd tr}'^ to propitiate them
by promising a share of the spoil after victory; and
fear, even if no higher motive, would ensure the per-
formance of his promise.

We, no doubt, regard, and justly regard, sacrifices
as unnecessary. ' I will take no bullock,' says David, ^
* out of thine house, nor he-goat out of thy folds.' This
sentiment, however, was far in advance of its time, and
even Solomon felt that sacrifices, in the then condition
of the Jews, were necessary. They are, indeed, a stage
tlu'ough which, in any natural process of development,
religion must pass. At first it is supposed that the
Spirits actually eat the food offered to them. Soon,
however, it would be observed that animals sacrificed
did not disappear; and the natural explanation would
be that the Spirit ate the spiritual part of the victim,
leaving the grosser portion to his devout worshipper.
Thus the Limboos, near Darjeeling, eat their sacrifices,
dedicating, as they forcibly express it, ' the life-breath
' to the gods, the flesh to ourselves.'''^

* Psalm 1. - Campbell, in Traus. Etliu. Soc, N.S., vol. vii. p. luO.

270

SACRIFICES.

I '1

So also, as Sir G. Grey tells us, tlie New Zcalaml
fairies, wlien Te Kanawa gave tlieiii his jewels, carried
off the shadows only, not caring for the earthly sub-
stance.^ In Guinea, according to Bosman, ' the idol

* hath only the blood, because they like the flesh very
' well themselves.'^ In other cases the idols were
smeared with the blood, while the devotees feasted on
the flesh. The Ostyaks when they kill an animal rub
some of the blood on the mouths of their idols. E ven
this seems at length to be replaced in some cases, as
Mr. Tylor has suggested, by red paint. Thus the
sacred stones in India, as Colonel Forbes Leslie has
shown, are frequently ornamented with red.^ So also
in Congo it is customary to daub the fetiches with red
every new moon.^ Atkinson^ thus describes a Kirghiz
sacrifice : — ' A ram was led up by the owner, who

* wished for a large increase of his flocks and herds. It
' was handed to an assistant of the priest, who killed it
' in the usual manner. His superior stood near, looking
' towards the east, and began chanting a prayer, and
' beating on his large tambourine to rouse up his god,

* and then made his request for multitudes of sheep
' and cattle. The ram was being flayed; and when the
' operation was completed, the skin was put on a pole
' as shown in the accompanying sketch, raised above
' the framework, and placed with its head towards the
' east. The tambourine thundered forth its sound, and
' the performer continued his wild chant. The flesh

i'i i;

* Polynesian ^fytliology, p. 294. ' See, for instance, Early Races of

~ Bosman. Pinkerton's Voyages, Scotland, vol. ii, p. 4(34.

vol. xvi. p. 531. Astley's Collection ■* See anib, p. 208.

of Voyages, vol. ii. p. 1)7. ^ Siberia, p. 383.

■ •'!;

^ove

I the

lesli

33 of

CONFUSION OF THE VICTIM WITH THE DEITY. 271

* was cooked in the hirgc ciiukU'oii, ;ind the tril)L' lickl si

* great festival.'

Of the great offerings of food among the Fijians, says
Williams/ ' native belief apportions merely the soul
' thereof to the gods, wlio are described as being enor-

* mous caters; the substance is consumed by the wor-

* shippers.'

Eliis^ mentions an indication of this in Taliiti, when
human sacrifices prevjiiled, but cannibalism was aban-
doned. The priest handed a portion of the victim to
the king, ' who raised it to his mouth as if desirous to
' eat it,' but ther handed it to an attendant.

Gradually, indeed, it comes to be a necessary por-
tion of the ceremony that the victim should be eaten
by those present. Thus, in India,^ when the sacrifice
' is over, the priest comes out, and distributes part of
' the articles which have been offered to the idols. This
' is received as holy, and is eaten immediately.'

Among the Redskins,* at the feast held when the
hunting season begins, the victim 'must be all eaten
' and nothing left.' It is remarkable that among the
Algonkins, another rule at the same feast is that not a
bone of the victim must be broken.^

In many cases a curious confusion arises between tlie
victim and the Deity, and the former is worshipped
before it is sacrificed and eaten. Thus in ancient
Egypt, Apis the victim was also regarded as the God,*^

^ Fiji and the Fijinns, vol. i. p. 231.
See also p. 223.

^ Polynesian Researches, vol. ii.
p. 214.

3 Dubois, The people of India, p.
401.

* Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, vol.
iii. p. 01. Tanners Narrative, p.
287.

^ Tanner's Narrative, p. 105.

* Cox's Manual of Mythologv, p.
213.

♦i

1 ''\\\

I. If

} . ' "

1 *

i •

i''

'■•I

ill!

272

EGYPT. MEXICO.

i i

.iji

?.i "

and Iphigenia was supposed by some to be the same
as Artemis.^

In Mexico^ at a certain period of the year the priest
of Quetzalcoatl made an image of the Deity of meal
mixed "with infants' blood, and then, after many im-
pressive ceremonies, killed the image by shooting it
with an arrow, and tore out the heart, which was eaten
by the king, while the rest of the body was distributed
among the people, every one of Avhom was most anxious
to procure a piece to eac, however small. ^

The great yearly sacrifice in honour of Tezcatlipoca
was also very remarkable. Some beautiful youth, usually
a war captive, was chosen as the victim. For a whole
year he was treated and worshipped as a god. When
he went out he was attended by a numerous train of
pages, and the crowd as he passed prostrated themselves
before him, and did him homage as the impersonation
of the good Deity. Everything he could wish was pro-
vided for him, and at the commencement of the last
month, four beautiful girls were allotted to him as
wives. Finally, when the fatal day arrived, he was
placed at the head of a solemn procession, taken to the
temple, and after being sacrificed with much ceremony

' Cox's Manual of Mythology, p.
1S8.

^ See Miiller, Ges. d. Amor. Urr.
p. GOo.

^ Die Priester verfertigen niimlicli
sein JJild von allerlei Samen, die mit
deui lilute geopferter Kinder zusam-
meiigebacken wurden. Manclierlei
religiiise Reiniginigen undSiibnung-
en, Waschungen niit Wasser, Ader-
Insspn, Fasten, Prozessionen, L'iiucho-
ruugen, Wachttlopfer, Menschenop-
for bert'iteteu ziir Feier vor. Alsdauu

sclioss ein Piiester Quetzalcoatls
eiuen Pfeil gegen jenes Piild Iluitzi-
lopochtlis, und durcbscboss den Gott.
So gait dieser nun fiir todt, es wurdo
ihm wie den Menscbenopfern vom
Priester das Ilerz ausgescbnitten,
und voni Ktinige, dem Stellvertreter
des Gottes auf Eiden, gegessen. Den
Leib aber vertheilten sie fiir die ver-
schiedenen Qunrtiere der Stndt so,
dass jeder Mann ein Stiickcben er-
bielt.'

iN! ^ra

HINDOSTAN.

273

e same

; priest
)f meal
ny im-
iting it
s eaten
ributed
mxious

itlipoca
usually
I whole
Wiien
train of
nselves
onation
as pro-
be last
him as
le was
to the
•eniony

Itzalcoatla
Iluitzi-
len Gott.
"wurde

tern vom
chnittcn,

Ivertreter
ion. Den
' die ver-
>tndt so,
L'hen er-

and every token of respect, he was eaten by the priests
and chiefs.^

Again, among the Khonds^ of Central India human
sacrifices prevailed until quite lately. ' A stout stake
' is driven into the soil, and to it the victim is fastened,

* seated, and anointed with ghee, oil, and turmeric,
' decorated with flowers, and worshipped during the day

* by the assembly. At nightfall the licentious revelry
' is resumed, and on the third morning the victim gets
' some milk to drink, when the presiding priest im-

* plores the goddess to shower her blessings on the
' people, that they may increase and multiply'', prosperity

* attend their cattle and poultry, fertility their fields,
' and happiness to the people generally. The priest

* recounts the origin and advantage of the rite, as pre-

* viously detailed, and concludes by stating that the
' goddess has been obeyed and the people assembled.

' Other softening expressions are recited to excite the
' compassion of the multitude. After the mock cere-
' mony, nevertheless, the victim is taken to the grove
' where the sacrifice is to be carried out ; and, to prevent

* resistance, the bones of the arms and legs are broken,
' or the victim drugged with opium or datura, when the
' janni wounds his victim with his axe. This act is fol-

* lowed up by the crowd ; a number now press forward
' to obtain a piece of his flesh, and in a moment he is
' stripped to the bones.'

So also in some parts of Africa * eating the fetich ' is
a solemn ceremony, by which women swear fidelity to

iii

* Miiller, he. cit. p. G17. Prescott,
he. cit. vol. i. p. 5.

2 Dr. Shortt, Trans. Etlin. Soc,
N.S., vol. vi. p. 273.

274

EATING TEE FETICH.

«. ;. ■

their husbands, men to their friends. On a marriage in
Issini, the parties ' eat the fetish together, in token of
' friendship, and as an assurance of the woman's fidelity
' to her husband.' ^ In taking an oath also the same cere-
mony is observed. To know, says Loyer, ' the truth

* from any negro, you need only mix something in a
' little water, and steeping a bit of bread, bid him eat or
' drink that fetish as a sign of the truth. If the thing
' be so, he will do it freely ; but if otherwise, he will not
' touch it, believing he should die on the spot if he swore
' falsely. Their way is to rasp or grate a little of their
' fetish in water, or on any edible, and so put it in their

* mouth without swallowing it.'

The sacrifices, however, were as a general rule not
eaten by all indiscriminately. In Feejee they were con-
fined to the old men and priests ; women and young
men being excluded from any share.

In many cases the priests gradually established a claim
to the whole, a result which could not fail to act as a con-
siderable stimulus to the practice of sacrifice. It also
afl^ected the character of the worship. Thus, as Bosman
tells us, the priests encouraged offerings to the Serpent
rather than to the Sea, because, in the latter case, as he
expresses it, ' there happens no remainder to be left
' for them.'

As already mentioned, the feeling which has led to
the sacrifice of animals would naturally culminate in
that of men. So natural, indeed, does the idea of
human sacrifice appear to the human mind in this stage,
that we meet with it in various nations all over the

' Loyer, in Astley's Collection of Voyages, vol. ii. pp. 436, 441.

arriage in
L token of
I's fidelity
same cere-
the truth
hing in a
dm eat or
the thing
e will not
■ he swore
ie of their
Lt in their

rule not
were con-
nd vounff

id a claim
b as a con-
It also
s Bosman
3 Serpent
ase, as he
be left

as led to
mnate in
J idea of
his stage,
over the

I, 441.

'^v

1 .1

'i »

il'<f

t ' ' !

„

HUMAN SACRIFICES.

275

at
o

IZi

world ; and it is unjust to regard it, with Prescott/
as evidence of fiendish passions: on the contrary, it
indicates deep and earnest religious feeling, perverted by
an erroneous conception of the Divine character.

Human sacrifices occurred in Guinea,^ and Burton^
saw ' at Benin city a young woman lashed to a scaffold-
' ing upon the summit of a tall blasted tree, and being
' devoured by the turkey-buzzards. The people declared
* it to be a " fetish " or charm for bringing rain.'

Captain Cook describes human sacrifices as prevalent
among the islanders of the Pacific,^ and especially in
the Sandwich group.^ He particularly describes*'' the
case of a sacrifice ofiTered by Towha, chief of the dis-
trict of Tettaha, in Tahiti, to propitiate the Deity on
the occasion of an expedition against Eimeo (PI. IV.);
and mentions that, during the ceremony, ' a kingfisher,
' making a noise in the trees, Otoo (the king) turned to
' me, saying, "That is the Eatood," i.e. Deity.' War
captives were frequently sacrificed in Brazil.

Various nations in India, besides the Khonds who
have been already mentioned, used to offer up human
sacrifices on extraordinary occasions ; and even now in
some places, though the actual sacrifice is no longer
permitted, they make human figures of flour, paste, or
clay, and then cut off the heads in honour of their
gods;^ just as the Romans used to throw dolls into
the Tiber as a substitute for human sacrifices.

Many cases of human sacrifice are mentioned in

^ History of IVFexico, vol. i. p. 08.
"^ Astley's Collection of "\'oyagos,
vol. iii. p. 113.

' Abeokuta, vol. i. p. 10.

■* Cook, Voynge to the I'acific, vol.

ii. p. 41.

° Loc. cit, vol. iii. p. IGl.
•^ Loc. cit. vol. ii. p. 30.
'' Dubois, loc. cit. p. 490.

'A'V.

T i

276

HUMAN SAGRIFIGES.

II ii

ancient histor}''. The Carthaginians, after their defeat
of Agathocles, burnt some of their captives as a sacrifice ;
the Assyrians offered human sacrifices to the god
Nergal.

Although resorted to on various critical occasions by
the Greeks, human sacrifice appears to have been foreign
to the mythology, and opposed to the spirit of that
people. It requires a more earnest and melancholy theo-
logy. In Roman history they occur far more frequently,
and even down to a late date. In the year 46 B.C.,
Caasar sacrificed two soldiers on the altar in the Campus
Martins.^ Augustus sacrificed a maiden named Gre-
goria.^ Even Trajan, when Antioch was rebuilt, sacri-
ficed Calliope, and placed her statue in the theatre.^
Under Commodus, Caracalla, Ileliogabalus, and later
emperors, human sacrifices appear to have been even
more common ; anu a gladiator appears to have been
sacrificed to Jupiter Latialis down to the times of
Constantine.* Y^t these awful rites had been expressly
forbidden B.C. 95 ; and Pliny asserts that in his time
they were never openly solemnised.^

In Northern Europe they were even more common.
The Yarl of the Orkneys is recorded to have sacrificed
the son of the King of Xorway to Odin in the year
893.^ In 993, Ilakon Yarl sacrificed his OAvn son to the
Gods. Domald, King of Sweden, was burnt by his
people as a sacrifice to Odin, in consequence of a severe
famine.^ At Upsala was a celebrated temple, round

» Dio, H. R. xliii. 24.
» Malalas Cliron. p. 221.
' Malalas, Chron. p. 275.

* Porphyry De Abstin., ii. 56.

• Nat. His. XXX. 1, 12.

® Snorre, Ileimskringla, ii. 31.
Torfaeus, His. Rer. Norvegicaruni,
ii. 52.

' Snorre, i. 56.

TEMPLES.

772

ii. 31.

icarum.

which an eye-witness assured Adam of Bremen that
he had seen the corpses of seventy-two victims hanging
iij) at one time.^

In Russia, as in Scandinavia, human sacrifices con-
tinued down to the introduction of Christianity.
In Mexico and Peru they seem to have been pecu-
liarly numerous. MUUer^ has suggested that this may
have partly arisen from the fact that these nations were
not softened by the possession of domestic animals.
Various estimates have been made of the number of
human victims annually sacrificed in the Mexican
temples. Mliller thinks 2,500 is a moderate estimate;
and in one year it appears to have exceeded 100,000.

Among the Jews we find a system of animal sacrifices
on a great scale, and symbols of human sacrifices, which
can, I think, only be understood on the hypothesis that
the latter were once usual. The case of Jephtha's
daughter is generally looked upon as quite exceptional,
but the twenty-eighth and twenty-ninth verses of the
twenty-seventh chapter of Leviticus appear to indicate
that human sacrifices were at one time habitual among
the Jews.^

The lower savages have no Temples or sacred build-
ings. Throughout the New World there was no such
thing as a temple, excepting among the semi- civilised
races of Central America and Peru.

The Stiens of Cambodia ' have neither priest nor
* temples.'* We should seek in vain, says Casalis,*

^ Adam of Bremen, vol. iv. p. 27. the Old Testament, Lev. Pt. I. p. 409.
^ Geschiclite der Americanischen * Mouhot's Travels in the Central

Urreligionen, p. 23. Parts of Indo-China, vol. i. p. 250.
* But see Kalisch, Commentary on * The Basutos, p. 237,

.11

■41

■•;'

278

TOMBS.

i"i

' from the extremity of the southern promontory of

* Africa to the country far beyond the banks of the

* Zambesi, for anything like the pagodas of India, the

* maraes of Polynesia, or the fetish huts of Nigritia.'
The people of Madagascar, as we are informed by
Drury,^ who resided fifteen years among them, although
they have settled abodes, keep large herds of cattle, and
are diligent agriculturists, ' have no temples, no taber-
' nacles, or groves for the public performance of their

* divine worship ; neither have they solemn fasts, or

* festivals, or set days or times, nor priests to do it for

* them.'

Professor Nilsson was, I believe, the first to point
out that certain races buried the dead in their houses,
and that the chambered tumuli of Northern Europe are
probably copies of the dwellingfs then used, sometimes
perhaps the actual dwellings tnenxselves. We know
that as the power of chiefs increased, their tombs be-
came larger and more magnificent ; and Mr. Fergusson
has well shown how in India the tumulus has developed
into the temple.

In some cases, as for instance in India, it is far from
easy to distinguish between a group of stone gods and a
sacred fane. In fact, we may be sure that the very same
stones are by some supposed to be actual deities, while
others more advanced regard them as sacred only be-
cause devoted to religious purposes. Some of the ruder
Hindostan tribes actually worship upright stones ; but
Colonel Forbes Leslie regards the sacred stones repre-
sented in PL III. as a place of worship, rather than as

^ Adventures of Robert Drury, p. x,

1 promontory of
he banks of the
las of India, the
uts of ]Vigritia/
re informed by
: them, although
ds of cattle, and
fiples, no taber-
rmance of their
olemn fasts, or
sts to do it for

first to jjoint
n their houses,
Jrn Europe are
5ed, sometimes
s- We know
leir tombs be-
^Ir. Fergusson
has developed

it is far from
le gods and a
the very same
deities, while
;red only be-
of the ruder
stones; but
tones repre-
ther than as

t i I
I [ii"'

ih.

ii .: (,-

'-' ill lift ' ^^«^

Z
O

ms.

lM|!.|l|l.j''|ll,,

u
.a;

■•'I

i /

! -'

PRIESTS.

270

H
Eh

|Z!
O

u
<!

Px
O

actual deities ; and this is at any rate the case with
another group (PL V.) similarly painted, which he
observed near Andlee, also in the Dekhan, and which
is peculiarly interesting from its resemljlance to those
stone circles of our own country, of which Stoiiehenge
is (see Frontispiece) the grandest representative. Fig.
18, p. 170, represents^ a religions dance as practised by
the Redskins of Virginia. Here, also, as already men-
tioned, we see a sacred circle of stones, differing from
those of our own country and of India only in having a
human head rudely carved on each stone.

The lower races of men have no Priests, properly so
called. Many passages, indeed, may be quoted which,
at first sight, appear to negative this assertion. If,
however, we examine more closely the true functions
of these so-called ' priests,' we shall easily satisfy our-
selves that the term is a misnomer, and that wizards
only are intended. Without temples and sacrifices there
cannot be priests.

Even the New Zealanders ^ had ' no regular priest-

* hood.' Mr. Gladstone ^ observes that the priest was
not, ' as such a significant personage in Greece at any

* period, nor had the priest of any one place or deity, so
' far as we know, any organic connection with the priest

* of any other ; so that if there were priests, yet there
' was not a priesthood.'

I have already pointed out {ante., p. 159) the great
difference between the belief in ghosts and in the
existence of a soul. Even, however, those races which
have so far advanced as to believe in the latter, yet

^ Mceurs des Sauv. Am^r., vol. ii.
p. 13G.

2 Yate, p. 140.

' Juventua Mundi, p. 181.

I, 1

.1 ;'

280

THE SOUL.

differ from us very much in their views ; and in fuct the
belief in a universal, independent, and endless exist-
ence is confined to the very highest races of men. The
New Zealanders believe that a man who is eaten as
well as killed, is thus destroyed both soul and body.^
Even, however, those who have proper interment are
far from secure of reaching the happier regions in the
land of spirits. The road to these is long and dan-
gerous, and many a soul perishes by the way. In the
Tonga Islands the chiefs are regarded as immortal, the
Tooas or common people as mortal ; with reference to
the intermediate class or Mooas there is a difference of
opinion.

A friend of Mr. Lang's ^ * tried long and potently to
' make a very intelligent docile Australian black under-

* stand his existence without a body, but the black never

* could keep his countenance and generally made an

* excuse to get away. One day the teacher watched and

* found that he went to have a hearty fit of laughter at
' the absurdity of the idea of a man living and going
' about without anus, legs, or mouth to eat ; for a long

* time he could not believe that the gentleman was

* serious, and when he did realise it, the more serious

* the teacher was the more ludicrous the whole affair
' appeared to the black.'

The resurrection of the body as preached by the
missionaries,^ appeared to the Tahitians ' astounding '
and ' incredible ; ' and ' as the subject was more fre-

* quently brought under their notice in public discourse,

* Taylor, New Zealand and its 31.

InLabitants, p. 101. * Ellis' Polynesian ResearcLes,

* The Aborigines of Australia, p. vol. ii. p. 165.

;(!»*

IDEAS OF HEAVEN.

281

•

' or in rcadinj^' the Scriptures, and their inindH were
' more attentively exercised upon it in connection witli
' tlieir ancestry, themselves, and their descendants, it
* appeared invested with more than ordinary difficult}',
' borderin<^, to their apprehension, on impossibility.*

Although the Feejeeans believe that almost every-
thing has a spirit, few spirits are immortal : the road
to Mbulu is long, and beset with so many difficulties,
that after all ' few attain to immortality.' ^ As regards
Central India, Colonel Dalton says,'*^ ' I do not think
that the present generation of Kols have any notion of
a heaven or a hell that may not be traced to Brah-
minical or Christian teaching. The old idea is that
the souls of the dead become "bhoots," spirits, but no
thought of reward or punishment is connected with the
clumge. When a Ho swears, the oath has no reference
whatever to a future state. He prays that if he speak
not the truth he may be afflicted in this world with the
loss of all — health, wealth, wife, children ; that he may
sow without reaping, and finally may be devoured by a
tiger; but he swears not by any happiness beyond the
grave. He has in his primitive state no such hope ;
and I believe that most Indian aborigines, though they
may have some vague ideas of continuous existence,
will be found equally devoid of original notions in
regard to the judgment to come.'
Even "when the spirit is supposed to survive the
body, the condition of souls after death is not at first
considered to differ materially from that during life.
Heaven is merely a distant part of earth. Thus the

\iii

J'!

: I ' ^

Fiji and the Fijians, vol. i. p. 247. ^ Xrans. Ethn. Soc. 18G7, p. 38.

]\[

til

282

IDEAS OF HEAVEN.

11 m

' seats of happiness are represented by some Hindu
' writers to be vast mountains on tlie north of India.' ^
Again, in Tonga the souls are supposed to go to Bolotoo,
a large island to the north-west, well stocked ^ with all
kinds of useful and ornamental plants, ' always bearing
' the richest fruits and the most beautiful flowers accord-
' ing to their respective natures ; that when these fruits
' or flowers are plucked, others immediately occupy their
' place . . . The island of Bolotoo is supposed to be
' so far off as to render it dangerous for their canoes
' to attempt going there ; and it is supposed, moreover,
' that even if they were to succeed in reaching so far,
' unless it happened to be the particular Avill of the

* gods, they would be sure to miss it.'

They believe, however, that on one occasion a canoe
actually reached Bolotoo. The crew landed, but when
they attempted to touch anything, ' they could no more

* lay hold of it than if it had been a shadow.' C 'iise-
quently hunger soon overtook them, and forced them
to return, which they fortunately succeeded in doing.

A curious notion, already referred to, is the belief
that each man has several souls. It is common to
various parts of America,^ and exists also in Mada-
gascar. It apparently arises from the idea that each
pulse is the seat of a different life. It also derives an
appearance of probability from the inconsistencies of
behaviour to which savages are so prone. The Feejeeans
also believed that each man has two spirits.^ Among

* Dubois, loc. cit. p. 48./. Greenland. Miiller, Ges. cler Am.

^ Mariner, loc. cit. vol. ii. p. 108. Urreligionen, p. GO.
I" ^ Tertre's History of the Caribby ^ FijiandtheFijians, vol. i. p. 241.
Islands, p. 288. It prevails also in

PLURALITY OF SOULS.

283

the ancient Greeks and Romans there are some indica-
tions of the existence of a similar belief.^

The belief in a future state, if less elevated than
our own, is singularly vivid among some barbarous
races. Thus it is said that among the Ancient Britons
money was habitually lent on what may strictly be
termed ' postobits ' — promises to pay in another world.

The Feejeeans believe that ' as they die, such will be

* their condition in another world ; hence their desire to

* escape extreme infirmity.' ^ The way to Mbulu, ao
already mentioned, is long and difficult ; many always
perish, and no diseased or infirm person could possibly
succeed in surmountin(]f all the dangers of the road.
Hence as soon as a man feels the approach of old age,
he notifies to his children that it is time for him to die.
If he neglects to do so, the children after a while take
the matter into their own hands. A family consulta-
tion is held, a day appointed, and the grave dug. The
aged person has his choice of being strangled or buried
alive. Mr. Hunt gives the following striking descrip-
tion of such a ceremony once witnessed by him. A
young man came to him and invited him to attend his
mother's funeral, which was just going to take place.
Mr. Hunt accepted the invitation, and joined the pro-
cession, but, surprised to see no corpse, he made en-
quiries, when the young man ' pointed out his mother,
' who was walking along with them, as gay and lively
' as any of those present, and apparently as much

* pleased. Mr. Hunt expressed his surprise to the
' young man, and asked how iie could deceive him. so

i ■! ■

-|i r

! ^1'

1, H

* Lnfitau, vol. ii. p. 424.

^ Fiji and the Fijians, vol. i. p. 183.

T I-

284

THE FUTURE STATE.

'Ill

fi '

' much by saying his mother was dead, when she was
' alive and well. He said, in reply, that they had made
' her death-feast, and were now going to bury her ;
' that she was old, that his brother and himself had
' thought she had lived long enough, and it was time to
' bury her, to which she had willingly assented, and

* they were about it now. He had come to Mr. Hunt

* to ask his prayers, as ihey did those of the priest.

* He added, that it was from love for his mother that
' he had done so ; that, in consequence of the same love,

* they were now going to bury her, and that none but

* themselves could or ought to do such a sacred office !

* Mr. Hunt did all in his power to prevent so diabolical

* an act ; but the only reply he received was that she

* was their mother, and they were her children, and
' they ought to put her to death. On reaching the

* grave, the mother sat down, when they all, including

* children, grandchildren, relations and friends, took an
' affectionate leave of her ; a rope, made of twisted

* tapa, was then passed twice around her neck by her

* sons, who took hold of it and strangled her ; after
' which she was put in her grave, with the usual

* ceremonies.' ^

So general was this custom that in one town contain-
ing several hundred inhabitants Captain Wilkes did not
see one man over forty years of age, all the old people
having been buried.

In Dahomey the king sends constant messages to his
deceased father, by messengers who are killed for the
purpose. The same firm belief which leads to this
reconciles the messengers to their fate. They are well

* Wilkes' Exploring Expedition. Condensed edition, p. 211,

h ;i

^*\,

CREATION.

285

treated beforehand, and their death being instantaneous
is attended with little pain. Hence we are assured
that they are quite cheerful and contented, and scarcely
seem to look on their death as a misfortune.

The North American Indian, ar Schoolcraft tells us,
has little dread of death. ' He does not fear to go to a
' land which, all his life long, he has heard abounds in

* rewards without punishments.' ^

We know that the Japanese commit suicide for the
most trifling causes ; and it is said that in China, if a
rich man is condemned to death, he can always pur-
chase a willing substitute at a very small expense.

The lower races have no idea of Creation, and even
among those somewhat more advanced, it is at first
very incomplete. Their deities are part of, not the
makers of, the world ; and even when the idea of
creation dawns upon the mind, it is not strictly a
creation, but merely the raising of land already existing
at the bottom of the original sea.

The Abipones had no theory on the subject ; when
questioned by Dobritzhoffer,'-^ ' my father, replied Yc-
' hoalay readily and frankly, our grandfathers, and great-

* grandfathers, were wont to contemplate the earth
' alone, solicitous only to see wliether the plain afforded
' grass and water for their horses. They never troubled
' themselves about what went on in the heavens, and
' who was the creator and governor of the stars.'

Father Baegert,^ in his account of the Californian
Indians, says, ' I often asked them whether they had
' never put to themselves the question who might be

Ihl:

' ' ' ,

«[:'

* Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, vol. ii. p. 08.

' Loc. cit. vol. ii. p. 59. ^ Loc. cit. p. 300.

.11:
I

I.I

286

CREATION.

rju

t' I

( I

* the Creator and Preserver of the sun, moon, stars,

* and other objects of nature, but was always sent home

* with a " vara," which means " no " in their language.'

The Chipewyans ^ thought that the world existed at
first in the form of a globe of water, out of which the
Great Spirit raised the land. • The Lenni Lenape ^ say
that Manitu at the beginning swam on the water, and
made the earth out of a grain of sand. He then made
a man and woman out of a tree. The Mingos and
Ottawwaws believe that a rat brought up a grain of
sand from the bottom of the water, and thus produced
the land. The Crees ^ had no ideas at all as to the
origin of the world.

Stuhr, who was, as Miiller says, a good observer of
such matters, tells us that the Siberians had no idea of
a Creator. When Burchell suggested the idea of Crea-
tion to the Bachapin Kaffirs, they ' asserted that every-
' thing made itself, and that trees and herbage grew by

* their own will."* It also appears from Canon Calla-
way's researches that the Zulu Kaffirs have no notion
of Creation. Casalis makes the same statement : all
the natives, he says, ' whom we questioned on the

* subject have assured us that it never entered their

* heads that the earth and sky might be the work of an

* Invisible Being.' ^ The same is also the case with the
Hottentots.

The Australians, again, had no idea of Creation.
According to Polynesian mythology, heaven and earth

» Dunn's Oregon, p. 102. Sea, vol. i. p. 14.3.

2 Miiller, Ges. d. Amer. Urr., p. * Loc. cit. vol. ii. p. 550.

107. "■ The B.asutos, p. 2(38.
' Franklin's Journey to the Polar

\k\

'i M>h

CREATION.

287

existed from the beginning.^ The latter, however, was
at first covered by water, until Mawe drew up New
Zealand by means of an enchanted fish-hook.*^ This
fis)i-hook was made from the jawbone of Muri-ranga-
whenna, and is now the cape forming the southern
extremity of Hawkes' Bay. The Tongans^ have a
very similar tale. Here tlie islands were drawn up by
Tangaloa, ' but the line accidentally breaking, the act
' was incomplete, and matters were left as they now
' are. They show a hole in the rock, about two feet in
' diameter, which quite perforates it, and in which
' Tangaloa's hook got fixed. It is moreover said that
' Tooitonga had, till Avithin a few years, this very hook
' in his possession.'

As regards Tahiti, Williams'* observes that the ' origin
' of the Gods, and their priority of existence in com-
' parison with the formation of the earth, being a
' matter of uncertainty even among the native priests,
' involves the whole in the greatest obscurity.' Even
in Sanskrit there is no word for creation, nor does any
such idea appear in the Rigveda, in the Zendavesta, or
in Homer.

When the Capuchin missionary MeroUa^ asked the
queen of Singa, in Western Africa, who made the
world, she ' without the least hesitation, readily an-
' swered, " My ancestors." " Then," replied the Capu-
' chin, " does your majesty enjoy the whole power of
* " your ancestors ? " " Yes," answered she, " and much

^ Polynesian ^lythology, p. 1.

» Ibid. p. 45.

^ Mariner, luc. cit. vol. i. 284.

* Polynesian Researches, vol. ii.

p. 101.

^ Pinlzerton's Voyage^, vol. xvi.
p. 305.

■ i

,;• •<

:.u

288

PBAYEB.

>■ ■'

^ -.hi

* " more, for over and above what they had, I am abso-

* " hite mistress of the kinj^dom of Matamba! " A remark

* which shows how little she realised the meaning of

* the term " Creation." ' The negroes in Guinea thought
that man was created by a great black spider.^ Other
negroes, however, have more just ideas on the subject,
probably derived from the missionaries.

The Kumis of Chittagong believe that a certain
Deity made the world and the trees and the creeping
things, and lastly ' he set to work to make one man

* and one woman, forming their bodies of clay ; but
' each night, on the completion of his work, there came
' a great snake, which, while God was sleeping, de-

* voured the two images.'^ At length the Deity created
a dog, which drove away the snake, and thus the
creation of man was accomplished.

We cannot fail also to be struck with the fact that
the lower forms of religion are almost independent of
prayer. To us prayer seems almost a necessary part of
religion. But it evidently involves a belief in the
goodness of God, a truth which, as we have seen, is not
early recognised.

Of the Hottentots Kolben says, ' It is most certain
' they neither pray to any one of their deities nor utter
' a word to any mortal concerning the condition of
' their souls or a future life. . . . Even those negroes,
says Bosman, who have a faint conception of a higher
Deity ' do not pray to him, or offer any sacrifices to
' him ; for which they give the following reasons :

* Pinkerton'a Voyages, vol. xvi. ' Lewin's Ilill Tracts of Cliitta-
p. 459. €0"c> P- ^^'

PJiAYER.

289

ligher
les to
sons:

/Litta-

' " God," say they, " is too high exalted above us, and
' " too great to condescend so much as to trouble hira-
' " self, or think of mankind." ' *

The Mandingoes, accordiro; to Park, regard the Deity
as ' so remote, and of so exalted a nature, that it is idle
' to imagine the feeble supplications of wretched mortals
' can reverse the decrees, and change the purposes, of

* unerring Wisdom.' ^ They seem, however, to have
little confidence in their own views, and generally
assured Park, in answer to his enquiries about religion
and the immortality of the soul, that 'no man knows
' anything about it.' ' Neither among the Eskimos

* nor Tinne,' says Richardson, ' could I ascertain that

* prayer was ever made to the " Kitche Manito^^^ the
' Great Spirit or " Master of Life." '^ Mr. Prescott, in
Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, also states that the North
American Indians do not pray to the Great Spirit.*
Tlie Caribs considered that the Good Spirit 'is endued
'with so great goodness, that it does not take any
' revensfc even of its enemies : whence it comes that
' they render it neither honour nor adoration.' ®

According to Metz, the Todas (Neilgherry Hills >
never pray. Even among the priests, he says, ' the
' only sign of adoration that I have ever seen them
' perform is lifting the riglit hand to the forehead,
' covering the nose with the thumb, when entering the
' sacred dairy : and the words, " May all be well," are

1 Bosmrtii, he. ell. p. 403. ■* I'rescott. Schoolcraft's Indian

" Park's Travels, vol. i. p. 207, Tribes, vol. iJi. p. 226.

» Richnrdgon's Boat .Tourney, vol. * Tertre'a History of the Oaribby

ii. p. 44. Islands, p. 27d.

it'll

^il-

290

MORALITY.

i >

* all that I have ever heard them utter in the form of a

* prayer.' ^

The connection between morality and religion will be
considered in a later chapter. Here, I will only obseive
that the deities of the lower races, being subject to the
same passions as man, and in many cases, indeed,
themselves monsters of iniquity, regarded crime with
indifference, so long as the religious ceremonies and
sacrifices in their honour were not neglected. Hence
it follows that through all these lower races there is no
idea of any being corresponding to Satan. So far,
indeed, as their deities are evil they may be so called ;
but the essential character of Satan is that of the
Tempter : hence in the order of succession this idea
cannot arise until morality has become connected with
religion.

Thus, then, I have endeavoured to trace the gradual
development of religion among the lower races of man.

The lower savages regard their deities as scarcely
more powerful than themselves; they are evil, not
good ; they are to be propitiated by sacrifices, not by
prayer ; they are not creators ; they are neither omni-
scient nor all-powerful ; they neither reward the good
nor jDunish the evil; far from conferring immortality
on man, they are not even in all cases immortal them-
selves.

Where the material elements of civilisation developed
themselves without any corresponding increase of know-
ledge, as for instance in Mexico and Peru, a more
correct idea of Divine poAver, without any correspond-
ing enlightenment as to the Divine nature, led to a

' Tribes of tlie Xeilglieriies, p. 27.

Ml f

{ il!

liM

THE NATURE OF IDOLS,

201

religion of terror, which finally became a terrible
scourge of humanity.

Gradually, however, an increased acquaintance with
the laws of nature enlarged the mind of man. He
first supposed that the deity fashioned the earth, raising
it out of the water, and preparing it as a dwelling-place
for man ; ,and subsequently realised the idea that land
and water were alike created by Divine power. After
regarding spirits as altogether evil, he rose to a belief
in good as well as in evil deities, and gradually sub-
ordinating the latter to the former, worshipped the
good spirits alone as gods, the evil sinking to the level
of demons. From believing only in ghosts, he came
gradually to the recognition of the soul: at length
uniting this belief mth that in a beneficent and just
Being, he connected Morality with Religion, a step
the importance of which it is scarcely possible to
over-estimate.

Thus we see that as men rise in civilisation their
religion rises with them. The Australians dimly
imagine a being, spiteful, malevolent, but weak, and
dangerous only in the dark. The Negro's deity is
more powerful, but not less hateful. Invisible, indeed,
but subject to pain, mortal like himself, and liable to
be made the slave of man by enchantment. The
deities of the South Sea Islanders are some good, some
evil; but on the whole, more is to be feared fi'om
the latter than to be hoped from the former. They
fashioned the land, but are not truly creators, for
earth and water existed before them. They do not
punish the evil, nor reward the good, They watch

• u 2

4 '

202

SCIENCE AND RELIGION.

tf.

•If

over the affairs of men ; but if,- on the one hand, witch-
craft has no power over them, neither, on the other,
can prayer influence them, — they require to share the
crops or the booty of tlieir worshippers.

It appears, then, that every increase in science —
that is, in positive and ascertained knowledge — brings
with it an elevation of religion. Nor is this progress
confined to the lower races. Even within the last cen-
tury, science has purified the religion of Western Europe
by rooting out the dark belief in witchcraft, which led
to thousands of executions, and hung like a black pall
over the Christianity of the middle ages.

The immense service which Science has thus ren-
dered to the cause of Religion and of Humanity, has
not hitherto received the recognition which it deserves.
Science is still regarded by many excellent, but narrow-
minded, persons as hostile to religious truth, while in
fact she is only opposed to religious error. No doubt
her influence has always been exercised in opposition to
those who present contradictoiy assertions under the
excuse of mystery, and to all but the highest con-
ceptions of Divine power. The time, however, is ap-
proaching when it will be generally perceived that so
far from Science being opposed to Religion, true religion
is, without Science, impossible ; and if we consider the
various aspects of Christianity as understood by dif-
ferent nations, we can hardly fail to perceive that the
dignity, and therefore the truth, of their religious beliefs
is in direct relation to their knowledge of Science and of
the great physical laws by which our universe is governed.

l^-

2!)3

CHAPTER VII.

CIIARACTEU AND MORALS.

fgion
the
dif.
the
tliefs
id of
led.

rpHE accounts Avhich we possess of the character of
■^ savage races are both conflicting and unsatisfac-
tory. In some cases travellers have expressed strong
opinions for which they had obviously no sufficient
foundation. Thus the unfortunate La Perouse, who
spent only one day on Easter Island, states his belief
that the inhabitants * are as corrupt as the circumstances
' in which they are placed will permit them to be.'^ On
the other hand, the Friendly Islanders were so called
by Captain Cook on account of the apparent kindness
and hospitality with which they received him. Yet,
as we now know, this appearance of friendship was
entirely hypocritical. The natives endeavoured to lull
him into security, with the intention of seizing his ship
and massacring the crew, which design a fortunate acci-
dent alone prevented them from carrying into effect ;
yet Captain Cook never had the slightest suspicion <»^'
their treachery, or of the danger which he so narrowly
escaped.

In some cases the same writer gives accounts at
variance with one another. Thus Mr. Ellis,'-^ the excel-
lent missionary of the Pacific, states that the moi';d

1 Perouse's Voyage, Fnnli.<h edition, vol. ii. p. 3l'7.
'^ PdlyiU'.sian IJedeavclies, \o\. ii. p. 'Jo.

i'M

«i i;

294

iJIFFrCULTY OF ASCERTAINING

\i >

i:V

lil 'I

;» ■'•

character of the Tahitians was ' awfully dark, and iiot-

* withstanding the apparent mildness of their disposition,
' and the cheerful vivacity of their conversation, no
' portion of the human race was ever, perhaps, sunk
' lower in brutal licentiousness and moral degradation.*
Yet, speaking of this same people, and in the very same
volume, he states that they were most anxious to obtain
Bibles : on the day when they were to be distributed,
the natives came from considerable distances, and ' the
' place was actually thronged until the copies were

* expended. In their application at our own houses, we

* found it impossible to restrain the people, so great was

* tlieir anxiety.' Under these circumstances we cannot
wonder that Captain Cook and other navigators found
in them much to admire as well as to condemn.

The Kalmuks, again, have been very differently
described by different travellers. J*allas, speaking of
their character, says, ' II m'a paru infiniment meilleur
' que ne I'ont depeint plusieurs de nos historiens voya-
' gcurs. II est infiniment pri^ferable a celui des autres

* peuples nomades. Les Kalmouks sont affables, hospi-
' taliers et francs ; ils aiment a rendre service ; ils sont
' toujours gais et enjoues, ce qui les distingue des Kirguis,

* qui sont beaucoup plus flegmatiques. Telles sont leurs
' bonnes qualites ; voici les mauvaises. lis sont sales,
' paresseux et fort rus^s; ils abusent tres-souvent de ce

* dernier defaut.' ^ So also the aboriginal tribes of India,
as pointed out by M. Hunter,^ have been painted in the
blackest colours by some, and highly praised by others.

Mariner gives an excellent account of the state of

* Voyages, vol. i. p. 499. Non- Aryan Languages of India and

* Comparative Dictionary of the High Asia^ pp. 5, 9.

THE CIIARAGTHH Of SAVAGn RACES.

21>5

manners among the Tongans, and one which well illus-
trates the difficulty of arriving at correct ideas on such
a subject, esjjucially among a people of a diiferent race
from ourselves and in a different state of civilisation,
lie describes them as loyal' and pious,'^ obedient chil-
dren,*' affectionate parents,* kind husbands," modest and
faithful wives,^' and true friends.^

On the other hand, they seem to have had little
feeling of morality. They ' had no words for justice or
' injustice, for cruelty or humanity.' ® * Theft, revenge,
' rape, and murder under many circumstances are not
' held to be crimes.' They had no idea of future rewards
and punishments. They saw no harm in seizing ships
by treachery and murdering the crew. The men were
cruel, treacherous, and revengeful. Marriages were
terminable at the whim of the husband,'-' and excepting
in married women chastity was not regarded as a virtue,
though it was thought improper for a woman frequently
to change her lover. Yet we are told that on the whole, '*^
this system, although so opposed to our feelings, had
' not the least appearance of any bad effect. The women
' were tender kind mothers, the children well cared for.'
Both sexes appeared to be contented and happy in their
relations to each other, and ' as to domestic quarrels
' they were seldom known.' We must not judge them
too hardly for their proposed treachery to Captain
Cook. Even in Northern Europe shipwrecks were long
considered fair spoil, the strangers beino; connected with

' Loc, cit. vol. ii. p. ir)5.
« P. 154.
3 P. 155.
* l\ 171).
5 I'. 17l>.

« P. 170.
^ P. 152.
8 P. 148.
» P. 107.
1" Luc. (it. vol. ii. p. 1 77.

:'i I

■ I

r 111'

296

INSECURITY OF I^fe AND VROrERTY

'(. !

> m

' '

\UM

the natives by no civil or family ties, and the idea of
natural right not being highly developed.^

Lastly, if in addition to the other sources of difficulty,
we remember that of language, we cannot wonder that
the characters of savage races have been so differently
described by different travellers. We all know how
difficult it is to judge an individual, and it must be
much more so to judge a nation. In fact, whether any
given writer praises or blames a particular race, depends
at least as much on the character of the writer a^ on
that of the people.

On the whole, however, I think we may assume that
life and property are far less secure in savage than in
civilised communities ; and thou<2:li the o'uilt of a murder
or a theft may be very different under different circum-
stances, to the sufferer the result is much the same.

Mr. Galbraith, who lived for many years, as Indian
agent, among the Sioux (North America), thus describes
them : ^ They are ' bigoted, barbarous, and exceedingly
' superstitious. They regaid most of tlie vices as virtues.
' Theft, arson, rape, and mui'der are among them re-
' garded as the means of distinction ; and the young
' Indian from childhood is taught to re":ard killins: as
' the highest of virtues. In their dances, and at their

* feasts, the warriors recite their deeds of theft, pillage,
' and slaughter as precious things ; and the highest, in-
' deed the only ambition of a young brave is to secure

* "the feather," which is but a record of his having mur-
' dered or participated in the murder of some human
' being — whether man, woman, or child, it is immaterial ;

' See Montesquieu, Esp.-it ties liois, vol. ii. p. 119.
•<* Yx\m. Jounjal, 18(50, p. 804.

AMONG SAVAGES.

207

' and, after he has secured his first ^' feather," appetite is

* whetted to increase the number in his cap, as an Indian
' brave is estimated by the number of his feathers.'

In Tahiti the missionaries considered that ' not less

* than two-thirds of the children were murdered by their
' parents.' ^ Mr. Ellis adds, ' I do not recollect having
' met with a female m the islands during the whole period
' of my residence there, who liad been a mother while
' idolatry prevailed, who had not imbrued her hands in
' the blood of her offwpring.' Mr. Kott also makes the
same assertion. Girls were more often killed than boys,
because they were of less usi; in tishinf>: and in war.

Mr. Wallace maintains that savages act up to their
simple moral code at least as well as we do ; but if a
man's simple moral code permits him to rob or murder,
that may be some excuse for him, but it is little conso-
lation to the sufferer.

As a philosophical question, however, the relative cha-
racter of different races is less interesting than the moral
condition of the lower races of mankind as a whole.

Mr. AVallace, in the concluding chaj^ter of his inte-
resting work on the Malay Archipelago, has expressed
the opinion that while civilised communities ' have
' progressed vastly beyond the savage state in intel-
' lectual achievements, we have not advanced equally in
' morals.' Nay, he even goes further : in a i)erfect socijd
state, he says, ' every man would liave a sufficiently
' well-balanced intellectual organisation to understand
' the moral law in all its details, and would require no
' other motive but the free impulses of his own nature
' to obey that law. Now, it is very remarkable that

' rolynesiivn Re.'^t'nrclu\«, vol. i. pp. .".'5J, .'510.

^1 .11!

ri I

rs!

I: :

!; >J

298

PROGRESS IN MORALS.

:s Ml

f^'i I

' among j^eople in a very low state of civilisation, we find
' some approach to such a perfect social state ;' and he
adds, ' it is not tuu much to say that the mass of our
' populations have not at all advanced beyond the savage
' code of morals, and have in many cases sunk below it.'

Far from thinking this true, I sliould rather be
disposed to say that Man has, perhaps, made more
progress in moral than in either material or intellectual
advancement ; for while even the lowest savages have
many material and intellectual attainments, they are, it
seems to me, almost entirely wanting in moral feeling,
though I am aware that the contrary opinion has been
expressed by many eminent authorities.

Thus Lord Karnes^ assumes as an undoubted lact
* that every individual is endued with a sense of right
' and wron2f, more or less distinct:' and aftc' admit-
ting that very different views as to morals ;ti ^cid by
diflerent people and diflerent races, he remarks, ' these
' facts tend not to disprove the reality of a common sense
' in morals : they only prove that the moral sense has i.jt
' been equally perfect at. ail times, nor in all countries.'

Hume expressos the same opinion in very decided
language. 'Let a man's insensibility,' he says, 'be ever
' so great, he must often be touched with the images of
' right and wrong ; and let his prejudices be ever so
' obstinate, he must observe that others are susceptibl
'of like impressions.'* Xay he even maintains th^i
' those who have denied the reality of moral distinctions,
' may be ranked among the disingenuous disputants ;
' nor is it conceivable that any human creature could

' History of Man, vol. ii. p. 9, vol. iv. p. 18.
^ IIuuio's Essays, vol. ii. p. 203.

MOliAL CONDITION OF SAVAGED.

299

* 1.

* ever sei'iously believe that all characters and actions
' were alike entitled to the affection and regp-'d of every

* one.'

Locke, on the other hand, questions the existence
of innate principles, and terminates his chapter on the
subject in the following words ; ' it is reasonable,' lie
soys,^ ' to demand the marks and characters, whereby
' the genuine iimate principles may be distinguished
' from others ; that so, amidst the great variety of
' pretenders, I may be kept from mistakes in so mi^ccrial
' a point as this. When this is done, I shall be ready
' to embrace such welcome and useful propositions ; and
' till then I may with modesty doul)t, since I fear uni-

* versal consent, which is the only one produced, will
' scarce prove a sufficient mark to direct my choice, and
' assure me of any innate principles. From what has
' been said, I think it past doubt, that there are no
' practical principles wlierem all men agree ; and there-

* fore none innate.'

I^et us now see what light is thrown on this inte-
resting question b) the phenomenon of savage life. JMr.
Wallace draws a charming picture of some small savage
communities wliich he has visited. J'^ach man, he saj'S,

* scrupulously respects the rights of his fellow, and

* any infraction of those rights rarely or never takes
' place. In such a comnuinity all are nearly equal.
' There are none of those wide distinctions of education
' and ignorance, wealth and poverty, master and servant

* which are the product of our civilisation; there is none

* of that wide-spread division of labour, which, while it

* increases wealth, produces also conflicting interests ;

' On the Iliunan Undorstandiiig, book i. ch. 3, sec. 2.

j i

300

CONFUSION OF FAMILY AFFECTION

t»

-n

!l .'

' there is not that severe competition and struggle for

* existence, o for wealth, which the population of

* civilised countries inevitably creates.'

But does this prove that they are in a high moral
condition ? does it prove even that they have any
moral sense at all ? Surely not. For if it does, we
must equally credit rooks and bees, and most other
gregarious animals, with a moral state higher than that
of civilised man. I would not indeed venture to assert
that the ant or the bee is not possessed of moral feelings,
but we are surely not in a position to affirm it. In the
very passage quoted, Mr. Wallace has pointed out that
the inducements to crime are in small communities
much less than in populous countries. The absence
0^' -^'iine, however, does not constitute virtue, and,
Wii. .)ut temptation, mere innocence has no merit.

^Moreover, in small communities almost all the mem-
bers are related to one another, and family affection
puts on the apj)earance of virtue. But though parental
and filial affection possess a very moral aspect, they
have a totally different origin and a distinct character.

AVe do not generally attribute moral feelings to quad-
rupeds and birds, yet, perhaps, among animals there
is no stronger feeling than that of the mother for her
offspring. She will su])mit to any sacritices for their
welfJire, and fight against almost any odds for their
protection. No follower of Mr. Darwin will be sur-
prised at this ; because for generation after generation
those mothers in whom this feeling was most strong
have had the best chance of rearing their young. It is
not, however, moral feeling in the strict sense of the
term ; and she would indeed be a cold-hearled mother

1 i«:

'Br!

AND MORAL FEELING.

301

U'ong
It is
the

)thc'r

who cherished and protected her infant only because it
was right to do so.

Family affection and moral feeling have indeed been
very generally confused together by travellers, yet
there is some direct testimony which appears to show
that the moral condition of savages is really much lower
than has been usually supposed.

Thus, Mr. Dove, speaking of the Tasmanians, asserts
that they were entirely without any ' moral views and
' impressions.'
. Governor Eyre says of the Australians that ' having

* no moral sense of what is just and equitable in the ab-

* stract, their only test of propriety must in such cases
' be, whether they are numerically or physically strong

* enough to brave the vengeance of those whom they

* may have provoked, or injured.'^

' Conscience,' says Burton, ' does not exist in Eastern
' Africa, and " repentance " expresses regret for missed

* opportunities of mortal crime. Robbery constitutes an
' honourable man ; murder — the more atrocious thv mid-
^ night crime the better — makes the hero.'^-

The Yoruba negroes, on the west coast of Africa,
according to the same author,^ ' are covetous, cruel, and
' wholly deficient in what the civilised man calls con-

* science ; ' though it is right to add that some of his
other statements with reference to this tribe seem
opposed to this view.

Mr. Neighbors states, that among the Comanches
of Texas ' no individual action is considered a crime,

* Discoveries in Central Australia,
vol. ii. p. 384

Africa, p. 176.
' Abeoliuta, vol. i. p. 303. See
* Burton's First Footsteps in East also vol. ii. p. 218.

II.

5; I

§;■!.

^'■,!

V:^

r, ' i

h) y < 1

302

ABSENCE OF MOBAL FEELING.

* but every man acts for himself according to his own
' judgment, unless some superior power, for instance,

* that of a popular chief, should exercise authority over
' him. They believe that when they were createc the
' Great Spirit gave them the privilege of a free and un-
' constrained use of their individual faculties.' ^

Speaking of the Kaffirs, Mr. Casalis, who lived for
twenty-three years in South Africa, says ^ that ' morality
^ among these people depends so entirely upon social

* order that all political disorganisation is immediately
' followed by a state of degeneracy, which the re-estab-
' lishment of order alone can rectify.' Thus then, al-
though their language contained words signifying most
of the virtues, as well as the vices, it would appear
from the above passages that their moral quality was
not clearly recognised ; it must be confessed, however,
that the evidence is not very conclusive, as Mr. Casalis,
even in the same chapter, expresses an opinion on the
point scarcely consistent with that quoted above.

Similar accounts are given as regards Central Africa.
Thus at Jenna,^ and in the surrounding districts, ' when-
' ever a town is deprived of its chief, the inhabitants
' acknowledge no law — anarchy, troubLs, and confusion

* immediately prevail, and till a successor is appointed
' all labour is at an end. The stronger oppress the

* weak, and consummate every species of crime, without
' being amenable to any tribunal for their actions.

* Private property is no longer respected ; and thus
' before a person arrives to curb its licentiousness, a
' town is not unfrequently reduced from a flourishing

1 Schoolcraft's Iiidian Tribes, vol.
ii. p. 131.
3 The Basutos, p. 300.

' R. and J. Lander's Niger Expe-
dition, vol. i. p. 9G.

ABSENCE OF MORAL FEELING.

303

* state of prosperity and of happiness to all the horrors

* of desolation.'

The Tongans, or Friendly Islanders, had in many
respects made great advances, yet Mariner ^ states that,
on a strict examination of their language, we discover
no words essentially expressive of some of the higher
qualities of human merit : as virtue, justice, humanity ;
nor of the contrary, as vice, injustice, cruelty, &c.
They have, indeed, expressions for these ideas, but they
are equally applicable to other things. To express a
virtuous or good man, they would say " tangata lille,"
a good man, or " tangata loto lille," a man with a good
mind; but the word lille, good (unlike our virtuous) is
equally applicable to an axe, canoe, or anything else ;
again, they have no word to express humanity, mercy,
&c., but afa, which rather means friendship, and is a
word of cordial salutation.'

Mr. Campbell observes that the Soors (one of he
aboriginal tribes of India), ' while described as small,

* mean, and very black, and like the Santals naturally
' harmless, peaceable, and industrious, are also said to be
' without moral sense.' '^

Indeed, I do not remember a single instance in which
a savage is recorded as having shown any symptoms of
remorse ; and almost the only case I can call to mind, in
which a man belonging to one of the lower races has
accounted for an act, by saying explicitly that it was
right, was when ^tr. Hunt asked a young Feejeean why
he had killed his mother.^

It is clear that religion, except in very advanced races,

^ Tonpra Islands, vol. ii. p. 147. of India, p. 87.

^ G. Campbell. The Ethnology " ^Vill£cs' Voyage, p. 05.

I !

^ ■..

, I '

301 rFjUgion not nI'Jckssarily connected

'!■

1 ':

ly-

1ms no moral aspect or influence. Tlic deities are
.ahnost inv{iri}il)ly regarded as evil.

In Feejec ' ' tlie names of tlic gods indicate their cha-
' racters. Thus, Tunanibanga is the adulterer. Ndau-
' tliina steals wonieji of rank and beauty by night or
' torch-light. Kunibunavanua is the rioter; Mbatimo-
' na, the brain-eater ; Kaviiravu, the murderer ; Maina-
* tavasara, fresh from the cutting-up or slaugliter; and
' a host besides of the same sort.'

The character of the Greek gods is fiimiliar to us, and
was anything but moral. Such l>eings would certainly
not reward the good, or punish the evil. Hence, it ia
not surprising that Socrates saw little connection
between ethics and relii>;ion, or that Aristotle altoorether
separated morality from theology. Hence also ^'^.
cannot be surprised to find that, even when a belief in
a future state has dawned on the uncivilised mind, it is
not at first associated with reward or punishment.

The Australians, though they had a vague belief in
ghosts, and supposed that after death they become white-
men ; that, as they say, ' Fall down blackman, jump up
' whiteman,' have no idea of retribution.'^ The Guinea
negroes 'have no idea of future rewards or punish-
' ments, for the good or ill actions of their past life.' ^
Other negro races, however, have more advanced ideas
on the subject.

' The Tahitians believe the immortality of the eoul,
' at least its existence in a separate state, and that there
' are two situations of different degrees of happiness,
' somewhat analo^'ous to our heaven and hell : the

1 Fiji and the Fijiaiis, vol. i. p.
218.

' Vovftge of tbe 'Fly/ vol. II. p. 20
" liosiiiflU, Inc. ciK p. 401,

tli

WITH MORATJTY

80:

bill,

here

lees,
the

k20

* superior situation tliey call " Tavirua I'erai," the other
' " Tiahoboo." They do not, however, consider them as
' places of re ward and punishment, but as receptacles for
' different classes ; the first for their chiefs and princij al
' people, the other for those of inferior rank ; for they
' do not suj)pose that their actions here in the least influ-
' ence their future state, or indeed that they come under
' the cof^nizance of their deities at all.' ^

In Tonga and at Nukahiva the natives believe that
their chiefs are immortal, but not the common
peo])le.^ The Tonga people, says Mariner, 'do not in-
deed believe in any future state of rewards and punish-
ments.' ^

Williams ^ tells us that ' offences, in Fijian estimation,
are light or grave according to the rank of the offender.
Murder by a chief is less heinous than a petty larceny
committed by a man of low rank. Only a few crimes
are regarded as serious; e.g., theft, adultery, abduction,
witchcraft, in.i .^jgement of a tabu, disrespect to a chief,
incendiarism, and treason ; ' and he elsewhere mentions
that the Feejeeans,^ though believing in a future exist-
ence, ' shut out from it the idea of any moral retribution
' in the shape either of reward or punishment.' The
Sumatrans, according to Marsden, ' had some idea of a
' future life, but not as c: ..tate of retribution ; conceiving
' immortality to be the lot of a rich rather than of a good
' man. I recollect that an inhabitant of one of the islands
' farther eastvrard observed to me, with great simplicity.

^ See Cook's Voyage round the
World in Ilftwkeswortli'a Voyages,
vol. ii. p. 230.

^ Klemm, vol. iv. p. Sol.

^ Tonga Islands, vol. ii. pp. 147,
US.

■* Fiji and the Fijians, vol. i. p. 28.
5 Ibid. p. 243.

' '1

;i! I

I ■.'■

U 1

806

UOUALJTY AND UELJGrON.

•r I

li '; )'

that only <^'cat men went to the skies; howslioulcl poor
men find achnittance there V ' ^

Tn the Island of I>intan<r,- ' the people havino^ an ideii
of predestination, ahvays conceived present possession
to constitute right, however that possession mi'^ht have
been acquired ; but yet they made no scrui)le of depos-
ing and murdering their sovereigns, and justified their
acts by this argument ; that the fate of concerns so
important as the lives of kings was in the hands of
God, whose vicegerents they were, and that if it was
not agTeeable to him, and the consequence of his will,
that they should perish by the daggers of their sub-
jects, it could not so happen. Thus it appears that
their religious ideas were just strong enough to banish
from their minds every moral sentiment.'

The Kookies of Chittagong ' have no idea of hell or

heaven, or of any punishment for evil deeds, or rewards

for good actions.'^ According to Bailey, again, the

Veddahs of Cevlon ' have no idea of a future state of

rewards and punishments.'"*

The IIos in Central India ' believe that the souls of
the dead become " bhoots," spirits, but no thought of
reward or punishment is connected with the change.' ^

Speaking of South Africa Kolben ^' says, ' that the
Hottentots believe the immortai'ty of the soul has been
shown in a foregoing chapter. But they have no
notion, that ever I could gather, of rewards and pun-
ishments after death.'

;•:!■

* Mnrsden's History of Sumax''a,
p. 289.

2 Ibid. p. 412.

^ Reniiel, quoted in Lewiii'a Hill
Tracts of Chitt.igong, p. 110.

■» Trans. Ethii. Soc. N.S. vol. ii. p.

300.

5 Dalton, Trans. Ethn. Soc. 18G8,
p. 38.

" History of the Cape of Good
Hope, vol. i. p. 314.

t!i

LAW JXD RTajIT.

:307

p.te of

it the
been

re no
pun-

|c. 18G8,

k Good

Among the Mexicans * and Peruvians,- again, the
religion was entirely independent of moral considera-
tions, and in some other parts of America the future
condition is supposed to de[)end not on conduct but
on rank.'' In North America 'it is rare,' says Tanner,
* to observe among the Indians any ideas which would
' lead to the belief that they look upon a future state as
' one of retril)ution.' ^

The Arabs conceive that a broken oath brings mis-
fortune on the place where it was uttered.''

In fact, I believe that the lower races of men may be
said to be deiicient in the idea of IJight, though quite
familiar with that of Law. This leads to the curious,
though not illogical results, mentioned in page 302.

That there should be any races of men so deficient in
moral feeling, was altogether opposed to the precon-
ceived ideas with which I commenced the study of
savage life, and I have arrived at the conviction by slow
degrees, and even with reluctance. I have, however,
been forced to this conclusion, not only by the direct
statements of travellers, but also by the general tenor
of their remarks, and especially by the remarkable
absence of repentance and remorse among the lower
races of men.

On the whole, then, it appears to me that the moral
feelings deepen with the gradual growth of a race.

External circumstances, no doubt, exercise much
influence on character. We very often see, however,

* Miiller, Ges. der Amer. Urre-
ligion, p. 565.

'^ Ibid. p. 410. But see Prescott,
vol. i. p. 83.

3 Ibid. p. 139. See also pp. 289,

505.

* Tanner's Narrative, p. 369.

^ Klemm, Culturgeschiclite, vol.
iv. p. 100.

If'

-.If

11'; I

X '2

308

GliOWTlI OF MORAL FEEIdSG,

)

1.^'

it ' I! '!

that tlie possession of one virtue is counterbn' 'd l)y
some coiTcspontlin*^^ defect. Tluis the North Aniericnn
Indians are brave and generous, but tliey are also cruel
and reckless of life. Moreover, in the early stages of
law, motive is never considered; a fact which shows
how little hold morality has even on comnuniities
which have made considerable progress. Some cases
which have been quoted as illustrating the contrast
between the ideas of virtue entertained by different
races seem to prove the absence, rather than the perver-
sity, of sentiment on the subject. I cannot believe, for
instance, that theft and murder have ever been really
regarded as virtues. In a bai'barous state they Avere,
no doubt, means of distinction, and in the absence of
moral feelings were regarded with no reprobation. I
cannot, however, suppose that they could be considered
as ' right,' though they might give rise to a feeling of
respect, and even of admiration. So also the Greeks
regarded the duplicity of Ulysses f i element in his
greatness, but surely not as a virtue in itself.

What, then, is the origin of moral feeling? Some
regard it as intuitive, as an original instinct implanted
in the human mind. Herbert Spencer,^ on the contrary,
maintains that ' moral intuitions are the results of accu-
' mulated experiences of utility; gradually organised and
' inherited, they have come to be quite independent of
' conscious experience. Just in the same way that I
' believe the intuition of space, possessed by any living
' individual, to have arisen from organised and consoli-
' dated experiences of all antecedent individuals, who
* bequeathed to him their slowly-developed nervous or-

' B<aiu's Mental and Moral Science, p. 722.

-I'i

()i:i(:iN OF Moli'AL FI'JFJJMJ

:{oi>

>d hy
ci'icnn
» cruel
n-es of
shows
initicH
I cases
)ntrast
fFercnt
icrvcr-
ve, for
really
r were,
nice of

LOll. I

sidered

|ling of

Greeks

in his

Some
)lanted
ntrary,
f accu-
ed and
lent of
I that I

livin

Ions

oil-

WiJO

ms or-

' ^aiiisidloii : just lis T })elleve that this intuition, requir-
' ing only to he made definite and complete hy personal
' experiences, has practically become a form of thought
' a])parently ([uite independent of experience ; bo do I
' believe that the experiences of utility, organise<l and
' consolidated through all past generations of the human
' race, have been producing corresponding nci'vods modi-
' tications, which, by continued transmission and accu-
' nndation, have l)ecome in us certain faculties of moral
' intuition — certain emotions responding to right and
' wrong conduct, which lui ve no apparent basis in tlie
' individual experiences of utility.'

I cannot entirely subscribe to either of these views.
The moral feelings are now, no doubt, intuitive, but if
the lower races of savages have none, they evidently
cannot have been so originally, nor can they be regarded
as natural to man. Neither can I accept the opposite
theory; while entirely agreeing with Mr. Spencer that
' there have been, and still are, developing in the race,
' certain fundamental moral intuitions,' I feel, with
Mr. llutton, much difficulty in conceiving that, in Mr.
Spencer's words, ' these moral intuitions are the results
* of the accumulated experiences of Utility,' that is to
say, of Utility to the individual. When it is once rea-
lised that a given line of conduct would invariably
be useful to the individual, it is at once regarded as
' sagacious ' rather than ' virtuous.' Virtue implies
temptation ; temptation indicates a feeling that a given
action may benefit the individual at the expense of
others, or in defiance of authority. It is evident, indeed,
that feeling's actino^ on veneration after o-eneration mi^-ht
produce a continually deepening conviction, but I fail
to perceive how this explains the difference between

I; i

I t

:]10

oinam of moral feeling.

I I

r<A(

!»!:»

' right ' "nd ' utility.' Yet utility in one sense has, I
think, been naturally and yet unconsciously selected as
the basis of morals.

Mr. Hutton, if I understand him correctly, doubts this.
Honesty, for instance, he Sf ys,^ 'must certainly have b^cn
* associated by our ancestors with many uni3api)y as
' "well as many happy consequences, and we knoAV that
' in ancient Greece dishonesty was openly and actually
' associated with happy consequences, in the admiration
' for the guile and craft of Ulysses. Hence the moral
' associations slowly formed, according to Mi Spencer, in
' favour of honesty, must have been, in fact, a mere pre-
' dominance of association with a balance on one side.'

This seems to me a good crucial case. Honesty, on
their own part, may, indeed, have been, and no doubt
was, 'associated by our ancestors with many unhappy,
' as well as many happy consequences ;' but honesty on
the part of others could surely have r.othing but happy
results. Thus, while the perce[)tion that 'Honesty
' is the best policy ' was, no doubt, as Mr. Hutton
observes, 'long subsequent to the most imperious enun-
' elation of its sacredness as a duty,' honesty would be
recognised as a virtue so soon as men perceived the
sncredness of any duty. As soon as contracts were
entered into between individuals or states, it became
manifestly the interest of each that the other shou\l.be
I'.onest. Any failure in this res])ect would naturally be
condemned by the sufferer. It is precisely because
honesty is sometimes associated with unhappy conse-
quences, that it is regarded as a virtue. It' it had
always been directly advantngeous to all parties, it
would have been classed as useful, not as right ; it

' Macniillairs Miiyiiziiic \XV}'.), p. 271

nniaiX OF MORA I. FEELING

\\\

J Aas, I
ected us

ibts this.

ive bp^n

appy as

LOW that

actually

miration

e moi'al

sneer, in

ere pre-

! side.'

esty, on

o doubt

Lnhapp}^

lesty on

t happy

lonesty

Hutton

IS eiuni-

ould be

ed the

s were

jeeamc

ou^I.be

rally be

jecause

conse-

it had

•tics, it

'lit : it

would have lacked the essential element which entitles
it to rank as a virtue.

Or take respect for Age. We find, even in Australia,
laws, if I may eo term them, ai)propriating the best of
everything to the old men. Naturally the old nxon
lose no opportunity of impressing these injunctions on
the young ; they praise those who conform, luid con-
demn bhose who resist. Hence the custom is strictly
adhered to. I do not say, that to the Australian mind,
this presents itself as a sacred duty; but it would, I
think, in the course of time have come to be so considered.

For when a race had made some progress in intellec-
tual developnicnt, a ditference would certainly be felt
between those acts which a man was taught to do as
conducive to his own direct advantage, and those which
were not so, and yet which were enjoined for any other
reason, Hence would arise the idea of ri(]ht and duty^
as distinct from mere utility.

How much more oiu' notions of right dcjiend on the
lessons we receive when young than on hereditary ideas,
becomes evident if we consider the different moral codes
existing in our own country. Nay, even in the ver}-^
same individual two contradictory systems may often be
seen side by side in incongruous association. Thus the
Christian code and the ordinary code of honour seem
to be opposed in some respects, yet the great majority
of men hold, or suppose that they hold, them both.

Lastly, it may be observed that in our own case reli-
gion and morality are closely connected together. Yet
the sacred character, which forms an integral part in
our conception of duty, could not arise until licligion
became moral. Nor would this take place until the
deities were conceived to be beneficent beinurs. As

;' !

■H

312

OJnaTN OF MORAL FKELINi'l.

soon, however, as <-his was the case, they would natu-
rally be supposed to regard with approbation all that
tended to benefit their worshippers, and to condemn all
actions of the opposite character. This step was an
immense benefit to mankind, since that dread of the
unseen povrers which had previously been wasted on
the production of mere ceremonies and sacrifices, at
once invested the moral feelings with a sacredness, and
consequently with a force, which they had not until
then possessed.

Authority, then, seems to me the origin, and utility,
though not in the manner suggested by Mr. Spencer,
the criterion, of virtue. Mr. Hutton, however, in the
concluding paragraph of his interesting paper, urges
that surely by this time ' some one elementary moral
' hiw should be as deeply ingrained in human practice as
' the geometrical law that a straight line is the shortest
* way between two points. AVhich of them is it?' I
see no such necessity. A child whose parents belong
to difierent nations, with different moral codes, would,
I suppose, have the moral feeling deep, and yet might
be without any settled ideas as to particular moral
duties. And this is in realitv our own case. Our
ancestors have, now for many generations, had a feeling
that some actions were right and some were wrong, but
at different times they have had very different codes
of morality. Hence we have a dee[)ly-seated moral
feeling, and yet, as anyone who has children may satisfy
himself, no such decided moral code. Children have a
deep feeling of right and wrong, but no such decided or
intuitive conviction {is to which actions are rinht and
which arc wrong.

M-^

CHAPTER viir.

LANGUAGE.

'oiild.

ALTHOUGH it has been at various times stated that
certain savage tribes are entirely without Lan-
guage, none of these accounts appear to be well authen-
ticated, and they are a priori extremely improbable.

At any rate, even the lowest races of which we have
any satisfactory account possess a language, imperfect
tliougli it may be, and eked out to a great extent by
signs. I do not suppose, however, that this custom
has arisen from the absence of words to represent their
ideas, but rather because in all countries inhabited by
savages the number of languages is very great, and
hence there is a great advantage in being able to com-
municate by signs.

Thus James, i" his expedition to the Rocky ]\Ioun-
tains, speaking oj tlie Kinwa-Kaskaia Iti lians, says,
' These nations, altliou^jh constantly as.sociatinjj to<ie-
' ther and united under the inlluencc i)f the iJear- Tooth,
' are yet totally ignorant of each other's 1 mguago, inso-
' nuich that it was no uncommon occurrence to see
' two individuals of different nations sitting upon the
' ground, and conversing freely by m ans of the lan-
' iiuajre of siu'us. In the art of tl .s conveyinu' their
' ideas they were thorougli adepts; and their manual
' dis[)lay was only interrupted at remote intervals ])y a

' ,1

tli

811

GESTUIiE LA NOUA (I PI

I \

smile, or by the auxiliary of an articulated word of
the language of the Crow Indians, which to a very
limited extent passes current among them.' ^ Fisher,''^
also, speaking of the Comanches and various surround-
ing tribes, says that they have ' a language of signs,
however, by which all Indians and traders can under-
stand one another; and they always make tliese signs
when communicating among themselves. The men,
when conversing together, in their lodges, sit upon
skins, cross-Lgged like a Turk, and speak and make
signs in corroboration of what they say, with their
hands, so that either a blind or a deaf man could
understand them. For instance, I meet an Indian,
and wish to ask bim if he saw six waggons drawn by
horned cattle, witii three Mexican and three American
teamsters, and a man mounted on horseback. I make
these signs : — I point " you," then to his eyes, mean-
ing "see;" then hold up all my fingers on the right
hand and the fore finger on the left, meaning "six;"
then I m.'ike two circles by bringing the ends of my
thumbs and forefingers together, and, holding my two
hands out, move my wrists in such a way as to indi-
cate wao'iion wheels revolvini>', meaninu; " wauuons ; "
then, by making an upward motion A^'ith eacii hand
from both sides of my head, I indicate " horns," signi-
fying horned cattle; then by first holduig up three
fingers, and then by placing my extended right hand
below my lower lip and moving it downward stopping
in midway down the chest, I indicate " beard," mean-
ing Mexican ; and with three fingers again, and passing

.1 I t

' Seo James's Expcilitiou to the
liocky Mouutaius, vol. iii. p. o2.

* Trans. Etbn. See. 180'.)^ vol. i.
p. 2a3.

Imi!

' ;l

SI mis
men.

right
:x;"
my
y two
indi-

5io-ni.

hand

vol. i.

GESTUh'E LA^ WHTC.

315

' my right hand from left to right in front of m}' fore-
' head, I indicate " white brow" or " pale face." I then
' hold up my fore finger, meaning one man, and by
' placing the fore finger of my left hand between the
' fore and second finger of my right hand, representing
' a man astride of a horse and by moving my hands up
' and down give the motion of a horse galloping with a
' man on his back. I in this way ask the Indian, " You
' " see six waggons, horned cattle, three Mexicans,
' " three Americans, one man on horseback?" If he
' holds up his fore finger and lowers it quickly, as if he
' was pointing at some object on the ground, he means
' " Yes;" if he moves it from side to side, upon the
' principle that people sometimes move their head from
' side to side, he means " No." The time required to
' make these signs would be about the same as if you
' asked the question verbally.' The Bushmen also are
said to intersperse tlieir language with so many signs
that they are unintelligible in the dark, and when they
Avant to converse at night, are compelled to collect
round their camp fires. So also Burton tells us that
the Arapahos of North America, ' who possess a very
' scanty vocabulary, can hardly converse with one
' another in the dark ; to make a stranger understand
' them they must always repair to the camp fire for
' pow wow.'^

A very interesting account of the sign-language, espe-
cially with reference to that used by the deaf and dumb,
is contained in Tylor's ' Early History of Man.' But
although signs may serve to convey ideas in a maimer
■which would probably surprise those who have not

» City of tho Saint!?, p. 151.

\ •
I 1

I,'

rli

310

THE ORiaiX OF LANGUAGE.

U -It '

studied this question; still it must be admitted that they
jiTo far inferior to the sounds of the voice; whicli, as
ah'eady mentioned, are used for this purpose by all the
races of men with whom we are acquainted.

Language, ns it exists among all but the lowest races,
although far from perfect, is yet so rich in terms, and
possesses in its grammar so complex an organisation, that
we cannot wonder at those who have attributed to it a
divine and miraculous origin. Nay, their view may be
admitted as correct, but only in that sense in whicli a
ship or a palace may be so termed: they are human
insofar as they have been worked out by man; divine,
inasmuch as in doing so he has availed himself of the
powers which providence has given him.^

M. Renan'"^ draws a distinction between the origin of
words and that of language, and as regards the latter, says :
' Je persiste done, aprcs dix ans de nouvelles etudes, a
' envisager le langage comme forme d'un seul coup, et
' comme sorti instantancment du genie de cliaque race,'
a theory which involves that of the plurality of human
species. No doubt the complexity and apparent perfec-
tion of the granmiar among very low races, is at first
sight very surprising, but we must remember that the
language of children is more regular than ours. A child

' Lord Monboddo in combatiii}^
those wlio rej^ard language as a
revelation, expresses a hope that he
will not, on that account, be supposed
to ' pay no respect to the account
given in our sacred books of the
origin of our species ; but it does not
belong to me,' he adds, * as a philo-
sopher or grammarian, to enquire
whether such account is to be under-
stood allegorically, according lu the

opinions of some divines.' He forgets,
however, that those who regard
language as a miracle, do so in the
teeth of the express statement in
Genesis that God brought the ani-
mals * unto Adam to see what he
would call them : and whatsoever
Adam called every living creature,
that was the name thereof.'

' De rOrigine du Langage, p, IG.

i I

Hi!

THE OniGlN OF LANGITACIE.

regard
in the
cnt in
le ani-
at he
soever
atuie,

p. 10.

Bays, 'I goed/ ' I corned,' badder, baddest, &c. More-
over the preservation of a complicated system of gram-
mar among savage tribes shows that such a system is
natural to them, and not merely a survival from more
civilised times. Indeed, we know that the tendency of
civilisation is towards the simplification of grammatical
forms.

Nor must it by any means be supposed that complexity
implies excellence, or even completeness, in a language.
On the contrary, it often arises from a cumbersome mode
of supplying some radical defect. Adam Smith long
ago pointed out that the verb 'to be ' is ' the most
' abstract and metaphysical of all verbs, and conse-
' quently could by no means be a word of early inven-
' tion.' And he suggests that the absence of this verb
probably led to the intricacy of conjugations. 'When,'
he adds, ' it came to le invented, however, as it had all
' the tenses and mode* of any other verb, by being joined
' with the passive participle, it was capable of su})})lying
' the place of the whole passive voice, and of rendering
' this part of their conjugations as simple and uniform,
' as the use of prepositions had rendered their declen-
' sions.'^ He goes on to point out that the same re-
marks apply also to the possessive verb ' I have,' which
affected the active voice, as profoundly as ' I am ' in-
fluenced the passive; thus these two verbs between
them, wdien once suggested, enabled mankind to
relieve their memories, and thus unconsciously, but
most effectually, to simplify their grammar.

In English we carry the same prhiciple much further,
and not only use the auxiliary verbs ' to have' and ' to

* Smith's Moral Sentiments, vol. ii. p. 420.

! I

I !fl

;■ (■

iiii

318

ALL LANGUAGE RIWUGIULE

\ '/A

■I' I

* be,' but also several others — as do, did; will, would;
shall, should; can, could; may, might. ^ Adam Smith
was, however, mistaken in supposing that the verb
' to be ' exists ' in every language ; ' ^ on the contrary,
the complexity of the North American languages is in a
great measure due to its absence. The auxiliary verb
' to be ' is entirely absent in most American languages,
and the consequence is that they turn almost all their
adjectives and nouns into verbs, and conjugate them,
through all the tenses, persons, and moods.^

Again, the Esquimaux, instead of using adverbs, con-
jugate the verb; they have special terminations imply-
ing ill, better, rarely, hardly, faithfully, &;c. ; hence such
a word as aglekkigiartorasuarniarpok, ' he goes away
' hastily and exerts himself to write.' ^

The number of words in the languages of civilised
races is no doubt immense. Chinese, for instance,
contains 40,000; Todd's edition of Johnson, 58,000;
Webster's Dictionary, 70,000 ; and Flugel's more than
65,000.^ The great majority of these, however, can be
derived from certain original words, or roots, which are
very few in number. In Chinese there are about 450,
Hebrew has been reduced to 500, and ^Midler doubts
whether there are more in Sanskrit. M. D'Orsev even
assures us that an ordinary agricultural labourer has
not 300 words in his vocabulary

Professor Max Mliller ^' observes, that ' this fact sim-
' plities immensely the problem of the origin of language.

' Smith's Moral Sentiments, p. 432.
- hoc. cit p. 426,
^ See Gallatin, Trans. Amer.
Antiq. Soc. vol. ii. p. 17f».
^ Crantz, His, of Greenland, vol. i.

p. 224.

^ Saturday Review, November 2,
1801. Lectures on Language, p.
268.

'^ Loc. cit. p. 3u9.

TO A FT'UV FOOT.MVnDS.

',i\0

Eim-

' It has taken away all excuse for those rapturous
' descriptions of hmguage wliich invariably preceded
' the arjijinnent that laniifua";e must have a divine ori<>;in.
' We shall hear no more of that wonderful instnunent
' which can express all we see, and hear, and taste, and
' touch, and smell ; wliich is the breathing image of tlic
' wliole world ; Avhich gives form to the airy feelings of
' our souls, and body to the loftiest dreams of our
' imagination; which can arrange in accurate perspec-
' tive the past, the present, and the future, and throw
' over everything the varying hues of certainty, of
' doubt, of contingency.'

This, indeed, is no new vieAV, but was that generally
adopted by the philologists of the last century, and is
fully borne out by more recent researches.

In considering the origin of these root-words, we
must remember that most of them arc very ancient, jind
much worn by use. This greatly enhances the difficulty
of the problem.

Nevertheless, there are several large classes of words
with reference to the origin of which there can be no
doubt. Many names of animals, such as cuckoo, crow,
peew^it, &;c., are evidently derived from the sounds
made by those birds. Everyone admits that such words
as bang, crack, purr, whizz, hum, &c., have arisen from
the attempt to represent sounds characteristic of the
object they are intended to designate.^

Take, again, the inarticulate human sounds — sob,
sigh, moan, groan, laugh, cough, weep, whoop, shriek,
yawn.

' Wedgwood, Introduction to Die. of English Etymology. Farrar, Origin
of Language, p. 89. «

,t'

lii^

I i

320

oinojN OF lioor-wonDS.

IV.

Or of animals ; as cackle, chuckle, gobble, quack,
twitter, chirp, coo, hoot, caw, croak, chatter, neigh,
whiiniy, mew, purr, bark, }clp, roar, bellow.

The collision of hard bodies ; clap, rap, tap, knap,
snap, trap, flaj), slap, crack, smack, whack, thwack, j^at,
bat, batter, beat, butt ; and again, clash, flash, plasli,
splash, smash, dash, crash, bang, clang, twang, ring,
ding, din, bump, thump, plump, boom, hum, drum,
hiss, rustle, bustle, whistle, whisper, murmur, babble,
&c.

So also sounds denoting certain motions and actions;
whirr, whizz, puff, fizz, fly, flit, flow, flutter, patter,
clatter, crackle, rattle, bubble, guggle, dabble, grabble,
draggle, dripple, rush, shoot, shot, shut, &c.

!Many words for cutting, and the objects cut, or used
for cutting, &c., are obviously of similar origin. Thus
we hav^e the sound sh — r with each of the vowels ;
share, a part cut ofl" ; shear, an instrument for cutting;
shire, a division of a country ; shore, the division be-
tween land and sea, or as we use it in Kent, between
two fields ; a shower, a number of separate particles ;
again, scissors, scythe, scrape, shard, scale, shale, shell,
shield, skull, schist, shatter, scatter, scar, scoop, score,
scrape, scratch, scum, scour, scurf, surf, scuttle, sect,
shape, sharp, shave, sheaf, shed, shoal, shred, split,
splinter, splutter, &c.

Another important chiss of words is evidently
founded on the sounds by which we naturally express
our feelings. Thus from Oh ! Ah ! the instinctive cry
of pain, we get woe, vos, Latin, wail, ache, a;^o?, Gr.

From the deep guttural sound ugh, we have ugly,
huge, and hug.

WJiJAli AND TEAR OF V/UliDS.

321

, quack,
r, ncigli,

p, knap,
ack, pat,
li, plasli,
ig, ring,
1, drum,
, babble,

actions ;
', patter,
grabble,

or used

1. Thus

vowels ;

cutting;

ion bc-

3etween

rticles ;

e, shell,

, score,

e, sect,

, split,

idently
ixpress
ve cry

rr.

From pr, or 2)rut, indicating contempt or selt-conceit,
comes proud, pride, &c.

From fie, we have fiend, foe, feud, foul, Latin putris,
Fr. puer, filth, fulsome, fear. In addition 1 will only
remark that.

From thnt of smacking the lips we get yXyxuV dulcis,
lick,, like.

Under these circumstances I cannot but think that
we may look upon the words Jibove mentioned as the
still recognisable descendants of roots which were
onomatopcL'ic in their origin ; and I am glad to see that
Professor ]\Iax ^I idler, in his second series of lectures
on language,^ wishes to be understood as offering no
opi)Osition to this theory, although for the present
' satisfied with considering roots as phonetic types.'

It may be said, and said truly, that other classes of
ideas are not so easily or naturally expressible by corre-
sponding sounds; and that abstract terms seldom have
any such obvious derivation. We must remember,
however, firstly, that abstract terms are wanting in the
lowest languages, and secondly, that most words are
greatly worn by use, and altered by tlie difference of
])ronunciation. Iwen among the most advanced races
a few centuries suffice to produce a great change ; how
then can we expect that any roots (excepting those
which are preserved from material alteration by the
constant suggestion of an obvious fitness) should have
retained their original sound throughout the immense
period which has elapsed since the origin of language?
Moreover everyone who has paid any attention to
children, or schoolboys, must have observed how nick-

> Loc. cit. p. 02.
Y

III

.ill i!

: r

! I

ii'M.

322

NICKNAMES AND SLANd TERMS.

n.'imes, often derived from slij^lit and even fiincifiil
chjiriicteristic8, are seized on and soon adopted by
general consent. Hence even if root-\VL;ds had re-
mained with little alteration, we should still be often
puzzled to account for their origin.

Without, then, supposing with Farrar tliat all our
root-words have originated from onomatop(x;ia, I believe
that they arose in the same way as the nicknames and
new slang terms of our own day. These we know are
often selected from some similarity of sound, or connection
of ideas, often so quaint, fanciful, or far-fetched, that we
are unable to recall the true origin even of words which
have arisen in our own time. How then can we wonder
that the derivrtions of root-vrords which r.re thousands
of years old should be in so many cases lost, or at least
undeterminable with certainty?

Again, the words most frequently required, and
especially those used by chihlren, are generally repre-
sented by the simplest and easiest sounds, merely
because they are the simplest. Thus in Ivtirope we
have papa and dadd}'', mamma, and biby : poupee for a
doll ; amme for a nurse, &c. Somt. authorities, indeed,
have derived Pater and Papa from a root Pa to cherish,
and Mater, JMother, from jNIa to make ; this derivation
is accepted by writers representing the most opposite
theories, as for instance by Renan, Midler, and even
aiii)arently by Farrtir.

According to Professor Max Midler the flxct that
' the name father was cohied at that early period, shows
' that the father acknowledged the offspring of his wife
' as his own, for thus only had lie a right to claim the
' title of father. Father is derived from a root Pa, which

> 1 ' P?

• S <f

funcifiil
jpted by

had rc-
bc often

b all our
I believe
imes and
know are
onnection
1, that we
rds which
e wonder
;housand8
>r at least

ired, and
lly reprc-
nierely
iroj)e we
^ee for a
, indeed,
cherish,
erivation
opposite
md even

act that
d, shows
his wife
~lairn the
la, which

(JliiaiN OF THE TERMS FATHEU AND MOTHER. 323

' means, not to bc^et but to protect, to support, to

* nourish. Tlie father, as genitor, was called in Sanskrit
' ganitar, but as protector and supporter of his offspring
' he was called pitar ; hence, in the Veda, these two
' names are used together, in order to express the full

* idea of fatlier. Thus the poet says : —

Dyaiis me peta ganita
Jovis mci pater genitor
Zsvs i/xov irarrjp yevirtjp

' In a similar manner matar, mother, is joined with
' ganitA, genitrix, whicli shows that the word matar
' must soon liave lost its etymological meaning, and
' have become an expression of respect and endcar-

* ment. For among tlie early Arians, matar had tlic
' sense of maker, from Ma, to fashion."

Now let us see what are the names for father and
mother among some other races, omitting all languages
derived from Sanskrit.

Muthir.

Ni
Nc
Nana
Na
Man a
Kara
Na
>j

it
»i

»»

Ntlc

Comparative Mythology. Oxford Essays, 1850, p. 14.

AFRICA.

Lanf/mtfjp.

F(ithci\

Bola(N."w! .Vtrica)

Papa

Sarar

Paba

Pcpol

Pai)a

IMafatla

Baba

I'aga

Bapa

Tinme

INIandenga

Kabunga

Toronka

))

Dsahinka

Kankanka

J>-

Bamhara

J»

Kono

iit'li

I; I

■t

I It

32J.

WOIIDS FOE FATHER AND MOTHER

Lnnyuwje

Fiilher.

Idvtlur.

Vei

Soso

Fafe

Nga

Kisckise

»5

Tciie

Faf'a

»> .

Dewoi (Guinea)

:Ma

Basa

»>

Gbe

»»

Dahonic

Noe

Main

„ also Dadyc

j»

Ota

Baba

Iva

Ej^ba

Idsesa

>»

Yoruba

»>

Yagba

i»

Eki

Dsuinu

Oworo

Dijcbu

Ife

Yeye

Ondo

Mose (High

Sudan)

IMa

Giinna

j»

Se)bo v^^^ig^J-'

District)

AVawa

None

IJdso

Dada

Ayo

Nlll)G

N;]a

Nna

Kin)a

Dada

Esitako

Miisii

Nda

Meya

liasa

Nno

Opanda

Ada

Onyi

Igii

Onya

Egbira

j»

lUiduina (Central Africa)

Bawa

Bor".u

Al)a

Munio

Bawa

Xgurn

»»

lya

Kancm

]\ri»a

Karchare

Baba

Nana

U 'li;

I ,1 i.

IX VARIOUS LANGUAGES.

325

ft)}ffKOf/P.

Ngoilsin

Doai

Basa

Kamukii

Songo (S. ^Y. Africa)

Kiriman (S. E. Afi-ica)

Bidsogo (Unclassified languao-e
Wun °

Bal

^rr,

Ada
])al)a
l^ij.a
Buha

Gadsaga

Gura

Banyun

i\alii

Bulanda

Limba

Landoma

Barba

Timbuktu

Bagrmi

Kadzina

Timbo

Saluiii

Goburu

Kano

Yala

Dsarawa

Koro

Yasgua

Kambali

Soa (Arabic group)

^Vadai

»>

>»
Da

Aba
JJiiba

l*apa

Bal)a

B.ilu
Baba

Ada

Tad a

O.la

Ada

Dada

Aba

Abba

Mulhvr.

Xana

Aye

Ami

Bina

iMaina

^fin:i

Ond.^unei

Oinsion

Xyc

Aai

Xya

IMama

Inva

Xya

Kunvun

Ua "

Nciie

Yuma

Inna

Iiui

Kue

Nga

-/Vma

Omo

Aye

Omma

NON- ARYAN NATIONS OF EUROl'E AND ASIA.

Tu'-kish Baba Ana

Georgian ]vj,„„,j

Mantsbu Ama

Javanese 1].,,,,^

IMalay

Syami (Thibet)

Deda

Kuie

I !

Dbnda

wmmmmtm

i i

32G WORDS FOB FATHER AND MOTHER

TMiiyaaye.

FiitJut:

Mutlur.

Tliibetan

Pha

A ma

Serpa (Nepal)

Aba

Ama

Murmi „

Apa

Annna

Pakhya „

Babai

Aina

Lopclia (Sikkim)

Abo

Amo

Bhutani

Appa

Dhiinal (N. E. Bengal)

Aba

Ama

Kocch „

Bap

Garo „

Aba

Ama

Burman (Bumiah)

Ah pa

Ami

INIrii „

Sak

Aba

Anu

Talain (Siam)

IIo (Central India)

Appu

Enga

Santhali

Baba

Ayo

Uraon „

Babe

Ayyo

Gayeti „

Baba

Dai

Khond

Abba

Ayya

Tuliiva (Southern India

) Annuo

Appc

Badaga „

Appa

Awe

Irula „

Annna

Awe

Cinghalese

Appa

Amma

Chinese

Fu
ISLANDEKS.

]Mu

New Zealand

I'a-Matuatana

IMatua wahina

Tonga Islands

Tamny

Fae

Erroob (N. Australia)

Bab

Ama

Lewis' Murray Island

Baab
AUSTRALIA.

Ilammah

Jajowrong(N,W. Australia) Marniook

Barbook

Knenkorcnwurro „

^lannak

Bar[)anorook

liurapper „

Marinook

Barbook

Taungurong „

AN'arredoo

]>arbanook

Boraipar(S. Australia)

Marnune

Parj)pe

Murruiubidgcc

Kunny

Manuua

I ,,)

7.V VA mo us LANa UA G ES.

.■io

Liiiiijiiiiije.

We.''^crn Australia
Port Lincoln

Fulhcr,

AFaiunmu
Paj)pi

ESQUIMAUX.

Esquimaux (Hudson's Bay) Atata
Tshuktohi (Asia) Atta

MdIIu r.

N";an<xan
Maitya

A mania
?

The American languages seem at first sight opposed
to the view here suggested ; on close examination, how-
ever, tliis is not the case, .since the pronunciation of the
labials is very difficult to many American races. Thus,
La llontan (who is confirmed by Gallatin') informs us
that the Ilurons do not use the hbials, and that he
spent four days in attempting without success to teach
a Huron to pronounce b, p, and m. The Iroquois arc
stated not to use labials. Garcilasso de la Vega tells us
that the Peruvian language wanted the letters b, d, f, g,
8, and X, and the Indians of Port au Fran(;ais, according
to ^1. Lamanon, made no use of the consonants b, d, f,
j, p, v, or x.'^ Still even in America we find some cases
in which the sounds for father resemble those so general
elsewhere ; thus —

Lanyuarje.

Father.

Mother.

Costanos (N. W. America)

Ah Pah

Ah nah

Tahkali

A pa

>»

Tlatskanai ,,

Mama

Naa

Nasqually „

Baa

Sogo

Nootka „

A pi

Una

Athapascans (Canada)

Appa

Unnungcool

Omahas (Missouri)

Dadai

Eehong

jNIinnctarces

Tantai

Eeka

Clioctas (Mississippi)

Aunkkc

Iskoh

Caribs

Baba

Bibi

• ' I

' i

t^:!l

,:ii

!8''

' Trans. Am. Ajili(i. ^oo. vol. i. p. *J."?(5.

'* CJallutiii, he. n't. p (VX

!»

l> !

1 ^

■ t

1 ■

1 -1 i

'■■'1

isi'

328

THE CITOTCE OF nOOT-WOUDS.

Lfinfjunfjr.

Fo/I'rr.

Mnfhrr.

Uainamben (

Amazon

Pal

Ami

Cobeu

I paki

Il)ako

Tucano

»»

Pao-ui

M aou

Turlana

))

Paica

Naca

Banlwa

Pudjo

Nadjo

Bari'G

IMbaba

Mcmi

Flndinii^, then, that the easiest sounds which a child
can i)roduce denote fiitlier and motlier ahnost all over
the world ; rcnieml)ering that the root ba or pa hulicates
baby as well as father ; and observing that in some
cashes the usual sounds are reversed ; as for instance in
Georgian, wi.ere m.una stands for father, and dada for
mother ; or in Tuluva, where amnie is father, and ai)pe
mother ; or some of the Australian tribes, in which
cond)inati()ns of the sound mar sttuid for father, and bar
for mother ; we must surely admit tljat the Sanskrit
verb I'a, to protect, comes from |)a, lather, and not vice
veri^a.

There are few more interesting studies than the steps
by which our present language has been derived from
these original roots. This subject has been admirably
dealt with by my friend Professor Max ^liiller in his
' Lectures ciu Language,' and, tempting as it would be
to do so, 1 do not i>ropose to follow him into that part
of the science. As regards the formation of the original
roots, howev^er, he declines to express any o})inion.
Jxejecting what he calls the pooh-pooli and bow-wow
theories ^ (though they are in reality but one), he
observes that ' the theory which is suggested to us by
' an analysis of language carried out according to the
' principles of comparative pliilology is the vcy oppo-

' Scioiic*' of L.:i,MUiij.r(', p. .'57.'1.

fi cliiM
ill! over
lulicatos
n some
tance in
lada fur
nd appe

I wliich
and l){U'
vmskrit
not vice

e steps

II from
lirably
in liis
uld be
|it [)art
'i^inal
minion.
»'-wow

I), l»c
us by
lo the
loi-lK).

THE CHOICE OF ROOT-WOUDS.

320

' site. AVe arrive in tlie cn<l at roots, and every one of
' tliese expresses a general, not an individual idea.'
But the whole question is how were these roots chosen ?
Hov/ did particular things conic to be denoted by
particular sonnds?

Here, however, Professor Max Miiller stops. Nothing,
he admits, ^ ' would be more interesting than to know
from historical documents the exact process by which
the first man began to lisp his first words, and thus
to be rid for ever of all the theories on the origin of
speech. But this knowledge is denied us : and, if it
had been otherwise, we should probably be quite
unable to nnderstand those primitive events in the
history of the human mind.'

Yet m his last chapter he says,- 'And now I am
afraid I have but a few minutes left to explain the
last question of all in our science, namely — How cnn
sonnd express thought? How did roots become the
sious of <>eneral ideas? How was the abstract idea of
measuring expressed by ma, the idea of thinking by
man? How did ga, come to mean going, , tha stand-
ing, sad sitting, da giving, mar dying, char walking,
kar doing? I shall try to answer as briefl}' as
possible. The 400 or 500 roots which remain as the
constituent elements in different families of lan^ruaiic
are not interjections, nor are they imitations. They
are phonetic types produced by a power inherent in
human nature. They exist, as Plato would say, by
nature ; though with Plato we should add that, when
we say by nature, we mean by the hand of (jod.
There is a law which runs through nearly the whole

» L<><. nt. f . ."40, '^ Lot: cif. p. :]8(].

•Ik

'''"in

POVERTY OF SAVAOE LAN<;fIAGES.

' of 1 lilt lire, tliiit every thing" wliicli is struck rings. . . .
' Man, in his primitive and perfect state, was not only
' endowed, like the brute, with the power of expressing
' his sensations by interjections, and his perceptions by
' onomatopa3ia. IFc possessed likewise the faculty of
' giving more articulate expression to the natural con-
' ccptions of his mind. That faculty was not of his
' milking. It was an instinct, an instinct of the mind
' as irresistible as any other mstinct. So far as
' language is the production of that instinct, it belongs
' to the realm of nature.'

This answer, though expressed with Professor Max
Midler's usual eloquence, does not carry to my mind
any detinite conception. On the other hand, it appears
to me that at any rate as regards some root , we have,
as already pointed out, a satisfactory ex[)lanation.
Professor Max Midler,^ indeed, admits that ' there are
' some names, such as cuckoo, which are clearly formed
' by an imitation of sound. But,' he adds, ' words of
* this kind are, like artificial flowers, without a root.
' They are sterile, and are unfit to express anything
' beyond the one object which they imitate. If you
' remember the variety of derivatives that could be
' formod from the root spac, to see, you will at once
' perceive the difference between the fabrication of such
' a word as cuckoo, and the true natural growth of
' words.' It has, however, been already shown that
such roots, far from being sterile, are on the contrary
very fruitful, and we must remember that savage lan-
guages are extremely poor in abstract terms.

Indeed the vocabularies of the various races are most
' Sciciico iif F.niiiiUiigc, p. "(;:{.

!-•» i

DEFICIENCY IN TERMS OF AFFECTION.

.i.)i
•).»i

ot only
)ressing
ions by
ulty of
al con-

of his
e mind

far as
belongs

)r Max
y mind
appears
e have,
mation.
ere are
tormed
)rds of
I root,
ything
f you
Id be
: once
f such
th of
that
itrary
Ian-
most

interesting from the indications whicli they afford witli
reference to the condition of those by wliom they are
used. Thus we get a melanclioly idea of the moral
state and family life of tribes which are deficient in
terms of endearment. Colonel Dalton ^ tells us that the
Hos of Central India have no ' endearing epithets.'
The Algonquin language, one of the richest in North
America, contained no verb ' to love,' and wlien Elliot
translated the Bil)le into it in IGGl, he was obliged to
coin a word for the purpose. The Tinne Indians on
the other side of the Rocky ^fountains had no equiva-
lent for ' dear ' or ' beloved.' ' I endeavoured,' savs
General Lefroy, ' to put this intelligibly to Nanette, by
' supposing such an expression as ma chore femme ; ma
' chere fiUe. When at length she understood it, her
* reply was (with great emphasis), " I' disent jamais ya;
' " i' disent ma femme, ma fille." ' The Kalmucks and
some of the South Sea Islanders are said to have had
no word for 'thanks.' Lichtenstein,^ speaking of the
Bushmen, mentions it as a remarkable mstancc of the
total absence of civilisation among them that 'they have
' no names, and seem not to feel the want of such a
' n:eans of distinguishing one individual from another.'
Pliny ^ makes a similar statement concerning a race in
Northern Africa. Freycinef^ also asserts that some of
the Australian tribes did not name their women. I
confess that I am inclined to doubt these statements,
and to refer the supposed absence of names to the
curious superstitions already referred to (ante, p. 1G7),

I Trans. Ethn. Soc. N.S., vol. vi. » Nat. His., 1. v. a. viii.

p. 27. * Vol. ii. p. 740.

3 Vol. i. p. 119 J vol. ii. p. 41).

■ \

ABSENCE OF ABSTRACT TERMS.

; ((

and wliicli make savages so reluctant to connnnnicntc
their true names to strangers. Tlie ]5razilian tribes,
according to Spix and ^lartius, had separate names for
the different parts of the body, and for all the different
animals and plants with which they were acquainted,
but were entirely deficient in such terms as ' colour,'
' tone,' ' sex,' ' genus,' ' spirit,' &c.

IJailey^ mentions that the language of the Yeddahs
(Ceylon) 'is very limited. It only contains such [)hrases
' as are required to describe the most striking objects
' of nature, and those which enter into the daily life of

* the people themselves. So rude and primitive is their
' dialect that the most ordinary objects and actions of
' life are described by quaint periphrases.'

Accordinsr to missionaries the FueiT^ians had ' no
' abstract terms.' In the Xorth American lano^uasjes a
term ' sufficiently iTcneral to denote an oak-tree is
' exceptional.' Thus the Choctaw language has names
for the black oak, white oak, and red oak, but none for
an oak ; still less for a tree.

The Tasmanians, again, had no general term for a
tree, though they had names for each particular kind ;
nor could they express ' qualities such as hard, soft,
' warm, cold, long, short, round,' &c.

Speaking of th" Coroados (Brazil), Martins observes
that ' it would be in vain to seek amoni** them words for
' the abstract ideas of plant, animal, and the still more
' abstract notions colour, tone, sex, species, «S:c. ; such a

* generalisation of ideas is found among them only in

* the frequently used infinitive of the verbs to walk, to
' eat, to drink, to dance, to see, to hear, &c. They

' Trims. Kthii. S'.h-. X.S., vol. ii. p. 208; soo ulr. . p. :]00.

DEFICIENCY IN NUMERALS.

lyM

iinicfitc
tribes,
flies for
i if e rent
lainted,
colour,'

ctldahs
[)lirascs
objects
' life of
is their
tions of

un2;es a

tree is

names

one for

for a

kind ;

I, soft,

)serves
'ds for

more
Isucli a
Inly in
[ilk, to

Tlicy

* have no conceptioii of the general powers and Liws of

* nature, and therefore cannot express them in words.' '

There is perhaps no more interesting part of the
study of language than that which concerns the system
of numeration, nor any more striking proof of the low
mental condition of many savage races than the un-
doubted flict that they are unable to count their cwn
fingers, even of one hand.

According to Lichtcnstein the Bushmen could not
count beyond two; Si)ix and Martins make the same
statement about the Brazilian Wood-Indians. The
Cape Yorkers of Australia count as follows : —

One

Netat.

Two

Nacs.

Three

Naes-nctat.

Four

Naes-nacs.

Five

Naes-naes-netat.

Six

Kaes nacs-naes.

Speaking of the Lower ^lurray nations Mr. I'cveridge
says, * their numerals are confined to two alone, viz.
' ryup, politi, the first signifying " one " and the second
' •' two." To express five, tliey say ryup murnangin,
' or one hand, and to express ten, politi murnangin, or
'two hands."- Indeed, no Australian can ^o bevond
four, their term for live simply implying a large num-
ber. The Dammaras, according to Galton, used no
term beyond three. He gives so admirable and at the
same time so amusing an account of Dammara difficul-
ties in language and arithmetic that I cannot resist

' Spix and Mnrtius, Travels in ' Trans, of the R. S, of Victuria,

Brazil, vol. ii. p. 253. vol. vi. p. 151.

d:)i>

HAWiai: DIFFICULTIES IN AUITILMETW.

!■ I

liiotiii'j: it ill full. ' We liiid,' he says,' ' to trust to our
J)iiinmuni guides, whose ideas of time and distance
were most provokingly indistinct ; besides this they
have no comparative in their language, so that you
cannot say to them, " Which is the longer of the two,
" the next stage or the last one? " but you must say,
" Tlie last is little; the next is it great? " The reply
is not, it is a " little longer," or " very much longer,"
but simply, " it is so," or " it is not so." They have
a very poor notion of time. If you say, " Sui)pose we
start at sunrise, where will the sun be when we arrive?"
they make the wildest points in the sky, though they
are something of astronomers, and give names to
several stars. They have no way of distinguishing
days, but reckon by the rainy season, or the pig-nut
season. When inquiries are made about how many
days' journey off a ])lace may be, their ignorance of
all numerical leas is very annoying. In practice,
whatever tliey may possess in their language, they
certainly use no numeral greater than three. When
they wish to express four, they take to their fingers,
which are to them as formidable instruments of cal-
culation as a sliding rule is to an English school-boy.
They i)uzzle very mucli after five, because no spare
hand remains to grasp and secure tlie fnigers that are
required for units. Yet they seldom lose oxen ; the
way in which tliey discover the loss of one is not
by the nnml)er of tlie herd being diminished, but by
the absence of a face they know. When bartering
is going on, each sheep must be paid for separately.
Thus, suppose two sticks of tobacco to be the rate of

' (Jiiltoii, Tropical South Africa, p. l-']2.

II :

I : ,1 \

SAVAdJ!: blFFltjULTll'JS IN AlilTllMirVlC.

• >.» r

ll'i

Spill'G

lat are

the

not

lut ])y

tci'iiig

[itely.

ite of

c'XclianfTO for one slicop, it would sorely puzzle a
Dauuiiara to take two slicei) and give hiui four sticks.
I have done so, and seen a man put two of tlie sticks
apjirt, and take a sight over them at one of the sheep
he was about to sell. Having satisfied himself that
that one was honestly paid for and finding to his sur-
prise that exactly two sticks remained in hand to
settle the account for the other sheep, he would be
afflicted with doubts; tlie transaction seemed to come
out too " pat " to be correct, and he would refei' back
to the first couple of sticks; and then his mind got
Inzy and confused, and wandered from one sheep to
Ihe other, and he broke off the transaction until two
sticks were put into his hand, and one sheep driven
away, and then the other two sticks given him, jmd
the second sheep driven away. When a Dammai'a's
mind is bent uj)OU number, it is too much occupied to
dwell upon fpiantity; thus a heifer is bouglit from a
man for ten sticks of tobacco, his large hands being
both spread out u[)on the ground, and a stick ])laced
upon each finger. lie gathers U[) the tobacc(j, the
ti/.e of tlie mass i)leascs him, and the l>argain is struck.
Vou then want to buy a second heifer; tlie same pro-
cess is gone through, but lialf sticks instead of whole
sticks are put upon his fingers; the man is equally
satisfied at the time, but occasionally finds it out, and
complains the next day.
' Once while 1 watched a Dammara floundering hope-
lessly in a calculation on one side of me, I observed
Dinah, my s])aniel, equally embarrassed on the other.
She was overlooking half-a-dozen of her new-l)()rn
})Uppies, whicli had been removed two or three times

ii'i

I'll

: : I

\i-W>

USI^J OF Till'] FLWaEUS L\ \IUTJIMETIC,

' from her, and her anxiety was excessive, im slie tried
i to iiiid out iftliey were all present, or if any were still
' missin;^. She kept puzzlin;^ and runninf]^ her eyes
' over them, backwards and forwards, l)iit could not
' satisfy herself. She evidently had a va*j:ue notion of
' counting, but the figure was too large iov her brain.
' Taking the two as they stood, dog ami Dauiniara, the
' comparison reflected no great honour on the man.'

All over the world the fingers are used as counters,
and although the numerals of most races are so woi-n
down by use that we can no longer detect their original
meaning, there are many savage tribes in which the
words used are merely the verbal ex[)ressions of the.
b'lixns used in countiu": with the fiii'^ers.

Of this I have just given one instance. In Labrador

* Tallek,' a hand, means also ' five,' and the term for
twenty means hands and feet together.

So also the Esquimaux of Greenland ^ for twenty say
' a man, that is, as many fingers and toes as a man has ;
' and then count as many fingers more as arc above
' the number; consequently instead of 100 they say five
' men. But the generality are not such learned aritli-
' meticians, and therefore when the number is above
' twenty, they say " it is innumerable." But whc^n
' they adjoin the thing itself to the number, they express

* many numbers otherwise, as innuit pingasut, three

' men.'

S[)eaking of the Ahts, Mr. Sproat^ says, 'It may be
' noticed that their word for one occurs again in that
' ibr six and nine, and the word for two in that for

Crnntz,llis. of Greenland, vol. i ' Scenes and Studios of Savage

p. 225.

Life, p. 121.

jlic tried
/ere still
icr eyes
)iil(l not
lotion of
?r brain,
[lara, the
lan.'

lounters,
so worn
original
liicli the
i of the

Labrador
term for

enty say
|ian has ;
e above

say five
\(\ arith-
Is above

t when
I express
r, three

[may be

in that

Ihat for

pf Savngo

AS srrowy in the names of numerals, x]?

* seven and oipjlit. Tlio Aht Indians count upon thtir
' fingei'H. They always count, except whore they have

* learnt differently fi'om their contact with civilisation,

* by raisino- the hands with the palms upwards, and
' extending all the fingers, and bending down eacli
' finger as it is used for enumeration. Thev bc'^in with
' the little finger. This little finger, then, is one. Now
' six is five (that is, one whole hand) and one more.
' We can easily see, then, why their word for six com-
' prebends the word for one. Again, seven is five (one;
' whole hand) and two more — thus their word for
' seven compi'cliends tlu^ word for two. Again, when
' thej' have bent down the eighth finger, the most
' noticeable feature of the hand is that two fuiiiers, that
' is, a finger and a thumb, remain extended. Now the
' Aht word for eight comprehends atlah, the word for
' two. The reason for this I imairine to be as follows :
' — Eight is ten (or tlie whole hands) wanting two.
' Again, when the ninth finger is down, oidy one finger
' is left extended. Their word for nine comprehends
' tsowwank, the word for one. Nine is ten (or two
' whole hmids) wanting one.' ^

The Zamuca and Muysca Indians'- have a cumbrous,
but interesting system of numeration. For five they
say, ' hand finished.' For six, ' one of the other hand,'
that is to say take a finger of the other hand ; for ten
they say, ' two hands finished,' or sometimes more
simply ' quicha,* that is ' foot.' Eleven is foot-one ;
twelve, foot-two, thirteen, foot-three, and so on : twenty

' Scenes and StiuUes of .Savufjfo ^ Ilinnbolclt'aPersoniilllesearclies,

Life, p. l'2l-V22. vol. ii. p. 1 17.

ill

K'^

838

mrt: of tiji: Fixni'ms in AinTriMETic.

*:■ >.^

A|i{

is the feet finished ; or in otlier cases '^laii,' l>ecuusc a
man has ten fingers and ten toes, thus making twenty.
Among tlie Jaruroes tlie word for forty is ' noeni-
' l)ume,' i.e. two men, from noeni, two, and eanipune,
men.

Sj)eaking of tlie iJuiana natives, Mr. Brett observes^
that ' Another point in wliich tlie different nations agree
is their method of mnnoration. Tlie first four mun-
bers are represented by sim})le words, as in tlie table
above giver. Five is " my one hand," abar-dakaho in
ArawAk Then comes a repetition, alar tinwn, /nam
tintcn^ &c., up to nine, liimn-dtikdho^ "»iy two hands,"
is ten. From ten to twenty they use the toes {kuti
or okuti)^ as abar-biti-biina^ " eleven," biam-kuti-hana^
" twelve," See. They call twi'nty abar-loko^ one lol'o
or man. They then proc( cd by men or scores ; thus,
forty-^ve is laboriously expressed by biam-loko-abar-
dakdbo tdjciujo^ '' two men and one hand upon it."
For lii<dier nuinl)ers the^• have now recourse to oiu*
wor<ls, Jnnidrvil and t/nms<ind.^ So also among the
Caribs, the word for 'ten,' Chonr.oucabo raini, meant
literally 'the fingers of both hands;' and that for
' twenty ' was Chonnougouci I'aini, i.e. the lingers and
toes."

The Coroados'' generally count only by the j(>ints of
the fingen'. conserpiently only to three, livery greater
number thcv express bv the word ' inoiiv.*

According to noVrit/hoflei' ' the (Juaranies when (|ues-
' tioned respecting a thing exceedhig four, inimediately

' tJrett's Iiiiliim Triljps of (Juiiinii, I.slands.
p, 4(7. •'' Spix unci Martin?, Travdu in

'' Tertrc'H History of iht' Caribliy I'lni/il, vol. ii. p, i'."jr».

ciiusc a
wcuty.
' noeni-
mipiinc,

bservcs ^
ns aoTco
ur nur.i-
lic tal)lc
akaho \\\
>i'7i, hiaiii
) hands,"
oes (/iud
•Mti'hann,
one lol'O
CB ; thus,
pko-ahar-
ipon it.
e to OKI*
inoni;' tlie
1, meant
that for
crs and

j(>ints of
\- H-reate'r

ien(in(>H-
|u'diately

TrftVfls in

USE OF THE FINCrmS TX AUITllMIJTrC.

330

' reply ndipapahal)i, or ndipapnhai, innumerable.'' So
also ' the Al)iponcs'- can only express three nnnd)ers in

pro]

)er Av

ord?

J^'iidra. one. Inoahn. two, Iiioal

' i/('k(ti7ii, three. I'liey make up for tlic other iniinbers
' Ly various a'.'ts ; tlnis, (jcijenk ilafr, tlie lingers of an
' emu, which, as it lias three in front and one turned
' back, are four, serves to cxi)ress tlmt number : mhi-
' hali'k\, a ))eautiful skin spotted witli live different
' colours, is used to siii^nify the number five.' ' Ifaui'iui-
^ hrgeni^ tlie tinircrs of one hand, means five: lawhn
' rilLC(jC)n^ the fin,u'ers of l)i)th hands, ten ; htni'im rihi'(/i'iii,
' cat cji'achei!ak<i anainic/n'ri/ityt'in^ the lingers of b(jth
* liPviids and i)otli feet, twenty.'

Amonjj; the ^hdavs and throuf^liout Polvnesia tlie
word for five is ima, liniii, or rima. In Uali, lima also
menus a hand ; tliis is also the case in the I>ugis, Mand-
har, and Knde languages ; in the Makasar dialect it is
liman ; in Sasak it is ima; in Bima it is rima; in Sem-
bawa it is liniang.'

In tlie Mpongwc language ' tyani ' or ' tani ' is five,
' layame ' is ^hand.'' The Koossa Caffres m.'.ke little
use of numerals, l/athtenstein could never discover that
they had any word for eight, few 'ji'uld reckon beyeiid
ten, and many did not know the names of any iHime-
I'als. Yet if a single animal was missing out of a herd
of several hmidred, they observed it immediately."
This, however, as ]\Ir. (lalton explains, is merely be-
cause thev miss a face they know. Among the Zulu

' 'lisleryof the Altipoiit's, vol. ii. ' (iiimiinnr of the Mpoiij,'',\L> linn-

p. 171. },'i;airi'. Ni'W York, SnowdcJi iiiid

- Lor. (it. p. It;;). IVall, 1847.

^ l.'allles's MistdiT of .Tavii, Ap- ^ Luhtcibtoin, vol. i. p. 2^0. Sco

ponilix F. also Aj p.

/. -'

•1'

' ir

1 1 I

340 THE ORIGIN OF THE DECIMAL SYSTEM.

' talitisnpn, ' six, means literally ' take the thumb,' i.e.
having used the fin<j:er of one hand, take the thumb of
the next. ' The numbers,' says LichtenstcMn, ' arecom-

* monly expressed among the lieetjiians by fingers held
' \ip, so that the word is rarely sjwkcn ; many are even
' unac(|uainted with these numerals and never employ
' anything but the sign. It therefore occasioned me no
' small trouble to learn the numerals, and I coald by no
' means arrive at any denomination for the numbers five
' and nine. Beyond ten even tlic most learned could

* not reckon, nor could I make out by what signs they
' ever designated these higher numbers."

Even in our own lan<i:ua<;e the word ' five ' has a simi-
lar origin, since it is derived from the Greek ttsj/ts, which
again is evidently connected with the Persian pendji ;
now in Persian 'i)entcha' means a hand, as Ilinnboldt
has already [)ointetl out."

Hence, no doubt, the |)n \;dence of the decimal sys-
tem in arithmetic ; it has no pnrt oular advantage ;
indeed, either eight or twelve would, in some respects,
have been more convenient ; eight, ])ecause you can
divide it by two, jind then <livide the result again by
two ; and twelve because it is diviHil)le by six, four,
three, and two. Ten, however, has njitundly been
selected, because we have ten lingers.

These examples i i.v3n 5i])peiir to me very instructive; we
seem as it were to trace up the formaticm of the nume-
rals ; we perceive the ti'ue cause of the decimal system
of notation ; and we obtain interesting, if melancholy,
evidence of the extent to whicli the faculty of thought
lies dormant amonff the lower raccH of man.

' Lite. n't. vol. ii. A pp.

' lV'rt<onal n'iS*iir.lii.'s, LoiidoJi, IHl J, vol. ii. p. 1 i»;.

ClIAPTKR IX.

LAWS.

iitive; wv.

TPIIK customs mitl laws of the lower races, so far as
J- religious and family relations are eoiiceriieil, have
already been discussed. There are, however, some
other points of view with reference to which it seems
desirable to make some remarks. Tlic progress sind de-
veloj)ment of law is indeed one of the most interesting
ns well as important sections of human history. It is far
l(;ss essential, as Goguct' truly observes, ' dc savoir le
' nombre des dynasties et les noms des souverains (pii
' les composoient ; mais il est cssentiel de connoitrc les
' loix, les arts, les sciences et les usiigcs d'unc nation (pie
' toute I'antifjnite a regardce conuiie un modele dc sa-
' gesse et de vertu. \ oila les objets (pie jc me suis ju'o-
' poses, et que je vais traitcr avec le plus d'exactitude
' ([u'il me sera {)()ssil>le.' It is, however, impossible
thoroughly to understand the laws of the most advanced
nations, unless wo take into consideration those customs
of ruder communities from which they took tlieir origin,
bv which tlu'v are so in'ofoundlv infliu'iiced.

ft/ •' 1 ft/

It is, therefore, very nuich to be regretted that v>'e
are not more thoroughly ac(piainted with the laws and
customs of savage races.

At the time Cioguet published his celebrated work,

' IV rOrij![ino des Loix, tle« Arts, ut des Scionce.H, vol. i. p. 4.').

',U-2

IM PORTA NCI'] OF Till: SURfECT.

■) 4

;i; ;■ .

1 i

I 'i

our kuowltMlij-c was even more defective tluiu is now tlie
case.

Still I am surprised that with the evidence which was
before him, and especially as he was one of the first to
point out that much li^ht is thrown by the condition of
modern savau'es on that of our ancestors in times now
lon<;' <^one by,' he should have re;^arde(l the monarchical
fui'm of government as the most anciint and most uni-
versally established.'^ 'Cust, sans contredit,' he snys,
' le plus anciennement et le })lus universellement etaljli.'

A more careful consideration of the evidence afforded
by the lower races of man would probjd)ly have modified
his views on some other ]K>ints. For instance,'' he
observes that ' il n\'st pas ditHcile de I'aire sentir par

* quelh's raisons le gouvernement monarchi(pie est le

* p.i'emier dont I'idi'e a dil se j)resenter. 11 etoit phis
' aise aux peuples, lorsqu'ils out pense a etablir I'ordrc
' dans la socicte, de bq rassend)ler sous ui) seul chef, que
' sous plusieurs: la royaute est d'ailleui's une image de
' lautoritc que les peres avoient originairement sur leurs
' enfimts : ils etoient dans ces premiers terns les chefs et
' les U'n'islateurs de leur f;imille.'

AVhcreas it has l)een idready shown in tlie earlier

' yi. (it)<,riu't ifiuiiilvs that inmw rncvs. It was practisid by tlio ICii-

rarcs, bciii^' ignoiaiit »if tlic art of ^'li>h (nivfrniiu-iit down to tlu' coiii-

wiitiri^r, vwn now, 'pour constatir iinnei'iiu'iit of the piesoiit cintiir-,

leiird vi'iitcs, li'urs acliatN, Iciirs tin- and I in_Vf<*'lf ixi.ssf.w.s such a ri'ci'ipi

iu'uut«, etc., <uiploit'nt certains mor- pivcii by the Miifrlish (Jovornnicnt to

coanx de boif! cnlaillt's diverscnicnt. tin- Must India Co'npany in the year

On !»',< coupe fudcnx: l*i cn'aniii'rtfii I77<', juid duly i»ie.- TVid in the,

garde une tuoitie, et le (h^biteur re- India liouHe, until within ti.. ias.';

tient I'autre. (juand la dett(! ou la ten ^ears. It representa •JI,U()(»/.,

pronu'sse est aeijuittt'e, (luuiin re- rt'itresentcd by tweiity-f.i'ir ei^' al

met le morcenucju'il a\oit pardevers ;ii,t;lu's in a rod of wo .|,
lui' (p. ti()). This nictbddof K.cpin;,'' ' /.oe. r<"/. vol. i. p. i).

accounts is not eonlim-d to sava^re '■' Luc. tit. p. 10,

i now the

rhic'li WMs

lie first to

iidition of

hues now

)niircliicMl

most uni-

lic sn}'s,

nt ('tal)li.'

2 afforded

I modifu'd

ance," lie

<cntir par

[lie est le

etoit pins

lir I'ordrc

clief, que

iiuM^e do

siir leiirs

s chefs et

le earlier

],y llu- I'li-
to till' cdin-
'iit (•fiitiir',
•li a n-ceipi
ivcrnimnt to
ill the year
■d JM till"
liiii tl>. last
Its •_>!,( )()(»/.,
-f.i'ir I'lj ill

THE CHAR ACT Eli' OF TIIH hWVS OF SAVAGES. :Jlo

chapters of this work that the family is l)y no means so
perfectly organised anion*;" the lowest races.

Sir G. Grey,' s[)eaking of the Australians, truly says
that the ' laws of this ])eople are unfitted for the uovern-
' ment of a sinii'le isolated i'amily, some of them heing
•■ only adapti'(' loi* llie regulation of an assemblage of
' families; they could, theretbre, not have been a series
' of rules given by the first father to his children: again,
' they could not have been rules given by an asseml)ly
' of the first fathers to their children, for tliere are these
' remarkable features about them, that some are of such
' a nature as to compel those subject to them to remain
' in a state of barl)ai'ism.'

AiiJiin (lomict- states that '' les loix du mana<ie out
' mis nil frein a line passion qui n'en voudroit reconnoitre
' aucun. Klles out fait plus: en determinant les degres
' de consanguinity (|ui rendent h's alliances ille<>itimes,
' elles out appris aux homines a connoitre et a res[)ecter
' les droits de la nature,' which is verv far from beiuix the
case. I have already observed {((nte, p. 4)^that even ^Ir.
Maine would doubtless have modified in some points the
views exi)ressed in his excellent work,' if he had paid
more attention to the maimers, customs, and laws of
savages. J>ut, although the progress and de\A .opment
of law belong, for the most part, to a more advanced
stage of human society tlian tlia' whieh is the subject of
tliis work, still, in one sense, as already mentioned, even
the lowest races of savages have laws.

Tlu^se wlio have not devested nuic!i attention to the
subject have generally regarded the sasage as having one

I' 'i

' (iroy's .\\ir*lriilia, vol. ii. p. -l'l*.

' Aiuicnt Law.

' Lor. ('it. |). -'0.

Mfr i

; I

iiU THE L'liAUACTKH OF Till': LAWS OF SAVA(}E8.

advantage, at least, over civilized man, that, namely, of
enjoying an amount ofpersonal freedom greater than thnt
of individuals beloni^nno: to more civilized communities.
There cannot be a greater mistake. The savage is
nowhere free. All over the world his daily life is regu-
lated by a complicated and often most inconvenient
set of customs (as forcible as hnvs), of (juaint })rohibi-
tions and privileges; the ])rohibitions as a general rule
applying to the women, and the i)rivileges to the men.
Nay, every action of their lives is regulated by numerous
rules, none the less stringent l)ecauBe unwritten. Tims
Mr. Lang, speaking of the Australians,' tells us thai,
' instead of enjoying perfect per&onal fi'eedom, as it
* would at first appear, they are governed by a code
' of rules and a set of customs which form one of tlie
' most cruel tyrannies tliat has ever, perliaj)s, existed
' on the face of the earth, subjecting not only the Avill,
' but the property and life of the weak to the dominion
' of tlie strong. The wliole tendency of the system is
' to give everything to the strong and old, to the pre-
' judice of the weak and young, and more particularly
' to the detriment of the women. They have rules by
' which th(! best food, the best [)ieces, the best animals,
' &c., are prohibited to the women and young men,
' and reserved for the old. The women are geuv ally
' appropriated to tlie old and [)owerful, some of whom
' possess four to sev(!n wives; while wives are altogether
•■ denied to young men, unless they have sisters to give
' in exchange, and are strong and courageous enough
' to prevent their sisters from being taken without
' exchaniie.'

' Aborigines of Au,strn!iii, p. 7. llyrc, /(><'. <il. vol. ii. p. fSM/j. Scu Nolo.

\«t

I' . M

THE MULTiriJCITY OF LAWS AMOXa SAVAaUS. Htr,

ill

' To believe,' says Sir G. Grey,^ ' thsit man in a sava«::e
' state is endowed with freedom, either of thought or
' action, is erroneous in the highest degree.'

In Tahiti,' ' the men were allowed to eat the flesh of
' the pig, and of fowls, and a variety of fish, cocoa-iuits,
' and plantains, and Avliatever was presented as an offer-
' ing to the gods, which the females, on pain of death,
' were forbidden to touch, as it was supposed they would
' pollute them. The tires on which the men's food was
' cooked were also sacred, and were forbidden to be used
' by the females. The baskets in which their provisicms
' were kept, and the liouse ia which the men ate, were
' also sacred, and prohibited to the females under the
' same cruel penalty; hence the inferior food, both for
' wives, daughters, &c., was cooked at separate iires,
' deposited in distinct baskets, and eaten in lonely
' solitude by the females, in little huts erected for the
' purpose.' ' Nothing,' says the ]>ishop of AVellington,
' can be more mistaken than to represent the New Zea-
' landers as a people without law and order. They are,
' and were, the slaves of law, rule, and precedent.' ''

If savages pass unnoticed many actions which we
should consider as highly criminal, on the other hand
they strictly forbid others which we should consider
altojrether immaterial.

The natives of Russian America, near the Yukon river,
' have certain sui)erstitions with regard to the bones of
'• animals, which thev will neither throw on the lire nor
' to the dogs, but save them in their houses or caches.
' When they saw us careless in such matters, they said

;i,'

* Grey'a Australia, vol. ii. p. 217. - Polynesian Rosoarclies, vol. i. p. 222.
a Trans. Etbn. Soc. 1870, p 3U7.

■li

3'iG

ULfLES HE LATINO TO HUNTING.

' it would prevent them from catcIuTin; or shooting siic-
' ce.sst'ully. Also they will not throw iiwuy their hair or
' nails just cut sliort, but save them, hanging them fre-
' quently in packages on the trees. '^

The Mongols'^ tliink it a fault to toucli the fire, or take
flesh out of the pot, with a knife, or to cleave wood with
u hatcliet near the liearth, imagining it takes away the
fire's power. It is no less faulty to lean on a whij), or
touch arrows with it; to kill young birds; or pour
liquor on the ground : to strike a liorse with a bridle ; or
break one bone against another. Mr. Tylorhas alrea<ly
j)ointed out"' that almost exactly the same prohibitions
occur in America.

Some savage rules are very sensible. Thus Tamier
states that the Algonkin Indians, when on a war-path,
must not sit u])on the naked ground ; but must, at least,
have some grass or bushes under them. They must, if
possible, avoid wetting tlieir feet; but if they are com-
j)elled to wade tbrough a swamp, or to cross a stream,
they must keep their clothes dry, and whip their legs
Avith bushes or grass, when they come out of the water.' "^
For others tlie reason is not so obvious. Thus the
small bowls out of wliich they driidv are marked across
the middle : in gohig out they must place one side to
their mouth ; in returning, the other. The vessels
must also on their return be tlirown away, or hung up
in a tree.

Hunting tribes generally have well understood rules,
with refcx^ence to game. Thus among the Greenlanders,

• WhympiT TmiiH. Ethn. Snc.
N.S. vol. vii. p. 174.

^ Aslley's Coll., vol. iv. p. .j-18.

=» l^inly Tlihlorv of Mini, p. LW.
' Tannur's Narrative, p. 1i*.j.

ting siic-
V hair or
hem fre-

!, or tako
jod with
Lway the
whij), or
or pour
•idle ; or
i ah'eady
[libitions

J Tanner

'^ar-path,

at least,

must, if

re com-

streani,

eir legs

water.'"*

MIS the

I across

side to

vessels

ung up

[l rules,
landers,

p. iw.

SALUTATIONS AXIJ ClUiLWOMlJS.

:il7

should a seal escape with a hunter's javelin in it, and
he killed by another man afterwards, it belongs to the
former. But if the seal is struck with the harpoon and
bladder, and the string breaks, the hunter loses his
right. If a man finds a seal dead Avith a harpoon in it,
he keeps the seal but returns the harpoon. In reindeer
hunting, if several hunters strike a deer together, it
belongs to the one whose arrow is nearest the heart.
The arrows are all marked, so that no dispute can arise,
])ut since guns have been introduced, many quarrels
have taken jdace. Any man who finds a piece of drift
wood (which in the far North is extremely valuable),
can appropriate it by placing a stone on it, as a sign
that some one has taken ])ossession of it. Xo other
CJreenlander will then touch it.

Again, far from being infornud or extemporary, the
salutations, ceremonies, treaties, and contracts of savages
are characterised by the very op])()site qualities.

Evre mentions that in Australia ' in their intercourse
with each otiier, natives of different tribes are exceed-
ingly punctilious.'*

Mariner fjives a lon}^ account of the elal)orate cere-
monies practised by the Tongans, and of their regard
for rank.' ^

The kinii"" was by no means of the hi<;hest rank.
The Tooitonga, \'enchi, and several other chiefs ])re-
ceded him. Indeed the name Tooitonga means King of
Tonga; the otlice, however, had come to be wholly of
a religious character ; the Tooitonga beihg regarded as

' Discoveries in Australia, vol. ii. !!•(>, l'()7.
p. t>ll. ^ Luc. lit . .ul. ii. p. 71 ».

'^ I'Diiirii Isliuuls, vol. ii. pp. 18o, ,

i-V

"t.

(It '

848

SALUTATIONS AM) ClUiFMOXIES.

<lesccu(led from tlie ^ods, if not a deity hiniKclf. He
was so Hacred that some words were retained for his
cxelusivc use.

]5elovv Tooiton^a and Yeaclii came the priests, while
civil society was divided into five ranks, the kinjj^, tlie
iioljles, the Matabooles, the ^looas, and the Tooas. The
cliihl took tlie rank of the mother amon<^ the nobles,
but the Mata])ooles were succeeded bv the ehlest son.

It is curious that the use of the third j)erson in token
of respect occurs in Tonga, as well as some other
countries. ' Thus the King of Tonga addressing the
' Tooitongji says, '' IIo cgi Tooitonga," that is, literally,
' thy Lord Tooitonga, in which the possessive pronoun

* thy, or your, is used instead of my; or, if the word
' egi be translated lordship, or chiefship, the term of
' address will be more consistent and similar to oui's,

* your lordship, your grace, your majesty. The title,
' ho cgi, is never used but in addressing a superior chief,
' or speaking of a god, or in a public s[)eecli. Ho egi !
' also means chiefs, as in the commencement of Finow's
' speech.''

The Kgbas, a negro race of West Africa, who are,
says JUirton,''^ 'gifted with uncommon hxpiacity and
' s[)are time, have invented a variety of salutatioi- and
' counter-salutations a[)i)licable to every possible occa-
' sion. For instance, Oji re, did you wake well?
' Akwaro, good morning ! Akuasan, good day ! Akwale,
' good evening ! Akware, to one tired. Akushe, to
' one at work. Akurin (from rin, to walk), to a tra-
' vellcr. Akulc, to one in the house. Akwatijo, after

' Mariner, vol. ii. p. 142.

2 Burton, Abbeokuta, vol. i. p. 113.

• hi *■ I

8clf. Ma
;d for liLs

ists, while
kin<^, till)
Dim. The
le nobles,
est son.
I in token
me other
ssing the

literally,

pronoun
the word
) term of
' to ours,
The title,
•ior chief,

II o e*/i !

Finow's

^vho are,
lity suid
lloi"" and
►le oecn-
le well ?
.kwale,
ishe, to
lo a tra-
no, after

SALUTATIONS AND CEUEMOSIES.

3tl)

a \iM\\f ahsonce. Akwalejo, to a stranj^cr. Akurajo,
to one in distress. Akujiko, to one sitting'. Akudaro,
to one standiuij^. Akuta, to one sellini>\ Wolcl)e (be
careful) to one met, and so forth. The servile shash-
tmhja or })r()stratiou of the Hindus is also a nuiversal
custom. It is performed in different ways; the most
general is, after depositing the biu'den, and chipping
hands once, twice, or thrice, to go on all-fours, touch
the ground with the belly and breast, the forehead,
and both sides of the face successively; kiss the earth,
half rise up, then pass the left over the right forearm,
and vice vcrst)^ and finally, after again saluting mother
Ilertha, to stand erect. The inferior prostrates to the
superior, the son to the mother, the younger to the
elder brother, and I have been obliged to correct a
Moslem boy of the evil ja'actice of assumhig a ])osition
in which man should address none but his Maker.
The performance usually takes place once a day on
first meeting, but meetings are so numerous that at
least one hour out of the twenty-four must thus be
spent by a man about town. Ecpials kneel, or rather
squat, before one another, and snap the fingers in the
peculiarly AVest African way, which seems to differ in
every tril)e.'

In the religious customs of Tahiti,' 'however large or
costly the sacrifices that had been offered, and how-
ever near its close the most protracted ceremony might
be, if the priest omitted or misplaced any word in the
prayers with which it was alwa}s accompanied, or if
his attention was diverted by any means, so that the

' EUia's rol}iU!»iun ficscarclies, vol. ii. p. Iu7.

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-S)

^ ,V4

1.0

I.I

11.25

■ran imig —

^Ii4

Photographic

^Sciaices

Corporation

>s\

?7 VEST MAIN S'fCEET

WfBSTER.N.Y 14580

(71«) 872-4503

iVoO

CONDUCT OF PUBLIC BUSINESS.

1 '<

* prayer was hai, or broken, the whole was rendered
' unavailable, he must prepare other victims, and repeat
' his prayers over from the commencement.'

In Fecgee ^ ' public business is conducted with tedious
' formality. Old forms are strictly observed, and inno-
' vations opposed. An abundance of measured clapping
' of hands, and subdued exclamations, characterise these
' occasions. Whales' teeth and other property are never
' exchanged or presented without the following or simi-
' lar form : " A ! woi ! woi ! woi ! A ! woi ! woi ! woi ! !
' " A tabua levu ! woi ! woi ! A mudua, mudua, mudua ! ''
' (clapping).' But little consideration is required to
show that this is quite natural. In the absence of
writing, evidence of contracts must depend on the testi-
mony of witnesses, and it is necessary therefore to avoid
all baste which might lead to forgetfulness, and to im-
print the ceremony as much as possible on the minds of
those present.

Passing on to the question of property, ' La premiere
' loi,' says Goguet,^ ' qu'on aura etablie, aura ete pour
' assigner et assurer a chaque habitant une certaine
' quantite de terrain. Dans les terns oil le labourage
' n'etoit point encore connu, les terres c^toient en com-
' mun. II n'y avoit ni bornes ni limites qui en reglas-

* sent le partage, chacun prenoit sa subsistance ou il

* jugeoit a propos. On abandonnoit, on reprenoit suc-
' cessivement les memes cantons, suivant qu'ils etoient
' plus ou moins epuises : cette manicre de vivre n'a plus
' ete praticable quand I'agriculture a et^ introduite. II
' fallut alors distinguer les possessions et prendre les
' mesures necessaires pour faire jouir chaque citoyen du

' Williams' Fiji and the Fijinns, vol. i. p. 28. '^ Loc. cit.

PROPERTY IN LAND.

3ol

rendered
nd repeat

;h tedious
tt,nd inno-

clapping
rise these
are never
I or simi-
Di ! woi ! !
mudna ! "
juired to
bsence of
the testi-
3 to avoid
id to im-

minds of

premiere
te pour
certaine
ibourage
I en com-
reglas-
Ice oil il
loit suc-
etoient
I'a plus
lite. II
idre les
)yen du

Ic. cit.

' fruit de ses travaux. II etoit dans I'ordre que celui
' qui avoit seme du grain fut sfir de le recueillir, et ne
' vit pas les autres profiter des peines et des soins qu'il
' s'etoit donnes. De la sont emanees les loix sur la
' propriete des terres, sur la maniere de les partager et
' d'en jouir.'

The same view has been taken by other writers. It
does not, however, appear that property in land implies,
or necessarily arose from, agriculture. On the con-
trary, it exists even in hunting communities. Usually,
indeed, during the hunting stage, property in land is
tribal, not individual. The North American Indians
ieem, as a general rule, to have had no individual pro-
perty in land. It appears, therefore, at first sight
remarkable, that among the Australians,^ who are in
most respects so much lower in the scale, ' every male has
' some portion of land, of which he can always point out
' the exact boundaries. These properties are subdivided
' by a father among his sons during his own lifetime,
' and descend in almost hereditary succession. A man
' can dispose of or barter his lands to others, but a
' female never inherits, nor has primogeniture among
' the sons any peculiar rights or advantages.' Nay,
more than this, there are some tracts of land, peculiarly
rich in gum, &c., and over which, at the period when
the gum is in season, numerous families have an acknow-
ledged right, although they are not allowed to come
there at other times. ^ Even the water of the rivers is
claimed as property by some of the Australian tribes.
* Trespass for the purpose of hunting ' is in Australia

'!:!!

* Eyre, Discoveries in Australia,
vol. ii. p. 297. See also Laug ia

Grey's Australia, vol. ii. p. 232.
* Grey's Australia, vol. ii. p. 208.

852

COMMUNAL PROPERTY.

'if

regarded as a capital ofTence, and is, when possible,
punished with death. ^

The explanation seems to be that the Redskins
depended mainly on the larger game, while the Austra-
lians fed on opossums, reptiles, insects, roots, &c. The
Redskin, therefore, if land had been divided into indi-
vidual allotments, might have been starved in the
vicinity of abundance ; while the Australian could gene-
rally obtain food on his own property.

In Polynesia,^ where cultivation was carefully at-
tended to, as in Tahiti, * every portion of land has its
' respective owner; and even the distinct trees on the
' land had sometimes diiFerent proprietors, and a tree,
' and the land it grew on, different owners.'

Even, however, an agricultural condition does not
necessarily require individual property in land; in the
Russian ' Mirs,' or communal villages, moveable pro-
perty alone was individual, the land was common.^

In other parts of Russia, ' after the expiration of a
' given, but not in all cf ses of the same, period, separate
' ownerships are extinguished, the land of the village is
' thrown into a mass, and then it is re-distributed among
' the families composing the community, according to
' their number. This repartition having been effected,
' the rights of families and of individuals are again
' allowed to branch out into various lines, which they
' continue to follow till another period of division comes
' round.' *

It is stated to have been a principle of the earliest

* Loc. cit. p. 236. ' Faucher, in Systems of Land

"^ Ellis' Polynesian Researches, Tenure, p. 362, et seq.

vol. ii. p. 362. Dieffenbacli, vol. ii. "* Maine's Ancient Law, p. 267.

p. 114.

LAWS OF INUERITANCE.

353

lion comes

Sclavonian laws that the property of families could not
be divided for a perpetuity. Even now in parts of
Servia, Croatia, and Austrian Sclavonia, the entire land
is cultivated by the villagers, and the produce is annu-
ally divided.

Diodorus Siculus informs us that the Celtiberians
divided their land annually among individuals, to be
laboured for the use of the public ; and that the product
was stored up, and distributed from time to time among
the necessitous.^

In New Zealand there were three distinct tenures of
land : ^ viz., by the tribe, by the family, and by the
individual. The common rights of a tribe were often
very 'Extensive, and complicated by intermarriages. The
eel cuts, also, are strictly preserved as private property.
Children, as soon as they were born, had a right to a
share of the family property.

It does not, however, necessarily follow that property
in land involves the power of sale. ' We are too apt,'
says Campbell,^ ' to forget that property in land, as a
' transferable mercantile commodity absolutely owned
' and passing from hand to hand like any chattel, is not
' an ancient institution, but a modern development,
' reached only in a few very advanced countries.' ' It
' may be said,' he adds,* ' of all landed tenures in India
' previous to our rule, that they were practically not
* transferable by sale, and that only certain classes of
' the better-defined claims were to some extent trans-
' ferable by mortgage. The seizure and sale of land for

P-

^ Lord Karnes' History of Man,
vol. i. p. 93.

* Taylor, New Zealand and its
Inhabitants, p. .'iS4.

* Systems of Land Tenure,
151.
" Ihid. p. 171.

ill

•

A A

354

ABSENCE OF WILLS.

,ii''

':>

i! ' »■'■

' private debt was wlioUy and utterly unknown — sucli an
* idea had never entered into the native imagination.'

Still less does the possession of land necessarily imply
the power of testamentary disposition, and we find as a
matter of fact that the will is a legal process of very late
origin.

I have already mentioned (arite, p. 302) the state of
entire lawlessness which exists in parts of Africa, between
the death of one ruler and the election of his successor.

It is stated that formerly, when a Greenlander died,
if he had no grown-up children, his property was
regarded as having no longer an owner, and every one
took what he chose, or at least what he could get,
without the slightest regard to the wretched widow or
children.^

There is, indeed, no more interesting chapter in Mr.
Maine's work than that on the early history of testa-
mentary succession. He points out that the essence of
a will, as now understood, is — firstly, that it should take
effect at death; secondly, that it may be secret; and
thirdly, that it is revocable. Yet in Roman law wills
acquired these characteristics but slowly and gradually,
and in the earlier stages of civilisation wills were
generally unknown.

In Athens the power of willing Avas introduced by
Solon, only, however, in cases when a jjcrson died child-
less. The barbarians on the north of the Roman empire
were, says Maine,- ' confessedly strangers to any such
' conception as that of a Will. The best authorities
' agree that there is no trace of it in those parts of their

^ Crantz, Hist, of Grocnlund, vol.

i. p. im.

■ Lvc. (it. p. 172.

ROMAN WILLS.

355

written codes which comprise the customs practised
by them in their original seats and in their subsequent
settlement on the edge of the Koman Empire.'
And again in studying the ancient German laws, * one
result has invariably disclosed itself — that the ancient
nucleus of the code contains no trace of a will.' ^
The Hindoos were also entire strangers to tlie will.'^
It is therefore very remarkable that in Australia ' a
father divides his land during his lifetime, fairly appor-
tioning it amongst his several sons, and at as early an
age as fourteen or fifteen they can point out the portion
which they are eventually to inherit. If the males
of a family become extinct, the male children of the
daughters inherit their grandfather's land.'^
Again, in Tahiti, the system of willing was (I presume
when there were no children) in full force,* ' not only
with reference to land, but to any other kind of pro-
perty. Unacquainted with letters, they could not
leave a written will, but during a season of illness,
those possessing property frequently called together
the members of the family, or confidential friends, and
to them gave directions for the disposal of their effects
after their decease. This was considered a kind of
sacred charge, and was usually executed with fidelity.'
For the modern will, however, we are mainly indebted
to the Komans. At first, indeed, even Roman wills, if
so they may be called, were neither secret, deferred, nor
revocable. On the contrary, they were made in public,
before not less than five witnesses, they took effect at

' Loc. cit. p. 190.

^ Maine's Ancient Law, p. 193.
Campbell in Systems of Land
Tenure, p. 177.

2 Eyre's Australia, vol. ii. p. 230.
■^ Ellis' Polynesian Kesearclies,
vol. ii. p. 302.

\ i

iiii

A A 2

856

llOMAN WILLS.

i\ t

•'S

I I'l '■'

once, and were irrev^ocible. Ilcnce it is probable tliut
they were only made just before death.

It seems likely that the poAver of willing was con-
fined to those who had no natund heh's ; such was cer-
tainly the case in Athens. So also in Home, the will
does not seem to have been used as a means of dis-
inheriting, or of effecting an unequal distribution of the
property.

Under these circumstances it appears at first sight
remarkable that the Romans should have regarded for-
feiture of testamentary privileges as one of the greatest
misfortunes, and should have regarded as a bitter curse
the wish that a man might die intestate. The explana-
tion of this seems to lie in the ideas of family relation-
ship. Children behig slaves, and as such incapable of
holding property,^ it would naturally be the wish of the
father to emancipate his favourite sons; but as soon as
this was effected they ceased to belong to the family,
and could not consequently inherit as heirs at la^v. On
the death of a Roman citizen, in the absence of a will,
the property descended to the un emancipated children,
and after them to the nearest grade of the agnatic kin-
dred. Hence the same feeling which induced a Roman
to emancipate his sons, impelled him also to make
a will, for if he did not, emancipation -V^volved dis-
inheritance.

The turning point in the history of the Roman will
appears to have been the period at which the presence
of the true heir was dispensed with when the will was
made. When this was first sanctioned does not seem to
be exactly known, but it was permitted in the time of

* Maiue's Ancient Law, p. 180.

\r r

niailTS OF CmLDUEK.

357

•obiible tlitit
fr -was con-

ell was ccr-
ne, tLc will
}ans of clis-
ution of the

: first sight
»garded for-
the greatest
bitter curse
he explana-
ily relation-
incapable of

wish of the
t as soon as

the family,
at laAV. On
ce of a will,
ed children,

gnatic kin-

d a Roman
to make

olved dis-

loman will
le presence
le will was
ot seem to
he time of

Gains, who lived during the reigns of the Aiitouines;
at this period also wills had become revocable,^ and
even in the time of Hadrian a testament was rendered
invalid when a ' posthumus suus' arose, i.e. when a
child was born after the will was made.'^

In the absence of wills, the interests of the children
were in some cases secured by customs resembling those
of the Russian village comnuinities, or ' Mirs,' in which
children have a right to their share as soon as they are
born. Nor are such rights confined to comnninal pro-
perties. In some countries the children have a vested
right to a portion of their father's estate. Here, there-
fore, in the absence of children, the will is replaced by
adoption, the importance attached to which is, as I have
already mentioned, one of the reasons for the inaccuracy
of thought among the lower races on the subject of
relationship.

Among the Hindoos, ' the instant a son is born^ he
' acquires a vested right in his father's property, which
' cannot be sold without recognition of his joint-owner-
' ship. On the son's attaining full age, he can some-
' times compel a partition of the estate, even against
' the consent of the parent ; and should the parent
' acquiesce, one son can always have a partition even
' against the will of the others. On such partition taking
' place, the father has no advantage over his children, ex-
' cept that he has two of the shares instead of one. The
' ancient law of the German tribes was exceedingly
' similar. The AUod or domain of the family was the
' joint property of the father and his sons.' According

^ Tomkin's and Lemon's Commen-
taries of Gains, com. 11, sec. cxliv.

^ Loc. cit. com. 11, sec. cxliii.
^ Maine's Ancient Law, p. 228.

358

77//-; VASfT.

to ancient Gcrni.'in law, also, (.'liildrcn were co-i)roprlutorrt
with their father, and the fainily endowment could not
be parted with except by j^'cneral consent.

This probably ex[)lains the remarkable custom that
in Tahiti the king abdicated as soon as a son was born
to him; and landowners under similar circumstances
lost the fee -simple of their land, and became mere
trustees for the infant possessors.^

The Basutos have a strict system of primogeniture,
and, even dur'ng the father's life, the eldest son has
considerable power both over the property and the
younger children.'"*

The same system, in combination with inheritance
through females, is also in full force in Feejee, where it
is known as Yasu. The word means a nephew or niece,
' but becomes a title of office in the case of the male,
' who, in some localities, has the extraordinary privilege
' of appropriating whatever he chooses belonging to his
nnde, or those under his uncle's power.' ^ This is one
he most remarkable parts of Feejee despotism.
* However high a chief may be, if he has a nephew he
' has a master,' and resistance is rarely thought of.
Thakonauto, while at war with his uncle, actually sup-
plied himself with ammunition from his enemies' stores.

Perhaps also the curious custom of naming the father
after the child, may have originated from some such
regulation. Thus in Australia,"* when a man's eldest
child is named, the father takes ' the name of the child,
^ Kadlitpinna, the father of Kadli ; the mother is called

* Ellis' Polynesian Researches, ^ pjji ^nd the Fijip.is, vol. i. p.

vol. ii. pp. 340, 347. 34.

'■* Casalis' Basutos, p. 179. * Eyre, loc. cit. vol. ii. p. 325.

■A I

IV,'

CU.^TOM OF XA}[L\r; PARENTS AFTER CIITLDREN. 350

' K 11(11 iiiganL''ki, or motlicr of Kadli, from ngangki, a
' female or woman.' This custom seems very general
throughout the contuicnt.

In iVmerica we find the same habit. ^ Thus ' with
the Ivutchin the father takes his name from his son or
daughter, not the son from the father as with us.
The fiither's name is formed by the addition of the
word tec to the end of the sou's name ; for instance,
Que-ech-et may have a sou and call him Sah-neu.
The father is now called Sah-neu-tee, and the former
name of Que-ech-et is forgotten.'
In Sumatra ' thn father,^ in many parts of the country,
particularly in Passu ra-mah, is distinguished by the
name of his first child, as " Pa-Ladin," or " Pa-llindu,"
(Pa for bapa, signifying "the father of") and loses, in
this acquired, his own proper name. This is a singular
custom, and surely less conformable tu the order of
nature than that which names tlie son after the father.
There, it is not usual to give them a galar on their
marriage, as with the Rejangs, among whom the filio-
nymic is not so common, though sometimes adopted,
and occasionally joined with the galar; as Radin-pa-
Chirano. The women never change the name given
them at the time of their birth; yet frequently they
are called through courtesy, from their eldest child,
" Ma si ano," the mother of such an one; but rather
as a polite description than a name.'
As a general rule property descends to the eldest son,
if any, but Duhalde mentions that among the Tartars
the youngest son inherits the property, because the

^ Smithsonian Report, 18G6, p.
320.

' jNIarsden's History of Sumatra,
p. 280.

'■\

860

77//;' rUNlSllMENT OF CHIME.

»•■

M,|.il

mis

,f '

! i

m)!

elder ones sis tlioy rcueli munliood kiive tlie [KittTiiul
tent, and take with them the quantity of cattle which
their father choo.ses to give them. A simihir custom
exists among the Mrus of the Arrawak hills, ^ and even
in some districts of our own country, under tlie name of
Borough English.^

There are also cases, as for instance among the Hin-
doos, in which the rule of primogeniture is followed as
regards office or power, politically, but not with refer-
ence to property.

Among the lower races of men, the chiefs scarcely
take any cognisance of offences, unless they relate to
such things as directly concern, or f,re supposed to con-
cern, the intercfccs of the community generally. As
regards private injuries, every one must protect or
avenge himself. The administration of justice, says
Du Tertre,^ ' among the Caribbians is not exercised by
' the captain, nor by any magistrate ; but, as it is among

* the Tapinambous, he who thinks himself injured gets

* such satisfaction of his adversary as he thiidvs fit,
' according as his passion dictates to liim, or his strength

* permits him : the public does not concern itself at all
' in the punishment of criminals, and if any one among
' them suffers an injury or affront, without endeavour-
' ing to revenge himself, he is slighted by all the rest,

* and accounted a coward, and a person of no esteem.'

In Ancient Greece there were no officers whose duty
it was to prosecute criminals.'* Even in the case of

^ Lewin's Hill Tracts of Chitta- p. 316. Labat also makes a very

gong, p. 194. similar statement. Voyage aux

* Wren Iloskyns in Customs of Isles d'Amdrique, vol. ii. p. 83.
Land Tenure, p. 104. * Goguet, vol. ii. p. GO.

^ History of the Caribby Islands,

! [Kituriiiil
ttle which
ir custom
' and even
e name of

•' the Ilin-
)llowed as
rith rcfer-

s scarcely

relate to

3d to con-

•ally. As

>rotcct or

tice, says

prcised by

is among

ired gets

links lit,

strength

elf at all

ic among

dcavour-

the rest,

steem.'

ose duty

case of

kes a very
)yage mix
p. 83.

liEdULATED lil'JVENaiJ.

SGI

nuirder the state did not take the initiative ; this was
left to the family of the sufferer, nor was the accused
placed under arrest until he was found guilty. Hence
the criminal usually fled as soon as he found himself
likely to bo condemned.

Among the North American Indians,^ if a man was
murdered, ' the family of the deceased only have the
' right of taking satisfaction ; they collect, consult, and
' decree. The rulers of a town or of the nation have
' nothing to do or say in the business.* Indeed, it
would seem that the object of legal regulations was at
first not so much to punish the offender, as to restrain
and mitigate the vengeance inflicted by the aggrieved
party.

The amount of legal revenge, if I may so call it, is
often strictly regulated, even where we should least
expect to find such limitations. Thus in Australia,'*
ci'imes ' may be compounded for by the criminal appear-
' in": and submittini? himself to the ordeal of havinsr

CD C O

' spears thrown at him by all such persons as conceive
' themselves to have been aggrieved, or by permitting
' spears to be thrust through certain parts of his body ;
' such as through the thigh, or the calf of the leg, or
' under the arm. The part which is to be pierced by a
' spear, is fixed for all common crimes, and a native
' who has incurred this penalty sometimes quietly holds
' out his leg for the injured party to thrust his spear
' through.' So strictly is the amount of punishment
limited, that if in inflicting such spear wounds, a man,
either through carelessness or from any other cause,

' Trans. Amer. Antiq. Soc. vol. i. p. 281.
^ Sir G. Grey's Australia, vol. ii. p. 243.

!■:

fPT

802

THE LAWS OF rnOPEUTY.

'■«

i J-

'■ i

exceeded the recognised limits — if, for instance, he
wounded the femoral artery — he would in his turn be-
come liable to punishment.

Such cases as these seem to me to throw great light
on the orirrin of the idea of property. Possession de
facto needs of course no explanation. When, however,
any rules were laid down regulating the amount or
mode of vengeance which might be taken in revenge
for disturbance; or when the chief thought it worth
while himself to settle disputes about possession, and
thus, while increasing his own dignity, to check quarrels
which might be injurious to the general interests of the
tribe ; the natural effect would be to develop the idea
of mere possession into that of property.

Since, then, crimes were at first regarded merely as
personal matters, in which the aggressor and the victim
alone were interested, and with which society was not
concerned, any crime, even murder, might be atoned for
by the payment of such a sum of money as satisfied the
representatives of the murdered man. This payment
was proportioned to the injury done, and had no relation
to the crime as a crime. Hence, as the injury was the
same whether the death was accidental or designed, so
also was the penalty. Hence our word ' pay,' which
comes from the Latin ' pacare,' to appease or pacify.

The Romans, on the contrary, based any claim for
compensation on the existence of a ' culpa ;' and hence
laid down that where there had been no 'culpa,' no
action for reparation could lie. This led to very incon-
venient consequences. Thus, as Lord Karnes^ has
pointed out, ' Labeo scribit, si cum vi ventorum navis

' History of Mnn, vol. iv. p. 34.

SIM

stance, he
s turn be-
arcat light
isession de
, however,
imount or
n revenge
it wortli
ssion, and
;k quarrels
2sts of the
r) the idea

merely as

the victim

|y was not

[itoned for

isfied the

payment

o relation

was the

igned, so

7,' which

)acify.

jlaim for

id hence

jlpa,' no

ry in con-

les^ has

(m navis

THE lAWH OF PBOrEUTY.

3G3

' iinpulsa c.ssct in funcs anchorarum alterius, ct nautie
' funes prnecidissent ; si, nuUo alio modo, nisi pra^cisis
' funibus, explicare se potuit, nullam actionem dandam ;'
b. 29, § 3, adleg. Aquil. ' Quod dicitur damnum injuria
' datum Aquilia persequi sic erit accipiendum, ut vide-
' atur damnum injuria datum quod cum darano injuriam
' attulerit ; nisi magna vi cogente, fuerit factum. Ut
' Celsus scribit circa eum, qui incendii arcendi gratia
' vicinas aides intercidit : et sive pervcnit ignis, sive
' antea extinctus est, extimat legis Aquiliai actionem
' cessare.' b. 49, § 1, eod. In English thus : In the
opinion of Labeo, if a ship is driven by the violence of
a tempest among the anchor-ropes of another ship and
the sailors cut the ropes, having no other means of
getting free, there is no action competent. The Aqui-
lian law must be understood to apply only to such
damage as carries the idea of an injury along with it,
unless such injury has not been wilfully done, but from
necessity. ' Thus Celsus puts the case of a person who,
' to stop the progress of a fire, pulls down his neigh-
' hour's house ; and whether the fire had reached that
' house which is pulled down, or was extinguished be-
' fore it got to it, in neither case, he thinks, will an
' action be competent from the Aquilian law.'

It would however appear that, even in Roman law,
the opposite and more usual principle originally pre-
vailed. This is indicated, for instance, by the great
difference in the penalties imposed by ancient laws on
offenders caught in the act, and those only detected
after considerable delay. In the old Roman law, as in
that of some other countries, thieves were divided into
manifest and non-inanifest. The manifest thief who

';LS

'j I

i I

3G4 MANIFEST AND NON-MANIFEST THIEVES.

was caught in the act, or at any rate with the stolen
goods still in his possession, became, according to the
law of the twelve tables, the slave of the person robbed,
or if he was already a slave, was put to death. The
non-manifest thief, on the other hand, was only liable to
return double the value of the goods he had stolen.
Subsequently, the very severe punishment in the case
of the manifest thief was mitigated, but he was still
forced to pay four times the value of what he had
stolen, or twice as much as the non-manifest thief.

The same principle was followed by the North Ame-
rican Indians.^ Again, in the German and Anglo-
Saxon codes, a thief caught in the act might be killed
on the spot. Thus the law followed the old principles
of private vengeance, and in settling the amount of
punishment, took as a guide the measure of revenge
likely to be taken by an aggrieved person under the cir-
cumstances of the case.^

In the South Sea Islands, according to Williams,^
cases of theft were seldom brouo-ht before the kino- or
chiefs, but the people avenged their own injuries. The
rights of retaliation, however, had almost a legal force,
for ' although the party thus plundered them, they
' would not attempt to prevent the seizure : had they
' done so, the population of the district would have
' assisted those, who, according to the established cus-
' tom, were thus punishing the aggressors. Such was
' the usual method resorted to for punishing the petty
' thefts committed among themselves.'

' Trans. Aiuer. Antiq. Soc. vol. i. ^ Polynesinn Researches, vol. ii.

p. 28o. pp. 3G9, 372.

* See Mnino, loc. cit. p. 378.

ES.

TUB WERGILD.

305

he stolen
ig to the
n rohbecl,
th. The
r liable to
d stolen,
the case
was still
t he had
lief.

•th Ame-
l Anglo-
be killed
principles
fiount of
' revenge
r the cir-

'^illiams,^
king or
IS. The
al force,
n, they
id they
d have
ed cus-
ch was
petty

vol. ii.

So also as regards personal injuries. Among the
Anglo-Saxons the 'wergild,' or fine for injuries, was
evidently a substitute for personal vengeance. Every
part of the body had a recognised value, even the teeth,
nails, and hair. Nay, the value assigned to the latter
was proportionately very high ; the loss of the beard
being estimated at twenty shillings, while the breaking
of a thigh was only fixed at twelve. In other cases also
the effect on personal appearance seems to have carried
great weight, for the loss of a front tooth was esti-
mated at six shillings, while the fracture of a rib was
only fixed at three. In the case of a slave the fine
was paid to the owner.

The amount varied according to the rank of the
person injured. All society below the royal family and
the Ealdorman was divided into three classes ; the
T}' whind man, or Ceorl, was estimated at 200 shillings
according to the laws of Mercia; the Sixhind man at
600 shillino;s, while the death of a royal thane was esti-
mated at 1,200 shillings.^

The severity of early codes, and the uniformity in
the amounts of punishment which characterises them,
is probably due to the same cause. An individual
who felt himself aggrieved would not weigh veiy phi-
losophically the amount of punishment which he was
entitled to inflict ; and no doubt when in any com-
munity some chief, in advance of his time, endeavoured
to substitute public law for private vengeance, his
object would be to induce those who had cause of
complaint to apply to the law for redress, rather than
to avenge themselves; which of course would not be

* Student. Hume, p. 74. Ilallam, vol. i. p. 272.

366

GENEBAL CONCLUSION.

: i ^

¥ ^H

iiii

the case if the penalty allotted by the law was much
less than that which custom would allow them to inflict
for themselves.

Subsequently, when punishment was substituted for
pecuniary compensation, the same rule was at first
applied, and the distinction of intention was overlooked.
Nay, so long had the importance of intention been
disregarded, that although it is now recognised in our
criminal courts, yet, as Mr. Bain points out,^ ' a moral

* stigma is still attached to intellectual error by many

* people, and even by men of cultivation.'

In this, as in so many of our other ideas and tastes,
we are still influenced by the condition of our ancestors
in bygone ages. What that condition was I have in
this work attempted to indicate, believing as I do that
the earlier mental stages through which the human race
has passed, are illustrated by the condition of existing,
or recent, savages. The history of the human race has,
I feel satisfied, on the whole been one of progress. I
do not of course mean to say that every race is neces-
sarily advancing: on the contrary, most of the lower
ones are almost stationary; and there are, no doubt,
cases in which nations have fallen back; but it seems an
almost invariable rule that such races are dying out,
while those which are stationary in condition, are sta-
tionary in numbers also ; on the other hand, improving
nations increase in numbers, so that they always
encroach on less progressive races.

In conclusion then, while I do not mean for a moment
to deny that there are cases in which nations have

' Mental and Moral Science, p. 718.

GENERAL CONCL USION.

367

iaa much
to inflict

tuted for
at first
erlooked.
ion been
id in our
* a moral
by many

d tastes,

mcestors

have in

[ do that

nan race

existing,

'ace has,

ress. I

s neces-

e lower

doubt,

ems an

ag out,

re sta-

|)roving

lalwaj's

loment
have

retrograded, I regard these as exceptional insto.nces.
The facts and arguments mentioned in this work aflbrd,
I think, strong grounds for the following conclusions ;
namely, —

That existino^ sava<2:es are not the descendants of
civilised ancestors.

That the primitive condition of man was one of utter
barbarism.

That from this condition several races have indepen-
dently raised themselves.

These views follow, I think, from strictly scientific
considerations. We shall not be the less inclined to
adopt them, on account of the cheering prospects which
they hold out for the future.

In the closing chapter of ' Prehistoric Times,' while
fully admitting the charms of savage life, I have en-
deavoured to point out the immense advantages which
we enjoy. Here I will only add that if the past history
of man has been one of deterioration, we have but a
groundless expectation of future improvement : on the
other hand, if the past has been one of progress, we
may fairly hope that the future will be so too; that the
blessings of civilisation will not only be extended to
other countries and to other nations, but that even in
our own land they will be rendered more general and
more equable ; so that we shall not see before us always,
as now, countrymen of our own living, in our very midst,
a life worse than that of a savage ; neither enjoying the
rough advantages and real, though rude, pleasures of
savage life, nor yet availing themselves of the far higher
and more noble opportunities which lie within the reach
of civilised Man.

^^.)i

I i

lir

\ I

' |.:,.

, t

rv!

APPENDIX.

-»o«-

ON THE PKIMITIVE CONDITION OF MAN.

PART I.

liEim THE SULSTAKCE OF . PaPKR BEA^) BEPOKE IDE BhITISD

AssociATiox AX Dundee.
CI IDE by side with the different opinions as to tlie ori-nn of
f^_ man, there are two opposite views with reference to the
pnmitive eond.tion of tlie first men, or first beings worthy to
be so called. Many writers have considered that nian was at
first a mere savage, and that the course of history has on the
^v-hole been a progress towards civilisation, though at times-and
at some tmies for centuries-some races have been stationary,
or ev. n have retrograded. Other authors, of no less eminenc'e,
have taken a diametrically opposite view. According to them
man was, from the commencement, pretty much what he is at
present ; if possible, even more ignorant of the arts and sciences
than now but with mental qualities not inferior to our own
lavages they consider to be the degenerate descendants of ftir
superior ancestors. Of the recent supporters of this theory,
the late Archbishop of Dublin was amongst the most eminent

Dr. Whately enunciates his opinions in the followinc
words ; ' — ^

'We have no reason to believe that any community ever
^ did, or ever can emerge, unassisted by external helps, from a

state of utter barbarism unto anything that can be called

civilisation.' ' Man has not emerged from the savage state ;

tne progress of any community in civilisation, by its own
' mternal means, must always have begun from a condition

removed from that of complete barbarism, out of which it
' does not appear that men ever did or can raise themselves.'

' Whately. Political Economy, p. 68.
B B

,,, 'i'

i',

Hi-

370

DIFFICULTY OF OBTAINING

!■ I,

I «,

i!!

Thus, he adds, 'the ancient Germans, who cultivated corn —

* though their agriculture was probably in a very rude state —

* who not only had numerous herds of cattle, but employed the

* labour of brutes, and even made use of cavalry in their wars,

* . . . these cannot with propriety be reckoned savages ; or if

* they are to be so called (for it is not worth while to dispute

* about a word), then I would admit that, in this sense, men

* may advance, and in fjict have advanced, by their own

* unassisted efforts, from the savage to the civilised state.'
This limitation of the term * savage ' to the very lowest
representatives of the human race no doubt renders Dr.
AA'^hately's theory more tenable by increasing the difficulty of
bringing forward conclusive evidence against it. The Arch-
blsshop, indeed, expresses himself throughout his argument
as if it would be easy to produce the required evidence in
opposition to his theory, supposing that any race of savages
ever had raised themselves to a state of civilisation. The
manner, however, in wdiich he hus treated the case of the
Mandans — a tribe of North American Indians — effectually dis-
poses of this hypothesis. This unfortunate people is described
as having been decidedly more civilised than those by which
they were surrounded. Having, then, no neighbours more
advanced than themselves, they were quoted as furnishing an
instance of savages who had civilised themselves Avithout ex-
ternal aid. In answer to this, Archbishop Whately asks, —

* 1st. How do we know that these Mandans were of the

* same race as their neighbours ? '

' 2ndly. How do Ave know that theirs is not the original IcAel

* from Avhich the other tribes have fallen ? '

* 3rdly and lastly. Supposing that the Mandans did emerge

* from the savage state, how do we know that this may not have

* been through the aid of some strangers coming among thcin
' — like the Manco-Capac of Peru — from some more civilised

* country, perhaps long before the days of Columbus ? '

Supposing, however, for a moment, and for the sake of
argument, that the IMandans, or any other race, Avere originally
savages, and had civilised themselves, it would still be mani-
festly — from the very nature of the case — impossible to bring
forward the kind of evidence demanded by Dr. Whately. No

CONCLUSIVE EVIDENCE.

371

/ated corn —
rude state —
;mployed the
n their wars,
vagcs ; or if
le to dispute
s sense, men
Y their own
ilised state.'
very lowest
renders Dr.
5 difficulty of

The Arch-
ils argument
[ evidence in
!e of savages
nation. The

case of the

Tcctually dls-

e is described

pse by which

hbours more

urnishing an

without cx-

y asl<s, —
were of the

original le:el

did emerge
nay not have
among thein
ore civilised
us?'

the sake of

•e originally

ill be mani-

le to bring

tely. Is'o

doubt he * may confidently affirm that we find no one rcmrdnl
' instance of a tribe of savages, properlj^ so styled, rising into

* a civilised state without instruction and assistance from a
' people already civilised.' Starting with the proviso that
savages, i)roperly so styled, are ignorant of letters, and laying
it down as a condition that no civilised example should be
I)laced before them, the existence of any such record is an
impossibility: its very presence would destroy its value. In
another passage. Archbishop Whately says, indeed, ' If nuin

* generally, or some particular race, be capable of self-civilisa-

* tion, in either case it may be expected that some record, or

* tradition, or monument of the actual occurrence of such au

* event should be found.' So far from this, the existence of
any such record would, according to the very hypothesis itself,
be impossible. Traditions are short-lived and untrustworthy.
A ' monument ' which could prove the actual occurrence of a
race capable of self-civilisation, I confess myself unable to
conceive. AVhat kind of a monument Avould the Archbishop
accept as proving that the people by whom it was made had
been originally savage ? that they had raised themselves, and
had never been influenced by strangers of a superior race ?

But, says Archbishop Whately, ' ^Ye have accounts of

* various savage tribes, in different parts of the globe, who have

* been visited from time to time at considerable intervals, but
' have had no !-:?ttled intercourse with civilised peoj)le, and

* who appear to continue, as far as can be ascertained, in the
' same uncultivated condition ; ' and he adduces one case, that
of the New Zealanders, who ' seem to have been in quite as
' advanced a state Avhen Tasman discovered the country in

* 1642, as they were when Cook visited it one hundred and

* twenty-seven years after.' We have been accustomed to see
around us an improvement so rapid that we forget how short a
period a century is in the history of the human race. Even
taking the ordinary chronology, it is evident that if in 6,000
years a given race has only progressed from a state of utter
savagery to the condition of the Australian, we could not
expect to find much change in one more century. Many a
fishing village, even on our own coast, is in very nearly the
same condition as it was one hundred and twenty-seven years

B B 2

^l!

Mnil

TUl'J STATIONAUY CONDITF'N OF >iAVAGES.

n<i'(». IMoreovcr, I niiglit fairly answer that, according to
AVIuiteiy's own ilefinition of a savage state, tlie New Zealandcrs
Avould certainly be excluded. They cultivated the ground,
they had domestic animals, they constructed elaborate forti-
fications and made excellent canoes, and were certainly not in
a state of utter barbarism. Or I might argue that a short visit,
like that of Tasman, could give little insight into the true
condition of a peoi)le. I am, however, the less disposed to
question the statement made by Archbishop AVhately, because
the fact that many races arc now practically stationary is in
reality an argument against the theory of degradation, and not
against that of progress. Civilised races are, I believe, the de-
scendants of ancestors who were once in a state of barbarism.
On the contrary, aiguc our o[)ponents, savages are the descen-
dants of civilised nations, and have sunk to their present con-
dition. But Archbishop Whatcly admits that the civilised
races are still rising, while the savages are stationary ; and,
oddly enough, seems to regard this as an argument in sup[)ort
of the very untenable proposition, that the difference between
the two is due, not to the progress of the one set of races— a
I)rogress Avhich every one admits — but to the degradation of
those whom he himself maintains to be stationary. The delu-
sion is natural, and like that which every one must have
sometimes exj)ericnced in looking out of a train in motion,
when the woods and fields seem to be flying from us, whereas
we know that in reality wo are moving and they are stationary.
But it is argued, ' If man, Avlien first ( oated, was left, like

* the brutes, to the unaided exercise of those natural powers of

* body and mind Avhich are common to the European and to the

* New Hollander, how comes it that the European is not now

* in the condition of the New Hollander ? ' The answer to
this is, I think, the following : — In the first place, Australia
possesses neither cereals nor any animals which can be domes-
ticated with advantage ; and in the second, we find even in the
same family — among children of the same parents — the most op-
posite dispositions ; in the same nation, there are families of high
character, and others in which every member is more or less
criminal. But in this case, as in the last, the Archbisho))'s
argument, if good at all, is good against his own view. It is

/AGIJS.

NO EVIDENCE OF EAJiUEU CIVILISATION. 873

according to
cw Zealiuulcrf?
I the ground,
labonitc forti-
jrtuinly not in
t a short visit,
into the true
38 disposed to
ately, because
ationary is in
lation, and not
clieve, the de-
of barbarism,
re the dcsccn-
r present con-
; the civilised
itionary ; and,
ent in sup[)ort
L-cnce between
et of races— a
dejiradation of
The dclu-
le must have
in in motion,
n us, whereas
are stationary.
Avas left, like
iiral powers of
an and to tlic
is not now
he answer to
,ce, Australia
!an be donies-
d even in the
the most op-
ImiliL'S of high
more or less
Archbishop's
view. It is

like an Australian boomerang, which recoils upon Its owner.
The Archbishop believed in the unity of the human race, and
argued that man was originally civilised (in a certain sense).
'How comes it, then,' I might nsk him, 'that the New

* Hollander is not now in the condition of the European? ' In
another passage, Archbishop Whatcly quotes, with approba-
tion, a passage from President Smith, of the college of New
.lerscy, who says that man, ' cast out an orphan of nature,
' naked and hci[)less into the savage forest, must have perished
' before he could have learned how to sujjply his most immediate
' and urgent wants. Su})pose him to have been created, or to
' have started into being, one knows not how, in the full
' strength of his bodily powers, hoAv long must it have been
' before he could have known the proper use of his lirnbs, or

* how to apply them to climb the tree ! ' &c. &c. Exactly the
same, however, might be said of the gorilla or the chimpanzee,
which certainly are not the degraded descendants of civilised
ancestors.

Having thus very briefly considered the arguments brought
forward by Archbishop Whately, I will proceed to state, also
very briefly, some facts which, I think, support the view here
advocated.

Firstly, I will endeavour to show that there arc indications
of progress even among savages.

Secondly, that among the most civilised nations there are
traces of orisjinal barbarism.

The Archbishop supposes that men were, from the begin-
ning, herdsmen and cultivators. We know, however, that the
Australians, North and South Americans, and several other
more or less savage races, living in countries eminently suited
to our domestic animals, and to the cultivation of cereals, were
yet entirely ignorant both of the one and the other. It is,
I think, improbable that any race of men who had once
been agriculturists and herdsmen should entirely abandon pur-
suits so easy and advantageous ; and it is still more unlikely
that, if we accept Usher's very limited chronology, all tradi-
tion of such a change should be lost. Moreover, even if in
the course of time the descendants of the present colonists in
(say) America or Australia were to fall into such a state of

374

EVIDENCE DERIVABLE FROM

51 : >

,i>

l):irl)!irlam, still herds of wild cattle, descended from tliose iin-
I)orted, would probably continue to live in those countries ;
and even if these were cxtenninated, their skeletons would
testify to their previous existence ; whereas, we know that
not a single hone of the ox or of the domestic sheej) has been
found either in Australia or in America. The same argument
applies to the horse, since the fossil horse of South America
(lid not belong to the same species as our domestic race. So,
ngiiin, in the case of plants. We do not know that any of our
cultivated cereals would survive in a wild state, though it is
highly probable that, perhaps in a modified form, they would
do so. But there are many other plants which folloAv in the
train of man, and by which the botany of South America,
Australia, and New Zealand, has been almost as profoundly
modified as their ethnology has been by the arrival of the
white man. The Maoris have a melancholy pi'overb, that the
^Maoris disappear before the white man, just as the white man's
rat destroys the native rat, the European fly drives away the
Maori fly, and the clover kills the Xcav Zealand fern.

A very interesting paper on this subject, by Dr. Hooker,
whose authority no one will question, is contained in the
' Xatural History Review^ for 1864 : — ' In Australia and

* New Zealand,' he says, ' for instance, the noisy train of

* English emigration is not more surely doing its work, than

* the stealthy tide of English weeds, Avhich are creeping over
' the surface of the waste, cultivated, and virgin soil, in

* annually increasing numbers of genera, species, and indi-

* viduals. Apropos of this subject, a correspondent, W. T.
' Locke Travers, Esq., F.L.S., a most active New Zealand

* botanist, writing from Canterbury, says, " You would be
surprised at the rapid spread of European and foreign
plants in this country. All along the sides of the main

' lines of road through the plains, a Polygonum (aviculare),
' " called cow-grass, grows most luxuriantly, the roots some-
' " times two feet in depth, and the plants spreading over an
' " area from four to five feet in diameter. The dock {Rrimex
' " ohtusifolius or R. crispus) is to be found in every river-

* " bed, extending into the valleys of the mountain-rivers,
' " until these become mere torrents. The sow-thistle is

( ((

f I

DOM IJ ST 10 ANIMALS AND rOTTETiY

375

Voin tliosc ini-
)sc countries ;
elctons would
,ve know that
heep has been
nmc argument
touth America
tic race. So,
liat any of our
, tlioun-h it h
n, they would
foUoAv in the
uth America,
as profoundly
arrival of the
verb, that the
le white man's
•ives away tlie
fern.

' Dr. Hooker,
tained in the
Vustralia and
oisy train of
ts work, than
reeping over
rgin soil, in
cs, and indi-
lent, W. T.
^ew Zealand
u would be
and foreign
of the main
(aviculare),
roots some-
ling over an
pock {^Riimex
every river-
fntain-rivers,
)w-thistle is

togotlicr.

' •' spread all over the country, growing luxuriantly near!
* " to 0,000 feet. The watercress increases in our still i
' '* to such an extent as to threaten to choke them
The cardoon of the Argentine Uepublics is another remarkable
instance of the same fact. Wc may therefore safely assume
that if Australia, New Zealand, or South America had ever
been peopled by a race of herdsmen and agriculturists, the
fiuma and flora of those countries would almost inevitably have
given evidence of the I'act, and (liU'ered nuu'h from the con-
dition in which they were discovered. We may also assert, as
a general proposition, that no weapons or im})lements of metal
have ever been found in any country inhabited by savages
wholly ignorant of metallurgy. A still stronger case is
afforded by pottery. Pottery is very indestructible ; when
used at all, it is always abundant, and it possesses two qualities
— those, namely, of being easy to break and yet difHcult to
destroy, which render it very valuable in an archreological
point of view. JNIoreover it is, in most cases, associated with
burials. It is therefore a very significant fact, that no frag-
ment of i)ottery has ever been found in Australia, New
Zealand, or the Polynesian Islands. It seenjs to mc extremely
improbable that an art so easy and so useful should ever have
been lost by any race of men. Moreover, this argument
applies to several other arts and instruments. I will mention
only two, though several others might be brought forward.
The art of spinning and the use of the bow are quite unknown
to many races of savages, and yet Avould hardly be likely to
have been abandoned when once known. The absence of
architectural remains in these countries is another argument.
Archbishop AVhately, indeed, claims this as being in his
favour; but the absence of monuments in a country is surely
indicative of barbarism, and not of civilisation.

The mental condition of savages also seems to me to speak
strongly against the * degrading ' theory. Not only do the
religions of the low races appear to be indigenous, but, as
already shown' — according to many trustworthy witnesses,
merchants, philosophers, naval men, and missionaries alike —
there are many races of men who are altogether destitute of a

' Anti', p. 138 ; and Prehistoric Tiiiu'S, 2ii(l wl. p, 5Gt.

N Vi

IM ;

I 11 ^

'■■ !j« !i

" J

7 3 INDICATIONS OF PROGRESS AMONG SAVAGES.

religion. The cases are, perhaps, less numerous than they arc
asserted to be ; but some of them rest on good evidence. Yet
I i'eel it difficult to believe that any people who once possessed
a religion would ever entirely lose it. Religion appeals so
strongly to the hopes and fears of men, it takes so deep a hold
on most minds, in its higher forms it is so great a consolation
in times of sorrow and sickness, that I can hardly think any
nation would ever abandon it altogether. Moreover, it pro-
duces a race of men who are interested in maintaining its
influence and authority. Where, therefore, we find a race
which is now ignorant of religion, I cannot but assume that it
has always been so.

I will now proceed to mention a few cases in which some
improvement does appear to have taken place, though, as a
general rule, it may be observed that the contact of two races
tends to depress rather than to raise the lower one. According
to iSIacGillivray, the Australians of Port Essington, who, like
ail their fellow-countrymen, had formerly ba?*k-canoes only,
have now completely abandoned them for otherjt h»liowed out
of the trunk of a tree, which they buy from the Malays. The
inhabitants of the Andaman Islands have recently introduced
outriggers. The I3acha[)ins, when visited by Burchell, had
just commenced working iron. According to Burton, the
Wajiji negroes have recently learned to make brass. In
Tahiti, Avhen visited by Caj)tain Cook, the largest moral, or
burial-place, was that erected lor the then reigning queen.
The Tahitlans, also, had then very recently abandoned the
habit of cannibalism. Sha-gwaw-koo-sink, an Ottawwaw, who
lived at the beginning of this century, first introduced the
cultivation of corn among the Ojibbeways.' Moreover, there
are certain facts which si)cak for themselves. Some of the
American races cultivated the potato. Now, the potato is
an American plant, and Ave have here, therefore, clear evi-
dence of a step in advance made by these tribes. Again, the
Peruvians had domesticated the llama. Those who believe
in the diversity of species of men may argue that the
Peruvians luid domestic llamas from the beginning. Arch-
bishop Whately, however, would not take this line. He

' Tanuor's Narrative, p. 180.

' ■ ' t

r- 1 1 .! ',

^:t i., •

IVAGES.

SAVAGES NOT INCAPABLE OF CIVILISATION. ?,77

than they .ire
itlence. Yet
nee possessed
•n appeals so

deep a hold
a consolation

lly think any
cover, it pro-
lintaining its
! find a race
ssume that it

1 which some
though, as a
of two races

!. Accordinsf
:on, who, like
■canoes only,
h©liowed out
lalays. The
ly introduced
•urchell, had
Burton, the
brass. In
st morai, or
ning queen,
andoned the
awwaw, ^N'ho
reduced the
cover, there
■>ome of the
le potato is
clear evi-
Again, the
wlio believe
e that the
ing. Arch-
line. He

would, I am sure, admit that the first settlers in Peru had no
Hamas, nor, indeed, any other domestic animal, excepting,
probably, the dog. The bark-cloth of the Polynesians is
another case in j)oint. Another very strong case is the
boomerang of the Australians. This weapon is known to no
other race of men.' We cannot ]ook on it as a relic of
primeval civilisation, or it would not now be confined to one
race only. The Australians cannot have learnt it from any
civilised visitors, for the same reason. It is, therefore, as it
seems to me, exactly the case we want, and a clear })roof of a
step in advance — a small one, indeed, but still a step made by
a people whom Archbishop Whately would certainly admit to
be true savages. The Chcrokees afford a remarkable instance
of progress, and indeed — alone among the North American
hunting races — have really become agriculturists. As long
ago as 1825, with a population of 14,000, they possessed 2,92.'J
ploughs, 7,683 horses, 22,500 black cattle, 46,700 pigs, and
2,566 sheep. They had 49 mills, 69 blacksmiths' shops, 762
looms, and 2,486 spinning-wheels. They kept slaves, having
captured several hundred negroes in Carolina. Nay, one of
them, a man of the name of Se([uoyah, invcnti d a system of
letters, which, as far as the Cherokee language is concerned, is
better than ours. Cherokee contains twelve consonants and
five vowels, with a nasal sound ' ung.' Multiplying, then, the
twelve consonants by the six vowels, and adding the vowels
which occur singly, but omitting any sign for ' mung,' as that
sound does not occur in Cherokee, he required seventy-seven
characters, to which he added eight — representing the sounds
s, ka, hna, nah, ta, te, ti, tla — making, altogether, eighty -five
characters. This alphabet, as already mentioned, is superior
to ours. The characters are indeed more numerous, but, when
once learnt, the pupil can read at once. It is said that a boy
can learn to read Cherokee, when thus expressed, in few
weeks ; while, if ordinary letters Avere used, two years would
be required. Obviously, however, this aljjhabet is not ap-
plicable to other languages. The rude substitutes ft)r writing
found among other tribes — the wamjnnn of the Nortii
American Indians, the picture-writing and quippu of Central

' With ono doubtful cxooption.

378 INDIGENOUS ORIGIN OF MEXICAN CIVILISATION.

Aniericca — must be regarded as of native origin. In the case
of the system of letters invented by Mohammed Doahi, a
negro of the Vci country, in West Africa, the idea was no
doubt borrowed from the missionaries, although it was worked
out independently. In other cases, however, I think this
cannot be. Take that of the Mexicans. Even if we sup-
pose that they were descended from a primitively civilised race,
and had gradually and completely lost both the use and tradi-
tion of letters — to my mind, a most improbable hypothesis
— still we must look on their system of picture-writing as
being of American origin. Even if a system of writing by
letters could ever be altogether lost, which I doubt, it cer-
tainly could not be abandoned for that of picture-writing,
which is inferior in every point of view. If the Mexicans
had owed their civilisation, not to their own gradual imj)rove-
mcnt, but to the influence of some European visitors, driven
by stress of weather or the pursuit of adventure on to their
coasts, we should have found in their system of writing, and
ill other res})ects, unmistakable proofs of such an influence.
Although, therefore, we have no historical proof that the
civilisation of America was indigenous, we have in its very
character evidence, more satisfactory perhaps than any his-
torical statements would be. The same argument may be
derived from the names used for numbers by savages. I feel
great difficulty in supposing that any race which had learned
to count up to ten would ever unlearn a piece of knowledge so
easy and yet so useful. Yet, as has been already pointed out,
few, perhaps none, of those whom Archbishop Whately would
call savages can count so far.

In many cases, where the system of numeration is at present
somewhat more advanced, it bears on it the stamp of native and
recent origin. Amono; civilised nations, the derivations of the
numerals hnve long since been obscured by the gradual modi-
fication which time effects in all words — especially those in
frequent use, and before the invention of printing. And if the
numerals of savages were relics of a former civilisation, the
waifs and strays saved out of the general wreck, they would
cerl ainly have suffered so much from the wear and tear of con-
stant use, that their derivations would be obscured or wholly

J8ATI0N.

PROGRESS AS INDICATED BY LANGUAGE. 379

iindiscoverable, instead of Avliich they are often perfectly clear
and obvious, especially among races whose arithmetical attain-
ments are lowest. These numerals, then, are recent, because
they are uncorrupted ; and they are indigenous, because they
have an evident meaning in the language of the tribes by
whom they are used.'

Again, as I have already pointed out,'' many savage languages
are entirely deficient in such words as ' colour,' ' tone,' ' tree,'
SiC, having names for each kind of colour, every species of tree,
but not for the general idea. I can hardly imagine a nation
losing such words, if it had once possessed them.

Other similar evidence might be extracted from the lanuuaije
of savages ; and arguments of this nature are entitled to more
weight than statements of travellers, as to the objects found in
use among savages. Sui)pose, for instance, that an early tra-
veller mentioned the absence of some art or knowledjje amonir
a race visited by him, and that later ones found the natives in
possession of it. Most people would hesitate to receive this as
a clear evidence of progress, and rather be disposed to suspect
that later travellers, with perhaps better opportunities, had seen
what their predecessors had overlooked. This is no hypothe-
tical case. The early Spanish writers assert that the inhabitants
of the Ladrone Islands were ignorant of the use of fire. Later
travellers, on the contrary, find them perfectly well acquainted
with it. They have, therefore, almost unanimously assumed,
not that the natives had made a step in advance,' but that the
Spaniards had made a mistake ; and I have not brought this case
forward in opposition to the assertions of Whately, because 1
am inclined to be of this opinion myself. I refer to it here,
however, as showing how difficult it would be to obtain satis-
factory evidence of material progress among savages, even
admitting that such exists. The arguments derived from
language, however, are liable to no such suspicions, but tell
their own tale, and leave us at liberty to draw our conclusions.

I will now very briefly refer to certain considerations which
seem to show that even the most civilised races were once in a
state of barbarism. Not only throughout Europe — not only in

' See Chapter VIII. This ai'gumcnt new words are coined from time to time
would bo conclusive were it not that in all languages. * Ch. VIII,

;i80 TRACES OF BARBARISM IN CIVILISED COUNTRIES.

' *i

:f4

V ;* 'I

Italy and Greece — but even in the so-called cradle of civilisa-
tion itself, in Palestine, and Syria, in Egypt, and in India, the
traces of a stone age have been discovered. It may, indeed,
be said that these were only the fragments of those stone
knives, &c., M'hlch we know were used in religious ceremonies
long after metal was in general use for secular purposes. This,
indeed, resembles the attempt to account for the presence of
cle[)hants' bones in England by supposing that they were the
lemains of elephants wliich might have been brought over by
the llomans. But why were stone knives used by the Egyp-
tian and Jewish priests ? evidently because they had been at
one time in general use, and a feeling of respect made the
priests reluctant to introduce the use of the new substance in
religious ceremonies.

There are, moreover, other considerations ; for instance, the
gradual improvement in the relation between the sexes, and
the development of correct ideas on the subject of relationship,
seem to me strongly to point to the same conclusion.

In the publications of the Nova Scotian ' Institute of Na-

* tural Science' is an interesting paper, by Mr. Haliburton,on

* The Unity of ths Human Race, proved by the universality

* of certain superstitions connected with sneezing.' * Once

* establish,' he says, * that a large number of arbitrary customs

* — such as could not have naturally suggested themselves to

* all men at all times — are universally observed, and we arrive

* at the conchision that they are primitive customs which have
' been inherited from a common source, and, if inherited, that

* they owe their origin to an era anterior to the dispei'sion of

* the human race.' To justify such a conclusion, the custom
must be demonstrably arbitrary. The belief that two and
two make four, the decimal system of numeration, and similar
coincidences of course prove nothing ; but I very much doubt
the existence of any universal, or even general, custom of a
clearly arbitrary character. The fact is, that many things ap-
pear to us arbitrary and strange because we live in a condition
so different from that in which they originated. Many things
seem natural to a savage which to us appear absurd and un-
accountable.

Mr. Haliburton brings forward, as his strongest case, the

JNTRIES.

of civilisa-
i India, the
ay, indeed,
;liose stone
ceremonies
OSes. This,
presence of
y were the
ht over by
the Egyp-
ad been at
t made the
ibstance in

istance, the

sexes, and

elationship,

ute of Na-
liburton, on
miversality
5.' * Once
ry customs
mselves to
we arrive
ehich have
ited, that
persion of
le custom
two and
nd similar
luch doubt
stom of a
things ap-
condition
ny things
i and un-
case, the

AliBITBARY CUST(mS.

381

habit of saying ' God bless you I ' or sonic equivalent expvc>^s:()n,
when a person sneezes, lie si)o\vs tliat tliis custom, wlrich, I
admits ap[)ear3 to us at first sight both odd and arbitrarv, is
ancient and widely extended. It is mentioned by Homer,
Aristotle, Apuleius, Pliny, and the Jewish rabbis, and has been
observed in Koordistan, in Florida, in Otahcitc, and in the
Tonga Islands.

It is not arbitrary, hoAvever, and it does not, therefore,
come under his rule. A belief in invisible beings is verv
general among savages ; and while they think it unnecessary
to account for blessings, they attribute any misfortune to the
ill-will of these mysterious beings. Many savages regard
disease as a case of possession. In cases of illness, they do
not suppose that the organs are themselves affected, but that
tliey are being devoured by a god ; hence their medicine-
men do not try to cure the disease, but to extract the demon.
Some tribes have a distinct deity for every ailment. The
Australians do not believe in natural death. When a man
dies, they take it for granted that he has been destroyed by
Avitchcraft, and the only doubt is, who is the culprit ? Now,
a people in this state of mind — and we know that almost every
race of men is passing, or has passed, through this stage of de-
velopment -seeing a man sneeze, Avould naturally, and almost
inevitably, suppose that he was attacked and shaken by some
invisible being ; equally natural is the impulse to appeal for
aid to some otlier invisible being more powerful than the first.

Mr. Ilaliburton admits that a sneeze is * an omen of impcnd-

* inof evil:' but it is more— it is evidence, which to the savai^o
mind would seem conclusive, that the sneezer was })ossesscd by
some evil-dis[)osed spirit; evidently, therefore, this case, on
which Mr. Haliburton so much relies, is by no means an * ar-

* bitrary custom,' and does not, therefore, fulfil the conditions
which he himself laid down. He has incidentally brought for-
ward some other instances, most of which labour under the dis-
advantage of proving too much. Thus, he instances the
existence of a festival in honour of the dead, * at or near the

* beginning of November.' Such a feast is very general, and
as there are many more races holding such a festival than there
arc mouths in the year, it is evident that, in several cases, they

.1.

! i

382

UNITY OF THE HUMAN RACE.

! i I

i.l ■!

ii.|| I

must be held together. But INIr. ITaliburton goes on to say :

* The Spaniards were very naturally surprised at finding that,

* while they were celebrating a solemn mass for All Souls, on

* November 22, the heathen Peruvians were also holding their

* annual commemoration of the dead.' This curious coinci-
dence Avould, however, not only prove the existence of such a
festival, as he says, ' before the dispersion ' (Avhich Mr. Hali-
burton evidently looks on as a definite event rather than as a
gradual process), but also the ancestors of the Peruvians were
at that epoch sufficiently advanced to form a calendar, and that
their descendants were able to keep it unchanged down to the
present time. This, however, we know was not the case.
Again, Mr. Haliburton says : * The belief in Scotland and

* equatorial Africa is found to be almost precisely identical re-

* spccting there being ghosts, even of the living, who are

* exceedingly troublesome and pugnacious, and can be some-

* times killed by a silver bullet.' Here we certainly have what
seems at first sight to be an arbitrary belief ; but if it proves
that there was a belief in ghosts of the living before the disper-
sion, it also proves that silver bullets Avere then in use. This
illustration is, I think, a very interesting one; because it shows
that similar ideas in distant countries owe their origin, not ' to

* an era before the disi)ersion of the human race,' but to the
fundamental similarity of the human mind. While I do not
believe that similar customs in different nations are ' inherited

* from a common source,' or are necessarily primitive, I cer-
tainly do see in them an argument for the unity of the human
race, which, however (be it remarked), is not necessarily the
same thing as the descent from a single pair.

On the other hand, I have attemj)ted to show that ideas, which
might at first sight appear arbitrary and unaccountable, arise
naturally in very distinct nations as they arrive at a similar
stage of progress ; and it is necessary, therefore, to be ex-
tremely cautious in using such customs or ideas as implying
any special connection between different races of men.

on to say:
tiding tliat,
I Souls, on
>kling their
3US coinci-
of such a
Mr. Hali-
than as a
vians were
ir, and tliat
3wn to the
} the case,
otland and
lentical re-
, who are
I be some-
have what
f it proves
the disper-
use. This
ise it shows
in, not ' to
ut to the
I do not
' inherited
ve, I cer-
he human
sarily the

[eas, wliich

ible, arise

a similar

to be ex-
implying

MENTAL DIFFERENCES IN DIFFERENT RACES. 383

TART ir.»

At the Dundee Meeting of the British Association, I had ihe
honour of reading a Paper ' On tlie Origin of Civilisation and

* the Primitive Condition of Man,' in answer to "crtain opinions
and arguments brought forward by the late Archbishop of
Dublin. The views therein advocated met with little oj)po-
sition at the time. The then Presidents of the Ethnoh)firical and
Anthropological Societies both expressed their concurrence in
the conclusions to which I arrived ; and the Memoir was printed
in extenso by the Association. It has, however, subsequently
been attacked at some length by the Duke of Argyll ;^ and as
the Duke has in some cases strangely misunderstood me, and
in others (I am sure unintentionally) misrepresented my views
— as, moreover, the subject is one of great interest and impor-
tance — I am anxious to make some remarks in reply to his
Grace's criticisms. The Duke has divided his work into four
chapters : — I. Introduction ; II. The Origin of Man ; III.
and IV. His Primitive Condition.

I did not in my first Memoir, nor do I now propose to,
discuss the subjects dealt with in the first half of the Duke's

* Speculations.' I will only observe that in attacking Prof.
Huxley for proposing to unite the Bimana and Quadrumana
in one Order, ' Primates,' the Duke uses a dangerous argu-
ment ; for if, on account of his great mental superiority over
the Quadrumana, Man forms an Order or even Class by him-
self, it will be impossible any longer to regard all men as
belonging to one species or even genus. The Duke is in error
when he supposes that ' mental powers and instincts ' afford
tests of easy application in other parts of the animal kingdom.
On the contrary, genera with the most different mental powers
and instincts are placed, not only in the same Order, but even
in the same Family. Thus our most learned hymenopterologist
(Mr. Frederick Smith) classes the Hive-bee, the Hunible-bco,
and the parasitic Apathus, in the same subfamily of Aj)idie.
It seems to me, therefore, illogical to separate man zoologically

' The substance of this was road
before the British Association, during
thuir mooting at Exeter iu 18G9.

* Good Words: Marcii, April, Jlay,
and Juno, 18G8. Also since repub-
lished iu a separate form.

381.

THE WEAPONS OF MONKEYS.

•'J >A

f f \ !H

i:,*:

|!'f!

from the oilier primates on the ground of his mental superi-
ority, and yet to maintain tlic specific unity of the human race,
notwithstanding the mental differences between different races
of men.

I do not, hoAvevcr, propose to discuss the origin of man, and
pass on therefore at once to the Duke's third chapter ; and
here I congratulate myself at the outset that the result of my
l)aj)er has been to satisfy him that ' Whately's argument,'

* though strong at some })oints, is at others 0})en to assault,
' and that, as a Avhole, the subject now requires to be differently

* handled, and regarded from a different point of view.' ' I do

* not therefore,' he adds in a subsequent page,'^ ' agree with the

* late Archbishop of Dublin, that we are entitled to assume it

* as a fact that, as regards the mechanical arts, no savage race

* has ever raised itself.' And again : ^ ' The aid which man had

* from his Creator may possibly have been nothing more than

* the aid of a body and of a mind, so marvellously endowed,

* that thought was an instinct, and contrivance a necessity.'

I feel, however, less satisfaction on this account than would
otherwise have been the case, because it seems to me that,
though the Duke acknowledges the Archbishop's argument to
be untenable, he practically reproduces it with but a slight al-
teration and somewhat protected by obscurity. What Whately
called ' instruction ' the Duke terms * instinct ; ' and he con-
siders that man had instincts which afforded all that was neces-
sary as a starting ground. He admits, however, that monkeys
use stones to break nuts ; he might have added that they
throw sticks at intruders. But he says, ' between these rudi-

* ments of intellectual perception and the next step (that of

* adapting and fashioning an instrument for a particular purpose)

* there is a gulf in which lies the whole immeasurable distance
' between man and brutes.' I cannot agree wuth the Duke in
this opinion, nor indeed does he agree with himself, for he
adds, in the very same i)age, that — ' The wielding of a stick is,

* in all probability, an act equally of primitive Intuition, and

* from this to throwing of a stick, and the use of javelins, is an

* easy and natural transition.'

Good "Words, 1868, p. loG. '' Ibid. June, p. 386. » P. 392.

TRUE NATURE OF BARBARISM.

)So

ntal supori-
liunian race,
fTcrciit races

of man, ami
baptcr ; and
■esult of my
arfjumcnt,*
I to assault,
e clifFcrcntly
iew.' ' I do
rrcc with the
to assume it
savacjc race
lich man had
fj more than
ly endowed,
lecessity.'
; than would
to me that,
argument to
a sh'ght al-
liat Whatcly
nd he con-
,t was neces-
|iat monkeys
that they
these rudi-
ep (that of
liar purpose)
Ible distance
he Duke in
self, for he
if a stick is,
uition, and
elins, is an

h p. 392.

He contimics as follows : — ' Simple as these acts arc, they

* involve both physical and mental powers wliich arc capable
' of all the developments which we sec in tlic most advanced
' industrial arts. These acts involve the instinctive idea of the
' constancy of natm-al causes, and tlie capacity of thought,

* which gives men the conviction that what has happened under
' given conditions will, under the same conditions, always occur
' again.' On these. In says, * as well as on other grounds, I

* have never attached much importance to Whately's argu-

* ment.' These are indeed important admissions, and amount
to a virtual abandonment of Whately's position.

The Duke blames the Archbishop of Dublin for not having
defined the terms 'civilisation' and 'barbarism.' It seems to
me that Whately illustrated his meaning better by examines
than he could have done by any definition. The Duke does
not seem to have felt any practical diflliculty from the omission;
and it is remarkable that, after all, he hinii-elf omits to define
the terms, thus beincj himself iruiltv of the very omissiun ft)r
Avhich he blames Whately. In truth, it would be impos-
sible in a few words to define the complex organisation which
we call civilisation, or to state in a few words how a civilised
differs from a barbarous people. Indeed, to define civilisation
as it should be, is surely as yet imi)ossible, since we are far in-
deed from having solved the problem how we may best avail
ourselves of our o^jportunitics, and enjoy the beautiful world in
Avhich Ave live.

As regards barbarism, the Duke observes, * All I desire t(»
' point out here is, that there is no necessary connection between

* a state of mere childhood in I'espect to knowledge and a state
' of utter barbarism, words Avhich, if they have any definite
' meaning at all, imply the lowest moral as well as the lowest
' intellectual condition.' To every luoposition in this remark-
able sentence I entirely demur. There is, I think, a very in-
timate connection between knowledge and civilisation. Know-
ledge and barbarism cannot coexist — knowledge and civilisation
are inseparable.

Again, the Avords * utter barbarism ' have certainly a very
definite signification, but as certainly, I think, not that Avhich
the DidvC attributes to tiieni. The loAvcst moral and the lowest

C C

3RG

TRUJ'J NATUJi'E OF JiARBAUISM.

. \

intellectual cnndition arc not only, in my (>])inion, not insopav-
al)l(', they are not even conipatihlo. Morality implies rospon-
sihility, and consequently intelli<<;ence. The lower animals are
neither moral nor immoral. The lower races of men may he,
and are, vicious ; but allowances must be made for them. On
the contrary {corrujdio optiini, pessiinu est), the higher the
mental power, the more splendid the intellectual endowment,
the deeper is the moral dei^radation of him Avho wastes the one
and abuses the other.

On the whole, the fair inference seems to be that savages are
more innocent, and yet more criminal, than civilised races;
they are by no means in the lowest possible moral condition,
nor are they ca})al)le of the higher virtues.

In the first ])art of this pa})er I laid much stress on the fact
that even in the most civilised nations Ave find traces of earlv
barbarisni. The Duke niiiintains<, on the contrary, that these
traces afford no proof, or even presumption, that barbarism was
the primeval conditiim of man. He urges that all such customs
may have been not primeval, bu* medieval ; and he continues:

* Yet this assumption runs through all Sir J. Lubbock's argu-

* ments. AVhercver a brutal or savage custom prevails, it is
' regarded as a samide of the original condition of mankind.

* And this in the teeth oC facts which prove that many of such

* customs, not only may have been, but must have been the

* result of corruption.'

Fortunately, it is unnecessary for me to defend myself
against this criticism, because in the very next sentence the
Duke directly contradicts himself, and shows that I have not
done that of which he accuses me. He continues his argu-
ment thus : — ' Take cannibalism as one of these. Sir J. Lub-

* bock seems to admit that this loathsome practice was not
' primeval.' Thus, by way of proof that I regard all brutal
customs as primeval, he states, and correctly states, that I do
not regard cannibalism as primeval. It would be difficult, I
think, to find a more curious case of self-contradiction.

Tiie Duke refers particularly to the practice of Bride-
catching, which he states 'cannot possibly have been primeval.'
He omits, however, to explain why, from his point of view, it
could not have been so; and of course, assuming the word

ill! i ^ II

SmUESCK OF CUSTOMS.

;3?s;

, not insojiar-
iplics rcs|)on-
;r nniiniils arc
men may bo,
)!• them. On
e higher tlic
[ eiiflowincnt,
rastes the one

it savages arc
villscd races;
ral condition,

ss on the fact
aces of early
rv, that tliese
jarbarism was
! snch customs
lie continues :
ibbock's argu-
prevails, it is
of mankind,
many of such
ave been the

fend myself
sentence the
it I have not
ues his argu-
Sir J. Lub-
ice was not
rd all brutal
tes, that I do
36 difficult, I
tion.

e of Bride-
en primeval.'
it of view, it
lo; the Avord

■ j)riincval ' (o Cdver a pciiod of some length, it woidd have
1)C(M» iiitiM'ostiiig to know his reasons for this conclusion ; in
fact, however, it is not a case in i)oijit, because, as I have
at tempted to show. Marriage by Capture Avas preceded by a
custom still more barbarous. It nmy, ])erhaps, however, be as
Avell to state en4)hatically that all brutal customs arc not, in
my opinion, primeval. Ihunaii sacrifices, for instance, were, I
think, ccrtainlv not so.

My argument, however, was that there is a definite sequence
of habits and ideas; that certain customs (some brutal, others
not so), which Ave fine' lingering on in civilised connnunities,
are a [)age of past history, and toll a tale of former barbarism,
ratlicr on account of their sini[)licity than of their brutality,
though many of them are brutal enough. Again, no <me
Avould go back from letter-writing to the use of the f|nippn or
hieroglyphics; no one would abandon the lire-drill and obtain
fire bv hand-friction.

Jielieving, as he docs, that the piimitive condition of man
Avas one of civilisation, the Duke accounts for the existence of
savages bA' the remark that thev are ' mere outcasts of the
human race,' descendants of weak tribes which Avcre ' driven to
the Avoods and rocks.' But until the historical period these
' mere outcasts ' occupied almost the Avhole of North and South
America, all Xorthern Europe, the greater j)art of Africa, the
great ccmtincnt of Australia, a large part f)f Asia, and the
beautiful islands of the Pacific. Moreover, until modified by
man, the great continents were either in the condition of open
plains, such as heaths, downs, praii'ics, and tundras, or they
Avere mere ' woods and rocks.' Now everything tends to shoAv
that mere Avoods and rocks exercised on the Avholc a favourable
influence. Inhabitants of great plains rarely rose beyond
the pastoral stage. In America the most advanced civilisation
Avas attained, not by the occupants of the fertile valleys, not
along the banks of the ^lississippi or the Amazon, but among
the rocks and Avoods of iSIexico and Peru. Scotland itself is
a brilliant proof that AVoods and rocks are compatible Avitli a
high state of civilisation.

My idea of the manner in Avhich, and the causes OAving to
Avhich, man spread over the earth, is very different from that of

c c 2

3R8

TJIE DIFFUSION OF MANKIND.

tlic Diikc. Tie evidently supposes that new countries have
IxHMi occupied l)y weak races, driven there hy more powerful
tilhes. Tin's I believe to be an entirely erroneous notion.
Take, for instance, our own island. Wc are sometimes told
that the Celt;s were driven by the Saxons into Wales and
Cornwall. On the contrary, however, we know that Wales
and Cornwall were both occupied lonj:^ before the Saxons
landed on our shores. Even as regards the rest of the country,
it would not be correct to say that the Celts were driven away ;
they were either destroyed or absorbed.

The gradual extension of the human race has not, in my
opinion, been eifected by force acting on any given race from
Avithout, but by internal necessity, and the pressure of popula-
tion ; by peaceful, not by hostile force; by prosperity, not by
misfortune. I believe that of old, as now, founders of new
colonies were men of energy and entorprise ; animated by hope
and courage, not by fear and dcsi)air; that they were, in short,
anything but mere outcasts of the human race.

The Duke relics a cjood deal on the case of America. ' Is

* it not true,' he asks, * that the lowest and rudest tribes in the

* population of the globe have been found in the furthest ex-

* trcmities of its great continents, and in the distant islands Avhicli

* would be the last refuge of the victims of violence and misfor-

* tune ? " The Xew AVorld " is the continent which presents

* the most uninterrupted stretch of habitable land from the
' hiohest northern to the lowest southern latitude. On the

* extreme north we have the Esquimaux, or Inuit race, main-
taining human life under conditions of extremcst hardship,
even amid the perpetual ice of the Polar Seas. And what a
life it is ! Watching at the blow- hole of a seal for many hours,
in a temperature of 75° below freezing point, is the constant
work of the Imiit hunter. And when at last his prey is
struck, it is his luxury to feast upon the raw blood and blub-
ber. To civilised man it is hardly possible to conceive a life

' so wretched, and in many respects so brutal as the life led by
' this race during the long lasting night of the arctic winter.'

To this question I confidently rei)ly. No, it is not true ; it is
not true as a general proposition that the lowest races are found
furthest from the centres of continents ; it is not true in the

,Ei!

/).

THE TS^FLUI'J.WI-: OF ILXTIJUSAL COMHTf()\S. 3S9

countries havo
' more powerful
•roueous notion.

Honictimes told
into AVales and
low tliiit Wales
ore the Saxons
t of the country,
>rc driven away ;

has not, in my
L^ivcn race from
ssiu'c of popula-
osperity, not by
(Hinders of new
iiiinatcd by hope
ly were, in short,

i" America. ' Is

est tribes in the

the furthest ex-

int islands which

cnce and misfor-

which presents

land from the

itude. On the

niiit race, main-

•emcst hardship,

s. And what a

for many hours,

is the constant

ast his prey is

jlood and blub-

j conceive a life

s the life led by

arctic winter.'

s not true ; it is

races are found

not true in the

I)ar(i('ular case (►f America. The natives of lira/ii, posscssin{T
u country of almost unrivalled fertility, surrounded by the
most luxuriant ve<ifetation, watered by ma|jjnificcnt rivers, and
abounding in animal life, were yet uiuiucstionably lower than
the Esquimaux," whom the Duke pities and despises so much.''
More, indeed, I think, than the case reciuires. Our own
sportsmen williiif^ly underpfo oreat hardships iu pursuit of jj:ame ;
and hunting in earnest must possess a keen zest which it can
never attain when it is a mere sport.

' When we rise,' says Mr. Ilill,^ * twice or thrice a day from
* a full meal, we cannot be in a right frame either of body or
' mind for the proper enjoyments of the chase. Our sluggish
' spirits then want the true incentive to action, which should bo
' hunger, with the hope before us of filling a craving stomach.
' I could rcmeml)er once before being for a long time dci)endent
' upon the gun for food, and feeling :i touch of the charm of a
'savage life (for every condition of humanity has its good as
' well as its evil), but never till now did I fully comprehend the
' attachment of the sensitive, not drowsy Indian.'

Esquimaux life, indeed, as painted by our Arctic voyagers,

is by no means so miserable as the Duke supposes. Capt.

Parry, for instance, gives the following picture of an Es(|ui-

maux hut. * In the few opportunities we had in putting their

' hospitality to the test, we had every reason to be pleased with

' them. Both as to food and accommodation, the best they had

Avere always at our service; and their attention, both in kind

and degree, was everything that hos[)itality and even good

breeding could dictate. The kindly offices of drying and

mending our clothes, cooking our provisions and thawing snow

' for our drink, were performed by the women with an obliging

' cheerfulness which we shall not easily forget, and whicli de-

' manded its due share of our admiration and esteem. AVhilc

' thus their guest I have passed an evening not only witli

' comfort, but with extreme gratification ; for Avith the women

' Sec Martins, p. 77. Dr. Rae ranks
tlio Esiquimaux abjve tlic liud Indians,
Trans. Elhn. Soo. 1800.

* Wiion tlio Duke states lliat
' neither an agricultural nor pastoral

life is possible on the borders of a
frozen sea,' he forgot for the niomont
tlie inhabitants of Ijajil.ind and of
Siberia.

' Travels in Siberia, vol. ii. p. 288.

3'>0

THE EiiQUniAUX.

r- V

I, t

-\ \:

II ;■

ii;

' workiiin- ami slnj^iiig, their luisbunds quietly men<llng their
' lines, the children playing before the door, and tlie })ot boiling

* over the blaze of a cheerful lamp, one might well forget for
' the time that an Esquimaux hut was the scene of this domes-
' tic comfort and tran{iuillity ; and I can safely affirm Avith
' Cartwright that, while thus lodged beuvath their roof, I know
' no people whom I would more confidently trust, as respects
' either my jierson or my property, than the Esquimaux.' Dr.
Rae,' who had ample means of judging, tells us that the

Eastern Esquimaux ' are sober, steady and faithful

' Provident of their own ])roperty, and careful of that of others

' when imder their charge Socially they are a lively,

' cheerful, and chatty ])eople, fond of associating with each
' other and with strangers, with Avhom they soon become on

' friendly terms, if kindly treated In their domestic

' relations they arc exemplary. The ma i is an obedient son, a

' jjjood husband, and a kind father The children when

' youui*' are docile Ihc skirls have their dolls, in makiufj

' dresses and shoes for which they anuisc and cmjtloy them-
' selves. The boys have miniature bows, arrows, and spears.
*. . . . AVhen grown uj) they are dutiful to their parents. . . .
' Orphan children arc readily adojitcd and Avell cared for until
' they are able to jjrovide for themselves.' He concludes by
saying, ' the more I saAv of the Esquimaux the higher Avas the
' 0])inion I formed of them.'

Again, Hooper^ thus describes a visit to an Asiatic Esqui-
maux belonging to the Tuski i-ace: ' Upon reaching Mooldoo-
' yah's habiiuti'.»n, we found Ca})tiun jVIoore installed at his ease,
' with every j)r()vision made for comfort and convenience.
' Water and venison Avere si'.spended over the lamps in prepani-

* tion for diiiner; skins nicely arranged for couches, and the

* hanoinjTS raised to adnu't tlie cool air; our bagyan-e Avas

* bestowed around us Av'th care and iri qr.irt, and Ave Avere free
' to take our own Avay of enjoying such unobtrusive ho,-.pitality
' without a croAvd of eai>'er ji'azers Avatciiin<>; us like Tunis at feed ;
'nor V. ere we trouble<l by imi)ortunate bogging such as dc-
' t'a'ted from the diiinity of ^fetra's station, Avhich Avas

* undoubtedly high in the tribe.'

' Trans. Eth. Sue. 18GG, p, 138. « The Tents of the Tuski, p. 102.

I ;!l

ORIGINAL AND UNIVERSAL IlAnBARISM.

31)1

y mending tliclr
(1 the j)ot boiling
t well forget lor
le of tins (lonics-
fely affirm ■with
heir roof, I know
trust, as respects
squimaux.' Dr.
ills us that the

faithful

of that of others

ley are a lively,

ating Avith each

soon become on

1 their domestic

1 obedient son, a

e children when

dolls, in making

d emi)lov them-

ows, and spears.

pir parents. . . .

cared for until

e concludes by

hio-her Avas the

Asiatic Esqni-

ching Mooldoo-

illed at liis ease,

I convenience.

u\\)i> in prepara-

tuchcs, and the

baguage Avas

id Ave Avere free

sive hospitality

e Tunis at feed;

ig such as de-

)n, Avliii-li Avas

I- Tii«ki, ]\ 102.

I know no sufficient reason for supposing that the Esquimaux
Avere ever more advanced than they are now. The Duke
indeed considers that before tliev Avere ' diiven by Avars and
migrations ' (a somewhat curious expression) they ' may have
been nomads living on their flocks and herds ; ' and he states
broadly that ' the rigours of the region they now inhabit have
reduced this peojile to the condition in Avliich we now see them ; '
a conclusion for Avhich I knoAV no reason, particularly as the
Tinne and other Indians living to the south of the Esciuiinaux
are ruder and more barbarous.

It is my belief that the great continc its Avere already occu-
pied by a Avidespread, though sparse i)oi)ulation, Avhen man
Avas no more advanced than the lowest savages of to-day ; and
although I am far from believiuLi: that the various deu'recs of
civilisation Avhich noAV occur can be altoi^ethcr ixcounted for
by the external circumstances as they at present exist, still
these circumstances seem to me to throw much lioht on the
very diflercnt amount of progress which has been attainct' by
dift'erent races.

In referring to the backwardness of the aborio-inal Aiislra-
lians, I had observed that Xew Holland c(»fitained • neill'.er
' cereals nor any animals which could be domesticated Avith
' advantage,' u^jou Avhich the Duke remarks that ' Sir John
' Lubbock urges in reply to Whately that the Ioav condition

* of Australian savages affords no proof Avhatever that they
' could not raise themselves, because the materials of inprove-
' ment are Avantinn; in that countrv , Avhich affords no cereals,

* nor animals cajiable of useful demestieation. But Sir J.

* Lubbock does not perceive that the same argument Avhieh

* shows bjw improvement could not [)ossibly be attained,
' shoAvs also how degradation could not possibly be avoided.
' If Avitli the few resources of the country it Avas inijH)ssible for
' savages to rise, it follows tliat Avith those same wsources it
' Avould be impossible for a half-civilised race not to fall. And
' as In this case again, unless Ave are to suppose a separate
' Adam and Ea'C for Van Diemen's land, its natives must
' originall}' have come from countries Avhere l)oth corn and
' cattle Avere to be had, it follows that the Ioav condition of
' these natives is much more likely to lir , e been the result of
' degradation than of primeval barbarism.'

302 SUPPOSED INEVITABILITY OF DEGBABATION.

\v\

But my argument was that a hivlf-civllised race would have
brouo-ht other resources Avith them. The dog Avas, I think,
certainly introduced into that country by man, who would
liave brought with him other animals also if he had possessed
any. The same argument applies to })lants ; the Polynesians
carried the sweet potato and the yam, as well as the dog, with
them frx>m island to island ; and even if the first settlers in
Australia happened to have been Avithout theni^ and without
the means of acquiring them, they Avould certainly have found
some native plants Avhich Avould have been worth the trouble
of cultivation, if they had attained to the agricultural

StilgO.

This argument applies Avith even more force to pottery ; if
the first settlers in Australia Avere acqtuiintcd Avlth diis art, I
can see no reason Avhy they shoidd suddenly and completely
have lost it.

The Duke, irKlced, a[»pears to maintain that the natives of
Van Diemen's Land (avIioui he evidently regards as belonging
to the same race as the Austndians and Polynesians, froai
both of Avhich they are entirely distinct) ' must originally i >vi
' come from countries Avhcre both corn and cattle Avere to he
' had,' f^till ' degradation could n«)t porisibly be avoided.' This
seems to be thu natural inference from the Duke's language,
and suo-n-ests a very jjloomy feature for our Australian fellow-
countrymen. The position is, hoAvevor, so manifestly unten-
able, Avhen once put into lain language, that I think it
unnecessary to dwell longer on this part of the subject.
Even the Duke himself Avill hardly maintain that our colo-
nists must fall back because the natives did not improve.
Yet he extends and generalises this argument in a subsequent
paragraph, saying, ' tliere is hardly a single fact quoted by
' Sir J. Lubbock in favour of his own theory, Avhich Avhen
' viewed in connection Avith the same indisputable principles,
' does not tell ajjainst that theory rather than in its favour.'
So far from being * indisiiutable,' the principle that Avhen
savages remained savages, civilised settlers must descend to
the same level, aj)pears to me entirely erroneous. On reading
the al>ovo passage, however, I passed on Avith nuich interest to
gee which of my facts I had so strangely misread.

The great majority of facto connected Avith savage life have

ATI OK.

surrosED evidence of degradatiox.

803

B would Ii.ave
vas, I think,
, who would
uid possessed

Polynesians
the dog, with
st settlers in

and without
y have found
h the trouble

ao;ricultural

pottery ; if
th this art, I
d completely

lie natives of
as belonging
lesians, froai
■io;iuallv i ivi
e Avere to be

ided; This
e's language,

allan fellow-
festly unten-
I think it

the subject.

1 at our colo-
lot improve.

subsequent
quoted by

Iwhich when
principles,
its favour.'
that when
descend to
On reading

li interest to

Jge life have

no perceptible bearing on the question, and I must therefore
have been not only very stupid, but also singulai-ly unfortu-
nate, if of all those quoted by me in support of my argument

* there was hardly a single one' which read aright was not merely
irrelevani, but actually told against me. In support of his state-
ment the Duke gives three illustrations, but it is remarkable
that not one of these three cases was referred to by me in the
present discussion, or in favour of the theory now under dis-
cussion. If all the facts on v.hicli I relied told aijainst me, it
is curious that the Duke should not give an in^tance. The
three illustrations which he quotes from my ' Prehistoric

* Times ' seem to me irrelevant, but as the Duke thinks other-
wise, and some may agree with him, it will be worth while to
see how he uses them, and to enquire whether they give any
real support to his argument. As already mentioned, they are
three in number.

' Sir J. Lubbock,* he says, * reminds us that in a -"ave on

* the north-west coast ^of Australia), tolerable figures of

* sharks, porjioises, turtles, lizards, canoes, and some (juadrii-

* pcds, &c. were found, and yet that the i)resent natives of

* the country where they Avere found were utterly incapable of
' realising the most artistic vivid rpi)resentations, and asc?-ibe
' the drawings in the cave to diabolical agency.' This proves
nothing, because the Australian tribes dlHer nuich in their
artistic condition; some of them still make rude drawings like
those above described.

Secondly, he says, ' Sir J. Lubbock quotes the testimony of
' Cook, in respect to the Tasmanians, that they had no canoes.

* Yet their ancestors could not have reached the island by
' walking on the sea.' This argument would equally prove
that the Kangaroo and the Echidna must have had civilised
ancestors ; they inhabit both Australia and Tasmania, and it
>' ould have been impossible for their ancestors co have passed
irom the one to the other, ' by walking on the sea.' The
Duke, though admitting the antiquity of man, does not I
thill appreciate the geological changes which have taken
place during the human i)eriod.

The only otlier rase v.'hieh he quotes is that of the highland
Esquimaux who had no weajjons nor any idea of war. The
Duke's comment is as follows: — * No wonder, poor people I

I r

391.

THE aunvivAL of customs.

w <

T. . ii

I':* I, 'f

f I !

i! f

' They liad been driven into rcfjfions Avherc no stronger race

* could desire to follow tl^ m. lUit that the fathers had once
' known wliat war and violence nieant, there is no more con-
' elusive proof than the dwelling-place of their children.' It
is ])erhaps natural that the head of a great Highland Clan
should regard Avith pity a people who having ' once known
' what war and violoncc meant,' have no longer any neigh-
bours to pillage or to fight, but a Lowlander can liardly be
expected seriously to regard such a change as one calculated
to excite ]>ity, or as any evidence of degradativ)n.

In my first i)a]tcr I deduced an argument from the condition
of religion among the different races of man, a part of the
subject which has since been admirably dealt with by Mr.
Tylor in a lecture at the Iloyal Institution. The use of flint
for sacrificial purposes long after the introduction of metal
seemed to me a good case of what Mr. Tylor has aptly called
' Survival.' So also is the method of obtaining fire. The
Brahma ii v "'1 ^>ot use ordinary fire for sacred purposes, he does
not even o.. a fresh sj)ark from flint and steel, but reverts
to, or rather continues the old way of obtaining it by friction
with a wooden drill, one brahman pulling the thong backwards
and forwards while another watches to catch the sacred spark.

I also referred to the non-existence of religion amony; certain
savage races, and as the Duke correctly observes, I argued
that this was probably their primitive condition, because it is
difficult to believe that a i)eople which had once possessed a
religion would ever entirely lose it.'

This argument filled the Duke with 'astonishment.' Surely,
he says, ' if there is one fact more certain than another in
' rcs])ect lo the nature of Man, it is that he is cai)able of
' losiniij roliii'ious knowled<>"e, of ceasinii; to believe in reliffious
' truth, and of falling away from religious duty. If by

* " religion " is meant the existence merely of some impres-
' sions of ])owers invisible and supernatural, even this, we

* know, can not only be lost, but be scornfully disavowed by
' : len Avho arc highly civilised.' Yet in the very same i)age
the Duke goes on to say, ' the most cruel and savage customs

' It is surely unneccFsary to cxpliiiii j^ossiliility of a clian^c in, but a total
that I did not intend to question the loss of religion.

.,( I

'y. :

Ml:

FROG HESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS.

305

«trono;er race
ers had once
10 more con-
ihiklrcn.' It
ighland Clan
once kno^vn
r any neigh-
an hardly be
lie calculated

the condition
I part of the
with by Mr.

c use of flint
:ion of metal
s aptly called
ijx fire. The
poses, he does
jl, but reverts
it by friction
no: backwards
;acred spark,
imong certain
,es, I argued
I, because it is
le possessed a

|eiit.' Surely,
,n another in

5 capable of
in religious

ity. If by
louic impros-
ten this, we
[isavowed by

' same i)age

age customs

in, but a lulal

' in the world are the direct eflfect of its " religions." And if
' men could drop religions when tliey would, or if they could
' even form the wish to get rid of those which sit like a night-
' mare on their life, there would be many more nations without
' a " religion " than there are found to be. But religions can
' neither be put on nor cast off like garments, acconling to
' their utility, or according to their beauty, or according to
* their power of comforting.'

With this I entirelv agree. ]\Ian can no more voluntarily
abandon or change the articles of his religious creed than he
can make one hair black or white, or add one cubit to his sta-
ture. I do not deny that there may be exceptional cases of
intellectual nun entirely devoid of religion ; but if the Duke
means to say that men who are highly civilised, habitually or
frefjuently lose, and scornfully disavow religion, I can oidy say
that I should adopt such an opinion with difhculty and regret.
There is, so far as I know, no evidence on record which would
justify such an opinion, and as far as my private exj)eriencc
goes, I at least have met with no such tendency. It is indeed
true that from the times of Socrates downwards, men in .ul-
vance of their age have disavowed i)articular dogmas, and par-
ticular myths; but the Duke of Argyll would, I am sure, not
confuse a desire for reformation with the scornful disavowal of
religion as a whole Some j)hiIosoi>hers may object to ])rayers
for rain, but they are foremost in denouncing the iblly of witch-
craft ; the\ may regard matter as aboriginal, but thev Avould
never su[)pose with the Redskin that land was created while
w'ater existed from the beginning; nor does anyone now be-
lieve with the South-Sea Islanders that the Peerage are iuj-
mortal, but not commoners. If, indeed, there is ' one fact move
' certain than another in respect to the nature of man,' I should
have considered it to be the gradiud diffusion of religious light,
and of nobler concei)tions as to the nature of God.

The lowest savages have no idea of a deity at all. Those
slightly more advanced regard him as an enemy to be dreaded,
but who may be resisted with a fair ])ros[)ect of success, who
may be cheated by the cunning and defied by the strong. Thus
tlic natives of the Nicobar islands endeavour to terrify their
ceity by scarecrows, and the Negro beats his fetish if his

) I

306

FETICmSM.

'! i

-, ;if

^(ii-i

It?

\\\

prayers are not granted. As tribes advance in civilisation,
their deities •ulvance in dignity, but their power is still limited ;
one governs the sea, another the land ; one reigns over the
plains, another among the mountains. The most powerful arc
vindictive, cruel, and unjust. They require humiliating cere-
monies and bloody sacrilices. But few races have arrived at
the conception of an onniipotent and beneficent Deity.

Perhaj)s the lowest form of religion may be considered to be
that presented by the Australians, which consists of a mere un-
reasoning belief in the existence of mvsterious beings. The
native who has in his slcei) a nightmare, or a dream, does not
doubt the reality of that which passes, and as the beings by
■whom he is visited in his sleep are unseen by his friends and
relations, he regards them ". invisible.

In Fetichism this feeling is more methodised. The negro,
by means of witchcraft, endeavours to make a slave of his deity.
Thus Fetichism is almost the oi)})os!te of Religion ; it stands
towards it in the same relation as Alchemy to Chemistry, or
Astrology to Astronomy ; and shows how fundamentally our
idea of a deity differs from that which presents itself to the
savage. The Xegro docs not hesitate to punish a refractory
Fetish, and hides it in his waistclotli if he does not wish it
to know what is going on. Aladdin's lamp is, in fact, a well-
known illustration of a Fetish.

A further stage, and the superiority of the higher deities is
more fully recognised. Everything is worshipped indiscrimi-
nately — animals, plants, and even inanimate objects. In
endeavouring to account for the worship of animals, we must
remember that names are very frequently taken from them.
The children and followers of a man called the Bear or the
Lion would make that a tribal name. Hence the animal itself
would be first respected, at last worshipped. This form of
religion can be shown to have existed, at one time or another,
almost all over the world.

' The Totem,' says Schoolcraft, ' is a symbol of the name of

* the progenitor, — generally some quadruped, or bird, or other

* object in the animal kingdom, which stands, if we may so ex-

* press it, as the sui-name of the family. It is always some

* animated object, and seldom or never derived from the inani-

TOT E MIS M.

* mate class of nature. Its sifTiiificant iinjiortaiu'e is derlvetl from
' the fact that individuals unhesitatingly trace their lineatre from

* it. By Avhatever names they may be called durinfj; their life-
' time, it is the totem, and not their personal name, that is re-

* corded on the tomb or " adjedating " that marks the place of
' burial. Families are thus traced when expanded into bands or

* tribes, the multii»lication of which, in North America, has been

* very great, and has decreased, in like ratio, the labours of the

* ethnologist.' Totemism, however, is by no means confined to
America. In central India ' the Moondah " Enidhi,' or Oraon

* " Minijrar,' or eel tribe, will not kill or eat that fish. The

* Hawk, CroAV, or Heron tribes will not kill or eat those birds.

* Livingstone, quoted in Latham, tells us that the subtribes of
' Bitshaunas (or Bechuanas) are similarly named after certain

* animals, and a tribe never eats the animal from which it is

* named, using the term " ila," hate or dread, in reference to

* killing it.' ' ^

Traces, indeed, of Totemism, more or less distinct, are widely
distributed, and often connected with marriage prohibitions.

As regards inanimate objects, we nnist renieuiber that the
savase accounts for all acti(m and movement bv life : hence a
watch is to him alive. This being taken in conjunction with
the feeling that anything unusual is * great medicine,' leads to
the worship of any remarkable inanimate object. ]Mr. Fergus-
son has recently attempted to show the s})ccial prevalence of
Tree and Serpent worship. He might, 1 believe, have made
out as strong a case for many other objects. It seems clear
that the objects worshipped in this stage are neither to be re-
garded as end)lems, nor are they personified. Inanimate
objects have spirits as well as men ; hence when the wives and
slaves are sacrificed, the weaptms also are broken in the grave,
so that the spirits of the latter, as well as of the former, may
accompany their master to the other world.

The gradually increasing power of chiefs and priests led to
Anthropomor[)hism, with its sacrifices, temples, and priests, &c.
To this stage belongs idolatry, which nuist by no means be re-
garded as the lowest state of religion. Solomon,- indeed, long
asro pointed out how it was connected with monarchical power.
' Trans. Ktlinoldgiciil Soe. N. S., vol vi. \\ MO. - Wisdmn, xiv. 17.

1. !!.'•

!■

\¥.

V\''\

ll • j . ,.

■

fi;

\ 'I' \

I \ \

I ,

llj

1 '

! 1 ?

\ \

g08

IDOLATUY

' AVliom men could not honour in ])rcsence, bocausc tlioy

* dwelt far off, they took tlie countcrFoit of his visage from far,
' and made an express inia<:j;e of a kin<:j, whom they honoured,

* to the end tliat by this, their forwardness, they might Hatter

* him that was absent, as if he were present.

' Also the singular diligence of the artificer did help to set
' forward the ignorant to more superstition.

' For he, peradventurc willing to please one in anthority,

* forced all liis skill to make the resemblance of the best fashion.

' And so the multitude, allured by the grace of the work,

* took him now for a God, which a little before Avas but

* honoured as a man.'

The worship of princi[)les may be regarded as a still further
st;'.ge in the natural development of religion.

It is important to observe that each stage of religion is super-
imi)osed on the preceding, and that bygone beliefs linger on
amon'i: the children and the i<j;norant. Thus witchcraft is still
believed in by the ignorant, and fairy tales flourish in the
nursery.

It certainly appears to me that the gradual development of
religious ideas anumg the lower races of men is a fair argument
in opposition to the view that savages are degenerate descen-
dants of civilised ancestors. Archbishop Whately would admit
the connexion between these dilFerent phases of religious belief;
but I think he would find it very difficult to show any juocess
of natural degradation and decay which could explain the
quaint errors and o[)inions of the lower races of men, or to ac-
count for the lingering belief in witchcraft, and other absur-
dities, &c., in civilised races, excepting by some such train of
reasoning as that which I have endeavoured to sketch.

There is another case in this memoir wherein the Duke,
although generally a fair opponent, brings forward an unsup-
portable accusation. He criticises severely the ' Four Ages,'
generally aduiittetl by archajologists, especially referring to the
terms ' Palaiolithic ' and ' Neolithic,' which are used to denote
the two earlier.

I have no wish to take to myself in particular the blame
which the Duke imi)artially extends to arclucologists in gene-
ral, but having suggested the tw'O terms in question, I will

cause tliov
■e from far,
' honoured,
ight Hatter

iclj) to set

autlioritv,
est fasliiou.

the 'Nvork,
3 was but

till further

)n is super-
linger on
raft is still
rish in the

oj)ment of
' argument
te descen-
ould admit
:)us belief;
ny juocess
xplain the
I, or to ac-
ler absur-
3h train of

le Duke,
m unsup-
ur Ages,'
ing to the
to denote

he blame

in gene-

)n, I will

TIIU TiniE TIlFAJllY OF THE FOUR ACES. :;:■'.)

sim}>ly place side by side the passage in wlii'h llicy first
appeared, and the Duke's criticism, and (tonfulcutly ask whether
there is any foundation for the sweojiing accusation made by
the noble Duke.

The Duke says : ' For here

* I must observe that Arcluco-
' logists are using lann;uage on

* this subject which, if not po-
' sitively erroneous, requires,

* at least, more rigorous de-
finitions and limitations of
meaning than they are dis-
posed to attend to. They
talk of an Old Stone Age
(Palaiolithic),and of a Newer
Stone Age ( Neolithic), and
of a Bronze Age, and of an
Iron Aire. Now, there is no
proof Tvhatever that such
Ages ever existed in the
world. It may be true, and
it pn)bably is true, that most
nations in ihe progress of the
Arts have j)assed through
the staires of using stone for
implen^.ents before they Avcrc
acquainted with the use of
metals. Even this, however,
may not be true of all na-
tions. In Africa there ap-
pear to be no traces of any
time when the natives Avere
not acquainted Avith the use
of iron, and I am informed
by Sir Samuel Baker that
iron ore is so common in
Africa, and of a kind so
easily reducible by heat, and

My words, when proposing
the terms, were as follows: —

' From the careiul study of
' the remains which have come
' down to us, it would appear
' that the j)rehistori(; arclue-
' ology may be divided into
' four great e[)<)chs.

' Firstly, that of Drift, when
' man shared the possession of
' Euro[)e with the Mammoth,
' the cave-bear, the woolly-
' haired rhinoceros and other

* extinct animals. This wc
' may call the " PaUx^olitluc "
' period.

* Secondly, the later or po-
lished Stone ^Vgo ; v ])criod
' characterised by beautiful
' Avcapons and instruments
' made of flint and other kinds
' of stone, in which, however,
' we find no trace of the know-
' ledge of any metal, excepting

* gold, V. 'ich seems to have
' been sometimes used for or-

* naments. This we may call
' the Neolithic period.

' Thirdly, the Bronze Age,

* in which bronze was used for

* arms and cutting instruments

* of all kinds.

' Fourth! V, the Iron Aa;e in
' which that metal had super-

400 THE TRUE TIIEOUY OF THE Foil! ACES.

i. ,1

*i;

', II

t f

'i-.

its use miiylit well be tUsco-
vored Uy the rudest tribes,
who were in the habit of
liiihtlii'; fires. Tiien aj^ain
it is to be rcnicinbercd tliat
there arc some countries in
the worhl where stone is as
rare and difficult to get as
metals.

' The great alluvial jjlains
of Mesopotamia are a case in
])oint. Accordingly we know
from the remains of the first
Chaldean monarchy that a
very high civilisation in the
arts of agriculture and of
commerce coexisted Avith the
\ise of stone implements of a
very rude character. This
fact i)roves that rude stone
implements are not necessa-
rily any proof whatever of
a really barbarous conditi(m.
And even if it were true that
the use of stone has in all
cases preceded the use of
metals, it is quite certain
that the same age which was
an Age of Stone in one ])art
of the Avorld was an Age of
Metal in the other. As re-
ijards the Eskimo and the
South Sea islanders, we are
now, or were very recently,
living in a Stone Age.'

' seded bronze for arms, axes,
' knives, &c. ; bronze, how-

* ever, still being in connnon
' use for ornaments, and frc-

* quently also for the handles

* of swords and other arms, but

* never for the blades.'

' Stone weapons, 1 owever,
' of many kinds were still in use
' durini; the Age of Bronze,

* and even durini; that of Iron.

* So that the mere })resonco of a

* few stone implements is not in
' itself sufficient evidence that
' any given " find " belongs to

* the Stone Age.

' In order to prevent mis-

* apprehension, it may be as
' well to state at once that I
' only apply this classification
' to Europe, though in all pro-
' bability it might also be ex-

* tended to the neighbouring

* [)arts of Asia and Africa.
' As regards other civilised
' countries, China and Japan

* for instance, avc, as yet, know

* nothing of their prehistoric

* archa3ology. It is evident,

* also, that some nations, such

* as the FiK gians, Andama-
' ners, &c., are even now only
' in an Age of Stone.'

I have therefore actually pointed tut those very limitations,
the omission of Avhich the Duke condemns.

I will now bring forward one or two additional reasons

riES.

EVWESL'i: FL'UM Cli'uSSI'UJ h\\C!:s.

•toi

I' arms, axes,
)ronze, liow-
f in common
nts, and frc-
f tlic lijvndlcs
lici* arms, but
liulos.'

•ns, 1 owcvcr,
ere still in use
;e of Bronze,
■r that of Iron,
c jircscnceof a
inents is not in
evidence that
d " belongs to

prevent mis-
it may be as
it once that I
3 classification
ugh in all pro-
lit also be ex-
neighbouring
and Africa.
Ither civilised
a and Japan
, as yet, know
ir prehistoric
|lt is evident,
nations, such
,ns, Andama-
ven now only
tone.'

ry limitations,
lional reasons

in support of my view. There is a considerable body of
evidence tending to show that the oifspriug produced by
crossing different varieties tends to revert to the type from
which these varieties are descended. Thus Tegetmeier states
that 'a cross between two non-sitting varieties (of the com-
' mon fowl) almost invariably produces a mongr"^! that l)e-
' comes broody, and sits with remarkable steadiness.' Mr.
Darwin gives several cases in which such hvbrids or mon-
grels are singularly wild and untameable, the mule being
a familiar instance. jSIessrs. Boitard and Corbie state that,
when they crossed certain breeds of ])igeons, they invariably
got some young ones coloiu-cd like the wild C. Uviii. INIr.
Darwin rei)eated these exi)eriments, and found the statement
fully confirmed.

So aijain the same is the case with fowls. The ori<>inal of
the Domestic Fowl was of a reddish colour, but thousands
of the Black Si)anish and the white silk fowls might be bred
without a single red feather appearing, yet ]\Ir. Darwin found
that on crossing them he inunediatcly obtained specimens with
red feathers. Similar results have been obtained with (hu.'ks,
rabbits, and cattle. JMules also have not unfrequently barred
legs. It is unnecessary to give these cases in detail, because
jNIr. Darwin's work on * Animals and Plants under Domestica-
' tion' is ill the hands of every naturalist.

Applying the same test to man, Mr. Darwin observes that
crossed races of men are sinj^ularlv savajje and doy-radcd.

* Many years ago,' he says, ' I was struck by the fact that in

* South America men of comjdicated descent between Negroes,

* Indians, and Spaniards, seldom had, whatever the cause might

* be, a good expression. Livingstone remarks that " it is un-

* " accountable why half-castes are so much more cruel than
' " the Portuguese, but such is undoubtedly the case." A

* native remarked to Livingstone — " God made white men,
' " and God made black men, but the devil made half-castes ! "
' When two races, both low in the scale, are crossed, the i)ro-
' geny seems to be eminently bad. Thus the noble-hearted
' Humboldt, who felt none of that prejudice against the inferior

* races now so current in England, speaks in strong terms of
' the bad and savage disposition of Zambas, or half-castes

D D

402

sr^fru uity Kxisrisa nirnvHt'K

■i ''1

if|.i

* between Indians and Xe}>roc.s, and tliid con<*lnsion has be'

* arrived at by various observers. From these liiets we may

* perhaps inter that the de<;raded state of 8o many lialf-eastes

* is in part due to reversion to a i)riniitivc and savage eondi-

* tion, induced by tho act of crossing, as well aa to the un-

* favourable moral conditions under which they generally

* exist.'

I confess, however, that I am not sure how far this may not
be accounted for by the unfortunate circumstances in which
half-breeds arc generally placed. The half-breeds between the
Hudson's l>ay Comi)any's servants and the native women, being
well treated and looked after, appear to be a creditable and
■well-behaved set.'

I would also call particular attention to the remarkable
similarity between the mental characteristics of savages iind
those of children. ' The Abipones,' says Dobritzhoffer,^ ' when

* they are unable to comprehend anything at first sight, soon

* grow weary of examining it, and cry " orqueenam ? " what is

* it after all? Sometimes the Guaraniea, when completely

* puzzled, knit their brows and cry " tuptl oiquaa," God knows

* what it is. Since they possess such small reasoning powers,

* and have so little inclination to exert them, i 's no wonder
' that they arc neither able nor willing to argii -; thing from

* another.'

Hichardson says of the Dogrib Indians, * that hoAvcver higli

* the reward they expected to receive on reaching their desti-

* nati(m, they could not be depended on to carry letters. A

* slight difficulty, the prospect of a banquet on venison, or a

* sudden impulse to visit some friend, were sufficient to turn

* them aside for an indefinite length of time.' ^ Le Vaillant '
also observes of the Nam aquas, that they closely resembled
children in their great curiosity.

M. Bourien,^ speaking of the wild tribes in the Malayan
Peninsula, says that an * inconstant humour, fickle and erratic,

* together with a mixture of fear, timidity, and diffidence, lies

* at the bottom of their character ; they seem always to think

* that they would be better in any other place than in the one

' Dunn's ' Oregon Territory,' p. 147.
'■^ llis. of iho Abipouts, vol. ii. p. y!».
» Arctic Expedition, vol. ii. p. -'6.

* Travels in Africa, 1770, vol. iii.
p. 12.

» Tr.iuB. j'^llm. .'^oi'. N..S. vol. iii.p. 78.

(•,i t

s.\VA(ii:s AM) rniijHi'i:x.

t(>:{

ion has bc<
'iicts we may
IV ImU-castt'S
savage eoiuli-
18 to the lui-
icy generally

• this may not
iiees in which
Is between the
! women, beinj^
creditable and

ic remarkable
)t' savages aiul
diofler,'^ ' when
irst sight, soon
niun V " what is
len completely
la," God knows
isoning powers,
s no wonder
^ thing from

it however higli
injr their dcsti-
irry letters. A
on venison, or a
tficient to turn
Le Vaillant »
osely resembled

in the Malayan
ckle and erratic,
d diffidence, lies
always to think
than in the one

frica, 1776, vol. iii.
V'. N..S. vul.iii.P' 78.

* tlicy occupy at the time. Like children, their actions seem

* to be rarely guided by reHcction, and they almost always act

* impulsively.' The tears of the South-Sea Islanders, ' liUe

' those of children, were always ready to express any passion
' that was strongly excitod, and, like those of children, they
' also a|ipearedto be forgotten as soon as shed.' '

At Tahiti, C^ajitain Cook nuMitions that Oberea, the Queen,
and Tootahah, one of the i)rincipal chiefs, amused themselves
Avith two large d<»lls. DTrville tells us that a New Zealand
chief, Tanvarva bv name, ' cried like a child because the sailors
'spoilt his favourite cloak by j)owdering it with Hour.'"
AViliiams'"' mentions that in Feejee not only the women, but
even the men give vent to their feelings by crying. IJurton
even savs that among East Africans the men cried more
frequently than the women.' ^

Kot only do savages closely reficmblc children in their
general character, but a curious similarity exists between them
in many small points. For instance, the tendenc^y to redupli-
cation, which is so characteristic of children, prevails remarkably
also amongst savages. The first 1000 words in Richardson's
dictionary (down to allege), lontain only three, namely, adsci-
titious, adventitious, ngitator, and even in these it is reduced to
a minimiun. There is not a single \vord like ohi nhi, evening ;
(ilw ohc, eternal; (ih'i, alii, a bird; aniird/iiirt/, the rainbow;
(nif/n amja, agreement ; (in<ji an(/i, aboard ; artt nro, in front ;
armiru, to v;oo\ (tfi ail, to drive out; awn f///v<, a valley ; or
unutiKja wan(ja, hope, words of a class which abound in savage
lanixuages.

The first 1000 words in a French dictionary I found to con-
tain only two reduplications, namely, anana and assassin, both
of which are derived from a lower race, and cannot, strictly
speaking, be regarded as French.

Again 1000 Gorman Avords, taking for variety the letters C
and D, contain six cases, namely, Cacadn (cockatoo). Cacao,
Cocou (cocoon), Cncoshanm, a cocoa-tree, Cocosnuns, Qocoix-wni,
and (hujefjcn, of which again all but the last are foreign.

' Cook's first Voyage, \\ 103. » Fiji and tlic Fijians, vol. ii. p. 121.

- Vol. ii. p. ;»uS. Si'o also ' Yuto's * Lake Hogioiis, p. ?,'.V>.

N'.w Zraiaiid.' p. 101.

V a 2

4.0-1

LA NG UA GE OF SA 1 \ 1 GEf^.

\ I

'J'

1 • i;

Lastly, tljc first 1009 (Ireek words contained only two re-
duplications, one of Miiich is a^ap^apos.

For c(Mrparison Avitli the above I have examined the vocabu-
laries of the fol'owing eighteen tribes, and the results are given
in the following Table: —

Nnml'cr

Number

Propor-

Lniigua(?e3

of \v(inls

of VI"|U-

tidii jiur

cwiiiiiiod

plicatioiis

mil.

Europe.

Eiiirlish

1000

I'lVllfll

1000

l?(ith foreign.

(icriiiau

looo

All but one foreign.

Greek

1000

One being a0ap,Bapos.

Africa.

Jit'.-tMiau .

188

Lichtenstein.

]]i)sj(.'snian .

I'i!)

»»

Naiiiiui'.iii Iluttontot .

1000

7i»

II. Tindall.

]\Ipoiig\vo .

I'iOl

Snowden and Trail.

Fnliip

201

137

Koello.

Ml)Ot'on

2G7

100

»>

AiiK-rii'ii,

Makali

1011

.Sniitlisonian Confribu-
tions, 18G9.

Dai HMi Indians .

18t

'J'rans. JOtli. Soc. vol. vi.

Ojihwa

28;}

Schoolcraft.

Tupy {]h-.vn\) .

looo

Cti

Cton.salvez Di'is.

N('[r"oitl.

JJnimer Island ,

211

170

M'GiUivray.

Rod sear Jiay

12.)

Louisiade .

i;j8

160

•»

J'^rrooh

,013

Jukes.

Lewis Murray Island .

60G

Austrrlia.

Kowrarega

720

M'GiUivray.

Polynesia.

Tonj.' ...

1000

10(5

16G

Mariner.

New Zealand

1300

220

IGU

Dieffenbach.

For African languages I have examined the Beefjuan and
Bosjesm>\n dialects^ given by Lichtenstein in his ' Travels in
' Soutliern Africa;' the Xamaqua Hottentot, as given by Tindall
in \vi ' Grannnar and Vocabulary of the Xamaqua Hottentot ;'
the jNIpongwe of the (iaboon, from the Grammar of the
ISIpongwc language published by Snowden and Pr.all of New
York ; .o-.id lastly the Fulup and jNIbofon languages from
Koelle's ' Polyglotta Africana.' For America, the Makah
dialect, given by j\Ir. Swan in the Smithsonian Gontribu-
LU.:^s for 1869 ; the Ojibwa vocabulary, given in School<,raft's
' Indian Tribes;' the Darien vocabulary, from the Gth vol. N. S.

|:h

only two rc-

m1 the vocabu-
iilts arc given

mc foreign.

tein.

ill.
ami Trail.

iian Contrlbu-

18(i9.

Itli. .Soe. vol. vi.

ift.

•/. Di'is.

ray.

•h.

ioetjuan jiiul
' Travels in
en by Tindall
I Hottentot ;'
nmar of the
^rall of Xew
iffuaffes from
the ^lakah
m C^ontribu-
Schoohraft'.s
8th vol. N. 8.

TJ'JNDIJNCY TO ItEDUVLU'ATlOKS.

405

of the Ethnological Society's Transactions ; and the Tnpy voca-
bulary, given in A. Gonsalvez Dias's ' Diccionaria da Lingua.
Tupy, chaniada lingua geral dos indigcnas do Brazil.' T<) these
T have added the languages spoken on Brumcr Island, iX i'ed-
scar Bay, Kowrarcga, and at the Lonisiade, as collected by
IM'Ciilllvray in the ' Voyage of the Rattlesnake ;' and the dia-
lects of Erroob and Lewis jSIurray Island, from Jukes's ' \^oyage

* of the Fly.' Lastly, for Polynesia, the Tongan dictionary,
given by Mariner, and that of Xew Zealand by Dieffenbach.

The result is, that while in the four European languages we
get about two redu[)lications in 1000 words, in the savage ones
the number varies from thirty-eight to 170, being from twenty
to eighty times as many in proportion.

In the Polynesian and Feejee Islands they are particularly
numerous ; thus, in Feejee, such names as Somosomo, Ilaki
vaki, Kaviravi, Lumaluma are numerous. Perhaps the most
familiar New Zealand words are meremeiv, patoo })atoo, and
kivi kivi. So generally, however, is redu}>lication a character-
isti of savajjc tongues that it even gave rise to the term * bar-
' barous.'

The love of nets is very strongly developed among savages.
Many instances have been given by iSIr. Galton in his jNIemoir
on the ' Domestication of Animals.' '

Among minor indications may be mentioned the use of the
rattle. Originally a sacred and mysterious instrument, as it is
still .among some of the Siberian Red-skin and Brazilian ^ tribes,
it has with us degenerated into a child's toy. Thus Dobritz-
hoifer tells us, the Abipones at a certain season of the year wor-
shipped the I^leiades. The ceremony consisted \v a feast accom-
panied with dancing and music, alternating with praises of the
stars, during which the jnincipal jjrlcstess * who conducts the
' festive ceremonies, dances at intervals, rattling a gourd full
' of hardisli fruit-seeds to musical time, and whirling round to
' the right with one foot, and to the left with another, without
' ever removing from one s])ot, «n* in the least varying her

* motions.'^ Spix and ]Martius ' thus describe a Coroado chief :

' TraiiH, Ethn. Soe. vol. iii. \\ 122. also p. 72.

* Martins, Von doni Kiclitsznfstande * Travols in IJruzil. I.dinloi), lS2f,

untor (Un Hr. Urusilions, p. 31. vul. ii. p. 231.
" Dnliritziioffrr, vol. ii. p. G."). See

406 ANCIENT CEREMJNIES AND MODEUN GAMES.

114

:l-f

'<S

In the middle of the assembly, and nearest to the pot, stood

* the chief, who, by his strength, cunning, and courage, had ob-

* tained some command over them, and had received from

* Marlier the title of Captain. In his right hand he held the

* maraca, the above-mentioned Castanet, whi^h they call gringe-

* rina, and rattled with it, beating time with his right foot.'

* The Congo Negroes had a great wooden rattle, ujjon which

* they took their oaths.'' The rattle also is very important
among the Indians of North America.'^ When any person is
sick, the sorcerer or medicine-man brings his sacred rattle and
shakes it over him. This, says Prescott, ' is the princijtal
' catholicon for all diseases.' Cfitlin^ also describes the ' rattle,
as being of great importance. Some tribes have a sacred drum
closely resembling that of the Lapps. "^ When an Indian is
ill, the magician, says Carver,* * sits by the patient day and

* night, rattling in his ears a gourd-shell filled with dried beans,

* called a chichicone.'

Klemm*' also remarks on the great significance attached to
the rattle throughout America, and Staad even thought that it
was worshij)pcd as a divinity.^

Schoolcraft ** also gives a figure of Oslikabaiwis, the Redskin
medical chief, ' holding in his hand the magic rattle,' which is
indeed the usual emblem of authority in the American jncto-
graphs. I know no case of a savage infant using the rattle as
a j)l;iything.

Tossing halfi)ence, as dice, again, which used to be a sacred
and solemn mode of consulting the oracles, is now a mere game
for children.

So again the doll is a hybrid between the baby and the fetish,
and exhibiting the contradictory characters of its parents, be-
comes singularly unintelligible to grown-up people. jNIr. Tylor
has pointed out other illustrations of this argiunent, and I would
refer those Avho feel interested in this part of the subject to his
excellent work.

' Astloy's Coll. of Voyages, vol. iii.
p. 2?A\.

* Prcscott in Sflioolcraft's ' Imlian
Trib.'s,' vol. ii. pp. 179, 180.

' Aincrioau Imliaii.s, vol. i. pp. 37,
4.0, ir,;{, &.-.

* Caflin, /. c. p. 40.

* Travels, p. 385.

" Ciilturgoschielitp, vol. ii. p. 172,
' Manii's (les Sauvapes americains,
vol. ii. p. 207.

" Jiidiaii Tribes, pi. ill. pp. |()0- l!)2

GAMES.

the pot, stood
irage, had ob-
•cceived from
:l he held the
iy call gringe-
is right foot.'
), uj)on which
iry important
any person is
•ed rattle and
the principal
[is the ' rattle,
I sacred drum
an Indian is
lent day and
I dried beans,

J attached to
lought that it

, the Reclskin

tie,' which is

erican })icto-

the rattle as

be a sacred

a mere game

id the fetish,
parents, be-
3Ir. Tylor
and 1 would
Libject to his

>1. ii. p. 172,

fcs iimt!'rio;ims,

ANCIENT CEREMONIES AND MODERN GAMES. 407

Dr.ncing Is another case in point. With us it is a mere
anmseraent Among savages it is an important, and, in some
cases, religious ceremony. * If,' says Bobertson,' * any inter-

* course be necessary between two American tribes, the ambas-

* sadors of the one approach in a solenm dance, and present the

* calumet or emblem of peace ; the sachems of the other receive

* it with the same ceremony. If war is denounced against an

* enemy, it is by a dance, expressive of the resentment which

* they feel, and of the vengeance which they meditate. If the

* wrath of their gods is to be appeased, or their beneficence to

* be celebrated, if they rejoice at the birth of a child, or mourn

* the death of a friend, they have dances appropriated to each

* of these situations, and suited to the different sentiments with

* Avhich they are then animated. If a person is indisposed, a

* dance is prescribed as the most effectual means of restoring

* him to health : and if he himself cannot endure the fatig-ue of

* such an exercise, the physician or conjuror ])erform3 it in his

* name, as if the virtue of his activity could be transferred to

* his patient.'

But it is unnecessary to multiply illustrations. Everyone
who has read much on the subject will admit the truth of the
statement. It explains the capricious treatment which so many
white men have received from savage potentates ; how they
have been alternately petted and illtreated, at one time loaded
with the best of everything, at another neglected or put to
death.

The close resemblance existing in ideas, languag<, habits, and
ciiaracter bet'vcen savages and i ' Mren, though generally ad-
mitted, has usually been disj)osed of" m a passing sentence, and
regarded rather as a curious accident than as in imjtortant trutli.
Yet from several points of view it possesses ;i high iii'irest.
Better understood, it might have saved us many natiomd
misfortunes, from the loss of Captain Cook down to tiie
Abyssinian war. It has also a direct l)caring on the presctit
discussion.

The opinion is rapidly gaining ground among natnr!i1'>;ts,
that the development of the individual is an epitome <»f' 'at of

!'!• !(»()- I !i2

' RoLcrtsoiiV Anioriia, bk. iv. p. 133.

408

LEVELOrMENT OF THE INDIVIDUAL,

!-, :i!

'<(

\ i!,

if.

;I ■'■

.■]

the species, a conclusion whicli, if fully borne out, will evidently
prove most instructive. Already many facts are on record
which render it, to say the least, highly probable. Birds of
the same genus, or of closely allied genera, which, when
mature, differ much in colour, are often very similar when
young. The young of the Lion and the Puma are often
striped, and foetal whales have teeth. Leidy has shown that
the milk-teeth of the genus Equns resemble the permanent
teeth of Anchifhtrium, while the milk-teeth of Anchitherium
again ai)proximate to the dental system of Meriichippus.^
liutimoyer, while calling attention to this interesting observa-
tion, adds that the milk-teeth of E<iuus cahullus in the same
way, and still more those of E. fossilis, resemble the permanent
teeth of Ilipparioii.^

Agassiz, according to Darwin, regards it as a * law of nature,'
that the young states of each spec-ies and group resemble older
forms of the same gnmp ; and Da -win himself says,^ that ' in
' two or more groups of animals, however much they may at

* first differ from each other in structure and habits, if tiiey

* pat-s through closely similar embryonic stages, we may feel
' almost assured that they have descended from the same parent
' form, and are therefore closely related.' So also Mr. Her-
bert Spencer says,'' ' Each organism exhibits within a short
' space of time, a scries of changes which, when supjjosed to
' occupy a period indefinitely great, and to go on in various
' ways instead of one way, give us a tolerably clear conception

* of oroauic evolution in o;eneral.'

It n)ay be said that this argument involves the acceptance
of the Darwinian hyjmthesis ; this would, howev er, be a
mistake ; the objecticm might indeed be tenable if men be-
longed to different sj)ecies, but it cannot fairly be urged by
those Avho regard all mankind as descended from, common
ancestors ; and, in fact, it is strongly held by Agass'.z, one of
Mr. Darwin's most uncdmproiiiising oi)ponents. Regarded from
this point of view, the similarity existing between savages and

' Proc. Acad. Nat. Soc. riiiladolpliia, ' Origin of S{iec'ie.s, 4tli editiDti,

1858, p. 26. p. 532.

* BeitriijTO zur Keniitniss dur fossik-n * Principles of IJioIogy, vol. i. p. 349.
Pforde. Uasle, 1863.

AND THAT OF THE SPECIES.

409

children assumes a singular importance and becomv,o almost
conclusive as regards the question now at issue.

The Duke ends his work with the expression of a belief that
man, * even in his most civilised condition, is capable of

* degradation, that his knowledge may decay, and that his

* religion may be lost.' That this is true of individuals, I do
not of course deny ; that it holds good with the human race, I
cannot believe.' Far more true, far more noble, as it seems
to me, are the concluding passages of Lord Dunraven's open-
ing address to the Cambrian Archicoloijical Association, ' that

* if we look back through the entire period of the past history

* of man, as exhibited in t'le result of arclueological investiga-

* tiop, we can scarcely fail to perceive that the whole exhibits

* One grand scheme of progression, which, notwithstanding
- ^'irtial periods of decline, has for its end the ever-increasing

* civilisation of man, and the gradual dcvclo[)ment of his

* higher faculties, and for its object the continual manipulation

* of the design, the power, the wisdom, and the goodness of

* Almighty God.'

I confess therefore that, after giving the a:'guments of the
Duke of Argyll my most attentive and candid consideration, I
see no reason to adopt liis melancholy conclusion, but I remain
persuaded that the past history of man has, (m the whole, been
one of progress, and that, in looking forward to the future, we
are justified in doing so with confidence and Avith hope.

' Tho Puke appears to considrr that
tho first men, tliuiigh ikfieicnt in
knowledge of the mechanical arts,
were morally and intellectually siipe-
rio'", or at least equal, to those of tho
present day ; and it is remarkable
that, supporting such a view, he sliould
regard himself as a champion of ortho-
doxy. Adam is, on the contrary, repre-
sented to us in Genesis not only as

naked, and subsequently elotlicd with
leaves, but as unable to resist the most
trivial temptation, and as entertaining
very gross and anthroponiorpliic con-
ceptions of the Deity. In fact in all
three charaeteristics— in his mode of
life, in his moral condition, and in iii.s
intellectual conceptions — Atlam was u
typical Savage.

I I

411

NOTES.

Page 60.
Position of IVovicn in Australia.^

' F(»mina; sese per totam pene vitam prostituunt. Apud

* plurimas tribus juventutcm utriusqiie sexiis sine discrimine

* concumbere in usus est. Si juvenis forte indigenorum coctum

* quendam in castris mancntem adveniat, iibi qm«vis sit puella

* mnupta, mos est : nocte veniente et eubantibus onniibus,

* illam ex loco exsurgere et juvencni accidcntcm cum illo per

* noctem manere unde in sedem propriam ante diem redit. Cui

* foemina sit, earn aniicis libenter prajbct ; si in itinere sit, uxori

* in castris manenti aliquis sui)plGt illi vires. Advonis ex

* longinquo aocedentibus .oeminas ad tern pus dare hospitis esse

* boni judicatur. Viduis et focmini^ jam senescentibus srepc in

* id traditis, quandoque ctiam invitis et insciis cognatis, adole-

* scentes utuntur. Puella) tenera; a decimo primum anno, et

* pueri a decimo tertio vel quarto, inter se miscentur. Seniori-

* bus mos est, si forte gentium plurium castra ai)propin quant,

* viros noctu hinc inde transeuntes, uxoribus alienis uti et in

* sua castra ex utraque parte mane redire.

* Temporibus quinetiam certis, machina quajdam ex ligno ad

* formam ovi facta, sacra et mystica, nam fccminas a^picere

* hand licitum, decem plus minus uncias longa et circa quatuor

* lata, insculpta ac figuris diversis ornata, et ultimam perforata

* partem ad longam (plerumque e crinibus humanis textam>

* inserendam chordam cui nomen " Moo yumkarr," extra castra

* in gyrum versata, stridore magno e percusso icre facto, liber-

* tatem coeundi juventuti esse tum concessam omnibus indicat.

* Parentes sajpc infantum, viri uxorum qujestum corporum
' facmnt. In urbe Adelaide panis pnumio i)arvi aut paucoruni

' Ryro's VUcovcries, Sic, ii. 320.

412

NOTES.

* denarinnim mcrctricos fieri cas libenter cogunt. Facile potest

* intelligi, amorem inter iiuj)t()S vix posse esse grandeni, quiim

* omnia qujc ad funninas attineiit, honiinum arbitrio ordinentur

* et taiita sexuuni socictati laxitas, et adolescentes qiiibus ita

* multa; ardoris exjdendi dantur occasiones, hand magnopere

* uxorcs, nisi ut servos, des^ideraturos.'

Page 76.

A(lo])tion.

* Adjicienduni et hoc, quod post evcctioncrn ad Deos, Juno,

* Jovis suasu, filium sihi Herculem adoptavit, et omne deincei)S

* teinpus materna ipsuni bencvolentia complexa fuerit. lUam

* adoptictnem hoc niodo factain perhibent : Juno lectum in-

* gressa, Herculem corpori suo admotum, ut verum imitaretui*

* partum, subter vcstcs ad terram demisit. Quern in hoc

* usque tcmpus adoptionis ritum barbari observant.''

r;;

U.f I

Tage 101.
I^.vpidtlon for Miirringc.
The passage in St. Augustin is as follows :

' Sed quid hoc dicam, cum ibi sit et Priapus nimius

* masculus, super cujus immanissimum et turpisshnum fascinum

* sedere nova nupta jubcatur, more honestissimo et religio-
' sissimo matronarum.''^

In his description of Babylo m customs, Herodotus says :'

'O ha hrj aXa-)(i(Tros rwv vofxcov iarl toici l^ajSvXoivioiai 68e' Bel
iracav yvyaiKa sTrixd^pirjv i^o^iivrjv h Ipou ^A<f)po8iTr]s, UTra^ h ttj
^orj fif^^Oijiat dvSpi ^euq>. JJoWal Bs Kal ovk a^isu/xsvai ava/xicr~
ysadai rfjai dWrjai, oia irXovTfp virsp^poviovaai^ sttX ^svyseov sv
Kafxaptjai i\a<Taaai,'!rpos to Ipov saTatrt' 0spaTrr)ir} 8s G(f)i 6ttco6sv
sirsTai voWi'}. at hs irXevves iroiBvai d)Be' iv TSfievsi W(f)poSiTr]9
Karsarai (ni^avov irspl T^crt KS(f)a\^(Tt e)(Ovaai, doopbiyyos, iroWHi
yvraiKss' ai jiv yap Trpoaip'^ovrai, al Bs airip'^ovraL' a^oivorevies
Bs Bis^oBot, iravTa rpoTTOV oaaitav s-)(pv(7L Bia t5)v yvvaiKtav^ Bi wu
01 ^slvoi Bis^tovTes SKXeyovTai. svOa sirsav i^rjTai yvvq, ov irpoTspov

• Dioilcmis, iv. 39. * Civit. Dei, vi. 9. » Clio, i. 1&9,

ti n

NOTES.

ll;}

t. Facile j)otest
orandeni, quiim
)itrio ordinentiir
;iites quibns ita
laiid luagnopere

[id Deos, Juno,
: omne deinceps
fuerit. Illam
mo lectum in-
rum imitaretur
Quern in hoc

napus nnnius
iniuin fascinum
inio et relijiio-

rodotus says :^

Mvioiac 68s' Set
rrjs, dva^ ep rfj
v/jLSvai dvafiicT'
, STTi ^evyscop ev

OS <T<f)l OTTlodsV

evsl A(f>po8iTr]9
/j-iyyos, TToWal

W (T'XOiVOTSphs

vvaiKMVy Si" OOP

'rj, OV TTpOTSpOV
-Ho, i. 199.

airaWdcasTai is iti oUia, {jris ol ^elvm> apyvpioi h/3a\cov h rh

yodpara fiixOf/ e^co rov ipoO' ifi^aXoura Be 8el sl-rrelv roaoySe'

E-mKoKito rot rijv Schv M^Urra. ^UUrra 8h Ka\iov<n ri^v

A(f>po8jTvv 'Aaaupior r6 8s apyvpcop fif^aOSs eotc 6<tovo>p' od

ydpfi^ ATTOiavTac o{, ydp ol d^^ts iari' ylvsrat yap Iphp tovto t6

apyvpiov- TO) 8e7rpcoT(iy ifi0a\6pTc sirsrai, ov8e diroBoKi^a oij8iva'

iiredp 8e fitxBr}, dTroaKoaafiitr) rf, ds^ tiTraXUaosTai hrd oUia,

Kal rdiirb toiJtov ovk oiirto fiiya ri ol 8(iiBis' ws tiiv Xdfifsai.

baai flip vvp sl'Bsos re iTra/ifiimt dal kuI fisy/iOsos, raxv uiraWda-

aovrai- 5aai 8s dfiop<f>oL avrio>p sial, xpovou ttoXXov irpotxixhovai

ov 8vpdfispac TOP vofxov iKnXrjaaf kuI yc\p rpthsa Kal rsrpasrsa

fiSTS^STspai xpovov fxhovai. kvLaxv 8s ml iTjs Kvrrpov iarl

TTapairXtja-ios tovtm vofios.

jVrela> tells us that amonjr the Auzilcs, another ^Ethiopian
tribe, *Feminis solemne est, noctc, qua nubunt, omnium
'stupro patere, qui cum munerc advcnerint : et tum, cum
* plurimis concubuisse, maximum decus ; in rcliquum pudicilia
' insignis est'

Speaking of the Xasamonians, Herodotus observes ;

-rrpwTOP 8s yafieovTOs ISlaaafiMpos ap8p69, v6fio9 earl rrjv vvfM(f>rjp
vvktI Ttj irpc^iTTj 8t^ TrdpTOip 8is^sX0ecv rtop 8anu/j.6vcou p.tayo/ji,ip7jp'
T^p 8s 6>9 SKuaros ol fiixOjj, 8c8ot 8o)pou, t6 ciu ^xiJ <f>£p6fisvos if

OIKOV.^

Diodorus3 also gives a very similar account of marriage in
the Balearic Islands.

Tagk 344.

The MultlpUciti/ of Rules in Australia.

It seems at first sight remarkable that a race so Ioav as the
Australians should hav- such stringent laws and apijarentiy
complex rules. In fact, however, they arc merely customs to
which antiquity has gradually given the force of law; and it
IS obvious that Avhen a race has long remained stationary, we
should naturally expect to find many customs thus crystalHsed,
as it were, by age.

.'I

' Mcln, i. 8.

Milpnmcnc, iv. 172.

' Diodorns, v. 18.

ii>p

5 il!

" i

H ! t'

li 'I

\.i

pMi

INDEX.

A HE

ABKOKUTA, trtttoos of ho people
of, 4t)
AlnpoiifH, their diMhdiof in nntunil
ticjitii, lo2

— soivirers nmonp them, 17."), 177

— their worship of tlic Pleiiides, 232

— their ShamiinisTn, 2o<5

— no idea amon^' them of creation, 285

— their nu'thod of numeration, 3:ji)
Abyssinians, absence <jf the marriage

ceremony among the, G7

— practice of adoption among them, 76

— their sttme-worxhip, 227
Adoption, prevalence among the lower

races of men, 7-")

— among the Greeks and Romans, 76

— the milk tie, 76

irJtliiopia, marriage customs in, 100
Africa, customs as to fathers- and
mothers-in-law, 11

— writing used as medicine in, 19, 20

— drawings not understood in, 3,")

— personal ornamentation of various
tribes, 48, 50

— their tattoos and tribal marks, 50,63

— n)arriago and relationship in, 69

— practice of adoption in, 75

— marriage customs of the Futans, 94
and of the North Africans, 90

— restrictions on marriage in Eastern
and Western Africa, 109

— inheritance through females in, 120

— how dreams are regarded by some
tribes, 145

— their notions of a man's shadow, 147

— and of the Deity, 149

— behaviour of the people during
eclipses, 156

— totemisni in, 183

— serpent-worship in, 189

— animal-worship in, 189

— tree-worship in, 206

— water-worship in, 216

— ston( -worship in, 220

AMK

Africx — ciiutiinisil.

— Worship ot iiicn in, 267

— crremony ot eating the fetich in, 193,
217

— luunan saorillces in. 275

— no notion of creation among tho
people of, 28S

— alisciu-c of moral feeling in, 302

— poverty of tile language of, 3;i2

— niellio<ls of nunuTation in, 3:)!), 340

— salutations of the people in, 348
Age, respect pai<l to, 311

At't'S, the Four, true theory of, 398
Agoyo, an idol of Whiddali, 191
Ahitas of the Pliili])piues, nuirriago

customs of tlic, 94
Ahoosh, Lake, held sacred by tho

Bashkirs, 2)5
Ahts. inactivity of their intellect, 6

— slavery of female captives among
the, 117

— tiieir sorcerers, 175

— their worship of the sun and moon,
2o2

Algonkins, their rules and eeremoni<s.

346 '

Aliigator-worshii). 196
Amazon Valley, marriage by capture

among the tribis of the, 91
America, South, custom of La Couvado

in, 12, 14
American Indians, customs among the,

in reference to mothers-in-law, 9

— custom of La Cinivade among i he, 14

— their ideas with reference to por-
traits, 17, 18 .

— their use of writing as medicine, 19

— their mode of curing diseas-s, 23

— their treatment of twins, 20

— their picture-writings, 37-40, 42-45

— their grave-pasts, 41

— their personal ornamentation, 48

— marriage and relationship among
th.m, 58 r b

41C)

IS'VEX.

fir

I I

■I ii

i,'

AMR

Amcricmi IiidianH miifiiiii rf,

— alisciu'ti of iii:irriaj;o I'tTi'iimny, GO

— system of tvliitionslup tinoiig soino
t I'll PCS, To

• - custoin iimuti(i; tlio llmlson's lUy
IndiiiiiN of wroMtlinK for a wifp, 70

— iniirriiiyio cu.stuin.sof tlicSuutli Ame-
riciins, !)1

— rostricf ions on marria£»o among Home
of ill, 111, 112, 11. "J

■ — imfiortancc of tlicir tott'ins, or crosts,
112

— relationship tlirougli fi-maU's among
thrm. 12 1

— how (Ircanis are n-garilcd hy them,
146

— tlioir notion of a man's sliudow,
117

— and of a Doity, 149

— abscnro of roligion among Bomo
trilK's, 142

— spirits, liow rcgardod by some, 148

— liow tlicy regard death, lo3

— tlioir belief in a plurality of souls,
1(52

— — - in divination, 164

— their soivery. Kit), 1()7

— their fasting and siip})oscd revela-
tions, 177

-- tlu'ir religious ideas, 18j

— their belief in fo'iehes, 191

— thoir toteniism, IS;')

— thoir worship of tlio serpent, 192

— prevalenoe of animal worship among
thorn, 193

— their tree-worship, 206, 207

— their water-worship, 217, 218

— their stone-worship. 228

— their iire-worship, 231

— their worship of the sun and moon,
232

■ — alisenoe of idolatry among thorn,
2.->6, •2.')7

— th<ir sat'rifioes, 271

— fearless of death, 28.')

— thoir ideas of ereation, 286

— their notion of a future state, 307

— thoir languages, 318, 328

— their property in land, 361

— name.s taken by parents from their
eliildren, 369

— their punishment of erime. 3G0
^'.neestors, worship of, 269, 261
xVinlaman Islands, relationship between

the sexes in tlio, 69, 82
yjiglo-Saxons, their wergild, 365
Animal-worship considered as a stage

of religious progress, 1C2

Airs

Animal-Worship-- "iifiiinrtl.

— explfinatioiis of the aiioieiits, 182

— am(Uig tile aiioietit l']y;yptians, 197

— eiistom of aitolugising to anim Is for
killing them, 198

Ant-hills wor-ihippoil, 234

Apis rej;ardcd by the ligyptians as a

go. I

Arabs, thoir ideas as to the influence of
foo(l, 16

— singular marriage of the Hassanyoh,
63

— reliitions of husband and wife, 6.5

— thoir an .iout stone-worsliip, 226

— their notions of a bnjken oath,
307

Araw.iks, .absenoo of the marriage coro-

mony among the. 66
Arithmetic, dilKoulties of savages in,

336

— use of the fingers in, 336, 340
Armenia, marriage customs in, 100
Art. earliest traces of, 3(t

— in tlie Stono Age, 30

— almost absi'iit in the Bronze Ago,
30

— as an ethnological cliaraoto.-, 33, 3t
Arvaii religions contrasted with Semitic,

2 19, 260
Ashautee, king of, his harem, 120
Ash.intees, absence of the marriage

ceremony among the, 67

— their water-worship. 216
Assyriaiis, their human sacrifices, 276
Atiioism defined, 136

— the natural condition of the savage
mind, 141

Australians, Dampier's mis; 'ko with
the, 6

— thoir habit of non-eor>radiction 6

— their customs as j fathers- and
mothers-in-law, 11

— their modes of curing diseases, 23,
24

— some of them unable to understand
a drawing, 31

— their personal ornaments, 46

— marriage among them, 60

— condition of their women, 60, 79

■ — their practice of marriage by capture,
Co, 86

— restrictions on marriage among them,
109

— how dreams are reganled by them,
146

— their belief in an evil spirit, 162

— think they become white men after
death, 161

INDEX.

417

Al'S

|iH'ing clisi'iiFf'S, 23,

iMe to understand

lanicnt.'!, IG
|hoin, 60
wnmcn, 60, 79
^arriago by capture,

rriage among them,

regai-ded by them,

pvil spirit, 152
white men after

AuNtralians — ronttnuuf.

— their religious ideas, 181

— Mrs. Tliomwtn's wsidence among
them, 182

— their totemism, 181

— had no iilea of erealion. 2^5

— their nbseneo of nionvl feeling, t301

— no notion of future rewards and
{nniishmentH, 30 (

— eiiaractor of (luir laws, 344

— tiieir Halufations, 31S

— their projn-rty in land, 3ol

— division of projx'rty into imrtions, 3 o.'i

— their eustoni of tuuing the uamoK of
their children, 3;')S

— condition of womeu among thcni,411

I BABYLONIA, marriage customs in,
) 100
Iliiehapins, Iheir religions ideas, 239
IJalearie Islamls, marriage customs in

tlie, 102
Uali, faiieiesof the natives of, respecting
twins, 2')

— l)ractico of marriage by capture in, 86
IJamboo, the, worsliippiil, 20U
Basutos, sj-stem of primogeniture of the,

308
Battrts of Sumatra, rolationship through

females among the, 122
Bear, worship of the. 11)3
Beam, custom of I41 ('ouvade in, 12
Beehuanas, their ideas regarding ovil

spirits, 148, 154

— their notions of tlio causes of death,
152

— their totemism, 184

Bedouins, absence of religion among the
wilder, 141

— their mode of divination, 164
Bells, use of, by the Buddhists, '55

— and by the Japanese, 155
Berbers, their custom of i:iheritance

through females, 121
Bintang Islanders, absence of moral

sense among the, 306
Bird-worship, 193
Bo tree, worship of the, in India and

Ceylon, 208
Borneo, condition of the wild men of

the interior of, 7, 8

— customs as to mothers-in-law, 1 1

— and of La Couvado, 1 4
Bornouese, tribe marks of the, 51
Bouriats, their sacred lakes, 215
Ikazilians, their custom of killing and

eating captives, 103

Brazil i

■</.

ira/ilians -cniifiniiaf

— their marriage ivgiihvf ions, 114

— their notion of evil spirits, 1 ID

— sorcerers among them, 175
Britons, postobits among the, 283
lirumer Island, tattooing among I ho

women of, 52
Buftiilo-bell, wiipwhipofft, 234
Uunns of Africa, tribal marks of the,

50
Bushmen, Lichtenstcin's description

of the, (|Uoted, 8

— their customs as to fathers- and
mothers-in-law, 1 1

— ujiable to understand perspective, 36

— absence of the marriage ceremony
among them, 68, 70

— their notions of ghosts, 161

CALIFORNIA NS, absence of r.ligion
and government among the, 141

— their beli-f in the destruction of
body and sjiirit, 162

— their religious ideas, 238

— absence of ideas respecting creation,
286

Camliodians, their low ideas regaiiling
spirits, 155

— their notion of ecli|ises, 158
Caribs, their ideas respecting the inthi-

ence of food, 15

— their practice of marriage by cap-
ture, 84

— their behaviour daring eclipses, 157

— their belief in the plurality of souls,
162

— their fasting and supposed revela-
tions, 177

— their notion of the Deity, 301
Caroline Islander, taitooing of a, 53
Carthaginians, their human sacrillces,

276
Celts, their tree-worship, 207
Census roll, an American Indian, 39
Ceylon, t .to kinds of marriage in, 63

— polyandry in, 116

— religious ideas of the Veddahs of,
183

— tree-worship in, 208

the sacred Bo tree, 208

Cheek studs, 48

Cherokees, divination practised by the,
163

— their practice of fasting, 177

— their progress in civilisation, 377
Chinese, their customs as to daugiiters-

in-law, 10

E E

418

INDEX.

'Mm

:.! < I

Jul

E '

CHI

Chinese — eontinucd.

-■ ihoir custom of La Couvado, 14

— thoir notions as to tlie infliU'iico of
food, 16

— their mode of salutation, 29

— their presents of coffins, 29

— their delloiency in tiio art of perspec-
tive, 36

— their knots for transacting business,
36

— thoir co;npression of ladies' feet, oo

— tlieir niarriajjjc customs, 69

— restrictions on marriage amongsi
them. 111

— notions of the people of Kiatka with
reference to eclipses, l.'iS

— their idea of the man in the moon,
159

— witchcraft of the magicia.is, 171

— their fetiches, 181

— tlioir t. oatment of tlieir gods, 2'i'i

— life attributed by tliem to inauim. ^c
objects, 20i)

— their idolatry, 258

— their language, 318
Chipewyans, tlieir idea of creation,

286

Chicpiito Indians, their behaviour dur-
ing ecrpsis, 157

Chittiig(»ng, marriage among the hill
tribes of, CO, 65

Circassians, the milk tie anting them,
76

— marriiige hy force amoni them, 95

— exogamy among thi;;., Ill
Coffins, ])resents or'. 29
Comanches, 'heir worship of tiio sun,

moon, and earth, 2'j2

— absence of moral feeling among the,
301

Communal marriage, 72,77, 81
Coroados, custom of La Cinivad*' among
the, 12

— personal ornaments of a w rian,
47

— their worship of the sun and moon,
232

-- their method of numeration, 339
Courtesans, resput paid in (irccx- to,
103

— their religious clianvcfi r ii\ India,
105

Couvade, I<a, cnstoin of, in iJiarn, 12

— its \v!dt' dislr'iiulioii, 12, 13

— origin o*' tiie civ'. an, 14
Creation, no i'iea of, among the lnwer

races, 285
Crocod i Ic ".or 1 1 i p, 197

KXP

DACOTA lis, their notions as to the
ii'fluonce of food, 15

— tlieir water-god, Unktahe, 218

— their stone-worsliip, 228
Dahomey, king of, his messengers to his

deceased fatiier, 285
Dampier, his mistake vith Australians, 5
Dances, religious, among savages, 178,

4(7

— a dance among theKedskins of Vir-
ginia, 279

Death, disbelief among savages in the
existence of natural, 152, 153
I Decan, tattooing of tlu< women of, 52
, Deification, savage tendency to, 181, 186

Dekkan, sacrei! stones in the, 223
■ Disease, how regarded by savages, 21

— various modes of curing, 22

— causes of, uccoi-ding to the Kaffirs,
241

Divination among savage races, 163

— - modes of, described, 163-165
Doingnaks, endngamy ot'tiie, 118
Dreams, religious ideas suggested by,

144

— influence of, according to the Kaffirs,
241

Dyaks of Uorneo, custom of La Couvado
among tlie, 14

— tlieir ideas respecting the influence
of food, 15

I^AK ornaments, 49
J iii'li; .^es, beliaviour of .savages
during, 156. 158
Kgvptians, their aninial-worship, 183,

197
Endogamy, origin of, 117
Enghmd, water-worship in, 213

— worship of stone.', in, 225
Esciuimaux. their attempts to reni'er

barren women fertile, 16

— their mode of curing diseases, 24

— their mode iif.sahilation. 29

— their ski!! in di-awing, 31, 22

— tlieir picture- wriling.-^. 37

— tlieir personal oriianientatidii. 4S

— tlieir liabii of licking presents, 77

— their eiipfure of hrides, 91

— their .Slianianisiu. 253
fl'eir language. 318

— C ..pt. Parry's picture of a hut of the,
389

Eyebright, the, used for ccular com-

"pi.iints, 16
lixiigaiiiy, or marriage out of a tribe, 106
K.tpiation for marriage, 101

tions as to the

taho, 218

228

essi'Ugers to his

hAustniUans, 5
g savagi'H, 178,

Icdskins of Vir-

savagcs in the
152. ir)3
wonun of, .')2
..iK^yto, 181,18G
in the, 22 ;i
by savages, 21
■iiig, 22

to the Kaffirs,

Tf fares. 1G3

~if>:i-i(;.'.

ijftlip, 118

IS suggested 1)y,

ing to the Kaffirs,

ini of La Couvado

ing the iutluence

our of savages
lal-worshii', 183,

17
h) in, 213

1, 225

•mjits to rentier

k. io

_r ilisrases, 24
lation. 21)
im, ;]1, 22
igs. 37

iiirntatiiin, 18
Inii (irisfuts, 77
l.s, 'Jl
.".3

V of M liuf uf the,

fur ( '.uhir com-

loutnf atribe, lOG
lUl

INDEX.

411)

FAM

HOT

FAMILIA, "ihe, of the Romans, Gl,
79 ;

Fasting practised by savages, 176
Feejeeans, their custom of Vasu, 108,
124

— their tattooing, 52

— their hair-dressing, 56

— their polyandry, 64

— their marriage customs, 65

— their marriage by aipture, 92

— tifeir mode of sorcery, 166, 167, 170

— their serpent-worsliip, 191

— and worship of otiier animals, 195

— their M'orsiiip of plants, 211

— their stone-worship, 227

— their Shamanism, 254

— their offerings of fotjd to the gods,
271

— their notions of a ftiture state, 281

— their praetiee of putting old people
to death, 283

— names and character of their gmls,
304

— have no notion of future rewards and
punishments, 305

— their ceremonies, 350
Fflatah ladies, toilet of, 48
Fetieliism, defined, 136

— ctmsiiU'red as a stage of religious
progress, 182, 212

— belief of the nej^roes in, 183. 242

— believed in I'hirope and iu other
races, 243-246

— eating the fetich, 247
Fire-woisliip, 229

Flatheads of Ongoii, their fasts .nnd

supposcil revelation'', i77
Formosa, tattooing in, 52
France, worship of stones in, 225
Friendly Islanders, their explanations

to Labillardierc, 5

— their treachery, 293
Friesland, marriage by force in, 96
Futans, marriage customs of tlie, 94
Future lite, absence of belief in a,

among savages, IGO

ri ALACTOPHAGI, communal niar-
vT riage of the, 75
'iambier Islands, tattooing in the, 53
Ganiiamma, or rivers, worsiiipped in

Imlia, 215
Ganges, wrship of tlie, 215
Germans, uncieut, relationship among

the, 124
CiliKsts, belief of savages in, 159, IGl,

1U2

Ghosts, difference in the belief in ghosts

and in the existence of a soul, 279
Goguet, on property, 350

— on laws, 341

Goose, the, worshipped, 196
Grave-posts of American Indians, 41
Greeks, their marriage customs, 100

— their notions respecting their deities,
156

— their water-worsliip, 214

— their stone- worship, 220

— origin of their myths, 250

— chariioter of their gods, 304

— their power of willing propertj', 354

— their officers for prosecuting crimi-
nals, 3G0

Greenhinders, their custom of La Cou-
vade, 14

— their notions respecting dreams, 145

— tlieir behaviour during eclipses, 156

— fasting and sorcery among them, 176

— seizurf of prop''rty after a man's
death, 354

Gruaich-stones in Skye. 226

Guam, endogamy in, 119

Guiana, custoin of La ("^ouvade in. 13

— medical treatment of the savages of,
27

— restrictions on marriage among the,
113

— native method of numeration, ."38
Guinea, New, tattooing among the wo-
men of, 52

Guinea, tattooinu in, 52

— human sacrifices at, 272
Guyacurus of Paraguay, matrimony

among the, GO

TTATR-DRESSING of Ihe Feejeeans,

— of other races, 56

Hawaii, system of relationship in,
71-74

— low ideas of the natives respecting
spirits, 154

Head, compression of the, among sonnt

American tribes, 56
Heaven, ideas of, among the lower niccs,

281, 282
Heliogabalus. form of the god, 225
Hermes, or Termes, worship of stones

under the name of, 220, 221
Hottentots, marriage among the, 58

— thei • evil spirits, 148

— tiieir notion of prayer, 289

— liutfcno idea of future rewards ;\nd
punishments, 3U7

E K "J

;■

420

I^'DEX.

IIl'D

KON'

I !

■4-'

Jfiul.'^oirs I!;iy Imliiiiis, I'llatiDiisliij)
tlir()U}j;li fcmiilcH fuiioiiy; tlii', 12;{

TTiniian saorirics, 2()!)-27')

IFiiiitiii^f, custniii of tlic Kuussii Kiiilirs
ris]icctiii^', 198

— laws of saviiycH, 3iG

Ilurniis, svslcm of relationship among
the, 127, 121)

IDOl/ATIvY, 01- anthruponioriihisni,
1:57

— conf-iihrcil as a stai,f(' of rf.'lifflous
(l('Vi'lo]>niiiil, 2o()

— iii)l<nii\vn to the lower races, 2.)7, 2.'i8
•— ori'^in of, 2')9

- — Sohiinwi! on iilols. 2''i2

— iiliih- not ngariled us nicro emblems,
•2C,:i

Jkeoaponn. lake of. h"M sacred, 21 ')
India, aliscnee of the mai'riaj^e ceremony
anioiijz sonu' trilies in. 'Mi

— niarria[5e enstuins aniony others, 87,
88, 101

— re.-pei't paid to couitcsans at Vcsali.
104. !().•)

— restrictions on nnuriage in .some
rac(s. 110. Ill

— jic;lyan(lrv in. IIG
• — ■ endoj^aniy, II 7

— sorcery of the mniiieiai'.s of, I('>7

— witchcraft in, 171

— rt'lii^ious dances in, 180

— felieliisni in. 21*}

— aniiiial-worsliip in. l'J(»

— inanimate ohjects worshipped in,
202, 2ila

— tree-worship in, 202, 208

— water-worsliip in, 210

— slonc-woi.'-hip in, 222

■ — worsliip of flie sun in. 2.'{2

— various otiiei- wirshij's in, 2;>t

— idolatry in, 2.")8

— worsinp of ancestors in, 2.V.)

— hninan sarrilicis in. 27;}, 275

— notionsof future rew.nds and puni-h-
nieiils anionp; various raees of. UOO

— .salutations and eereniunies in, IM'J

— rifrhts of ehil(h'en in, ;).",'7

— primoficniture in, ;5(iO
]id"antieide, eansi'sof amnn'.' sa\a:.(:-.i07
Jidieritance, custom of, Ihroufih females,

120
Ireland, water-worship in, 211

stone-worship in, 22(1
Iroiiuois, svstein oi rehitionshi[i among

the, 127-121)

— !lo\\ they regU'd eclipses, i ")7

llalv. liinrriaLii' en>l(iin in, lol

T.\1\LTS, nslrirlions on marriage
»J among the, 1 1 1

— their Worship of animals. I'JG

— their Worship of trees, 2iii)

• Java, ciiurtesans not (les[•i^ell .at. 101
I Jews, relationship among the, 121
— , sacrifices among the, 2C9, 277

KAFFIES. una hie to understand draw-
ings, ;>.')

— orminuntation of the skin of th«
Uaeluipins, oO

— marriage among the, .')8

— remarks of the chief Seseka to "Mr.
Arhrousset, llil

— alisence of religion among the
Koussas, 11 1

— a /uln's notions of religion, 114

— disease attributed hy the Koussas to
tlu'ee causes, l.'il

— their notion of the causis of deatli,
lo2

— ami of evil spirits, log
— • religions ideas. 1 8.">

— enrious hunting custom of t!;i'
Kou.-sas. 108

— their woishij" of anee^tors. 2fii)

— their notions of ei'Mtiou. 2^^!

I - ■ ;ili>ence of moral h'eling among tlic,
I 302

! -- their nuthod of nuuieralion, iV-VJ, oto
Jvalangs of .lava, re>t ictions on mar-
riage among the. 1 I 8
KaimuiKs, marriagt' ceremonies of the,
88

— I'e'-friiiions on marriace anujng the,
111

— tluir character, 20.!
Kanichadahs, niarri.igo hy capture

among the, 80

— their low ideas of "lurils, ],j',)

! Kamskatka, custom of i.a t'ouvade in.
' U

Ktnaiyers. nslrictions on marriag(!
among l!ie. 1 12
I'clal ii'iiship throULdi I'eniales among

tiie. r::i

Kliasias of llindostan, tlnir t'aneies

r( spectinir twins, 2o
Kirk, a deri\ation of the woiil, 21-'!
l\ouds of (M'issa, marriage cusionis
I amouix the. 87

— ri-^lrictions (Ui marriage among the,
111

— their toleinism, 100

— their w.".ter-W(irship. 216
I - and stone-wor-hip, 222

Diis f>u iniirriago
ni mills. lOG

I'CCS, -Jlii)
(IrspiM'd at. 101

iioiijj; the. ]'2i

mnclorstand tlraw-
tlio skin of llu)

iff Si'si'ka to Mr.

gion nnioDf^ thu

f ri'li^'ion, 1 14

by tlie Koiis.-as to

iO oauhf^ ijf death,

l.J5

f'.istom (if t'u'

lU'rstol'S, 'JfiO

iMlIiii). I28ij
ffoling among tlio,

nicratioii, '.]'■){), IMO
t iftloiis on mar-
is
•( rt'iiKinii'S of the,

ri'iiipo amoiifr tlio,

ago liy caiittiro

'pirils, l<j;i

f La C'ouvade in,

ns on niarriago

ill I'cnialis ammig

in, tlicir liui'jii'.s

llic wunl. 2i:{
laii'iauo ciisloniM

•liago among tlic.

. L'lG
'>■>•>

mmm

IXDLJX.

KON

121

Konds, thrif worship of (he sun and
nioon, '2'.io

- human saiTJlioos anionnr them. L'7;{
Kirgiiiz, sacriticfs among dn-, -270
Kissing, not universally orai'ti-.-d, 2!)
Knots used as records, ,'50

Kohs of Central India, marriage cere-
inonie.s of the, 88

— their I.elief in an evil genius, 151
-- their religious dances, 1 78
Kool<iesof Chiitagong, have no notion

ot future re\rard.'i and imnishmeuts.
30G

IAI!K]':TS of the Americans and
J Africans, 18
Lake-\vorshi{), •>]'>
Lama, (i'Val, of Thihct, worsliip of the.

Land, projicrty in, among sava'Ms. "'lO

— eommunal property. o,">;j

Language, i.rohahle "intluence of the '

eharacter of, over tiiat of reli'rio),,
'211) "^

-- figurative, of savages. 2(Hi

— the languageof the lowest races, ;]],•]

— gesture language. ."311, ;{]"»

— origin of languages, ;!l(i

— rout-\v(avls. ;{|8

M.\l!

— onomalopce:a. ;}!!), ,'120

— abstract names, ;}21

— nicknames and slang ter

ms. .",22

origin ot tho terms 'f".her' and —
'mother,' ;522 '.

Limboos, eu:>toms of relationship
among the. 12;{

Locke c|Uesli(jns the existence of innate

principles, 2!)'J
Lo\-e songs, aiisencc of, .")!)
Lycians, relatiousliip through 'females

among the, 121

AI)AGASCAI{, rebVi.^.is regard
j-iX paid to dreams in. 1 i.)
-- animals worshipped in, 210

— abseiico of temph s in, 277
MLennan o!i innrriaLre. vii. .')7-f5(»,r/.v,Y,
31aine Mr., remarks on his 'Ancient

Law ,' ;{

— on wills, ?,r)i

JLnze, w.rship of. ],y ti„> Peruvians,

Malays, their iileas resi)ee!iiig tho in-

liuence of t'ood. ]i)
ih.ir mariia;.;e ceremoi;ic-, 88
" .Mr. \\iil!;i,'e's picture ot a ^;iva"-e

community. 20'J "

— their method of numeration. ;].'1<)
Mima C.cha. principal deity of the

1 eruvnins, 22(1
Slanim.itli. ancient drawing of a. ;!(»
M.iiaiiiiis, tlieir water-worship, 21!)
Mandingoes, marriage among tin', ,)t)

— •■'''>'t'iieeof marriau'ecerenionvamoM"
the, 07 ' ' "^

— eiisfoin at niarriatr/i, (]<)

— cl

uuce of root-Mords, 328

mairia::.. by force aniuiit;' the, •)->
animal-worship among ihe. 11)9

- iiuverty ot savage I

nages, ;j:j(l- Mantclni 'I

— ineir iioiioii ot piM\

er, 28!)

artars, re irietioi

table of seventeen langnairis. loi .M

riaLres .iniong the, 11!»

IS (111 mar-

Lapland

■rs, their id

to jiort raits, 18

- their mode of divination. 1

- fast

eas with retereiic.

leir wca'sliip of aniiiials, liJl

ii'i'iaire anionf' savaL'
1 • , . ... '^

es. ,,8

Law,

ing of wizanls among the, 178

— dull rent kinds of, (Jl, (i;{

— provisional marriages in Cevlon, (i

eonneetion of, witl

Laws of the low

— character of

— their multiplieii V, IM.)

right, ;J07

ibsi nee of marrii

ceremony. (i(i

er races, ;jll
heir l.-.ws, 31 1

— — and of any word tor mar

()8

riafji ,

ind

— their rules and ceremonies, IlKJ

— hunting laws, ;M0

— salutations, 3 18

— property in land. 3.Jt»

— land tenures, ,i.')3

— wills, 3.-,l

— distinction between
' brittle' marriages. (i8

— gradual developnuiil of the iaisi,,in
of marriage, (i!)

eommunal laarriiige. 7i). 77

iJaeliofeirs view-, 78 So

marriage with f.-ma

punishment of crime, ,101

niaev, 7

sniir

Lettirs, bark, of the A
43, 41

nierican

lad

wrest hiii:

iai;s.

— Md

or wive-

;)

Lick

LifV. how

ing i>resents, iialiit of. 77

legardeil

Ihe t

the

•'lUlan s views. Su

I'V savai

eaiifuie. S,*}

rue explanation, 81, 82
prevalence of marriat'e b

422

INDEX.

MAR

Marriage— coiitiuiicd.

which becomes subsequently

a form, 87
custom of lifting the bride over

the doorstop, 97

miin-iago by confarrcntio, 98

expiation for marriage in various

countries, 99, 412

temporary wives, 102-105

exogamy and its origin, 106

restrictions against marrying

women of the same stock, 109
endogamy, 117

— marriage with half-sisters, 124
IVIercury, his offices, 220
jVIexicnns,animalworshipamongtlie, 194

— their tree-worship, 211

— their water-worship, 219

— their fire-worship, 231

— their human sacrifices, 272, 273, 277
Miili tie, the, in Circassia, 76

— strength of the relationship among
the Scotch Highlanders, 1 1 9

Mongols, marriage customs of the, 90

— their mode of divination, 164

— their laws, 346
INloon, worship of tlic, 232
M(jnil feeling, origin of, 308

— connection of religion and morality,
311

Mothers-in-law, customs in reference

to, 9-11
Musicians, looked on as infamous, 104

NAIRS of IniV'a, relationship among
the, 70

— relationship through females among
the, 121

Naples, fetichism in, 291
Natchez, tlieir stone-worsliip, 229

— their fire-worsliip, 231
Nature-worship defined, 137
Naudowessies, custom of polyandry

among the, 101
Negroes, inactivity of tlieir intellect, 7

— their notion of evil spirits, 149, 160

— their belief in ghosts, 159

— their absence of belief in a future
life, 160

— become white men after death, 161

— their mode of divination, 165

— their sorcery, 166

— their belief in fetichism, 189

— their troe-worship, 207

— their worship of the sea, 207, 216

— and of white men, masbs, and pumps,
217

POL

Neprocs,and wor.shipof an ironhar, 234

— Sliamnnism among them, 256

— have no notion of creation, 288

— nor of prayer to the Deity, 289

— absence of moral feeling among the,
302

— their salutations, 348
Nicaragua, rain-worship in, 219
Nicknames, origin of, 322

Nicobar Islands, ideas of the natives of,

of spirits, 153
Nose-ring, worship of a, 234
Numenils, savage names of, 336. 338
Nyambanas, ornamentation of the skin

of the, 50

OJIBWAS, their fire-worship, 244
Omahaws, tlieir customs respecting
sons-in-law, 9
Ornaments, personal, of savages, 46
Ostiaks, their customs as to daughters-
in-law, 10

— their ornamentation of the skin, 51

— exogamy among them, 1 1 1

— their religious clancos, 180

— their tree-worship, 209

— and stone-worship, 222

— their statues in memory of the
dead, 260

Ox, the, held sacred in India and
Ceylon, 196

PACIFIC Islands, human sacrifices in
the, 276
Paraguay, sea-worship in, 220
Parents, custom of naming them after

children, 359
Patagfjnians, their tree-worship, 212
Persia, Homa or Soma worship of, 207
Petition, an American Indian, 45
Peruvians, their mmle of recording

events, 30

— their notions of eclipses, 158

— their animal worship, 194

— their sea-worship, 220

— their fire-worship, 231

— their notion of religion and momls,
307

Pliilippine Islands, worship of trees in

the. 210
Phoenicians, their stono-wordhip, 238
Picture-writing, 37, 38
Pleiades, worship of the, 232
Polyandry., reasons for, 64

— cauBOS of, 116

f an ironlmr, 234
them, 256
ireation, 288
) Deity, 289
•eling ftniong the,

ip in, 219

322

of the natives of,

a, 234

OS of, 336. 338

ation of the skin

-worship, 244
ustoms respecting

of savages, 46
as to daughters-

a of the skin, 51
lem, 111
?es, 180

209
, 222

memory of the

I in India and

iinian sacriflcee in

in, 220
iming them after

-worship, 212
worship of, 207
ndian, 45
e of recording

pses, 168
, 194
20
31
^ion and morals,

rship of trees in

)-wordhip, 238

,e, 232
64

INDEX.

423

roL

Polyandry, list of tribes regardeJ
polyandrous, llo

— considered as an exceptional p.heno-
monon, 115, 116

— widely distributed over India, Thibet, .
and Ceylon, 116

Polygamy, causes of, 114, 115
Polynesians, relationship through fe-
males in, 124

— their drawings, 32

— polyandry among them, 116

— their powers of witchcmft, 174

— animal-worship among thorn, 194

— their worship of men, 267

— their method of numeration, 339

— their property in land, 353

— their laws, 364
Pond-worship, 217

Priests, absence of, among the lower

races, 279
Prussians, their ancient fires in honour

of the god Potrimpos, 230

UIPPU, the, of the Peruvians, 36

RAIN, worship of, 219
Rainbow, worship of the, 234
Rattle, the, regarded as a deity, 234
Reddics of Southern India, marriage

customs of the, 63
Reindeer, ancient drawing of a, 31, 32
Rejangs of Sumatra, their custom of

filing and disfiguring the teeth, 49
Relationship among savages, 68
Relationships independent of marriage,

— adoption, 76

— the milk-tie, 76

— change in the relationship female
to the male line, 125, 126

— system of kinship of the Iroquois
and Huron Indians, 127 129

— through females, 120
males, 126

— present system, 130
Religion of savages, 131

— their mental inactivity, 132

— character of their religion, 135

— classification of fhe lower religions,
136

— sequence of religions according to
Sanchoniatho, 137

— religious condition of the lowest
races, 391

— tribes among whom religion is absent,
140

ROM

Religion of .Savages — continued.
ruilinientary religion, 143

dreams, 144

a mtui's sliadow, 147

spirits at first regarded as evil,

148

and causing disease, 150

low ideas of spirits entertained

by savages, 154
belief in ghosts, 159

— — absence of belief in a future state,
160

plurality of souls, 162

divination and sorcery, 163-169

witchcraft, 170

religious dances, 178

— gradual development of religious
ideas. 181-187

fetichism, 242

totomism, 137, 183. 248

animal worship, 184

deification of iuauimato objects,

200

troo-worship, 203

wator-worahip, 213

worship of stones and mountains,

220

fire-worship, 229

worship of the sun, moon, and

stars. 201

sundry other worships, 205

dovelopmental and adaptational

changes, 235

Shamanism, 252

idohitry, 256

worsliip of ancestors and of men,

264, 2C5

worship of principles, 269

sacri tiers, 209, 270

— — temples, 277

the soul, 280-283

the future state, 284

creation, 287

prayer, 288

the nature of idols. 291

— — connection of religion and mo-
rality, 311

— progress of religious ideas among
savages, 394, 395

Right, connection of, with law, 307
Rishis, or penitents, of India, how re-

ganled, 154
River- worship, 214
Rock sculptures, 46

— of Western Jlurope, 46

Romans, their notions respecting their

deities, 156
•— sorcery among them, 1 68

421.

INDEX.

I. \

f . I '

'II

I!()M

Iloninns, origin of tlicir mytlis, 2;')!

— tlicir Imiiian siicrifi(,'cs, 27fi

— their wills, '3'>5

— their laws of propf-rty, .'5G2

— property in land in, ;i.');3
Rnssia, human sacrifices in, 277

SATl.'RISM, 201
Sacrifices, human, 2fi9-27'»
— confusion of the victim with

tht

Deity, 271

in ancient times, 275
Sjilutation, forms of, among savages,

29
Samoyedes, marriage among the, 60

— marriage l)y capture among the, 90

— exogamy among the, 111
Sanchoniatho, si-quenco of religions ac-
cording to, i;J7

Sandwicli Islander, tattooing of a, Hi

— relationship among the, 70, 71

— endogamy among them. 1 19

— their animal worship, 194
tSavages, their reasons for what they do

and helievo, 4

— difficulties of communicating with
them, and conse(nient mistakes, 4

— inactivity of their intellect, 6

— condition of the lowest races of men
7-9

— resemldance of different races in
similar stages of development to one
another, 9

— wide distriliution of the custom of
La Couvade, 12, 13

-— ideas on the influence of food, lo

— their notions with reference to por-
traits, 17

— and as to the value of writing, 19, 20

— their ideii of disease, 21

— their fan^'ies respecting twins, 26

— how life is r. L^arded by them, 27

— their forms ot>- salutation, 28

— art among th(!ni 29

— their personal ornaments, 46

— marriage and relationship among
them, /is rf .srf/.

-— their religion, 131 r( kci.

— their figurative language, 206

— their character and morals, 293
difficulty of ascertaining the cha-
racter of savage races, 296, 298

their prognss in morals, 298

■ their family affection and moral

feeling, 301

— — have no notion of a future state,
.JOt

SOU

.Savatres — cunfiiiucil.

origin of moral fei'liiig, 309

— lani:uage of the lowest races, 313

— their laws, 341

— true nature of harharism, 38(>

— general conclusions respecting savago
races, 367

— l)apcrs on the primitive condition of
man, 309, 383

Scandinavia, human sacrifices in. 276
.Science, services of, to the cause of re-
ligion anil humanity, 291
Scotland, wafer- worship in, 214

— stone-worship in Skve, 226
Scythians, their worship of a seinutar,

217
Sea, worship of the, 216,220
Semitic religions contrasted withArvan,

249, 250
S( rpent, worship of t ho, 186

— races in which the serpent was and
is worsliipped, 188

Shadow, how reganled by savages, 147,

186
Sliamanism defined, 137

— origin of the word Shaman, 252

— account of, 252

Shamans of Silieria, their supernr'Mral

powers, 175
Siberia, stone-worship in, 222

— worship of ancestors in, 260

— notions of the people of, as to Crea-
tion, 286

Sioux, system of relationship among

the, 75
Skin, ornamentation of the, 49
Skye, worship of stones in. 226
Slang terms, oritriu of, 322
Smoking in religious ceremonies, 180
Snakes, departed relatives in the form

of, 187
Sneezing, custom at, 381
Sonthals, niiirriage customs of the, 101

— their religious observances during
intoxication, 180

— their mode of praying for rain, 238
Soors, absence of moral sense among

the, 303
Sorctry among savages, 165, 166

— various modes of, 166-169

— sorcerers not necessarily impostors,
175

Sold, difference between the belief in
ghosts and in the existence of a soul,
279

— souls of inanimate objeels, 281

— belief thai each man has several
souls. 282

It i 'J

I fi'i'liii)?, 309
west raccN, ol.l

barism, 385

s respecting saviigo

nitive condition of

iicrificcs in, 27(5

() the cfiusu of rc-

y, '-'Ol

li^) in, 214

kve, 220

lip of u scimctar,

16,220

■astid with Aryan,

ye, 186
.serpent was and

I lij savages, 117,

Slianian, 252

lieir supcnii 'Mral

I in, 222

rs in, 200

)lc of, as to Croii-

ationship among

ftho, 49

* in. 226
. 322

■erenionies, 180
:ives iu the form

itonis of tlio, 101

borvanccs during

ng for rain, 238
nd sense among

', IG/i, 166

60-1 G9

sarily inipostoi'e,

en the belief in
istence of a scml,

ibjeets, 281

nan has several

INDEX.

425

sou

Soiitli Sea Islanders, their religion, 13.')
S|iartans, tiieir marriages by capture,

'.Hi
Spiders worsliipiiid, 19")
Spirits, always regard.d by savagoi as

evil, 1 18

— the authors of diseases, 150
Stars, worship of the, 232, 233
Statues, worshipped as deitus, 200,

262
Stiens of Candiodia, their belief in an
evil genius, 151

— their behavi(jur during eclipses, 158

— their animal-worship, 2iiO

— absenec of temples among tlu', 277
Stones, worship of, 220
Smnalrans, three kinds of marriage

among the, 01, 63

— soreery among them. 168

— their boliaviour during an eelip.so,
156

— their animal-worship, 200

— their tree-Worship, 210

— their water-worship, 216

— their notion of a future state, 305

— their names taken from their chil-
dren, 35'.)

Sun, worsliij) of the. 232

— original form of sun-worship, 211
Swords, worship of, 234

Tvr.

nWCrrrS, lils observations on the

X ancient (Jermans, 3

Tahiti, nuirriage customs in, 68, 6!)

— life attributed by them to inanimate
objects, 201

— animal-worslnp in, 204

— stone-M(jrship in. 227

— Worship of tile kiiii,' and (imen of.
205

— human sacrifices in, 275

— absence of ideas as to creation in,
28!)

~ character of tlie natives, 293, 297

— notions of the [u"/ple as to future
rewards and punish, :"nts. 304

— character of the laws of, 345

— and of the cirenionies of, 319

— {iroperty in laud in, 352

— property left l>y will in, 355

— custom of abdication of the king of,

O'tiS

Tamils, system of relationship among
the, 127. 129

Tanna, t

52
Taj>yrians, niarriagi

ttooing among llu' women of,
custom of the, 102

Tartars, their notion of God, 156

— inheritance in the youngest son
among the, 359

Tattooing, among the Africans, 50, 52

— among other rac« s, 52-55
Teehurs of Oude, relationship of tlio

sexes among the, 70
Teeth filed, 49

— iiiereed and ornamoiited, 49
Temples, unknown mostly to the lower

races, 277
Thibet, polyandry in, 116
Thomson, Mrs., worshipped as a deity

ill Australia, 236
ThiMcians, marriage customs of the, 100
Tierra del Kuego, marriages in, 91
Tinne Indians, restrictions on marriage

auumg the, 112
Tijiperalis of Cliittagong, their notions

respecting the spirits of the de.ul. 101
T(jdas of the Neilgherry Hills, their

system of relationships' ''5

— their worship of the ox, 196

— never pray, 290

Tombstones of American Indians, 41
Tonga Islands, tattooing in the, 52

— practice of adoption in the, 76

— relationship through females in. 124

— immortality of t.ieir chiefs, 280

— but not of the common people, i'SO

— their notion of a future state, 282

— character of the islanders. 292, 293

— their absence of moral feeling, 303

— and of the idea of future rew.ird.s
and punishments, 305

— ceremonies of the people of, 348
Totemisiu defined, 137

— considered as stage of religious p.-o-
gress, 183,248

Totems, or crests, importance of, 112
Tottigars of India, .system of relation-
ship of the, 75
Tree-worship, univoisality of, 206

— case of, recorded by Mr. Fergusson,
202

Tribe marks of various African races, 51

52
Tuiiguses, marriage l)y capture among

the, 89

— tlu'ir mode of divination, 164
-- tiieir water- worship, 228
Turkomans, marriage amimg the. 05
Tuski, tiieir skill in drawing, 32

— their oruanienfation of the skin, 51
Twins, fancies respecting, 25, 26

— cause of thogeni :A prejudice against,
26

Tylor, I'iirly History of Man, vii.

il »

1 1. i

■ !

■1'

1 , 1

426

INDEX.

TYR

Tyro, worship of a stutuo of Uerculos
at, 2G3

NKTAIIE, water-god of the Daco-
tahy, 218

VICDDAHS of Coylon, their religious
idwis, 183
W'sali. religious charncter of the

courtesans of, 104
Virginia, religious duuce of tho natives
of, 179

WALKS, niarriiigc customs in, 96
\Varali tribes, restrictions
marriage in the, 110
Water-worship, in Europe, 213

.Siberia, 215

India, 210

Afriea, 216, 217

— — N. America, 217

S, America, 220

Wells, sacred, in Scctland, 214
Wergild of the Anglo-Saxons. 36')
Wliately, Dr., Archbishop of Dublin,

his views as to tho condition of
savages, 369

— answers to his arguments, 373
Whiddah, or Whydah. an idol of, 191

— wator-worship at, 216
Wills, modern origin of, 3ot
Witchcraft among savagt's, 170

— its similarity in various parts of the
world, 170, 171

— tho belief in, shared by Europeans,
173

Wives, custom of supplying guests with,

92, 102
AYomcn, position of, among savages,

iVJ, 78

— communities in which women have
exercised the supreme power, 78, 79

ZL'N

Women — continued.

— origin of exogamy, 106

— causes of polygamy, 114

— endogamy, 117

— inheritance through females, 120

— position of women in Australia, 411
Wrestling for a wife, custom of, 79
Writing, used as medicine, 19

— surprise of savages at, as a mode of
communication, 'A!i

— picture-writing, 37

Indian bark letters, 42-44

— application of art to purposes of
personal decoration, 46

YERKALAR of Southern India, mar-
riage customs of tho, 118

ZEALANDEKS, New, their tattooing,
I 34

— their courtship and marriage, 92

— oniliigamy among them, 119

— »^vil spirits, how regai-ded by them,
luO

— sorcerv and witchcraft among them,
169. 170

— custom of hardening tho heart to
pity, 16

— causes of their cannibalism, 16

— their belief in the destruction of
body and spirit, 161

— their motio of divination, IG.")

— their worship of aninuils, 194, 105

— red a sacred cohnir with them, 223

— their worship of the rainbow, 234

— their belief in the destruction of
botli body and soul, 280

— their absence of moral feeling, 298

— tlieir three tenures of land 3 J3
Zoolatry, 182, 193

Zuui, sacred well of, 219

I.(1NI> >V : I'UISTKT) HT

itrOTTI.^WUO!)!': AM) ( O., KhW-ttlUI'lET bQVlUB

AM) >'\l<I.IAMl:Nr MTllKKT

W O E K S

IIY

106
111

females, 120
n Austral ill, 411
ustctni of, 79
ine, 19
ftt, 118 a mode of

TS, 42-44
to purposeti of
46

iiern Indiii, mar-
ho, 118

, their tattooing,

mnrrinpc, 92
em, 119
yarded by them,

ift nn'.ong them,

ig tlio heart to

balism, 16
destruction of

ion, 16i)
iinls, 194, mr)

ith them, 223
rainbow, 234

destruction of

1 feelinp, 298
hmd 3o3

JOHN TYNDALL, LLD. F.R.S.

Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Boyal Institution of

Oroat Britain,

NOTES OF A COURSE OF NINE LECTURES ON LIGHT,

Delivered at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a.u. 1869. Crown 8vo.
price l.s. sewed, or l.s. (kl. cloth.

NOTES OF A COURSE OF SEVEN LECTURES ON
ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA AND THEORIES,

Delivered at the Koyal Institution of Great Urilain, a.d. 1870, Crown 8vo.
price Is. sewed, or I,'*. GU, cloth.

ON RADIATION;

The Redo Lectures delivered before the University of Canibridgo, a.d. ISCi.
Crown 8vo. witii Diagram, price 2^. GJ.

ON THE SCIENTIFIC USE OP THE IMAGINATION ;

A Discourse delivered ln'fore the Hritish Association for tiie .Advancement of
Science at Liverpool, Sej)tenibor 16, 1870. 8vo. price 1a'. Gd.

HEAT A MODE OF MOTION.

Fourth ivlition, with Alterations and Additions. Phito and 108 Woodcuts.
Crown 8vo. [)rico 10s. 6f/.

SOUND;

A Course of Eiglit Lectures delivered at tlie Royal Institution of Great Rrituin.
Second Editi(m, revised; with a Portrait of M. Chladni, aud 109 Woodcut
Illustrations. Crown 8vo. price Os.

FARADAY AS A DISCOVERER.

New and Cheaper Edition, with Two Portraits. Fcp. 8vo. price 3s. 6^/.

RESEARCHES ON DIAMAGNETISM AND MAGNE-
CRYSTALLIC ACTION ;

Including the (piosticju of Diamugnetic
numerous Woodcut Illustrations. 8vo.

' Dr. Faraday, by a series of inductive
rnsearcliC't .>f tli(> most perfect cliarnctor, cstnli-
lishiMl DiAMAiiNKTis.M as a force of almost iinivor-
wil iiiHiU'iico uixm matter, but iiossessiiiif prin-
ciples which hroadly (listiiik'tiislioil it from that
mai-'ni'tism which peculiarly lieloiijfs to iron, Init
which is manifested in a less (U-trree by some
three or four other metals. M. Pi.fc'KEii dis-
covered the action of a matfiiot upon crystallisi'd
bodies, and (javo the name of Ma>rne-crystallie
fiirce to it, lindinif it to lie distinct from eiilier
Magnetism or Diamajrnotism by its nivinv a de-
termined position to the mass under its inlhienee.
M. I'l.rcKEii's investigations led him to believe
that the direction assumed by a crystal under
ma>.'netic inllueiice was determined by I ho optic
axis of the crystal ; and Dr. Fahadav, concurring
in this view, called it tlie optic axis force. Dr.
TvNDAM. took up the iiuiuiry at this point, and
was led to a somewhat ditferent conclusion. JCe
appeared to prove that tlie position of the optic
axis is not necessarily the line of niairnecryslallio
force, aud that the force which detenniued the

Polarity. With Six Copi>*'r Plates and
price 14s.

position of the optic axis in the magnetic
Held was not independent of the ma^rnetisin or
dianiawnetism of the mass of the crystal. Ileyond
this Dr. Tv.NDAM, has shewn that the lines of
cleavftifo seem to influence the ixisition of the
crystal in the mavrnetic field, as they will be axial
in a mikk'netic and eiiuatorial in a diama»?neliu
crystal; and everythintf that tends to destroy the
cleavaKCs tends also to destroy the directive
jKiwer. This volume is devoted to a republication
of the pajiers in which these imiKirtant researclii!»
wore reeonled. . . . There are many advanta^'Ofi
in thus coUectintf to»{ether a set of researches of
this nature. W(! have now in a collected form,
for the use of the scieiititlc student, a record of
the expel imental evidence uihiu which the con-
clusions altove referred to are based. The book is
plentifully illustrated witli carefully-drawn wnod-
cuts, which will b<^ found of trreat use to tlmso
who may desire to investijrate further those niair-
netic phenomena which appear to lead to an eluci-
dation of the mysteries involved iii the ainmio
cuustitutiuD of mutter.' .Vtiiicn.kum.

London : LONGAFANS, GREEN, and CO. Paternoster Kow.

NEW WORK BY THE REV. Q. W. COX, MA.

( I

»t

pfilN^!

In Two VoLUMKS, 8vo. price 285. cloth,

THE MYTHOLOGY OF THE
ARYAN NATIONS.

BY THR

REV. GEORGE \V. COX, M.A.

LATE SCIiOLAIl OF TIUNITT COI.LBOK, OXFUUU.

FREXCII and EydLISII CRITICAL OPIMOXS.

•Tlii^ work is a Irtrgo, Imlii, and on
tlif whole, safi- ati'p into ii ri'tiioM of irnnilry
••"iiiparivtivcly iiiiiU'vcIoikmI. . . . Knrliiimti'ly
fur llio future of sciontlH)' niytlmloir.v, Mr. ("«>x
ciiiisidorH lihnsflf a scholar. Notwilhrttiuidiiij?
tho incjileiiliiblo amount of curious and out-of-
the-way information his »ohimn.scoiitaiii, hi- ha.s
•• iuori>"ti> learn." Ihiit he will oven modify hi«
i'l'iitral theory in not likely ; but that Im nuiy
M'e (imse to modify wimc aiipli^'iiti""" <>' it ia
very ixwtiihle. There arc only few piTsons who
(•an" npi)roach his liilionrs with any rl^ht to jiidjre
them ill detail. The reason of this wo have
;diuady niven : if any perxon demurs, all we say
to him is— road the wiu'k. ... It will Ik- at
«uK-e iwrcoived that .Mr. Cox's spirit ami mellioil
iiivolvo a consideration of the jrreat fnudamentjil
t)ue-<tions roinid which scientific men and tlieo-
loK'ian!) are now keenly eontencliiij,'. There is
no doulit which side lie takes. .\nd yet lio ia
fi'if from do^rma ism ami honourably rclr' vo
<if the iniinirint; attitude. . . . Knoutih li:i en
writK'n to indicate the brnivl and impn>-sivc
stand taken by Mr. Cdx, and to impart uniisnal
intermt to his laborious invcsiirations. The
whido field of Aryan niytholo(.'y is covonnl by
thc'in.aiula numliorof absorliitik' topics carefnlly
tr<'ateil.' M.\N<iii:srKK liu.vum.w.

' Voii'i tin <le cos onvni^cs ootnino on n'en
a, hclius ! (itio trop jmu i\ signaler, ct qui prouvo

ppjK'ndivnt fjuo Ic poiyt jvuir los t'tmlcs
si'riouses ot ixilidos n'est pas encnn- prnlu. M.
Cox acomiKise, sur la mytholonie.deux volum<«
doiil on iHMit (lire oinsi'iencieuscnu'iit ((u'ils
^puisent la maticreet(in'ils laissent pou de chose
i\ lii'sinr. . . . M. Cox entro en inatii're par nne
tli«Mi>-ioii sur Ipm tht'-oviPs |M>pulair)>i« que Ton a
proposces relatlveinent iV I'oriKine et iV I'expan-
sion- si je puis me servir do co tonne— de In
mytholo^'io en (leiieral. . . . Dans 1e second
liviv de son onvrapo, formant la dernii^ro parlio
(In premier volume, M. Co.x j)asse on revue los
divinitesdu ciol.Dyaus, Indra, Varuna ot Mltra,
liramah, /.ciis, Odin, et onsuite tontos les ti^'urcu
Hccondaires (pii remplissont TOlyinim du moiide
aryen. . . . Tons ct's sujets sont diseut(''S avec
nil savnir iiiiniensc, et les lectures auxquelles
M.Ciixadrt s'astreimlrc |)our rCditfor les deux
volniues dont je |)arlo ont quelque cliose de vrai-
nient prodinieiix. 11 fant aussi parler (In style.
Le tlieme le plus profoml et le plus dipne d'exn-
nien |icut souvent etre mis sous les ycux dii
lectenr iivtv tant de nculij-'onee artisticpie, avinj
si pen de souei de la forme, <iue le livre deviendra
lettn- close, ct no riMuplira pas lo but anqucl il
f'tait dnstine. M. (.'ox a soijfneiisenient cvite oe
l)ii'j?e ; il s'oxprime avoc eUxinenee, avec {xii'sie
mcine, et on voit (pi'il est entliousiasme (le son
sujet. par la couleur aiiini(''e (pi'il a su doiiner il
8un style.' Ukvlk liiutJiHiitAi-jiiijL'K.

Works bi/ the same Author: —

T.ALES of ANCIENT 0RE1':CK, price C^. Gd.

M.\NU.\L of MYTHOLOGY, in Question and Answer, price 35.

Tiic TALK of the GREAT PERSIAN WAR, from IIkrodotl's, 3.^-. C,d.

LATIN and TEUTONIC CHRISTENDOM, an Historical Slcttch, 4^. G(/.

Th<> DICTIONARY of SCIENCE, LITERATURE, and ART, Eonrtli I'Milion,
reconstructed hy tlio Into Professor Rranue and tlio Rev. G. W. Cox. In
TiiUKK VoLUMKs, niodiuiu 8vo. price 63«.

London : LONGMANS, GliKEN, and CO. P.-itmnostor How.

^<.» ■• >

ox, MA.

THE

M.A.

piiur los t'tudi's
rtx onron- i)rrclii. Jf.
Iicilii^io, iUmix vulniiiii)
<'ii'iiri<Misoiiu'iit iiH'iN

» lainKOllt |M'll tic I'llOSC

To on inntii^ro pnr iino

IKipiilnlron quo I'oii n

I'orih'ine ct il rex|iiiii-

r de 00 tonne— do In

. . . Dims lo Hoooml

lint In doriili^ro pnrtiii

i.x piiHse on roviio los

idra, Viirnnn ot Mitm,

suite tontoii leu ti^rnros

t roiynijw du niniide

tH Ront discntiV nvoc

H lectures atixqucllos

)oiir r6di(fcr Ie« iloiix

pielquo clio'ic ilo vnil-

Bussi purler du style.

lo plus dipno d'oxn-

Hiim los ycux du

onoo iirtistl(pio, nvoc

pie Iclivrodeviondra

ims lo liut nutpu'l il

iunousonuMit ovito oo

lixpionoe, nvi>c iMioHio

nthoiisin^siui' do son

(pi'il a 8U donncr i1

ItlUUoUIUI-JIKjL'K.

3s.

US, Ss.Gd.

■tell, 4a-. G</.

Fourtli Jvlition,

a. w. Cox. In

iter Mow.

39 rATEBNOSTKU RiiW, K.C.

I.itXDoN: JttniKirt/ 1871.

GENEEAL LIST OF WORKS

Pftll.I HEP BY

Messrs. LONGMANS, QREEN, READER, and DYER.

Arts, MANUiArri kf.s, &o 12

Astronomy, MKTEouoi.uaY, roiaiAit

QBOORAritY, &(> 7

BlOOBAl'lllCAI. AVilRKS 3

Chemistry, Mkhiclvr, .SLHCii;uY, iiinl

the Am.iei) SciR.vcKs '.>

CoMMRRCR, Navigation, iuul Mkhcan-

TI1.R AFFAIUii !!•

Criticism, Pimoi.ooY, &i' 4

Fink ArtsiiiiiI Ii.i.ustrati:i> Kdiiions 11

HlSTORV, riil.ITICS, illul lll'»liim( Al.

Memoiiis 1

Index 21- 2 »

MiscF.i.i.ANKors WouK.s and Popii-Att

Metaphysics

Natiiiai. IIisTtutYt.'v: I'oi'ii.An.SciENrF, H

I'KIiloDKAI. Pi IIIICATIONS 'JO

PoBTRY and TiiF. Dkama IH

Rf.I.IOIOIS iUlil iMnliAI. WoiJKS II

KruAi. Si-outs, &c 1!)

Travels, Voyaoes, Sec 10

WoUKH (if KlCTION 17

Works of I'rri.iTV and ORNEnAi,

Infor.mation 2i>

Iflshri/^ Pofific^, lJi'<t'tr'u'al Mt'iiK'irs^ ()'•,•.

The History of England from

tli« full of Wol^oy to tlu- Dofolt of tlu-
Spanish Arniadi. \\y Ja^ii:s .Xniiionv
FKoroK, M.A.

Cahinkt l'"i>irioN, 12 vols. rr. Svo. t:! 12,<.
LiiiitAisY I.DiTio.N, 12 vols. Mvo. '^--^ js.s.

The History of England from

tlio Acci'ssioii (if JaiiK'S II. \\y Lord

Mai A I' I. AY.

liinuAitv I'',i)rno\, ,"> vol^. S<vo. £1.
4"aiiinkt Kihtiox, S vols, post Hvo, 1S<.
ri:on,K's Kditiox, I vols. oro\vn><vo. Uix.

Lord Macaulay's Works, ("om-

pU-te and unifonn Liluarv I'.ditioii. I'.ilitnl
by Ills Sister, I.^dy Tui:vi:i.va\. N vol-^.
8vo. with Portrait, price .£.") fw. doth, or
£8 8s. bound in tri'i'-calf liy IIi\iiT('.

An Essay on the History of the

Knglish (lovornnu-nt and ( oust it iit ion, from
the Kei;;n of Ilonry VH. to tlu- I'resent
Time. IJy .loiiN I'.Aiti. l!i s>i;i.i.. Fourth
Kdition, revised. Crown Svo. (I.s-.

Selections from Speeches of Earl

Ituascll, 1SI7 to IHIl. ,111,1 from l)os|ial<li(s.
18.")i» to 18G5 ; witii Inlrodiii-tions. 2 vols.
«vo. 28s.

Varieties of Vice-Regal Life. l!y

.Major-ticin'ral Sir Wii.i.iwi I)i;mson,
K.C.li. late »iovi'rnor-( it iieral of ilio .\u.stra-
lian Colonics, and (lovirnor of M:idra>i.
With Two Maps. J voN. Svo. -JSv.

On Parliamentary Government

ill I'.ii-imd ; iis (irij;in, Development, and
I'ractical ( >pi ralion. \\y .Vi.'.-m.rs Todd,
I.iloarian of tin- L'-;;isIative .V.ssondily of
Ca.iada. 2 vols. Svo. price XI 17».

The Constitutional History of

I'.imland since tlic Accession of «;cor:;c III.
17i;o— istii). Uy Sir Thomas Ijiskink
.May. K.C.l). Second I'.dit. 2 vo's. svo. 33*.

A Historical Account of the Neu-
trality of (o-cat liritain durin;,' tlic Ameri-
can Civil War. 15y .MoxTA(iui: IJi.itxAKn,
M.A. Iloyal Svo. price !(]«.

The History of England, tV»m t!u-

I'.arliest limes to tin- Year lsi;i;. IJy C. I).
VoN<;i:. I!ci,dmi I'rof.ssor of .Modern llistorv
in the (Jiieon's I'niversity, Mdfast. New
I'ldilioii. Crown Hvo. 7*. G(/.

A History of Wales, derived from

.Vuthcntic .Siurces. IJy Jaxk Wii.i.iAJis,
Vs^afell, .Vuthor of a Memoir of the Kev.
Tiioniai Trice, and Kditor of his Literary
IJemains. Svo. 1 1.<.

N'KW WORKS iMUMsiiKU nv LOXCiMANS am. CO.

' »Ji

*! !lN

dli

taiSA

Looturos on tho History of Eng-

1 mil, tiiiin till' I'.'iilir-'t 'riiLicH to llio iKaili
of Kin:,' Kdwiinl 11. Uy William L»\t.-
MAN. With Miiiwiiiiil Iliustiatitiin. Hvo. I.'ju.

The History of tho Lifo and Times

i>( Kihviiiil tho Thinl. Hy Wii.liav
I.i.N.i.MAS. With 'J Maps, s riuttH, ami
10 Wood.iit.i. 2 vol.J. 8vo. -28s.

History of Civilization in England

anil France, Siiaiii and St'ollainl. Hy

IIl.MlY TlloMAS lllfKLL. N>W Kditioll

lit' tho cntln; work, with a compkto IsuEX.
15 vol-i. crown 8v(i. '2 Is.

Bealitios of Irish Life. Uy w.

Sria-AUT Ti!i;n( ii, Land A^'cnt in lid and
to the Marqnc^s of f,an.>di>wno, the Mar-
quess of Bath, and Lord l>ii^''y. I'ifth
Kdition. Crown 8vo. >)S.

The Student's Manual of tho

History of Ireland. liy JL F. Ci sai k,
Authoress of the ' lUustratcd History nf
Ireland, from the ICarliest IVriod to the
Year of Catholic Kinancipation.' Crown
8vo. price Gs.

A Student's Manual of the His-
tory of India, from the Farliot IVriod tt:
the rresent. Hy Colonel Mladows Tav-
i.i.it, M.II.A.S. 5l.lM.A. Crown Svo. with
Maps, 7s. Gil.

The History of India, fiom the

Earliest Period to the close of Lord Dal-
honsie's Administration. I?y John Clakk
Mausiiman. vols, crown 8vo. •J-'.i. Gtl.

Indian Polity : a View of the System
of Administration in India. IJy Lieut.-Col.
G KOI ml". Ciii;sni;y. Sicond Fdition, re-
vised, with Map. 8vo. 21s.

Home Politics : being a Consiilcration
of tlic Causes of the (irowth of Trade in
rohition to Lelwur, Pauperism, and Fnii-
gration. By Uanmkl Gkaxt. 8vo. 7s.

Democracy in America. v>y Alkxis

Dk Tocgf kvim-i:. Translated by IIkniiy
Rkkve. 2 vols. 8vo. 21s.

Waterloo Lectures : u Study of the

Campaign of 1815. 15y Colonel CiiAiu.r.s
C. CiiKsNKY, K.K. late Professor of Military
Art and History in the Stall" College. Second
Edition. 8vo. with Map, 10s. Gd.

The Military Resources of Prus-
sia and France, and Recent Clianges in tho
Art of War. Ry Lieut.-Col. Ciiics.nky,
R.E. and IIknuy Ri.r.vi:, D.C.L. Crown
8vo. 7s. Gd.

The Overthrow of tho Germanic

i'oiifcdcratiiin hy I'ru-sia in \>^tW, My Sir
A. Mali r. Mart'. K.ll.C late II.IJ.M. Fnvoy
and Minister at Frankfort. With o Mapd.

Kvii. IHs,

The Oxford Reformers— John Coht,

Lrasinus, and Tliomas More; beinga His-
tory of thdr Fellow Work. Ry Fukdkkio
Si:i:iinii\i. Second I'.ilition. 8vo. i Is.

History of tho Reformation in

Fun pe in the Time >•( tJalsin. Ry J. II.
.Mkui.i: D'.Vt nic.Ni;, D.I). Voi.s. I, and
II. Hvo. JHy. Vol.. III. \2s. Vol. IV. price
Ms. and V<m.. V. price lOs.

Chapters from Frouch History ;

St. l.nuis, .bian of An', Henri IV. with
Skelciies of the Intermediate Periods, Ry
.1. II. (li UNi.Y, y\..\. New Edition. Fcp.
Svo. (Is. Gd.

Tho History of Greece. By C. Tititit-

WALL, D.l). Lord i;i>iiiip of St. David's.
8 vols. fcp. '2Xs.

The Tale of the Great Persian

War, from the Histories of Herodotus. Ry
(iLoiKiK W. Cox. .M.A. late Scholar of
Trin. Coll. O.soii. I'cp. .Is. Gd.

Greek History from Themistocles

to Alexander, in a Series of Lives from
Plutarch. Revised and arranged by A. II.
Ci.'Hi.ii. Fcp. with 1 1 Woodcuts, Gs.

Critical History of the Lan-
guage and I.iti raturo of Ancient (ireece.
r.y William .Mini:, of Caldwell. 5 vols.
8vo. Hi 'Xi.

History of the Literature of

AnciinK ireece, P,v Professor K. ( ). MUl.I.Icn,
Translated by Li.wis and Donald.son,
3 vols. 8v(.. -JU

The History of Rome. Jiy WiLur.i m

liiNi:. Translated and revi.sed by the
Autiior. Vols. Land II. 8vo. [Just read;/.

History of tho City of Rome from

its I'nundatinii to ihe Sixteenth Century of
the Chri>tian lira. Ry Thomas II. Dykk,
LL.D. bvo. with 2 Majis, 15s.

History of the Romans under

the Knipirc. Ry Very l{ev. Ciiaiclks
Mlkivalk, D.C.L. Dean of Fly. 8 vols, post
8vo. price IHs.

The Fall of the Roman Re-
public ; a Short History of the Last Cen-
tury of the Commonwealth. Ry the same
Author. 12nio. 7s. Gd.

tho Qormanic

i.i ill lM(;i!. My Sir
.Into ll.U.M.Kiivoy
fort. With J MiipH.

QerS— Jolia Colft,
MiMi'; l)t'ing a Ilis-
nrk. Hy Fukukuio
it ion. 8\'o, i 1.1.

:eformation in

I Calvin. My J. II.
).l). Voi.s.F. ami
[■2s. V<Ji-. IV. prlco
Uh.

onch History;

•c, IIliiii IV. witl»
lediatc IVriiKls. Hy
Nuw Edition. Fcp.

50C0. ByC. TaiRr.-

.!ii>p of St. David's.

Groat Persian

■s of lliTodiitus. Hy
I.A. liitc S<.liolur of
>. .1.1. CxL

cn Themistocles

I'lii's of Lives from
d (irran^'i (1 i)y A. II.
1 \\'ootlout.'<, G(f.

of the Lan-

of Am'ii'iit (Jrt'ccc.
vl' Caldwell. 5 vols.

Literature of

fcs^orK.*). MUi.i.KiJ.
and Donaldson.

JniO. I)y WiLHKi.M

jiiil revised by the

I. 8v(). \ Just rcditi/.

of Home ftom

^Ixliciith Cintury of
1 Thomas II. Dyek,
ris, 15,1.

pmans under

jry Hev. Chaklks
iipf Ely. 8 vols, post

Roman Re-

\y of tiie Last Cen-
balth. Hv the same

NEW WolJKS n iii.i>iii:i. uv LOX(JMAN.S am. CO.

Historical and Chronological

Eiii'yi'l()|iM' li I ; c'Hiiiiri--iii;,' Chi nuiilii;,ri,.al
Niitii'iH of all ilin (Ir.at Eveiit-'of I'liivcr-al
History, imludin^ Tri'atii's, .\liilllu•e^,
War.-<, Hat tics, iSic. ; incidoiits in the Lives
of Einincnt Men, Sci^ntilii' and <)t'i>;fra-
jiiiii'al Di.spovi'rii's, Mccliiuiii-al InvcntioiH,
and Social, Doiui'stir, and Ivonomiial Im-
provement ■*. Hy tin' i.ite H. II. \V<Miii\VAi:ii,
U.A. and W. L. K. C \ti;.s. 1 vol. «vii

History of European Morals from

Augustas to Cliarli'maj;no. Hy W. IC. 11.
Li;<KV, M..\. 2 vol>. Hvo. jirice -'8,1.

History of tho Riso and Iniluonoe of
the Spirit of KiUionalism in I'.nrope. Uy
the sumo Author. Caliiiii't Editiun (th'
Fourth). 2 vols, crown 8vo. price 10*.

God in History; or, tiio Progress of
Man's Faiili in ilic Moral Onler of the
World. Hy tlielatc Hanni Hi xsr.x. Trans-
lated from the Ccrinan liy Si^anna Winu-
woitrii ; with a rrufaoe hy Dean Siaxi.i.v
3 vols. 8vo. l-J.i.

Socrates and tho Sjcratic Schools.

Translated from the (.ierinan of Dr. E. Zi;i.- |
i,i;n, with the Anthor'.s approval, by the ^
Kev. Oswald.). I!i;it im.i., H.C.L. and Jl.A.
Crown 8vo. 8.1. ti(/.

The Stoics, Epicureans, and

Scepties. Translated from tlic (ierman of
Dr. E.Zi:i.i.i;it, Willi the Autlior's apjirov.il,
by OswAi.ij.I. 1{i:k iir.i,, H.C.L. and M..\.
Crown 8vo. 1 I.i.

The History of Philosophy, from

Thalcs to Comle. Hy (.iiMnuii; I1i;m:v
Lkwks. Third Edition, rewritten and cn-
largeil. 2 vols. 8vo. 30*.

The Mythology of the Aryan

N'aliuii^, Hy (ii uid.K \V. Cu\, M.A. late
Sehnlar of Trinity Colletjp, Oxford. J vols.
Hvo. priee •' .

The iSnglish Reformation. B?

F. C. .M A^^iNi.ni i!i>, .M.A. Chaneellor of
Liiieoln. Itli Edition, revised. Fep. 7.1. 0(/.

Maundor's Historical Treasury ;

conipriiiii;; a (ieiieial liitroilnetory Outline
of l.'iiivcrsil History, and a Series of Sepa-
rate lli'tories. Fep. <!,i.

Critical and Historical Essays

colltriliilted Id the h'lUnliitriili Iliviiw by
til l;i-lit lloii. Lonl .MacaiVav : —

Caiiinlt Edition, 1 vols. 2l.i.
LiiiUAicv Edition, 3 vids. 8vo. 3t5.i.
I'loim.k's Edition, 2 vols, erown Hvo. 811.
STiKKNr's EimioN, erown .'<\o. ('1,1.

History of the Early Chiiroh,

fi'oiii llie Fir-t I'rcaebiii;,' of the (iosjicl to
tlie Ciiinieil (if Nic:>a, a.d. 32."). Hy the
Author of 'Amv Herbert.' New Edition.
Fop. -l-i. Gtl.

Sketch of tho History of the

Ciiur<'h of Eii;xl.ind to the Kevolution of

Itl.S.S. liy llie IJi^lit I'ev. T. V. SlIOUT,

D.D. Lord Hishop of St. A^aph. Eighth

Ijlition. Crown Hvo. 7s. (if/.

History of the Christian Church,

from the Aseension of Ciirist to the Conver-
sion of Constaniinc. Wy E. Hiurox, D.D
late l{ej;iiis Prof, of Divinity in the Uni-
ver.--ity of O.Kford. Fep. 3^;. G(/.

Biographiral Worh.

The Life of Isambard Kingdom

Hrunel, Civil lliiKiiieer. V>y Isa.mhakd
HiMXKi,, H.C.L. of Lincoln's Inn, Chan-
eellor of the Dioce-e of Ely. With Por-
trait, Plates, iind Woodcut-. t!V('. "-'l.v.

The Life and Letters of the Rev.

Sydney Smith. Edited by his D.uiuliler.
Lady Holland, and Mrs. Ai stix. New
I'Mition, complete in One Volume. Crown
8vo. price i's.

A Memoii' of G. E. L. Cotton,

D.D. late Lord lii-liop of Calcutta; with
.Selections from his .Journals and Letters.
Edit ;d by Mrs. Cotton. With Portrait.
*<Vo. [_Jiist readi/.

Somo Memorials of R. D. Hamp-
den, Hishop of llerefirid. Edited by his
Daughter, Hlnhiltta Hami-dkn. With
portrait. 8vo. 'Just reaily.

The Life and Travels of George

Whitelichl. M.A. of IVnlnoke ColIe{,'e,
0.\f<ird, Cii.iplaiii to the Countess of Hun-
tingdon. Wy J. P. (il.KDSToNK. Post 8V0.

[Just reaJif.

Memoir of Pope Slxtus the Fifth.

l>y Haron HinNiin. Translated from tho
Original in I'rench, \\'i\\\ the Author's
sanction, by IIlukkt V., II. Jkunisoiiam.
2 vols. 8vo. \ In the press.

TiJfi

NI.W \\(U:KS i-i iii.isiii t> i;v J,uN(;.MAN.S and LO.

The Lifo and Lottors of Faraday.

I'.y Dr. Ili,N( i; .Iomw, Sc'cr<'t;'ry of iln'
iJnyal Iii-titutinii. S<<' iiil l'.ilili.i;i, with
I'drtiM'' mill \\'(Mi(I(tits. 'J viiN. J^vo. Jss.

Fnraday as a Discoverer. Hy Ihin

'IvM.Ai.i, M..I). I'.lt.S. I'rotcv-wr nf Natii-
r.'il I'liiloMipliy in tln' iii<yitl lii>titiitiiiii.
N\'\v .•lUil riuMiHi' I'.ililiciM, uitli '[\\i< I'lii'-
trait-i. Vf\K Sv.i. :',.<. C„l.

Livos of the Lord Chancellors

uiul Kc.p.rsi.r tlic linal SimI uf 1 nlaiiil.
IViim tin- Ivirlii" t Timr- t,> (he I.'ii-u nf
(,"uc.ii N'i.t.iiia. !!y .1. ll. ( CIm.anac.an.
M.IM.A. l!:in-;-t(r. " J \..N. Hy... :UU.

Dictionary of General Biography;

ciiiilaiiiiii;^ Ciiiiii^i.' Mrniuirs ami Xnticcs nl'
llu' iii"-t I".iii!iK!it IVr.-<!ijs of iill Cmiiitiii'-,
liom ilif ll.irlii'.st .\;;(s fn tlic rrt'sciit 'I'luc.
IMiied liy Wii i.iam 1,. M. C'atks. Svh.
jirici' •Jl.i.

Memoirs of Baron Bunsen, thawu

rliifily from Family Tapi'is liy iii' Widow,
1''i;an<i:s Itai'oiicsM llrxsi-.x. SccoikI Fili-
lioii. abriil.u'i^d ; ^vitll 2 I'ortrails ami I

Woo'lfllt'^. "J Vols. Jiii-t Hvo. '.Ms.

The Letters of the Right Hon.

Sir (lior.:<> t'onicwall l.i'wis to vaiioii-
Vrii'iuls. Kditeil 'ly his Urottu r, tlio Ilov,
Ciiioii Sir (!. F. I-i\\|s. Hart. Svo. with
Tortrait. 1 l.s.

Life cf the Duke of Wellington.

15y llie Kc'V. (i. U. (ii.Kni, i.A. ropiilar
F.ilitiiiii, oartfally iTviscd; with coiiinis
Additions. Ciowii ^'vo. \vitli I'ortrail, .">.<.

Father Mathew : a Biography.

liy .Iiiiis 1'i;am IS Ma(. ii:i , M.l'. I'oiudar
Fditioii, with Portrait. Crown hvo. "is. Cil.

History of my Religious OpinionB.

Uy .1. il. Ni:wman, 1).1>. IJcini,' the Snb
umot' of .VjiKlogin pro Vita Sua. ro>t Svo.

Letters and Lifo of Francis

Hai'oii. iiiiliidiii;.'' all his ()i.a>ional Works.
Ccilli'itcil and cditccl, «iili a «'omnicntary,
hy .1. SfiDi'iMi. \'()i.s. I. it ll.8vo. '^U.
V..i>. III. \ IV. -Jls'. V..I. V. r.N.

Felix Mendelssohn's Letters from

Jtii!i/ mill Switziilnnil, and lA'llcm frirtn
lx;!;i to In 17. trand.Mti'd liy I.ady Wai.i.ai i .
Vi iill Portrait, i! \')ls. iriA\n 8vo. .O.s-. ca>li.

Memoirs of Sir Henry Havelock,

K.C.li. liy .loIlN Cl.AKIv MaKSII.MAN.

l'co],li's I'.dit ion. with Portrait (.'rown8vo.
prii'C ;!>■. tj(/.

Essays in Ecclosie^stical Biogra-

jihy. i!y (he JliLcht Hon. Sir J. Stkpiikn,
1.I..I). C'ahinct Kdilion. Crown 8vo. 7.v. lii/.

The Earls of Granard : a Memoli- of

Ihr Nohle Family" of Forhcs. Written by
Aihnirultlic IIoil-Foiix Iihsiiks, and Kditcd
liy (ii;ni!(;i; ,\i:iiii i; llAsrix<;s, present
Karl of (iraniird, K.P. «vo. lO.s.

Vicissitudes of Families. I5y Sir

.1. I!i.i!N\i:i> P)i liivi:, C.li. Ulster KIur of
.\r)iis. New I'.dit ion, rcnuidellcd and en-
lari;('il. •_' Vols, crown Hvo. 'l\s.

Lives of the Tudor Princesses,

including; I.a.ly June (I rev and her Sisters.
l!y A(.m:s Sri;i< kiand. l'o>t 8vo. with
Portrait, i^vc l-'.v. (»/.

Lives of the Queens of England.

\\y A(iXi:s SriiK Ki.ANK. I.ihraiy Kdition.
newly revised ; with Portrail.s of every
<i'ueeii, Anto;;rai(hs, and Vif^nettes. 8 voK.
po-t 8vo. ~s. >i(f, each.

Maunder's Biographical Trea-

>iiry. 'I hirttrnth i'.dit ion. n'('onstriute(i and
partly n'-wri"en. with alioxc 1,000 uddifioiud
Memoirs, i.y W. !,. P. ( ' \ r! -, l''i'p. •!<.

1, i;

i '} ^ 1

1 c
• i

Criticism, Philosop/nj, Polity, (Jv.

utilitarianism. Hythesame. id Edit. 8vo. S,v.

The Subjection of Women. l!y

.ImiN Sit Aisr Mill.. Nfw I'ldiiinn. P.i-t
8vo. .'i>.

On Reprosontative Government.

l!y iIoiiN Sri \i:r Miii. Ihird I'.di'.ii'ii.

8vo. '.'.<. iTown i^o. 'Is.
On Liberty. Uy tlie same A itlior. iMiriJi

Kdition. l'o.st 6vo. 7v. il./. Cmwii ^vo.

l.-i. 4*/.
Princip'ica of Politi'^al jyconomy. liy Cii"

i-ame. .Si.Mli IMition. 'J vo! . Svo. ;>(!.<. or

ill 1 ' ol. cr-'Viii 8vo. .'iv.

Dissertations and Disciissions. By the

same .\iithor. .Socoiid Pdjtioti. o vol». 8\i'.

;itJ,<.

Examiuntion of Sir W. Hamilton's

Philo-ophy, .-nid ol till' iiriiicipid I'hilo-' -
phical <Jii('siions disi'us.M'il in hi> W:-itin(,'^.
liy till' ^:un('. 'i'hird ICdilion. .'\d. Iti.«.

Inaugural Address dtlivtr.d to tl.

Ijiivrrsiiy iif St. .\n Irewx. Hy Juiiv
Sri Af.T Mill.. 8vo. 'is. Crown Svo. I.':.

I).

[fo of Francis

:iis Ot'oasioiial Works,
willi a (oinnicntary.
U.S. I. i1 II. 8vo. '2is.
Vol. V. \2s.

in's Letters tvom.

i(/. ail 1 lAlttrs from
■■1 l.y l.'uly \Vai.i.a< i:.
Is. cnwn 8vo. fji.-. catli.

[onry Havelock,

Cl.AIlK MaUSHMAN.

1 roririit Crown 8vci.

iiO/Stical Biogra-

Ilon. Sir J. Stki'iikn,
ion. Crown 8vo. 's. Gil.

nai'd : n Momoir vl
{ I'nrlic.x. Written by
UN I'<ii:iii;s, ami Editctl
11 llAsTiN<is, present
1*. 8vo. lO.v.

Families. l?y ''^''"

, (.1!. rister Kin^' ot'
1, rt'iiKxlc'lleil and en-
■n Svo. -.'Is-.

idor Priucesses,

3 (irt-y ami her SLstcr.-.
ANH. ]\»i 8vo. with

)eus of England.

\Nii. I.ilirary i'',ilitioii.
li I'lirtrails of every
imi Viixnettos. 8 vol-.

graphical Trea-

itii>n. ri'i'onslrut'ted aU'l
ali'ivc 1,000 aililitioniil

-amc. ".(I Edit. 8vo. 5,v.

DiRcusRions. By ttio
I Ijlitioii. [', vols. «Vn.

ir W. Httmilton'.s

tlir iirimipal I'liilio^-
•,;-iil in hi- W-itin;:-.
IMilion. />vi>. Iti.v.

CSS lU'Hvcml to I'm''

.\ii !rew«. Hy .Toiin

.'"I. Crown Bvo. !.•.

\i;W WORKS PiP.i.iMir;!) n\ LOXCMANS and Co.

Analysis of the Phenomena of

the IIiiMian .Miml. liy .I.\mi:s Mii.i.. A
New I'".iiili.>n, witli Note,-;, lllu.-trativc and
Critical, l>y Ai.kxaxukk IIaix, AnI'UiW
I'lM'i.A 1 r.i;. and <;i:<>i;(.i; (!i;uri:. I'".dittd.
'\iili addiii<in:il Notes, by Juiin ,SriAi;r
Ml 1. 1.. 'J vols. iSvo. price 2Hs.

The Elements of Political Eco-

iiumy. I!y IIi.miv Di nni.nc; M.\( i.i.ok,
M..\. liarri.-ter-at-I.aw. 8vo. Id.s.

A Dictionary of Political Economy ;

I'i<i;,'raplii.'a!, l!ibli<>i;rapliiial, liistoii.al,
and r>-ai'ti.al. l!y the i?am« Author. Vui..
I. royal 8v«. oOs.

Lord Bacon's Works, collected

and edited by K. L. Ki.i.is, .M.A. .1 Si'i:ii-
DiNci, M..\. and D. 1). ili:ATii. New

and Clieapcr IMition. 7 vols. 8vo. priee

.♦;;) i;i.v. iui.
A System of Logic, Ratiocinativo

and Indiutivi'. liy John Sn .m:t Mii.i..
S<'venth Kilitioii. i' vols. ."-o. •_'.")<.

Analysis of Mr. Mill's Systr, ^ of

Lo;;ie. l!v W. Sri iii;i.\(;, M..\. New

ICdition. rjinii

The Institutes of Justinian; with

K-.if^lish Intri>ilih tioii, 'rran-iiilinii, and
Notes. IJy T. < '. Sankak-s M..\. Unrrister-
at-Law. New i'",dition. 8vo. l.V<.

The Ethics of Aristotle ; with Essays

a'ld Notes. Ity Sir A. (niA . r, Hart. M.A.
I. !..!). Second Kdition, revi<(d and cotii-
pleted. 2 vols. 8vo. price "JH.v.

The Nicomachean Ethics of Aris-

Killc. Newly Ir.inslald 'iMo i'iii-ii-h. ISy
It. Wii.i.iAM-, li.A. Fi'l'.iw and late I.ec-
tiirir M-rt >n C(ill(',e, Oxford. Kvo. T.'.v.

Bacon's Essays, with Annotations.

Hy 1{. U'ii.vri.i.v. H.D. late Anhbi.-^h.ip of
Dnbliii. Sixth I'Milion, ><vo. lO.s-. C,/.

Elements of Logic. liy !>'. WiiAri;i y.

1>.I). late Archliishop of Dublin. Nt w
I'^ditiin. 8vo. lOs. Or/, crown 8vo. l.v. i'xi.

Elemontf of Rhefovic. It.v the same
.\utlior. New I'.diiion. 8vo. 10.v. iJd. Crown
8vo. 4». G.7.

English Synonyines. 1!.v1;..Iam:\Vii vri:i v.
l-.diti'd by Arclihishcip WiiArii.v. .jih
Kditii.ii. l*\'p. ;J.N

An Outline of the Necessary

Laws of Thoiighf : a rreaiisc on i'';re and
Applied Lo;;ic. liy the Most Kev. W.
TiniMSdN, D.D. .\rchbishiip of York. Niiiih
Til lU'iin I. Cr.>\vM Hvo. '>■•'. Oi/.

The Election of L.oproscutativee,

I'arliam.iii.iry and Mniiicipal: a Treati.se.
I!y I'linv A, IIaki:, riariis|<'r at Law. Third
I'.diliuii, with Additions, CfiWii Mvo. C>s.

Speeches of the Right Hon. Lord

Macai I, AV, corrected liy Uim-df. rcopl»j'«i
Lditioii, cr(iwn .''^vo. .').>•. (I./.

Lord Macaulay's Speeches on

I'arlianuiitary iJcfurni in l-siil and IM2.
lt!mo. prii'i' Onk Sini.i.iN<i.

Walker's Pronouncing Diction-

avvofilic !!n ;li-Ii Lan^^ita:,'e. Thoroughly
rcvi-i^d Ldilii'ii-, by 1!. IL Smaijt. 8vo.

l-'.V. llinln. i'<S.

A Dictionary of the English

Lant,'u.i-e. liy IJ. (i. Laiiiam, M.A. M.D.
L.li.S. l-'ounded on the nictinnary of Dr. S.
.biii\^((\,as edited by the Kev. IL.LToiin,
with nunienius Lniciidations ainl .\dditi(ms,
4 vols. ltd. price X,7.

Thesaurus of English Words and

riiiascs, cias-^ilii'i'. and arraii.;,'ei! so a.i to
fai'ilitatc the expression ot' Ideas, and lussist
in Literary Conipo-ition. By 1'. AL Hdhkt,
M.D. New I'.ditioii. Crown Mvo. I0». G(/.

The Debater ; a Series i.f Complete
Debates, OutlinesofDehiites, and (incstioiis
for Discus ion. liy 1-". I!i>\vrn.N. Fcp. Gs.

Lectures on the Science of Lan-

i;u:i;,'c, ilclivered at the Knyal Iiistitutien.
r.y Max .MiM.i.i:i:. M..'\. fn: Korci^n

Member of the French In-titnti
8vo. price 30.'<.

t'ols.

Chapters on Language. % !*"• W .

KAiiiiAi:, M.A. I-M!.S. late Fellow ofTrin.
C'lll. Caiiitnid^c. Crown Svo. .v.s. Cd.

A Book about Words. I'-y (i. F.

(il:AII AM. '■''!>. Hvo. '.)s. •')./.

Southey's DoctOx', cumplctc in Ono
Volume, edited by the IJev. .1. W. Waiitkk,
li.D. S'liiare crown Hvo. rj,<. (',,/.

Historical and Critical Commen-
tary on the Old Tesiami nt ; with a New
Translation. Hy M. M. Kai.iscii, I'Ii.D.
Vol. I (»'. (K'.sM, 8v.). 18,1. or adapte<l for the
(ieneral Kea'ler, L.'s. Vol, 11. /■:.nulii!i, l.'j.s-.
oi ailaptcd for the (ieneral Header, 12.'t.
Vol III. Lri'itiiiis, Part I. '.!,<. or adapted
for the (ieneral Header, H;;.

A Hebrew Qramiaar, with Exercises,
liy the .'•anie. I'.-iii 1. OutHtms iiifh Kxcr-
(/.s«.v, 8vo. 12v. <)(/. Kkv, .'». Part !I. 7';.r-
ttjiliiiiKil I'mi'is n il C(i> <<ti urtiou.1, l'2s. G(/.

NEW WORKS I'tnusm:!) iiv LOX(;MANS and CO.

Manual of English Literature,

Ili.-^ioiiiiil ami Critical: wiiii a ('iiaiitcr on
ICiif^lisli Mctio.-^. Ij.v Thomas Aunoi.I), M.A.
Sccoiul Kdilion. Crown 8vo. 7«. Ot/.

A Latin-English Dictionary. P.v

.L T. Will 1 1;. D.I), of ('(ir|iux Ciirisli Col-
)of,'e, ami .J. K. l'ii>i)i.i;, M.A. of St. Kdmund
Hall, O.xford. Tiiinl Edition, revi.scd. 2
vol-!. 4to. pp. 2.\'2S, price -Vis.

"White's CollcKO Latin-English Diction-
ary (Intormidiati.' Si/Ci'), nl)rid;^cd IVum tho
I'arent \\'<Ak for tlie use of University
Students. Slediuin 8vo. pp. 1,018, price 18s.

White's Junior Student's Complete

I^utin-Ku^,'li>li andi;ngli.>lil.atin Dictionary.
IJi'visod IJlitidii. Si^uarc 12nio. jip. 1,058,
price V2ii.

f l".M.l.I>II-L.\TIN, Tw. Cxi.

Separately

I Latin-Exoi-isii, 7s. Gd.

An English- Greek Lexicon, eou-

taininp all tlie (ircek Words useil by Writers
of good autliorily. r>y C. U. Yi>N<ii:, I'.A.
New Edition. -Ito. 21s.

Mr. Yongo's New Lexicon, En-

gli.>ih and lireek, abrid{,'ed from ids lar^'c/
work (as above). Siiuure 12ino. 8s. G</.

The Mastery of Languages; ur,

the Art cf Speaki'i;^ Foreign lon^iics
Idioinatic.dly. l!y Ti umas ri;i:Ni>i;i:(;.\sT,
late of the Civil Servi<'e at ISIadras. S'cond
lOdilion. 8vo. C.s-.

A Greek-English Lexicon. Com-

jiileil by II. (i. Lii)iii;i.i., D.D. Dean of
Christ Chureli, and I!. Scott, D.D. Dian
of Rochester. Sixth Edition. Crown Ito.
jirice oC)ii.

A Lexicon, Greek and English,

abridj^^ed for Scbool.-> frinn Lii<i)i;i.i. and
Scott'.s Crcdi-EiKjUsh Lexicon, Twelfth
Ediiiiiii. Scpiare 12ino. Ts.tiil.

A Practical Dictionary of the

French and ICnitli.ih Langnajjes. By Pro-
fessor Elox CoNT.VNsicAf, many years
French ICxamiiicr for Militarj' and Civil
Appointments, &c. New Edition, carefully
revisetl. Post 8vo. 10s. Of/.

Contanseaii's Pocket Dictionary,

I'rench and I'.n^lish, abridged from the
Practical Diction;iry, by the Author. New
iMlition. iHnio. price 3.v. G(/.

A Sanskrit-English Dictionary.

The Sanskrit words printed both in the
original Devanngari and in lioman letters ;
with lJi'feren(X'S to the Ue.st Editions of
Sanskrit Antb<irs, and with Etymologies
and oompuri-ons of Cognate Words eliicly
in (jreek, Latin, Gothic, and Anglo-Saxon.
Compiled by T. Ui:xi i:v. 8vo. 52s. 0^/.

New Practical Dictionary of the

• Icrnian Language ; (Icrnian-English, and
l'.ii:,di.ih-(icrman. ISy tiio Rev. W. L.
lli,A< Ki.i.Y, M..\. and Dr. Caici, Maiitin
Fi;ii:i>i.axi>i;i!. Post 8vo. 7s. C</.

Staff CollOgO E.ssays Hy Lieutenant
E\ i.i.VN IlAKiNi. lloyal Artillery. 8vo.
with Two Maps, Xv. (i(/.

Wf '

i
i

Miscellaneous Works and Pojudar MetapJtysics.

The Essays and Contributions of

A. K. II. It. Author of 'The llccrealions of
a Country Parton.' Uniform Editions: —

Hecreations of a Country Parson.

1 n>i' and Sn nxn Si;i;ii:s, .'1,\. tii/. each.

The Commonplace Philosopher in
Town an<l Coimtry. Crown 8vo. in. (»/.

Ii«uiure Hours in Town ; Kssuys Con.sola-
i.iry,.E-tbelic;ik Moral, Suiial, and Domestic.
Crowu 8vo. ;i,«. G</.

Tho Autumn Ilolidays of a Coimtry

P.irson. Crown ^\o. ;!.v. Cxi.

The Graver 1houp;ht8 of a Country
Par-^on. Finsr and Skionh Si;i;ii:s, crown
8vo. *}x. 0(/, rnch.

Critical EssayB of a Coiiutry Paison,

selected from L.'-saNs contributed (!■ /''nisu's
Jiliiiliiiiiic. (lowu Hvo. .'Is. Cxi.

Sunday Afternoons at the Parish

C'uirch of a Scottish University City.
s -> ,11 8vo. o.s. c /.
Lessons of Middle Ago, with aumo
Account of various Cities and Men.
Crown «\n. ?is. (jil.

Counsel and Comfort Spoken from a
City Pulpit. Crown 8vo. ;js. Gil.

Changed Afpocts of Unchanged

1 ruths; Meiiiorialsof St. Andrew^ Sunilay.
Crown 8vo. .'Is. C(/.

Prescnt-Day "thoughts; Memorials of

St. Andrews Sundjivs. Crown 8vo. 3s. Cxi.

[iOxicon. (-'»m-

I.I., D.D. Dean of
S(<iTT, D.D. Dian
iditioii. Crown Ito.

and English,

roll! Lii)i)i;i.i. and
jA-xicon. T>volflh
■»•. (ill.

onary of the

iiigiiagos. By Pro-
i:ai , many yoars
Miliiar)' and Civil
V Kdition, carefully

et Dictionary,

a'nid;;cd iVoni I he
• the Author. New

h Dictionary.

rintcd bulli in the
I in Konian hi tors ;
i Ik'st Editions of
1 with Ktyniol()gic3
;natc Words fhifly
L', and Anjjlo-Saxon.
V. 8vo. b'lu. 0(/.

3tionary of the

(■nnan-l'ji^rlish, and

tlu' Hev. W. L.

Dr. Caui, Mahtin

Ni:W NVOIMvS i-nu.isieF.u nv LONGMANS and CO.

VO. J

:*. G(l.

liy Lirutoniint
il Arlillirv. 8vo.

Ii i^.sics.

Country Paison,
lilnitcd lo /'V«.w/'«

.i. M.

at the Parish
University City.

Ago, with soino
Cities and Men.

Spoken from a
. :}n. ti</.

Df Unchanged

Andrew^ Sunday''.

. ; MomorinlH of

jiiivii .Svo. ii»'. 0(/.

Short Studies on Great Subjects.

Hy Jamk.s .Vntiiony FitoiDf, M.A. late
I"'ellow of Mxetor Cidlegc, O.sford. Third ,
Edition. Svo. Tis. '

Lord Macaulay's Miscellaneous

Writings: —
LinuAicY Ei>irii>\, 2 vols. Hvo. rorlrait, 2ls. ,
Pkoi'i.ic'.s EiuritiN, 1 V(d. crown Hvo. Is. ij//.

The Rev. Sydney Smith's Mis-

oellaiicous Work"; inehtding his (,'i)ntriliii-
tiitns to the Kdiiilniryh Jiivicir. 1 vol.
crown 8vo, (Is.

The "Wit and Wisdom of the Rev.
SvKNKV Svmir: a SiKitii^n cf tlio ni(.>t
niemorahl" Passa^cos in his Wriliiiys and
Conversation. Crnwn Xvo. ;>.<. »!(/.

The Silver Store. Collected from
MediivvalCliri.-tian and Jewish Mine.*. By |
the l!cv. S. B.\i:iN(i-(ioi i.D, jr..\. Crown
Bvo. i\s. Oil.

Traces of History in the Names

of Places; with u Voiahidary of lln' Uoots
out of whieh Names of Place; in l'.n,i;land
and Wales aro formed. l!y Pi.wi.ii.
Edjunds. Crown Hvo. 7.v. •'</.

The Eclipse of Faith ; or, a Visit >.n a

l{ili;;iiuis Sci|4ii'. I!y [[i.^isv Ijoi. I !{.'<.
Twelfth Ellitioil. I'\l>. .";.•.•.

Defence of the Eclipse of Faith, by its

Author. Third K-!iiiMii. I', p. .!>■. in/.

Selections from the Correspondence
of It. !',. II. (Jreysdii. P>y ihf .-ami' .Vutlicr.
Third I'.iliiiMii. Crnwn .'svo. 7s. uil.

Families of Speech, lour Lectures

dilivdid at ih.' Itiiyal lu-litution of tireat
Ihitaiu. liy tlie IJiv. 1'. \V. I''Aiti:.\i:,
M.A. l'.i;.S.' Pn.-t .Svo. with J Mai)S "..s-.tuA

Chips from a German Workshop ;

ImIm^ I'>.--ays on the Science of l{i ii^^inn,
.Hid on Mytliolof;y. Traditinns,, '111(1 Custcnii-.
i$y .Ma.\ Miili.i.i:, M.A. Ac loni-n
.Meniher of the Fr< luh liHtitutc. o vols.

Mvo. .i;-j.

Word Gossip; a Seri.s of F.imiliar
I'.ssavs cii Wnids and tlnir Peculiarities.
By the l{(v. W. I.. I'.iA. lu.i.v, yi.\. Vry.
Svo. 5».

An Introduction to Mental Fhi-

lip-ii|iln-, on tlir Inductive Method. liy
■I. I). M.M!i;t.i, M.A. LL.L). 8vo. I'J...

Elements of Psychology, containinK the
Analy.sis of the Iiitelli ctual Powers, By
the same Author. Post Svo. I.'*, i'k/.

The Secret of Hegel: loing the

Hi '.cll.in System inOrii;iii, I'rini'i|ile, Form,
and Malt(r. IJy Jamis HnciiisdN Sriii-

I.IN(i. 2 Vols. 8V0. 'JS.s'.

Sir William Hamilton; heintt the Pliilo-
.-ophy of P. rcc|itioii : an Analysi>. By the
same .Vutlior. Svo. os.

The Senses and the Intellect.

By Ai.r..\AM)i:i! ISain, LL.D. Prof, of Loj,'io
ill the Univ. of Ahcrdeen. Third Kdition.

8vo. l.'.s-.

The Emotions ond the Will, by the

same Author. S«'eoiid I'ldition. Svo. \os.

On the Study of Character, iuelndinn
.'111 Fstim.iti' of I'liri ii(>lo'„'y. liy tlie >.ime
Author. 8vo. o.v.

Mental and Moral Science : «

lo-y aii'l i.tliics,
.S'cond I'iilition.

( oinliciidiuiu o|' I'-ycJi^
By the same Autiior.
Crown 8vo. \'h. (jd.

Strong and Free ;

lo\v.ll-iU Social .S'iillci'.

'•r, Fir.-l Step.s
Bv the .Viithor of

'My Life acl Waat -ImU 'I do with it>'

8vo. lil.s. u,/.

The Philosophy of Necessity; or,

Natural Law as .'iipplii'alik to -Mi ui.d, Moral,
and Social Scjcnci'. I!y (ji \i;i.i;s Biiay.
Second ICdition. Svo. '.'n.

The Education of the FcclinRS and

.Mli . liijii-. liy till- -amc Author. Tliird

I'.dilioll. JSVO. on. i)il.

On Force, it.s Mental and Moral Corre-

lat'-i. liy tlic -.iie.c .\ullior. •"'■.c, ."i..

Time and Space; a Mct'iii; simi

F.s-ay. liy SlIAIiWnUI 11 It. IlHlKisdN.

('J'his Work co\(rs the wlioh' ;;rouncl of
Siicculative lMiiloso|;liy.) .^vo. price \i',s.

The Theory of Practice ; an I ihical In-
i[ui;y. liy the s.iiiic Autli..r. (^'l hi- work,
in coi'iuiictioii with tlic loroLjoin;.;, completes
a -y-Uin of I'hilosophy.) J vols. Svo.
jiriec •_' Iv.

A Treatise on Human Nature;

lieillL; all .Vllcmpi to Introduce the F\pe-

rimciital .Mcihoil oi' lo .i-oniii:;' into Moril
Sulijeets. |{y Haviii IIimi;. Edited, with
Notes. Ac liy T. 11. (Jkkkn-, l'cl!<iw, and
T. IL (iitusi'-., late Seliojar, of F>al!iol (.'al-
lege, O.xford. [ In Ihv /xT.vy.

Essays Moral, Political, and Li-

tcr.iry. liy Damd IIimi. I'.y tl.e ,;i'.c
Editors. [//I Ifw pnss.

*,* The ahove will form ii new eilaiou of
DaVIK IIiMI.'s J'/ilhisi>/iliiriil U'iii/;!i. i olll-

idctc ill Four Volumes, but to be h.i 1 in Two

separate Sections as aiuKiunced.

Ni:\V WORKS n 111.1-11 M. uv Lr>XUSIANS and CO.

Astronomy, Meteoroloijy, Popular Geography, cjc.

•ii/

Outlines of Astronomy. I'-y sir

J. F. W. IIi;i:s(iii-.i., r.:irt. M.A. Now
Kdiliiiii, revi~id; witli riiittsuiul Woodcuts.
8vo. \M.

Other Worlds than Om's ; ilu'

riiir:ility (if WoiM> Stiuliia untUr ilio
l.i;;lit oi' Kicint Si'li'iitiru' l.'csoiir.lios. IJy
K. A. ru.H Ti.i:, li.A. IMi.A.S. So.,,iid
Kditioii, ri'visiil .'iiicl onlar-CMl ; witli It
Illu.stration-*. Crown 8vo. Hi.v. (W/.

The Sun ; Ruler, Light, Firo, and

I.ifc 1.1' til'' ri:iii(tary System. I'.y tin' >iiiu'
Aiitlior. Willi 1(» I'latr- (7 rolom-cd) and
107 Woodriits. Cri.v.ii .svo. inii'C 1 1.<.

Saturn and it.s System. I?.v the sair.«'
Aiitli.r. Mvo. uitli 1 1 V\.'.W», 1 1.«.

Tho Handbook oI' the Stars, liy tlipsair.o
Aiitlinr. ^(iii.irc t'']i. Svo. will, o Maps,
price T).*.

Celestial Objects for Common

Tclcscoiios. l!y r. W. Wi.i.ii, M.A. I'.U.A.S.
S'oiiid r.dition, nviscd ami uilar^^i'd, with
Map 111' tin- Menu aiul Woc.'.ciif.s. li'n.in.
jirioe 7.'i. iI'/.

Navigation anfi Nautical As-

truiininy ^l'i\ufii'!il Thi'ur'lic;;!. Scicntiru)
tor t hi' use of Stui'iiits and I'raiti al .Miii.
Ih' J. Mi.nitii 11 I i>, IMi.A.S. and 11.
EVEIt.S. !ivo. \\s.

A General Dictionary of Geo- •

graphy, iJiscriptivi', I'iiysical, Stati.stii'al.
and Ilistoiiial , fonnin,:,' a conipK'ti'
(lazettftr of thf World. By .\. Kkitii
JoiixsTox, lM!..s.i;, New Edition. 8vo.
prii-'c SI.s. (ir/.

M'Culloch's Dictionary, Geogra-
phical, Statistical, and lli.storioal, of the
various Countries, I'laces and ]'riiu'i[)al
Natural OKji.ts in tjie World. Ilevisoil
Kdition, with the St.itistieal Information
throii,:;liout lirou;iht iiji to the late.xt returns
I5y Ki:i:i>i;ku K M.\uri.\. 1 vols. 8vo. with
(■( loured Maps £1 ■••'<.

A Manual of Geography, riiysical.

Industrial, and Political. I'.y W. IIt(;iiKs,
I'M!. U.S. I'rof. of ( iroj;. in Kinf.';'.s Coll. and in
(^Juecn'.sColl. Lond. WitiiUMaps. Fcp.7».6</.

The States of the River Plate:

tiieir Industries and Coinmerco, Shcvp
KariniiiLC. Sheep Ilrcedini;, Cattle Feeding,
and Moat I'rcservi'.ii,' ; tho Employment of
Cajiital, Land and Stock and tiieir Values.
I.al.ournnd its lleiuuneratioii. lly Wh.kkik
l,.\rii.\ji, Uueiios Ayres. Second Edition.
«vo. lis.

Maunder's Troasm*y of Geogra-

jihy. I'hy^ical, Ilisturical, Descriptive, and
ro'liticaf. Kdited l.y W. llmiiKS, F.U.Ci.S.
With 7 Maps and ii; pl.t, .s. IVp. Cs.

Natural History and Popular Science,

Ganot's Elementary Treatise on

IMiy.sii's. l',.\perimental and Applied, I'nv tli •
use of Colleges and S. liools. Transl.it. d ami
Editi'il «ith the Author's sanction l.y
E. Atkinson, IMi.K. F.C.S. New llditioii,
riivised and cnlaigid; with a ( 'oliiun li I'l.ile
an<l &2<) Woodcuts. I'l.st Svi.. !.".>•.

The Elements of Physics or

Natural I'hih.-i.phy. I'.y Ni ii. Aits-'ir.
M.l). K.K.S. I'liysi.ian I'.Nlraei'liii.iiy I"
the (.^iiecn. Si.Mli I'.iiitioii, n-wrilti 11 ,iiid
completed. '_' I'arls, svo. -Jl.v.

The Fcrccs of tho Universe I'-y
(jKouok IIkuwk k. .M.I). l'<s; s\;,. ;,s.

Dove's Law of Storms, .ousidcnd in

coiuiexioii with til..' ordinary Moveiueiil> .'I
the AtiKovphere. Translated hy 1! II.
St'orr, M.A. T.C.D. '^vo. Uh. M.

Sound; a Cmirsi' of Iliiilit Lectures dc-
iisiTed at the It'.yal lii.-tituti m of (Jreat
liritain. l.y Trofissor .ImiN Tvxii.vi.i,
l,l,.l). I'.K.S. New Editimi. with Portrait
and Woodcuts. Crown .*'\o, (t.«.

Heat a Mode of Motion. 1^ I''.-

fi'.s.s(,r.Ii>iiN TvNi.Aii., I.I,.I). F.IJ.S. Fourth
I'.ditiou. Crown i<vo, with Wowlcut-,
price in,s. i;,/.

Researches on Diamagnetisra

and .Ma,:;iie-Ciy.-lar.ii; .\. tioii ; iiicludiiu
ihe (^>uestion of DiainaLuetic IVdarity. lly
Pr<.fes.-or TvMt.M.i.. Willi C Plates an
many W'i'.iicuts. Svo. 1 !.<.

Notes of a Courfio of Nino Lec-

iiiri'S on l.i,-;ht, d. liverid at tho {ioya!
liistiluliou, .\.i>. \M'.K I'.y Professor T n-
ii.vi.i.. Crown ><vo. l*. sewed, or ' . l''..
cloth.

hj, Sfc.

•nary of Geo-

Miysical, Statistical,
rniin.: a corHpK'ti-
■111. By A. Kkitii
NfW Kdition. 8vo.

onary, Oeogra>

I Historical, of tin-
aic^i, and I'lincipal
lie \\'()ilil. liiivisoil
itistical Information
I to t la- latest riturn^
IN. 1 vols. 8vo. with

^aphy, riiysical.

111. r.y W. IIkmiks.

in Kin;.';'.s("oll.an(lin

tliU Maps. I'Vp. 7». »«/.

le River Plate:

I Conimcroo, Slicop
(liiiiT, (-'attic I'Vfding,
tlu- Employment of
ick ami their Values,
eration. JJyWii.KKii)
res. Soconil Etlition.

ui'y of Geogra-

ieal, Deseriptive, ami
\\. lIi.iiiKS, F.l!.(i.S.

ri.t.s. ivp. Cs.

ICC.

lliulit Lectures de-
li. -til uti m of Great

r .IkIIN 'I'VXDAI.I ,

litinii, ■with rortrait
s'vo, a*.

Motion. By Pro-
l.l,.l). F.K.S. Fourth
II. with Woodcuts,

Diamagnotism

A linn ; ineludinu
111 lie I'dlarity. l>y
Wiih (i riutes an -

. 1 l.v.

of Nino Lec-

erii'i at the Uoya!
r.\ I'rofus.sor TvN-

Is. >c\ve(l, or ' I''-

NEW \VUi:KS laiJUMihu iiv I-UN(jMANs .vm> LU.

Notes of a Course of Seven Loc-

tures on Kleetrieal I'hononiona and Thi orie-'.
<Ielivcroilat the IJoyal Iii~titutioii, .\.i>. jsru.
IJy Professor 'rvNi>.\i,i.. Crown S\-m. Ix.
sewed, or l.<. ti(/. cloth.

Professor Tyndall's Essays on

tile I'jic and Limit of the Ini.'iuinatioii in
.Science. Hiiuf; the Second Mdition, with
Additi(tiis, of a Discourse on tli- Scientiiic
I'se of the Imagination. Mvo. .>.<.

Xiight: its Inihienee on Life and Ilea tli.
IJy F«>i!ni;s Winsi.i.w, .M.j). D.C.L. ((.x^n.
(Hon.) Fep. 8vo. ij,«.

A Treatise on Electricity, in

Theory and Practice. I'.y \. Di; La Kivi;,
Prof, in the Academy of (lineva. Trans-
lated l)y ('. V. Wamu:i;, F.IJ.S. ;i v,.ls
8vo. with Wuoilcuts, t;;) |:>.v.

The Correlation of Physical

Forces. IJy W. 1{. (im.VK, (,>.C. V.IM.'.S.
Fifth i^)dition, revised, and .\u^niented liy a
Ois(xiurse on I'ontinuity. .svo. |i),«. iW/.
The Dinroiirsr, separatrly, price •_'.«. <!(/.

The Beginning : its When and its
How. Hy Ml N(io I'oNroN, F.li.S.i;. I'u-t
8vo. with very numerous lllustrali'>ns.

Manual of Geology. By^ IIuchtun,

M.I). F.K.S. Filluw „f Triu. Cnll. and Pn.f.
of (icol. in the I'niv. of DuMin. S^.-ond
Kdition, with GO Woodcut.-. Fe|i. T.v. (!f/.

Van Der Hoevcn's Handbook of

Z<)(»i.(i(iv. Translated from the Second
Dutch I'jjition by the Kcv. W. (iai:!:.
M.I). F.K.S. ■_> vol.-. .Hvo. with Ji I'lat.s of
Figures, <iit.'<.

Professor Owen's Lectures on

the Comparative .Vnafomy and Piiy dolofry
of the Invertebrate .Vnini.d^. See.md
Kdition, with I'l!.) Woodcuts. i*\o. •_»!.«.

The Comparativo Anatomy and

Pliysi(doi,'y of the Vei tei)rate .Viiinials. llv
KiciiAi!!. nwKN, VMS. D.C.I,. With
1,472 \Voodcut>. ',', vcds. fSvo. .i.t ];!.<. li,/.

The Origin of Civilisation and

the Primitiv.' Coiuliiion of Man; Mrnta!
and Social Condition of S.'iva^c-;. liy Sir
.loiiN LtniiiH K, Hart. M.P. F.P.S. Second
r".dition. revisi'd, with ■.'.') Wncidctit'^. Xvo.
price |t>.s-.

The Primitive Inhabitants of

;-^eandin;ivia. Conlainini,' a De<eiipti.,n >•{'
the Implements, l)wellim;s, T.milis, imd
Mo(h' of Liviuic of the Sa\ i-e* in the .N'.irth
of Kurope during the Stone Ap-. My Sm.n
Nii..ssi)N. «',,.. Plate.s and Woodcuts IH.i.

Homes v ithout Hands : a Descrip-
tion of the 11,'iliitations of .\nimals, cl.'i.ssed
ai'cordin;.; to their Principle df Cuiii^trui'f li>ii.
liy l!ev. .1. <;. W.M.I., M.A. F.L.S. Willi

ahout I to Vi;^iii ttes on Wood. 8vo. '2l.i.

Bible A.nimals; leinj: aPeseriptiou of
r'.vcry LiviiiLC Creature nnntioned in the
Scriptures, from the .\pi' to the Coral. llv
the I! v. ,1. (;. W M..\. F.L.S. With

ahout l"l» ViL;nettcs nn Wood. Hvo. -ils.

The Harmonies of Nature and

I'liity iif Cieation. ISy Dr. (!. Il.vurwii..
^vo, with niiiuernu-' lllu^tralions. I,s.«.

The Sea and its Living Wonders. P.y

tlie>,iine .\uiliiir. Tliird I'diiioii, enlar„'cd.
Hvo. with many lllu-lratidiis, •_'!.«.

The Tropical World. Ry the same Author.
With H Clir.iiiio\yloi;raiili-; and 17"i Wm.d-
euts. Hvo. -21 s.

The Polar World: a rojulir Description of

Man ami .Nature in the .Vrctie and Aiitaretie
Pe^iiill- of llic'Ciloiie. llv the same .Viitlmr.
With 8 Chriiiuosyl(.,;raiili-i, .'! Map-i. arnl 8.>
Woodcuts. 8vo. •_'!.<.

A Familiar History of Birds.

p.y K. SiANi.KV. D.l). lit.' Lord llislmp of
Norwich. Fep. with WimhIchI-i, .'!.■(. ('»/.

Kirby and Sponco's Introduction

to Kntoniolo:;y, or I'.lemeiits of th" Xafur-il
Ili-toiy of In-ect-i. Crown Hvo. .'.>-,

Maimdor's Treasury of Natural

History, or Pojiular Dictionary of /ooloijy.
I'evised and corpcted liy T. S. CuiiiU'i.n,
.M.D. F<-p. with yiHJ Woodcuts, C.i.

The Elomonis of Botany for

F.imilie> iMid S'lii i<\*. Tenth Kdition, re-
vised l»y Thomas .Miiiiim:, F.L.S. Fep.

Willi t.'il Woodiiit-, -.'>■. I'.//.

The Treasury of Botany, or

Popul . Dieiiiiii.iry ot' the \'c-:,'rtaljle Kin;;-
doiii ; with will: h is incorporated a (ilos-
s.iiy of JlotaiiicMl TiTuis. Kditnl hy
.L LiNi'i.i.v, F.L'.S. aiifl T. Moom:, F.L.S.
as-istcd by rniimnt Contrioutors. Pp.

1,J7), wiiii •.'71 W I.u'.s and Jo Ste-I

Pl.iis. Tw.i !'.\i;r>, fcii. Hvo. l-.'.i.

The British Flova ; comprlMnp: Mic

l'liaiio:,'aniiiii> o|- I'lowi riii;^ Plants and tin;
Fern-', ily Sir W. .1. H'om ii, K H. mid
(1. A. Waim i: \;,\nrr, LL.D. iJino.
with l-J Flats, I M.

The Rcso Amateur's Guide. My

■|llM\i\, |;i\ II:- N. -v i;i|iliiiii. I'lp. I>.

London's Encyclopoedia of Plant! {

compri-iii;< the S, I'dlle t haraci r. Descrip-
tion, Ciilluie, History, \i . of all the Plants
found ill (ircat lliilaiii. With upwinls of

PJ.OOII Woodelltv, Mvo, |.'.«.
IS

M.W WOKKS iniMsiiKD nv LOXn:SIANS and CO.

'I I

Maunder's Sciontiflc and Lito-

niry TniL-iiry ; a l'ii|iular Miirv(l()|in'(lia nt'
Sricni'c, I-itcralurc, iiiid Art. N«w I'Mitiini,
tlioniUHlily rc'visid and in ;;ivat part re-
writti'ti, witli aliovc I,0(m) new articles, by
J. Y. Joii.NsoN, Corr. .M.Z.S. ['r\t. ti.-i.

A Dictionary of Soienco, Litera-

turi, ami Art. Koiirtli Kililion, rc-<'tliti'(l
l.y the lal.' W. T. IJii.\M>i: (tlie Author)
ami (ii;uK(iF. \V. Cox, M..V. 3 vol", iiitdiuin
Hvo, iiricc iV.h. clutli.

Chemistn/, Mei/icine, Sur</eri/, uiid t/ie Allied Sciences.

A Dictionary of Chemistry and

tlu^ .Mlit d liraiiclies of dtlicr Sriiiiccs. Ity
IlKMtv W.vrrs, r.C.S. assisted liy einiiuiit
Scientilic and I'raetioal Cheniists. 5 vols,
modiitiii Hvo. priee X,7 '•>s.

Elements of Chemistry, Theore-

tic.il and l'r;i<tic;il. I'y Wil.t.l AM .\.
Mii.i.i;!!. M.I). M,.I). I'roVo.Mir of Cluinis-
try, Kiii^'.s C.ille-e, I.oniloii. Tourtli Kdi-
tion. .'J vols. Svo. t.'J.

I'.vitr f. Ciii;mi( .M. I'iivsk s, I.Vv.

I'Aiir II. In<iI!<;.\mc CiiiiMisruv, ■_'!.«.

l'.\i;r II!. ()i!i.AM<('iiiMiMi;v, '.'Ls'.

A Manual of Chemistry, De-

sori|itive and 'I'lu'ontii'.d. ily NVii.i.iam
Oni.iNc, M.I5. I'.lt.S. l-Anr I. f<v... Vs.
I'AUr II. ni'irly ready.

A Course of Practical Chemistry,

lor the nse (if .Mnlit..! Studiiils. I!v
\V. ()i.i.i.\(;,.M.I!. l'.I!..'<. N(\\ Kdition, with
70 new Wooden Is. Crown 8vo. 7s. C«i.

Outlines of Chemistry; -r, JMef

Notes of ( 'iicniical I'acts. l!y tlio same
.Vullior. Crown Kvo. ~s.*UI.

Lectures on Animal Chemistry Deliver d
at tile IJoyal ( ojle^e of i'liy.«iiians in !K(;,'>.
I5y the same .\ntlior. Crown 8vo. Is. (jil.

Lectui'o.s on the CiiGmioul Chaiip;os of
Carlion, delivered at the K'nyal Insiitniii.n
of (ir.at Ihilain. Ily the .■•aine .\iithor.
Crown .'<\ o. is. <;(/,

Chemical Notes for the Lectui'o

Kooni. liy 'i'lio.MAs \V(i. .1), K.C.S. ■_' vols,
rrown Sso, I. on Heat, I've, jiriec os, iid,
II. on the M.lals, |iriee .'is.

A Treatiso on Medical Elec-
tricity, 'I'lieonii'Mi and Practical; and il.-<
Uso in the 'i'n at incut of Paralysis, Xin-
ral;^i.i, and oilier l)is(a>es. liy Ji i.ii s
Ai.iiiAi s, M,|». i"ve. Sc( (Hid I'Milioii, re-
vised .'ind jiarlly re-written ; wilh Plate and
02 Woodent-^. Po^t Hvo. ]iiiee I")s.

Tho Diagnosis, Pathology, and

Treatment of I'i.seascs of Womin ; iiicluilin;^
thi' Diiij^iiosis of Pre;,'n.incy. \W iluAir.v
lliiwirr, M.I). Xc Proident of "the ( »l,,>te-
trie.il S(i(i(ly(i|' I.ondiin. Second lldilion,
eiiluryed; with 110 Woodcuts. 8vu. -Ms.

Lectures on tho Diseases of In-

faney and Childhood. Ily CiiAitr.KS Wk.st.
M.L). ive. Fifth Kdition. 8vo. 10».

On tho Surgical Treatment of

( liildren's Diseases. Hy r. lIoi.Mi.s, M.A.
Sn: late Snr^^eon to the Ilosiiital for Sick
Children. Second Kdition, with !) Plates
and I !_' Wood<'Uts. Hvo. 21.1.

A System of Surgery, Theoretical

Mild Praeiie.i), in Treatises hy Various
Anthors. Kdited hy T. IIoi.mi:s, M.A. &c.
Snrf,'eon and F^eetiirer on Snr;;ery at St.
(leoTLje's IIo>iiital, and Siirj;eon-iii-('liief to
the Metroii(dit;in Police. Second I'.dition.
t!ioronj,dily revi.sed, with numerous Illus-
trations. 5 vols. Svo. S,') ."),».

Lectures on the Principles and

Practice of Physic. Ity Sir Tiiom,\s Wai-
sov. n.irt. M.I>. Physician-in-Ordinary to
the (^11' (11. N( w I'Miiitiii in the press.

Lectures on Surgical Pathology.

P.y .Iamin Paciit, F.Ii.S. Third Kdition,
re\ised and re edit id liv die Aii'hor mkI
PiofrsH.r W. TiiiNi.it, M.n. Hvo. with KJl
Woodcuts, •Jl.v.

Coopjr's Dictionary of Practical

Surgery and l';iicycloiia"!ia of Surgical
Science. New ICditioii, liroii^dit down to
the present time. Uy ,S. A, I. am:, Suru'eoii to
St. .Mary's IIospitaI,itc. .issisled hy variou-
I'.niiiient Siiri;eons. \'ni.. II. Hvo. coin-
pietin-- the work. [^ilnili/ in IH71.

On Chronic Bronchitis, e.«|io(iaIly

as coniKi i(il with (!out, Fmphyx'ina, niid
I)is(;ises of till! Heart, liy i;. IIi:ai>i.am
CnKKMtow. .M.D, F.U.C.l'! i\:e. Hvo. 7*. 0(/.

The Climate of the South of

I'lance as Suited to Iinalids; with Noli'cs
of Mtilite ninonn and other Winter Sta-
tions, liy C. T. Wii.t.iAMs, M.A. M.l>
O.soii. .\ssisiaiil Physician to the Hospital
for Con>iim|ition at I!ri inploii. Second
Kdition. Crown 8vo. Ca.

Il '

icienco, Litera-
ti Ivlition, rc-<'ilit('il
iiAM>r. (the AuthtPi)
M.A. 3 vol-*. incUium

d Sciences.
Diseases of In-

By C'liAiti.Ks Wi;sT.
lull. 8vo. KJs.

Treatment of

Hy T. lIci.Mr.s, M.A.

llio Ilosjiital fill- Sick
lili.m, witli 'J riat.ri
8vo. 21».

ery, Theoretical

rrcatiscs 1)V Vaiioiis

T. IIol.MKS, M.A. &.'.

■r on Siii-^'i TV at St.
il Suvf^oim-iii-Cliicf ti>
lice. Sicdinl I'.ditiiiii.
uiili luimtrinis llliis-

Principles and

I?y Sir Thomas Wat-

vsi<iaii-in-( )nlinary to
lion in tlu' pr-?.-!.

;ical Pathology.

U.S. Tiiini Kilitidii,
V the AuUior iiiid
^i.n. 8vo. with 131

ary of Practical

l(i|;v'!ia 111' Siii)4:iial
). Iirou^'lit (liiwii til
A. l.sNi:, Sui-Lri'iiii to
. ,H>i-li'il liv vaiiou-

\'|P|.. 11. 8V0. CDlll-

{ImiIi/ in 1871.

icbitis, osptvially
lit, MtiipliyM'nia, oiiil
l!y K. llr.Ain.AM
(•.!•' I've 8v(). 7». (!./.

the South of

\ aliils ; Avilli Nuli'Ms
i iilliir Wiiitir Stii-

.r.iAMH, M.A. M.l>.

■inn til the lliis])ii;il
I>ri'ni|iliin. Siioiul

XF-W WORKS ri'iu.isiiKi) iiv LON'CMANS and CO.

Pulmonary Consumption; h^

Nature, Tivatnunt, niul Duration cxcm-
jililicil by an .\iialy.«is ol' One 'I'limisanil
('a>es .suleclfil fmni ujiwarils o( Twenty
Tiiiiusinil. My *• •'. H. Williams, M.l').
I'.K.S. C'onsultin;,' l'hysi,ian to tiie U'«-
jiital fur C'nn.siiniiitiiin at l!ri)!Mi>li)n ; and
C. T. Williams M.A. M.D. Oxon.

[ Aiiirli/ rctiili,:

Clinical Lectures on Diseases of

till' Liver, .Jaunili''e, ami .Miiloieinal Urop-^y.
By C Ml i:i iM>iiN, M.D. riiy.>iiian ami
Li'eturer nn the Tractiee of Mi-dieine,
Miilillesrx llips|iilal. I'ost 8vi). with 'J")
WuoiKuts, KU. <;</.

Anatomy, Descriptive and Sur-

fii.al. lly Uknky Cuav, I'.K.S. With
al)i)Ut 41U WiMiih'uts friini Ui.-iMTlinns. l-'il'th
llilitiiin. liyT. 11.>lmi;s. M.A.Cant.il., With
a New Introduction hy the I'-ditor. IJoyal
8vo. 28».

Clinical Notes on Diseases of

tlie l.aryiix, inve>li!::ateil ami Irrainl with
the assi.stanee of the Larvn^^oseope. My
W. Mai!(I.t. .M.D. r.KS. Crown 8vo.
with r> Litliiijrriiihs, t',s.

The House I Live in ; i r. Popular

lUustratiiins of thf Slrietun' and I'luielions
of till' Human llody, Kditid liyT.tj.diuiiN.
New I'.ilition, with '2') Woodeut.s. Hinm.
price '2s. 0(/.

Outlines of Physiology, Human

and ('<ini|iiujitivi'. ISy .Iuiin Mai('<iiai.i.,
I'.IJ.C'.S. I'rufi^Mir of .Siiru'iry in I'nivirsity
Colli'LCe, London, and Siirjiiun to the I'ni-
viisity t'oUe^'i' Hospital. J vol.-'. crown 8vo.
with ]-2-2 Wnodeuts :!•-'<.

Physiological Anatomy and Phy-

.siolo;,'y of .Man. Hv thr lite 11. 11. TuKl*,
M.I)."f.I{.S. and W. IIuwmax, F.l.'.S. of

Kin;;'s Colli';,'!'. With iiunirroiH llhi-itra-
tions. Vm,. 11. 8vo. -J.'i.v.

Vol.. L New I'iditiun iiy Dr. LiuM.i. S.
Bkai.I';, F.U.S. in course of |>ul)lieatii>u ;
Takt 1. with f-f riati's, 7*. M.

Copland's Dictionary of Praotioal

Medii iiu', aliriilLTi'd fioiu tin' I iru'i'r -.vork,
and tliroii;;lioiit liroiuht down to the pre-

.scut state of Medi.'al Seieiu

Hvi.. 3t)<.

A Manual of Materia Medica

ami Thi'rapi'iitii's, ahrid^'d iVoin I>r.
rK!tLii!.\'.s /;/('/«('«/.v l>y F. .1. Fakuk, M.D.
.issisti'd hy IJ. Hlxti.kv, M.lt.C.S. and l.y
1!. Waul.i.ton, ) M.S. 1 vol. 8vo. with
!»0 Wood, uts, 'Jl.v.

Thomson's Conspectus of the

Itritish J'h-.rmaiopui.i. Twcnty-liftli Fdi-
tion.eometed hy K. Llovd Uikkltt, ^LD.
]Hino. Gs.

Essays on Physiological Subjects.

Itv (iiLiiiiM W. Ciiii.i., M.A. F.L.S. F.C.S.

Seeoml I'idition.
eut.s, In, (Jt/.

Crown 8vo. with Wood-

The Fine Arts., and Illustrated Editions.

In Fairyland; ricturis frum the I'^it-

Worhl. Uy KiniAiii) Dovi.i:. With a
roem liy W. .'\i.LiN(JiiAM. Willi Si.xtem
riatcs, containing Thirty-six Desij,'ns
printed in Colours. Folio, '.M.s.t.l.

Life of John Gibson, R.A.

Sculptor. r.liied hy l.a'ly 1.\-ti.am:.
8vo. I •!,■(. 0,1.

Materials for a History of Oil

raintin^. l>y Sir Ciiakli s Lm ki I'.Asr-
i.AKi:, soiiu'tiiiui rre.-ident of tin' lioyal
Academy. '.' vols. 8vi.. ."((.v.

Albert Duver, his Life and

Works ; imhulini,^ Autoliio-rapliiial I'api rs
and Com|iKte Catalofrues. 'W William
11. ScuiT. With Six Ftehin.'s hy the
Author and other lllu^tr.ilions. hvo. hU.

Half-Hour Lectures on the His-
tory and Frail ic of the I'iiic and Oina-
meiital Art.-*. Uy. W. 11. Sunr. Second
l.ilition. Crown 8vo. with .00 Woodcut
Illustrations, 8s. Cxi.

The Lord's Prayer Illustrated

liy F. If. I'll KLUsLiiL, i;..\. and Hi.xitY
AiriiKH, D.D. Di.an of Caiitirbury. linji.

<ll

•Jl.^

The Chorale Book for England:

the Hymns Trm-latcd hv Mis,s C. Wink-
Wiiitiii; the TiiMcs arran„'eil \>y I'rol". W.
S. IIi;nm;i r ami <)"to tloi.iiscii.Minr.
Fep. lio. \:\. I'll/.

Six Lectures on Harmony. I>e-

livivd at til" lioy.il liisiitutii II of tlreat
Hritain. llyti. A.Ma< i aukln. Hvo. lOs.tlr/.

Lyra Germanica, the Christian Year.

I'lan^latcd iiy Caiiii.uisl WiSKWifisTii;

with 12.") lllii-tralioii- on W 1 drawn l>y

J. LKUiiiTiiN, F.S..\. Quarto, ^Is.

Lyra Germanica. the ('in-isiian Life
Iran^ated l.y Caiiimiixi: Winkwuki ii ;
with about -J'") Woodcut Illustrations by
.1. LLKiiiTKN, F.S..\. and other Arti^t^.
(^larto, -.Ml.

NKW \VUIU\S 11 I'.i.ism II r.Y L<JN(J.MANS and CO.

ii '

'III I

Tho Now Tostamont, illii>triit(il with

W'oud i;imr;iviM;,'s iiTliT tlic ICurly Ma.-ltrt,
clii'lly of till- Italian Simol. L'niwii llw.
()3». clolli, j;ilt tcii> ; nr t.'j .'i.v. iiKn-ocro.

The Lifo of Man Symbolised by

tlio Moritlis ot' till' Viar in tluir Sra-oiis
nnd Phases. Tivt sdcoted bv KicirAiin
I'ujoT. 2.") Illu.-i rations on WhikI from
Ori.uiniJ Dcsii^'ns liy .Iuiin Lkh.iihi.v,
F.S.A. (^larto, IJ.t. "

Cats* and Farlie's Moral Em>

lil<'in>; witli A|ilioii>ins, Aiia^'c.'', and I'lo-
vitIi.s (ifall Nation>: comipri^in;; 121 Illiis-
Iratiuns on Wood liy .1. I.KKiiirdX, F.S.A.
with an apiiropriatu Tfxt liy K. I'Uior.
Itniicrial Kvo. .'tis. (»/.

Shakspearo's Midsummer Night's

Kitani, illustiatcd with 21 .Silliouittta or
Shallow I'iitnris l.y 1'. Koxi.WKA.onj^ravcd
on Wood by A. V<>(;i;i.. lolio, 'Ms. Cul.

Sacred and Legendary Art. Va

Mis. .Iami.min. (i V(ds. si|uaio crown 8vo.
prii'c £"i \'>s. i'ld.

Legends of the Saints nnd MartyrH.

I'il'th '•'.dition, with lit KichinK's and 187
Woodcut-^. 2 Vols, jirioc ;il.«. <!</.

LeRends of the Monastic Orders. Third

I'.dition, with 11 i;ti.liini,'s andSS Woudcut^.
1 vol. price 21.'*.

Legends of the Madonna. Third Edition,
with 27 lUcliinj^s nnd 1(J5 Woodcuts. 1
vol. jirico 21».

The History of Oiu* Lord, with that of ilis
'I'ypcs and I'rccnrsor.s. Coniplctwl by Lady
I'.AsM.AKi:. Kivisid Edition, with 13
Ktchinu;s nnd 281 Woodcuts. 2 vols.
liric<' i-s.

The Useful Arts, Manufactures, (J*c.

Qwilt's Encyclopedia of Archi-
tecture, with above l,(;iMl Woodcuts. I'il'th
iMJition, with .Mtcrations nnd considcrnlde
Additions, by Wvait I'Ai'wtn: rii. 8vo.
.')2.s. (!(/.

A Manual of Architecture : lein^'

a Concise History ;ind ICxplanation of th''
j»rinci|ial Styles of i;nro|iean Architeclurc,
Ancient, Mediu'val, and itenaissancc ; witli
their Chief Variations and a (ilossnry of
Technical Terms, liy Thomas Mitciii:!.!..
With i:>iJ Woodcul>." Crown 8vo. los. y\d.

Italian Sculptors: leinjr a Ult^tory of

Sculpture in Nortliern, Southern, and Ka»t-
eri; Italy, liy C. C. I'lUKixs. With lio
l';tchin;,'s and II! Wood KiigraN ings. Im-
perial 8vo. •12.V.

Tuscan Sculptors, their Lives,

Works, and Times. IJy tiie same Author.
With 4.') Ktchin;;» nnd 28 Woodcut.s from
Original Drawing's nnd riiotoyrapiis. 2
vol.-'. imperial Svo. O.'i.v.

Hints on Household Taste in

Furniture, I'liholstc ry, and other Drtails.
IJy CiiAiu.Ks 1.. I'.AsTl.Aiii;, Architect.
Second lulitioii, with about DO lUustrationij.
S<juare crown 8vo. IH.t.

The Engineer's Handbook ; ex-

jilainin;; the principles which shoidd ;;uidr
the youn^c l",n;,^ineer in the Construction of
Machinery. llyC. S. L«i\v.m>i;s. I'ost 8vo. o.v.

Lathes and Turning, Simple, Me-
chanical, aiul ornamental. \'>\ W. Ill Ni:v
NmtTiK (.IT. With about 2-10 Ulu-tralioiis
on Steel and Wood. 8vii. 18.V.

Principles of Mechanism, drsignrd

t'or the use of Students in the Universities,
nnd for Knjiineeriii;; Stiulents fjcnernlly.
liy W. Wilms, M.A. IMJ.S. Ac Jacksonian
I'rofussor in the I'niv. of Cambridge. Second
I'.dition, eMlarjj;ed ; with o71 Woodcuts,
^vo. 18.<.

Handbook of Practical Tele-
graphy, publi>hed with the san<tion of the
Chainnun and directors of the Klectric
nnd Inlcrnational Telcf^raph Company, and
adopted bv th« Department of Telef^raphs
for India. " Hy H. S. Ci i.i.i:v. Third Kdi-
tioii. hvo. 12*. tlf/.

Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manu-
factures, and Mines. Sixth Kdition, re-
written and jjrcatly enlarged by liouKKr
lit M, I'.K.S. assisted by numerous Con-
tributors. With -l.WW Woodcuts. 3 vols,
medium 8vo. £1 1 1.<. tu/.

Treatise on Mills and Mill work.

I!y Sir W. I'AiKiiAiiiX, Hart. With 18
riates nnd 322 Woodcuts. 2 vols. 8vo. 32,v.

Useful Information for Engineers, liy
the same Author. riiiMT, Si;i<».m>, and
Tmi!i» Skuiks, wilii many Plates and
Woodcuts. 3 vols. iTown 8vo. 1U«. G(/. each.

The Application of Cast and "Wrought

Iron to Huilding Purposes. liy the same
Author. Fourth lulition, with (! Plates and
llM Wooilcuts. 8vo. IC.V.

Iron Ship Building, its History

and Progress, as comprised in a Series of
Fx|ierimenlal Keseardies. liy W. Faii:-
iiAiitN, Hart. F.IJ.S. With 4 Plates and

130 Wijod.iits, 8vo. IKv.

ndory Art. lis

iS. .s(|ii;ii'o triiwii 8vo.

ntB nnd Martyrn.

'J Kt(liiii;;s and 187
rice li\.i. C31I.

LStio Orders. Third

iiirs and 88 Woudfuts.

tnna. Tliird Edition.
1 1C5 Woodcut.i. 1

jord, will) tlmt of His

C'tiniiik'tctl by Lady

I Kdition, with 13

iVoodiiili*. 2 vols.

ihanism, drsignM

a ill tiie Universities,
.Stiidt'iits j;enonUIy.
l'M{.S. ic Jacksonian
't'(aiiil)iiilj;e. Seodiid
iviili o7 1 WocHlriiis.

Practical Tele-

li the f^anctioii of the
tors of the Klectric
Ijraiih Company, and
itnit'iit of Tili'f^ra])lm
'1 I.I.I.V. Third Kdi-

of Arts, Manu-

Sixlli Kdition, n -
■iihirgcd by Koukkt
.1 by numerous Con-

W'oodcuts. 3 vols.

and Millwork.

;x, Bart. With 18
uts. 2 vols. 8vo. 3->s.

or Engineers. Ity

lu.ir, Si;(<»xi», and
many Plates anil
)wn 8vo. lOs.G</. each.

last and Wrought

posos. I!y the same
on, with ti I'latt's and

ig, its History

irisod in a Series of
hes. l!y W. Faii:-
Wiih 1" riatcs and

M;\V \V(»I;KS rri;i.i>iii I. i.\ l.nN(,M.\NS .vm' to.

Ill

EncyclopoBdia of Civil Engineer-
ing. ili.--tnri.'al. I licortlii .il. iiud ri\u'lir:il.
iJy 1:. t iii.>v, r.i;. Willi alM.Vf o,"'"""
Woodcuts. H\o. 1-J.».

A Treatise on the Steam Engine,

in its \aiiiiiis .\|i|ilic;iiioi;^ lo .Mines, Mill-.
Steam Navij/atjoii, Kailways, and .\,i;ri-
culturi'. r.y.!. IJoruNi:, C.K. New i'.diiicMi ;
with I'ortrait, .'17 I'latc-, and ."/lij Woodcut.-.
Ito. A-2s.

Catechism of the Steam Engine,

ill Its various .\]i|ili(alioiis to .Mines, Mill-.
Steam Navigation, ilaihvays. and .\};ii(ul-
ture, Ity .IniiN jliii i;si:. «'.!■".. New Edi-
tion, with >*'.< Woodi'uls. I'l'p. (J.I,

Hecent Improvements in the

Steain-Knj,'iue. ity .I.iin Itm um:, «'.]:.
bein;; a Si'i'ri.i;.Mi;NT to Ids ' L'atiehiMii "(
the Steam- I'lii'^ine.' New I'.dition, in-
iludiii;; man;, New Kxaniid.-, with IJl
Wood<'Uts. l'"cp. .><vo. ilx.

Bourne's Examples of Modern

Ste.iin, Air, and (Jas lji;;iiies of the most
Aliiirovcd Types, as employed for I'umpinir.
for Urivinj; MaeliinciT, ft>r Loconiotii'ii,
anil for Aurieultuio, minnlely aiul pnic-
tieally described. In course of |iub!icatiou,
to be LMim|ileted in Twenty-four I'arts, price
•Js. ()(/. each, forming; ( »ne Volume, with
about 00 I'lates and -Ino Woodcuts.

A Treatise on the Screw Pro-
peller, Screw \'essels, and Sitcw l',ii;;ine-.
as adapted tor pur|)ose8 of I'eace and War.
Ity .loiiN Ilui i!Ni;, ('.!■",. Third l.ilitioii.
with 01 riates and -><7 W<n)dcuts. (Quarto.

tiov.

Handbook of the Steam Engine.

Ity .loiix ItiUKM, <'.I',. formiiif; a I\kv to
the .\uth(u's Cateeliism of the Steam ICiigine.
With t!7 Woodcut.-. IV|i. '.t.s.

A History of the Machine-

Wrouj;ht Hosiery ami I. ace Manufactures.
Ity Wii.i.iA.M I'm. KIN, l''.L..S. I'.S.S. With
.several llln-trations, Uoval Hvo. 21.i.

Mitchell's Manual of Practical

A--;i\iii^. lliirl i.diijnii Icpt the iii.i^i part
re-wriiieii, with all the r' ec m I liTuveries
ineorpiirated. Ity W. t'i;ii.iKi.s, l-.ll.S.

Willi l>S, Wotlvllllt", .><v.>. I'.'V,

Roimann's Handbook of Auilino

and it- Uiiivativi-; a Inati-e on the
.Manufacture of .\isiiine and .Kuiliiiei ^olom^,

llevi-e.t and edited liV Wll.l.lAM ( UcoKI-'.S,

r.Ii.S. xv'i. with :> W.Mhleut-. |o,-. i„l.

On the Manufacture of Beot-

l.'oui ."sui^iir in Kii_laud .iiid Ireland, lly
Wll.l.lAM ( U^hpKI.s, I-.IJ.S. Willi 11 Wood-
eut-. .'^Vo. (*>-. 111/.

Practical Trcatis3 on Metallurgy,

ad.ipteil from the 1. 1-1 (ieriiiiii 1 dition of
rr>l'es-or Kim'- Milnl/miii/ liy W,
C'i:<>oKi>, l'.|;.S. \c. and I'.. Iliiiiniii,
rii.D. M.i:. .-! V..1-. Mvo. with C:'.". WooU-
CI1I-, price i I r.t-..

The Art of Perfumery ; tlic History

and Theory of (»doiir-, and the .Methods of
Kxtractini; the Armiia- of I'laiits. l!y Dr.
I'll.— 1;, I'.C.S. Thiid I'.iliiinn. \\ilh .'>:5
Woodcuts, I'rowii Nvo. |o<. 1;,/.

Chemical, Natural, and Physical Magic,

for .IllVellile- il.iiill;^ tile l|nli,|ay-. liy the
same Authnr. With I!.'* Woodcuts. I'ep. (j.s.

Loudon's Encycloptcdia of Agri-
culture: eiiiii|iri-iii:^ llie Laying' out, Im-
proN'enieiit, find .Maiia^'tiuent of Landed
I'roperty. and the ( iiltivMtion and I'Aonomy
of tlie rroiluction-- of .\eri,;iilturt. With

l,lllll W.M.dcuts. ^vo. L'N-.

Loudon's Encyolopaodia ol' Gardening :

eompri-iii;; the 'lluory ami I'ractiee of
Ilortieuliurc, Fl'iricultun , Arhoi'iciilture,
and Land-cape tiardcning. With l,ono
Wocxlciit-. Hvo. •Jl--.

Bayldon's Art of Valuing Bents

and Tillaire-, !ind (laiiu- if 'I'ltiaiits upon
t^uittiii;; I'arm-, iioih at .Mieh.ielm.i- and
].,ady-I)ay. Li>,'liti» IMition, revised by
J. (.'. .MiiKiii.N. ^vo. liK'. 1;,/.

Relijious and Moral Works,

An Exposition of the 38 Articles,

;!istorical ami Poctrinal. Ity I".. IIauui.d
niiowM-:, D.I). Lord Bishop of I'.ly. Kighth
Kdition. Hvo. lil.v.

£jxamination-Q,uestion3 on Bishop
Itrownc's Kxposition of the Ariides. Ity
the Itcv. ,L (iiuti.i;, M..\. Fcp. .'Js. tii/.

The Life and Epistles of St.

Taul. Ity the Kcv. W. .1. Cos viii:ai:i;,
M.A. and the Very Kcv. L S. IIuwsox,
D.L>. Dean of L'iiest'er,

Lii;i:\i;v Lnmos. wi'.li all the Ori;^inal
Illustrations, Mjip-, Landscapes on Steel,

Woodcuts, &e. -J Vnls. |t<t. iH.y.

l.N ri:i:Mi;iiiAri. Lm ri..v. with a Silucliun
of Maps, riates, and Woodeutg. ;; vols.
s(piare crown 8vo. •Ws. >'iil.

Sri i>i;.m's LutiM.v, revi-ed and ccii-
denscil, with I'i ll!a-trati>iii- and M.ips. I
Vol. citnvii 8vo, I'v.

I • !

I. 1

'i!

NI'.W WOKKS 11 iii.iMiii. iiv L()X(;M.\NS asm ( (>.

' ' \'

Tho Voyago and Shipwreck of

St. I'liiil ; vidi l>i>-^crtniiiin>t mi iln' Sliip'
mill NI^vi^nlil)Il ol tlic Aiuii'iitr-. lly .Iami s
Sjiitii, I'MJ.S. Crown 8vo. Cliiiits, lOa. («/.

Evidence of tho Truth of tho

('liri>liiin llili^nun (Icrivcil t'ri<iii (lie I.il('i';il
I'lillilmPiil (if rriiiiltccv. My Ai.KXAMH.u
Kr.nii, n.l>. .'t'tli I'.ilitioii, wiiliiiiiiiu-rinH
I'liiti'-t, ill s(|ii:iio Hvu. I la. tit/.; aUo tlif
3'Jtli Kdilioii, ill post 8vo. witli 6 IMutcs O*.

Tho History and Destiny of Iho World

mill of llic t'lmnli, nci-onliii;,' |o Sri ,1 lire.
My (hu sHiiio Aiidior. fSiiiiarc 8vo. villi 10
Illii>lratioii-i, 10.«.

The History and Literature of

till' Isnii'litrs, Mccdnliii;; to ilif ( >lil 'I'l'.'^ta-
incnt ami tlu' Aiioiry|ilia. Ity ('. In
It'oriisciiii.H ami A. l)i: Itm iix iiii.i>.
Willi 2 M«|is. 'J vols, post Hvo. priio lis.dtl.

Vm.. I. 7Vic Illnlorlciil liiioks, ".f. (!(/.

Vol.. II. '17if I'lii/ilirtir iind I'oi'lifitl Wiillnijx,

prii'o Uh.

Ewald's History of Israel to tho

Dialli of MoM-s. riiiii>lati'il from tlic (Icr-
iiiaii. Kiliti'il, >vitli a I'ri'fai'o and an Ap-
licmlix, liy III s>ii;i,i. Mak rixKAf, M.A.
Si'coml I''.ililioii. 2 vols. Hvo. 2I.«.

History of tho Karaite Jews. Uy

Wii.i.iAM IlAitKis IJri.i:, D.l). I'.i.t 8vi>.
price ~s. (i(/.

The Life of Margaret Mary

Ilallalian. licttiT known in tlu' rdi-
j;inu.>. wtjrM by the name of Mutlu i Mar-
!;aivt. Ity Inr Iii;i.i(in>i s CiiiiDitiN.
Second ICditi.in. Svo. with I'orlrait, 10.v.

The See of Rome in the Middle

Aj,'i's. \\y the IJov. O.sWAi.n J. IUok nil.,
n.C.L. and M.A. Kvo. is,,.

The Evidence for the Papacy

a^ (lerivtil from ilic lluly SeriptiHf-. and
(Viiin I'rimilivi' Antiipiity. lly tlii' Hon.
Col. IS LlXD.iAV. 8vo. 12.<. (If/.

Tlie Pontificate of Pius the Ninth ;

liciiij; the Third luliiion, enl.ir^i d and
lontiiiiii d, of • IJo'Mi' and ils Hultr." lly
.1. 1'. MAiiiiKi., M.J'. IVst «vo. I'l.rtrnit,
|irii'e I2<. til/,

Ignatius Loyola and the Early

.louits. Hy ,Sri;w.\l!l Iiiisi:. New l!(lili(ili,
ill the press.

An Introduction to tho Study of

tho Now 'retauiint, ('riii.al, IvMireliial,
and 'riieolii^iLiil. l!y the l!ev. S. Davidso.N,
D.L). LL.I). 2 vols'. 8vo. JOa.

A Critical and Grammatical Com-
mentary on .St. raid-' llpisile^. Ity ('. ,1.
Ki.i.iini T, D.I). Lmd ltishii|( of (ilouccster
ami Itri^tol. Hvo.

anlatians, r.uirtli Klitlon, s.«.o./.
Kphesiiins, lAinnh Kdition, na.o./.
Pastoral Epistlos, (■mirth Kditimi, 10.«. fli/,
Philippiiins, ColosHinns, and Fhilomon,

Third Edition, \tu. Ci/.
Thessiiloniann, Tiiiid IMition. 7.». fi</.

Historical Lectures on the Life of

Our Lord Ji>ns Christ : heiiiff the Ilul-'ean
Lcctiiie^for l».'.!t. ItyC.J. Ij.i.kott. D.l).
Liird Ili'hop of (iloiieoter and Itri.«tol.
I'iftli Kdilioii. Hvo. U.S.

ThoQreok Testament; with Notes,

(iramm.itieal and ll.xe^'eti.al. Itv the Ilrv.
W. \Vi;ii>ri.i!. M.A. and the li'ev. W. V.
Wii.KiN.si.N, M.A. 2 vols. Hvo. i;2 1,1.

Home's Introduction to the C)'i-

tieal Study and Knowledp' of the lluly
Scriptures. Twelfth Kdition ; \vith 4 M.ips
and 22 Woodeuts and Faoitniles. 4 vol.s.
Hv... rj.s.

Coinpcndioxia Introduction to tho

Study of the Itihle. lldited hy the llev.

.IiiiiN Ayki:, iM..\. With Maps, &o. IVst
8vo. C.i.

The Treasury of Bible Know-

li(ij;e; hell;,' a Diitimiary of the ItiHiks,
rersDiis, riaces, I'.vents, nml other Matters
of which ini'iitioii i> made in I Inly S<'rip-
tnre. Ity IJev. .1. Aviii:, M.A.' With
Map^, \') riates, and iniinerous Woodcuts.
I'"cp. (!.<.

Every-day Scripture Diffloulties

c.xplaineil and ilinstiated. Ity J. K. I'lti.s-
(<>n, M..\. V<M.. I. Mttlthiw ami Murk;
Vol.. 11. Litkv and John. 2 vols. Hvo. jirice
'.•.<. each.

The Pentateuch and xtook of

.losliua Critically l',.\andiiri|. Ity the IJi-Jit
i!cv. J. W. Coi.i.N-n, ll.D. Lord Itishi.p of
Natal. Crown H\ii. price <;.<.

The Four Cardinal Virtues (I"oni-

tiidc, .Iiistici', I'nidi ncc, TcmiMraiice) in
relation to the I'liMic and Private Lilc nf
Catholics: .Si.x Strnioiis for the Day. With
IVcfaec, Appendices, Ac. ity (he Itiv.
()i:iiv Siiii'i.Kv, M.A. Crown Hvo. with
I'riiiili-picce. ~s. (!(/.

The Formation of Christendom.

Ity T. W. Ai. I.IKS. I'AiMs I. and II. Hvo.
price 12.1. each.

Four Discourses of Chrysostom,

chicily oil the paraMc of the Kicli .Man and
l,:'/.iriis. Tran-laled hy 1'. .Vli.kn, U.A.
Crown Hvo. .'».<. •!(/.

matioal Com-

:|.iMUs. lly I'. J.
lii'p of ( i louce.Hcr

I I'Mitioii, in.«. dd.
, ami Fhiloinon,

Hon. 7*. 0(7,

on the Lifo of

M'iii^r (lie IIuIm'.-iu
J. Kl.I.l(<»IT, l).l>.
>{vr imd Itrintol.

t; with Notes,

i. ill. Itv tlio \U-\-.
I tlie Kev. W. h\
rt. 8vo. JC'J l.<.

m to the C)'i-

dp' (if tin- Holy
iiiii ; with 'I M:i|H
iifsiuiilcs. 4 vob.

iction to tho
ititl t.y tilt" IJi'V.
Ii Maps, 8ie. I'ost

Bible Know-

iry of tlic Hooks,
111. I oilier Mutters
Ic in Ilolv .StTiji-
i!i:, M.A.' Witli
iKTous Woodcut.s.

Diffloulties

liy J. K. rui.s-
Ithtw ntui M<iih\
vols. 8vo. price

ad .uook of

1. lly the I{i:4lit
I.onl Itishop of

''irtuos (rurti-

relliper;lliee) ill

I'rivale Life of
the l>iiy. Willi
Hy the i;.v.
I'owii «vo. >vith

hriatondom.

I. ,111.1 n. 8vo.

Uhrysostom,

e Kieh Man and
m. Am.kn, n.A.

N*i:W W0UK9 i-nu.i.Mii;i) uy LOXCiMAXS anii CO.

Christendom's Divisions; h Pliilo-

sopilleal Sketeh of llie |)i\i-ioIn of ihe

Christian hiniily in I'.a-t aiKl \Ve-l. Uy
KiiMi'M) S. Fi oii.Ki."*. Post 8vo. Is. •!(/.

Christendom's Divisions, I'Airr II.

Cirivkx mill LiiHii^. Ity the -amo Author.
Tost 8vo. l.'t.*.

The Hidden Wisdom of Christ

flnd tiie Key of Kno\vlid:<e; "r, lli»tory of
the Apoeryplia. Ily KnNi.sr I»r. Minskn.

2 vols. Kvo. •_'>'<.

The Koya of at. I'ctor; nr. i!ii> IConse of
IJeehali, eoiinec li'd xvilli tlie Ili-tory of
Symliolisin and Idolatry. I5y the same
.Vnlhor. Hvo. 1 1.«.

The Power of the Soiil over tho

liody. r.y <ii:... M.h.im;. .M.K. M.li.C.r.!,.
»'^e, Sixtli Ivliljoii. Crown f^vo. Hn, i'ul.

Tho Typos of Genesis iriuHy con-

•sidercd as IJc vealiii:,' the iJcvi Io|)n)ent oi'
Iluiiiaii Nature. Ily Amhii w ,Ji kk.s.
Sitdiul Kdition. Crown 8vo. ~s. dil.

Tho Socond Death nnd tho RoHtitiition

of All 'lliin^-', with some I'rc liniinaiy l!e-
inark.i on tlu> Xiitiiri! and In-piration of
Holy Seripliire. I'y tiie s iino Author.
Second ICdition. Crown 8vo. ;)x. G</.

Thoughts for tho Age. Hv Ei.i/.miktu

M. Si;wi;i.i,, Aiitlmr of ' .\iny Meihcil."
New i'.ditioll. I'ep, Svo. prl' c '>.-■.

Passing Thoufrhts on Eeligion. Hy the
!<aine Author. Fep. o.i.

Self-oxiiminntion before Confirmation.

liy tile same Author. ;i.'nio. l.<. tii/.

Thoughts for iho Holy Week, for Vonini;
Persons. |!y |i;e saiiic Author. New
F.diiioii. Tip. Svo. 2.1,

Coadinits for a Month Preparatory to

Coiilirnialion tVoin Writers of the iiarly and
Kn^li-h Cliureli. Ity the same. I'ep. |,<.

Beadings for Every Day in Lent, com-
piled from the \\'rilin;,'s of Iti^hop .Ii:i!i:mv
T.vvi.ui!. \\y the saiiu' .Vutln r. Fep. on.

Preparation for the Holy Communion ;
the Devotions ehietly from the works oi'
JhitKMY Tavi.oi:. l!y the same. 3Jmo. o.v.

Principles of Education drawn from
Nature ami Kevelalion, and .\pplied to
Female I''.<inialion in the I'ppi r Classes.
Uy the same .Vutlior. 2 vols, tVp. liN. (I,/.

Bishop Jeremy Taylor's Entire

Works: with Life iiv lli^inn' lli.ni i:.
Ke\ised and eorreeted liV the Kov. C. I'.
I'il'KN. 1<) vob. £6 &«.

England and Christendom. \'y

Ai:< iiiii^iKii- M.V.NXiMi, i).|). I'ost hvo.
priec l(t,<. (!(/.

The Wife's Manual ; 'r. Pray. i«.

riiou.;lils, and Son;,s on .S»veral Oreasiom

of a Millon's Life. Ily the Rev. \V. C.M,-

\ i.iir, .M..\. Crown 8vo. Uu. (u/.

Singers and Songs of the Church :

Im ill ;■ IJiomaphieMl >k. h lies of the llymi;-
Wrilo's in all the piim'ipal Colleition- ;
with Notes on their I'salnis and Hymns.
IJy .Imsiaii .Mii.i.i.K, M..\. Si'eoiid Lditiou,
enlari,'ed. ro-t Hvo. I<>,<. d,/.

' Spiritual Songs ' for the Sundays

luid llolida\i lhrou;;liout the Veir. Ity
,1. S. M. M.iNsn.i,, LL.D. Viear of F.-ham
iind Knral Dean. Fourth I'.dilion, Si.\th
Tlioii-.and. Fep. price I.*, i'k/.

Tho IlratitiidoB. ity the smue .\utlior.

I'llird I'.dilion, revised. I'ep. Itv. I'"/.

Ilia Profence not his MtMuory, IS'.'.
Ity tile same Aiithor, in ineiiU'ry of his Son".
Sixtli I'.dilion. ICino. Is.

Lyra Qermanica, translated from ilio

(ieiiii.n l.y .Mi-1 C, WiNKWiiitin. Fin^i
Si:i!ii>, the C/irisliiin )'iiir, Hymns for thn
Sundays nnd Chief Fi>tivals of the Chureli ;
Sit. INK Sl.I!ll>, the C/iristiiin Lij'i . Fep.

Svo. price 'i». G«/. each Si.uiis.

Lyra Eucharistica ; Hynms and

Vrr>es on Ihe Holy t'oiuiniiiiion, Amient
and Modi'rn : with other I'oeins. iCdited l)y
tho Hi v. Oniiv SiiiiM.KV, M..\. Second
I'.dilion. Fep, .'),<.

Shipley's Lyra Mossianica. IV|i. 5»'.
Shipley's Lyra Mystica. Fep. .''».

Endeavours after tho Chi'istian

Life: Discourses. Ity .Iamis Mauiinkai-,
I'ourth F.dilioii, carefully revised. I'o.-l 8vo.
1*. (if/.

Invocation of Saints and Angels ;

for the n>cof Meinliersof the Fnj;li>h<'liuieh.
Kdited liy the L'ev. UiiHV Sim-i.i:v, M.A.
21 nil). :!.«. (!(/.

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

I.I

US .

It!

US
>1

IL25 i 1.4

1.6

Photogr^hic

Sciences
Corpomtion

a." VEST MAIN 5'^KT

t'^EBSTH, N.Y. I4SS0

(riA) 872-4503

^4. -^'l. ^V

4^^^

'<b^

■/>

NEW WORKS ptni.isiiEi) bv LOXGMANS and CO.

Travels, Voyages, <Sfc.

V I

I ''

The Playground of Europe. I'y

Lksi.ti-: Stkimh-.n, late I'nsiik'nt of the
Alpine Club, io^t Svo. Avith Frontispitice.

\_Just ready.

Westward by Rail: the Now Route

to the East, liy W. V. l\\K. Post 8vo.
with Map, price 10*. Gf/.

Travels in the Central Caucasus

and Bashan, incltidinij Visits to Ararat and
Tabreoz and Ascents of Kazbek and Elbruz.
By Douor.As W. Fr.i'.siiiiKi.i). Square
crown 8vo. with ^lajis, &c., IS*-.

Cadore or Titian's Country. By

JosiAii Gii.BKUT, one of the Authors of the
' Dolomite IMountaiiis.' With Map, Fac-
simile, and 40 Illustrations. Inip.8vt '-Ms. Gil.

Zigzagging amongst Dolomites;

with more than 300 Illustrations by the
Author. By the Author of ' IIow we Spent
the Summer.' Oblong Ito. price l.js.

The Dolomite Mountains. Excur-
sions through Tyrol, Carinthia, Carniola,
and Friuli. By J. Gii.r.Knr and G. C.
CiiURCiiii.T., F.R.G.S. With numerous
Illustrations. Square crown 8vo. 2U.

Pilgrimages in the Pjrrenees and

Landcs. By Dknys Siiy.nk Lawi.ou.
Crown 8vo. with Frontispiece and Vignette,
price 15s.

How we Spent the Summer; or,

a Voyage en Zigzag in Switzerland and
Tyrol with some Members of the Ai.pinm-:
(^i.L'u. Third F.ilition, re-drawn. In oblong
4to. with al. it 300 Illustrations, 15s.

Pictures in Tyrol and Elsewhere.
From a Family Sketcli-Book. By the
same Author. Second Edition. 4to. with
many Illustrations, 21s.

Beaten Tracks ; or, Pen and Pencil
Sketches in Italy. By tlic same Author.
With 42 Plates of Sketches. 8vo. IGs.

The Alpine Club Map of the Chain

of Mont Blanc, from an actual Survey in
1 8()3 — 1 8t)4. 1 5y A . A n A >i s - R e i li. y,
F.R.G.S. M.A.C. In Chromolithography on
extra stout drawing pajicr 28in. x l~in.
price 10s. or mouuted on canvas in a folding
case, 12s. 0(/.

England to Delhi ; a Xarrativc of

Indian Travel. By .Iomn Matiiesox,
(ilasgow. With Map and 82 Woodcut
Illustrations. 4o. 3 Is. G(/.

History of Discovery in our

Australasian Colonies, Austnilia, Ta-smania,
and New Zealand, from the Earliest D.ate to
the Present Day. By William Ilown t.
2 vols. 8vo. witli 3 Maps, 20s.

The Capital of the Tycoon ; a

Narrative of a 3 Years' Residence in .Jap.in.
By Sir Ri'tiikkfoud Alcock, K.C.B.
2 vols. 8vo. with numerous Illustrations, 42s.

Guide to the Pyrenees, for the use

of Mountaineers. By Ciiaim.es Packe.
Second Edition, with Mai)s, &c. and Appen-
dix. Crown 8vo. 7s. G(/.

The Alpine Guide. By Jonx Ball,

M.R.I.A. late President of the Alpine Club.

Post 8vo. with Maps and other Illustrations.
Ouide to the Eastern Alps, price 10«.C('.
Ovdde to the "Western Alps, including

Mont Blanc, Monte Rosa, Zennatt, c'-c.

price Gs. Gd.
Guide to the Central Alps, including

all the Obcrland District, price 7s. Gd.

Introduction on Alpine Travelling in
general, and on the Geology of the Alps,
price Is. Either of the Three Volumes or
Parts of the Alpine Guide maybe had with
this IsTRODUcTiox prefixed, price Is. extra.

Homa Sotterranea; or, an Account

of the Roman Catacombs, especially of the
Cemetery of San Callisto. Compiled from
the Works of Commendatore G. B. Dk R<issi,
by the Rev. J. S. NoiaiicoTE, D.D. and the
liev. W. B. BnowNLinv. With Plans and
numerous other Illustrations. 8vo. 31s. Gd.

Memorials of London and Lon-
don Life in the 13th, 14th, and 15tli Cen-
turies ; being a Series of Extracts, Local,
Social, and Political, from the Archives
of the City of London, a.d. 127G-1419.
Selected, translated, and edited bv II. T.
Riley, M.A. Royal 8vo. 21s.

Commentaries on the History,

Constitution, and Chartered Franchises of
the City of London. By Geoiige Noktox,
formerly one of the Common Pleaders of the
City of London. Third Edition. 8vo. 14s.

The Northern Heights of Lc i-

don ; or, Historical Associations of Hamp-
stead, Ilighgate, Jluswell Hill, Ilornsey,
and Islington. By William Howitt.
With about 40 Woodcuts. Square crown
8vo. 21s.

The Rural Life of England.

By the same Author. With Woodcuts by
Bewick and Williams. Medium, 8vo. 12s. GJ.

H i

3very in our

Australia, Tiusmania,
the Earliest Date to
Wir.i.iA.n IIowiTT.

3, 20s.

lie Tycoon; a

Kesidcnce in Japan.
) Alcock, K.C.B.
(US Illustrations, 4'Js.

inees, for tho use

ClI.MtI.ES PaCKE.

aps, &c. and Appen-
r.

. By John Ball,
of the Alpine Club.

1 other Illustrations.
Alps, price lOi.Crf.

'n Alps, including

losa, Zcrmatt, C:c.

1,1 Alps, including
t, price 7s. Gd.

ae Travelling in

'olofjy of the Alps,

Three Volumes or

'ifle may be had with

Ixcd, price Is. extra.

, ; or, an Account
bs, especially of the
to. Compiled from
tore G.B.De Rossi,
icoTE, U.D. and the
With Plans and
;ions. 8vo. 31s. Gd.

don and Lon-

th, and 15th Cen-
of Extracts, Local,
from the Archives

A.I). 127G-14I9.

edited bv II. T.
o. 21s.

the History,

tered Eranchises of
Geoiigic Xoutox,

nion Pleaders of the
Edition. 8vo. Ms.

ghts of Lc 1-

)ciati(>ns of Hamp-
ell Hill, Ilornsey,

k'lI.I.IAJI HOWITT.

its. Square crown
of England.

iVith Woodcuts by
cdiuni, 8vo. 12». Gd.

NEW WORKS iuni.isnED by LONGMANS and CO.

Visits to Bemarkable Places:

Old Halls, Battle-Eiclds, and Scenes illus-
trative of striking Passages in Englijh
History and Poetry. IJy the same Author.
2 vols, sijuare crown 8vo. with Wood En-
gravings, 25s.

Narrative of the Euphrates Ex-
pedition carried on by Order of the British
Government during the years 1835, 183G,
and 1837. By General F. R. CiiESNEy,
F.R.S. With 2 Maps, 45 Plates, and 16
Woodcut:*. 8vo. 24s.

Works of Fiction.

Lothair. By tho Right Hon. B. Dishaeli,
Cabinet Edition (the Eighth), complete in
One Volume, with a I'ortrait of the Author,
and a new General Preface. Crown Svo.
price 6s. — By, the same Author, Cabinet
Editions, revised, uniform with the above : —

CoNINGSIiV, Gs.

Sybil, Gs.
Tascued, Gs.
Vesetia, Gs.
HENUiiaTATEMri.i:,

Gs.
CoNTAiiiNi Fleming

and Rise of Is-

KAXDEU, Gs.

Ai.uoy ; Ixiox ; the
Infki:xal Mak-
iiiAGE ; and Po-
I'AMLLA. Price Gs.

VovxG Dike and
Count Alaucos,
Gs.

Vivian Ghey, Gs.

The Modern Novelist's Library.

Each Work, in crown 8vo. complete in a

Single Volume : —
Melville's Glaijiaioiis, 2s. boards ; 2s. G(/.

cloth.
Gooa roll Nothing, 2s. boards;

2s. Gd. cloth.
IIoi.Mr.Y IIoU.~i;, 2s. boards;

2s. Gd. cloth.

lxT:;!;i':;i;Ti:i!, 2s. boards ; 2s. Gd.

cloth.
Qceen's Mat.ies, 2s. boards;

2s. G(7. cloth.
Ti!oLLOi'i;'s Wauden, Is. G(/. boards; 2s.

cloth.
— ; BAr.tiii>Ti;it Towi;i;s,2s.bo.irds;

2s. Gd. cloih.
Bi!a:mley-Mooi!e's Six Sisteus of the

Valleys, 2s. boards; 2s. Gd. cloth.

Stories and Tales by the Author

of ' Amy Herbert,' uniform Edition : —

AMYHEKnEKT,2s.G(/. j Katiiauine ASIITOX,
(lEIlTia-DE, 2s. Gd. ] OS. Gd.

Eaul'.s Dalgiiteu, ; Mauc;aret Peik i-

2s. Gd. ; NAL, OS.

Exi'EiaENCE OF Life, Lanetox I'aumjn-

2s. Gd. AGE, 4s. Gd.

Cleve Hall, 3s. Gd. Uhslla, 4s. G(/.
Ivous, 3s. Gd.

A Glimpse of the World. Fcp. 7s. Of/.
Journal of a Horns Life. Post 8vo. 9s. C;7.
After Life ; a StiuoI to the 'Journal o!" a lloiuc

Life.' Po.t 8vo. 10s. Gd.

A Visit to my Discontented Cou-
sin. Reprinted, with some Additions, from
iVc/str's Magazine. Crown 8vo. price 7s. Gd.

lerne ; a Tale. By W, Steuakt Tkf:xch,
Author of ' Realities of Irish Life.' 2 vols
post 8vo, [^Just rcddi/.

Three Weddings. By the Author of

' Dorothy,' &c. Fcp. 8vo. 5s.

The Giant ; a Witch's Story for Eiiglish
Boys. Edited by ELizABinii M. Sev.eli,
Author of 'Amy Herbert,' &c. Fcp. Svo.
price OS.

Uncle Peter's Fairy Tale for the XlXth

Century. By the same Author and Editor.
Fcp. 8vo. 7s. Gd.

Vikram and the Vampire; or,

Tales of Hindu Devilry. Adapted by
RicnAiJD F. Blktox, F.R.G.S. &c. With

33 Illustrations. Crown Svo. Os.

Becker's Gallus ; or, Roman Scenes o.''
the Time of Augustus. Post Svo. 7s. Gd.

Booker's Charicles : Illustrative of
I'rivale Life of tho Ancient Greeks. Post
8vo. 7s. Gd,

Tales of Ancient Greece. By George

W. Cox, JI.A. late Scholar of Trm. Coll.
Oxford. Being a collective Edition of the
Author's Classical Series and Tales, com-
plete in One Volume. Crown 8vo. Gs. G(/.

Cabinet Edition of Novels and

Tales by G. J. Whyte Melville: —

The Gladiators, 5s. Holmby Hoi-se, 5s.
DiGiiY (iiiAxi), 5s. iGoon FOR Nothing, 6s.
Kate Coventry, Ss.'tiuicEx's Maries, Gs.
Gi:xeual3olxce, 5s.TiiE Ixteri'Retei;,5».

Our Childron's Story. By One of

their Gossips. By the Author of 'Voyage
en Zigzag,' &.c. Small 4to. with Sixty
Illustrations by the Author, price 10s. Gd.

Wonderful Stories from Norway,

Sweden,aud Iceland. Adapted and arranged
by JiLiA GouDARU. Witii an Introductory
Essay by the Rev. G. W. Cox, il.A. and
Six Illustrations. Square post 8vo. Gs.

NKW WORKS PUBLISHED nv LONGMANS and CO.

Poetry and The Drama.

Thomas Moore's Poetical Works,

the only Editions containing the Aiitlior's
last Copj'right Additions : —

Shamroclt Edition, price 3s. Cf/.
Kuby EiUtion, with Portrait, Gs.
Cabinet Edition, 10 vols. fcp. 8vo. S.')*.
People's Edition, Tortrjiit, ^c. lO.s. G(/.
Library Edition, Portrait & Vignette, Ik.

Moore's Lalla Hookh, Ton n I el's Edi-
tion, with G8 Wood Engravings from
Original Drawings and otlier Illustrations.
Fcp. 4to. 21s.

Moore's Irish Melodies, Muclise's

Edition, with IGl Steel Plates from Original
Drawings. Super-royal 8vo. 31». dd.

Miniature Edition of Moore'3 Irish

Melodies, with Maclise's Illustrations (as
above), retluccd in Lithograph}'. Imp.
IGino. 10s. GJ.

Southey's Poetical Works, with

tlie Author's la^t Corrections and copyright
Additions. Library Edition. Mcdiuni 8vo.
with Portrait and Vignette, Us.

Lays of Ancient Borne ; with Ivri/

and the Armada. By the Kight lion. Loud
Macaulay. IGmo. 4s. Qd.

liovd Macaulay'a Iiays of Ancient
Kome. With 90 Illustrations on Wood,
Original and from tlie Antiiiue, from
Drawings by G. StiiAUK. Fcp. 4to. 21s.

Miniature Edition of Lord Macaulay'a

Lays of Ancient Kome, with Scliarfs
Illustrations (as above) reduced in Litho-
graphy. Imp. ICmo. 10s. Gd.

Croldsmith's Poetical Works, Illus-
trated with Wood Engravings from Designs
by Members of the Etching Cllb. Imp.
IGmo. 7s. Gd.

Poems of Bygone Years. Eaitcd

by tlie Autlior of 'Amy Herbert. Fcp.
8vo. 5s.

Poems, Descriptive and Ljrrical.

liy Thomas Cox. New Edition. Fcp.
8vo. price 5s.

' Shew moral propriety, mental oilturo, anil no
slight acquaiutauce with the technicalities of song.'

Atiien.bum.

Madrigals, Songs, and Sonnets.

iJy John Autiiuk Blaikie and Kdmund
Willi A.M Gossk. Fcp. 8vo. price os.

Poems.

Edition.

By Ji:ax Ixoelow.
Fcp. 8vo. ')s.

Fifteenth

Poems by Joan Ingelow. With

nearly 100 llhisuatioiis by I'^miiient
Artists, engraved on Wood by Dai.ziicl
Brothers. Fcp. ito. "ils.

Mopsa the Fairy. By Ji^ak lNoi;r.o\\-.

With I'.i^ht Illustrations cngr.ived on Wood.
Fcp. 8vo. Gs,

A Story of Doom, nnd other Poonis.
By Ji;an lN(ii:i.()\v. Third Edition. Fcp.
price OS.

Glaphyra, and other Poems. By

FuANtis Kkynoi.ds, Author of 'Alice
Rusliton.' IGmo. 5s.

Bowdler's Family Shakspeare,

cheaper Genuine I'dition, complete in 1 vol.
large type, with 3G Woodcut Illustrations,
price 1 is. or in C pocket vols. 3s. Gd. each.

ArundineS Cami. Collogitatqueedidit
II. DitiuY, M.A. Editio Sextn, curavit II.
J. Hodgson, M.A. Crown 8vo. price 7s. Gd.

Horatii Opera, Pocket Edition, with
carefully corrected Text, Margiuid Refer-
ences, and Introduction. Edited by the Kev.
J. E. YoNGK, M.X. Square 18mo. 4s. Gd.

Horatii Opera, Library Edition, with
Cojjious ICnglish N'otes, Marginal References
and A'arious Headings. Edited by the Rev.
J. E. YoNfiK, M.A. 8vo.21s.

The ^neid of Virgil Translated into
English Verse. By Jon x Conington, M.A.
Corpus Professor of Latin in the University
of Oxford. New I'dition. Crown 8vo. 9s.

The Story of Sir Bichard Whit-

tington, Thrice Lord ^Iiiynr of London, a.d.
13!»7, HOG-7, and 1419. Written in A'ersc
and Illustrated by E. CAitn. With Eleven
Plates. Royal 4 to. 2 Is.

Hunting Songs and Miscella-

I ncous Verses. By H. E. I'oi-.kton Wau-
mr.TON. Second Edition. Fcp. 8vo. 5s.

Works by Edward Yardley :—

F.VNTAsTic Stouiks, fcp. 3s. Gd.

MlCt.rSINK AND OTHKK PoKAlS, fcp. 5s.

IIonA(;i;'s Odks tuanslatkd into Eng-
lish Viciisi;, crown 8vo. Cs.

SUPrLK.MKNTARY SXOIUKS AND PoKJIS,

fcp. 3s. Gd.

^•fiEI.c)^7. riftconth
Ingelow. Witli

lions by Kniinent
Wood by D.u.ziKL

l.s\

By Jkan Ixoki.ow.

lis engraved on Wood.

, and other Poonis.
Third Edition. Fcp.

her Poems. By

Anthor of 'Alice

y Shakspeare,

iin, complete in 1 vol.
'oodcut Illustrations,
}t vols. 3s. Gd, each.

CoUogit atque edidit
itio Scxtn, curavit H.
•own 8vo. price 7». Gd.

'ocket Edition, with
2xt, Marginal Rcfer-
1. Edited by the Kev.
quare 18 mo. -Is. Gd.

ibraiy Edition, with
I, Marginal References
Edited by the Rev.
!vo. 2 Is.

;il Transhited into

l.V CONINGTOX, M.A.

in in the Univi r^ity
Crown Svo. Os.

Richard Whit-

aynr of London, a, I).
Written in Verso
Aui!. With Eleven

and Miscella-

K. I'gkktox Wau-
ion. Fcp. Svo. us.

I Yardley:—

p. 3s. Gd.
I'oiCMS, fcp. 5s.
SLATKU INTO ENG-

8vo. G.i.

•iMKS AND Poems,

SIM WORKS ruBLisiiED by LONGMANS and CO,

Rural Sports^ ^'c.

Enoyclopsedia of Bural Sports ;

a Comiilcte Account, Historical, Practical,
and Descriptive, of Hunting, Shooting,
Fisiiing, Racing, &c. By D. P. Bi.aink.
With above GOO Woodcuts (20 from Designs
by John Lkixii). Svo. 21s.

The Dead Shot, or Sportsman's Com-
plete Guide; a Treatise on the Use of the
Gun, Dog breaking, Pig.on-sliooting, Sec.
By JiAuivSjrA?;. Fcp. witli Plates, os.

A Book on Angling: being a Com-
plete Treatise on the Art of Angling in
every branch, including full Illustrated
Lists of Salmon Flics. By Fiiancis Fuan( is.
Second Kdition, witli Portrait and 15 other
Plates, plain and coloured. Post Svo. I.js.

Wilcocks's Sea- Fisherman: com-
prising the (.hief Methods of Hook and Line
Fishing in the llritish and other Seas, a
glance at Nets, and remarks on Boats ;Mid
Boating. Second Edition, enlarged, Avith
80 Woodcuts. Post Svo. I2s. Gd.

The Fb Fisher's Entomology.

By Ai.FUKi) RoxAi.DS. With coloured
Representations of the Xaturfd and Artifi-
cial Insect. Sixth Edition, with 20 coloured
Plates. Svo. Ids.

The Book of the Roach. By Gm.-

VII. i.i; I'knxici.i,, of' The Field.' Fcp. Svo.
price 2s. Gd.

Blaine's Veterinary Art : a Treat is^o

on tiie Anatomy, Physiology, and Curative
Treatnuiit of the Diseases of the Horse,
Neat Cattle, and Sheep. Seventh Edition,
revised and enlarged by C. Stici:l. Svo.
with Plates and Woodcuts, ISs.

Horses and Stables. By Colonel

F. FrrzwYGKAM, XV. the King's Hussars.
Pp. 021; with 21 Plates of Illustrations,
containing very numerous Figures en-
graved on Wood. Svo. 15s.

Youatt on the Horse. Ecvised and

enlarged by W. Watson, JI.R.C.V.S. Svo.
with numerous Woodcuts, 12s. Gd.

Youatt oa the Dog. (By the same Author.)
Svo. wi'.h numerous Woodcuts, Gs.

The B orse's Foot, and how to keep

it Sound. By W. Mii.ks, Esq, Ninth Edi-
tion, with Illustrations. Imp. Svo. 12s. Gd.

A Plain Treatise on Horse-shoeing. By

the same Author. Sixth Eilition, post Svo.
with Illustrations, 2». Gd.

Stables and Stable Fittings. By the san e.
Imp. Svo. with 13 Plates, 15s.

Bemarks on Horses' Teeth, addressed to
Purchasers. By the same. Post Svo. Is. Gd.

Robbins's Cavalry Catechism ; or,

Instructions on Cavalry Exercise and Field
Movements, Brigade Movements, Out-post
Duty, Cavalry supporting Artillery, Artil-
lery attached to Cavalry. 12mo. 5s.

The Dog in Health and Disease.

By SToxi:in:N(iK. With 70 Wood En-
gravings. New Edition. Square crown
Svo. 10s. Gd.

The Greyhound. By the same Author.
Revised Edition, with 21 Portraits of Grey-
hounds. S(iuare crown Svo. 10s. Gd.

The Ox, his Diseases and their Treat-
ment ; witli an Essav on Parturition in the
Cow. By J. R. Doissox, M.R.C.V.S. Crown
Svo. with Illustrations, 7s. Gd.

Commerce, Navigation, and Mercantile Affairs.

The Elements of Banking. By

IIkn'hy DrxxiXG Maci.koh, ]\I.A. of Tri-
nity Ciillege, Cambridge, and of the Inner
Temple, 15arrister-at-Law. Post Svo.

[ Xcai/y ready.

The Law of Nations Considered

as Independent Political Commimilies. By
Sir TitAVKUS Twiss, D.C.L. 2 vols. Svo.
30s. or si'parately, Paut I. Peace, 12s.
Paut II. War, Ids.

The Theory and Practice of

Banking. By IIkxky Duxxino Macleod,
M.A. Barrisier-at-Law. Second Edition,
entirely remodelled. 2 vols. Svo. 30».

M'Culloch's Dictionary, Prac-
tical, Theoretical, and Historical, of Com-
merce and Commercial Navigation. New
Edition, revised throughout and corrected
to the Present Time ; with a Biographical
Notice of the Author. Edited by IL G.
Reid, Secretary to Mr. M'Culloch for many
years. Svo. price G.'Js. cloth.

I'i !

Ill

NEW WORKS ruBLisHED by LONGMANS and CO.

Works of Utility and General Information,

Modern Cookery for Private

I'aiiiilie?, rccliiced to a System of Easy
I'ractice in a Series of carefiilly-tcstcd Re-
ceipts. By Ei.izA AcTOx. Newly revised
and enlarged; with 8 Plates, Figures, and
loO Woodcuts. Fop. Gs.

A Practical Treatise on Brewing ;

with Formulic for Public Brewers, and In-
structions for Private Families. By W.
Bi.AfK. Fifth Edition. 8vo. 10s. Gd.

Chess Openings . By r. W. Longman,
Balliol College, Oxford. Fcp. 8vo. 2*. Gd.

The Cabinet Lawyer; a Populur

Digest of the Laws of F^^ngland, Civil,
Criminal, and Constitutional. 25th Edition ;
with Supplements of the Aets of the Par-
liamentary Session of 1870. Fcp. 10«. Gd,

The Philosophy of Health ; or, an

Exposition of the 1 iiysiological and Sanitary
Conditions conducive to Human Longevity
and Happiness. By Sf^uxinvoon Smith,
M.D. Eleventh lulition, revised and en-
larged; with 113 Woodcuts. 8vo. 7s. Gd.

Maunder's Treasiiry of Know-
ledge and Library of Reference : comprising
an English Dictionary and Grammar, Uni-
versal Gazetteer, Classical Dictionary,
Chronology, Law Dictionarj', Synopsis of
the Peerage, Useful Tables, &c. Fcp. 6s.

Hints to Mothers on the Manage-
ment of their Health during the Period of
Pregnancy and in the Lving-in Room. By
T. Bli.i,, M.D. Fcp. os".

The Maternal Management of

Children in Health and Disease. By Thomas

Bii.i., M.D. Fcp. .5s,

How to Nurse Sick Children;

containing Directions which may be found
of service to all who have charge of the
Young. By Chaiilks West, M.D. Second
F'dilion. Fcp. 8vo. Is. Gd.

Notes on Hospitals. By Flokknce

NioiiTiNOALE. Third Edition, enlarged ;
with 13 Plans. Post 4to. 18s.

Fewtner's Comprehensive Speoi-

lier; a Guide to the Practical Spccilication
of every liind of Building-Artificer's Work :
with Forms of Building Conditions and
Agreements, an Appendi.x, Foot-Notes, and
Index. Edited by W. Young, Architect.
Crown 8vo. Cs.

Tidd Pratt's Law relating to

Benefit Building Societies; with Practical
Observations on the Act and all the Cases
decided thereon, also a Form of Rules and
Forms of Jlortgages. Fcp. 3s. Gd.

Collieries and Colliers : a Handbook

of the Law and Leading Cases relating
thereto. By J. C. Fo\vi-i:n, of the Inner
Temple, Barrister, Stipendiary Magistrate.
Second Edition. Fep. 8vo. 7s. Gd.

Willich's Popular Tables for As-
certaining the Value of Lifchold, Leasehold,
and Church Property, Renewal Fines, &c. ;
the Public Funds ; Annual Average Price
and Interest on Consols? rom 1731 to 18G7 ;
Chemical, Geographical, Astronomical,
Trigonometrical Tables, &c. Post 8vo. 10s.

Coulthart's Decimal Interest

Tables at Twenty-four Diftcrent Rates not
exceeding Five per Cent. Calculated for the
use of Bankers. To whicli are added Com-
mission Tables at One-eiglith and One-
fourth per Cent. 8vo. 1.0s.

Periodical Publications.

■■\

The Edinburgh Review, or Cri-
tical Journal, published Quarterly in Janu-
r.ry, April, July, and October. 8vo. price
Cs. each Number.

Notes on Books : An Analysis of the
Works published during each Quarter by
Messrs. Longmans &, Co. The object is to
enable Bookbuyers to obtain such informa-
tion regarding the various works as is
usually afforded by tables of contents and
explanatory prefaces. -Ito. Quarterly.
Gratis.

Eraser's Magazine. Edited by James

Anthony Froidi:, M.A. New Scries,
published on the 1st of each Month. 8vo.
price 2s. Gd. each Number.

The Alpine Journal : A Eecord of

Mountain Adventure and Scientific Obser-
vation. By Members of the Alpine Club.
Edited by Leslie Stephen. Published
Quarterly. May 31, Aug. 31, Nov. 30, Feb.
28. 8vo. price Is. G(^ each No.

ition,

tick Children;

ivhich may be found
have chav,:;c of the

West, M.D. Second
Gd.

lis. By Flo HENCE

[ Edition, enlarged ;
:to. 18s,

shensive Speci-

ractical Spceiiication
ng-Artificer's Work :
ing Conditions and
idix, Toot-Notes, and
'. Young, Architect.

,w relating to

2ues; with Practical
Let and all the Cases
I Form of Rules and
Fcp. 3s. Gd.

liers : a Handbook
idin;? Cases relating
)Wi.i;i?, of the Inner
ipcudiary Magistrate.
Svo. 7s. Gd.

c Tables for As-

f Lifehold, Leasehold,
Renewal Fines, &c. ;
inual Average Price
Isfrom 1731 to 1867 ;
ical, Astronomical,
&c. Post Svo. 10s.

imal Interest

Diftcrcnt Rates not
it. Calculated for the
hieh are added Com-

e-eighth and One-

l')S.

Edited by James
M.A. New Series,
each Month. Svo.
L)cr.

al : A Eecoi'd of
ind Scientific Obser-
of the Alpine Club.
KruEN. Published
g. 31, Nov. 30, Feb.
'ach No.

INDEX.

Acton's Modem Cookery id i

Alcock's Residence in Japan 10 j

Allies on Formation of Christendom 11 I

Allen's Discourses of Chrysostom 14 j

Alpine Guide (The) lo i

■ Journal 20 |

Althaus on Medical Electricity ] i) j

Arnold's Manual of English Literature . . fl i

Aknoti's Elements of Physics 8 {

Arundines Cami IS

Autumn Holidays of a Country Parson .... 6

Atee's Treasury of Bible Knowledge it

Bacon's Essays by Wuately .'J

Life and Letters, by Spedding .. 4

Works ■>

Bain's Mental and Moral Science 7

on the Emotions and Will 7

on the Senses and Intellect 7

— on the Study of Character 7

Ball's Guide to the Central Alps l(>

Guide to the Western Alps n;

Guide to the Eastern Alps i o i

Baring's Staff College Essays 6 i

Batldon's Rents and Tillages vi \

Beaten Tracks lO j

Beckeu's Cliaricles and Gcdlus 17 j

Benfet's Sanskrit-English Dictionary .... c i

Bernard on British Neutrality . i !

Berwick's Forces of the Universe 8 |

Black's Treatise on Brewing 20 I

Blacklky's Word-Gossip 7 I

German-English Dictionary . . (5 '

Ulackie ."iiul Gossk's Poems is :

Blaine's Rural Sports , 19 ■•

Veterinary Art 10 |

Bourne on Screw Propeller 13 I

's Catechism of the Steam Engine . . 13 !

Examplesof Modern Engines .. 13

Handbook of Steam Engine .... 13

Treatise on the Steam Engine. ... 13

Improvements in the same 13

BowDLER's Family Shakspeare 18

Bramley-Moore's Six Sisters of the Valley 17
Brande's Dictionary of Science, Literature,

and Art 10

Bray's (C.) Education of the Feelings .... 7

. Philosophy of Necessity 7

On Force 7

Browne's Exposition of the 3J Articles. . . . 13

BRUNEL'sLifeof Bruxel 3

Buckle's History of Civilisation 2

Bull's Hints to Mothers 20

Maternal Management of Cliil.lren . . 20

Bunsen's God in History 3

■ Jlemoirs 4

BUNSKN (E. DlO on Aiiooryijhii 15

's Keys of St. Peter 15

Burke's Vicissitudes of Families \

Burton's Christian Church 3

VikraiM and the Vauipin,' 17

Cabinet Lawyer -^o

Calvert's AVife's Manual 15

Carr's Sir R. Whitiinoton is

Cates's Biographical Dictionary 4,

Cats and Faelie's Moral Emblems 12

Clianged Aspects of Unchanged Truths .... c.

Chesney's Euphrates Expedition 17

Indian Polity 2

Waterloo Campaign 2

Chesney's and Reeve's Military Ess.iys . . 2

Child's I'liysiological Essays n

Chorale Book for England ]i

Clough's Lives from Plutarch 2

CoLENSO (BislKjp) on Pentateuch and Book

of Joshua n

Commonplace Philosopher in Town a'.id

Country (j

Conington's Translation of Virgil's .Etieid 18

CoNTANS2AU's Two French Di(!tionar:es . . 6
CoNYDEARE and lIowsoN 'sLifo and Epistles

ofSt.Paul 13

Cooper's Surgical Dictionary 10

Copland's Dictionary of Practical Medicine 11

Cotton's (Bishop) Life 3

Co ULTiiART's Decimal Interest Tables .... 20

Counsel and Comfort from a Ciiy Pulpit . , G

Cox's (G. W.) Aryan Mythology 3

Tale of the Great Persian War 2

Tales of Ancient Greece .... 17

Cox's (T.) Poems is

Cresy's Eucj'clopaidia of Civil Engineering 13

Critical Essays of a Country Parson c

Ceookes on Beet-Root Sugar 13

CuLLEY's Handbook of Telegraphy 12

CusACK's Student's History of Ireland .... 2

D'AuBiGNi's History of the Reformation in

the time of Calvin 2

Davidson's Introduction to NewTestament 14

De;id Shot (The), by Marksman 19

De la Rive's Treatise on Electricity 8

Denison's Vice-Regal Life 1

De Tocqueville's Democracy in Amori'-a . 2

Disraeli's Lothair 17

Novels and Tides 17

DoBSON on the Ox 19

Dove's Law of Storms s

Doyle's Fairyland n

Dyer's City of Rome 2

•■>')

Ni:\V WOKKS ruBLiSHED by LONGMANS and CO.

i>:i

EASTLAKii's Hints on IIousclioldTnsto .... V2

History of Oil Tainting 11

Life of Gibson U

Edinlnirgh Review 20

Epm u.vDs'g Xanirs of Plarcs 7

Elements of Uotaiiy !»

Elmcoti's Couiinentary on Epliusians .... 11

Lectures on Life of Christ .... U

Cr ninientary on Galatians .... 14

Pastoral Epist. 11

Pliilipi)ians,&c. li

Thcssalonians li

Ewaxd's History of Israel 14

Faibbaien's Application of Cast and

Wronglit Iron to Building 12

Information for Engineers .... 12

Treatise on Mills and 51 ill work IS

Irou Sln))biiilding 12

Fabaday's Life iind Letters 1

Faekae's Cliajiters on Language 5

Families of Speech 7

Felkix on Hosiery & Lace Jlaniifacturos. . 13

Fennel's Book of the Roach 19

FporLKEs'9 Christendom's Divisions 15

FiTzwrGKAM on Horses and Stables 19

FoEBEa's Earls of Grnnard t

Fowler's Collieries and Colliers 20

Francis's Fishing Book 19

Phaser's Magazine 20

Freshfield's Travels in the Caucasus .... K!

Feoude's History of England 1

— Short Studies 7

Ganot's Elementary Physics 8

Giant (The) 17

Gilbert's Cadorc 1(5

and CnuRcniLL's Dolomites .... 16

Girtin's House I Live In 11

Gledstone's Life of WmiEriELD 3

Goddaed's Wonderful Stories 17

Goldsmith's Poems, Illustrated 18

Gould's Silver Store 7

Geaham's Book About Words 5

Grant's Ethics of .Aristotle 5

Home Politics 2

Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson 6

Gray's Anatomy 11

Greenkow on Bronchitis 10

Grove on Correlation of Physical Forces . . 9

Gurney'8 Chapters of French History .... 2

GwiLT'a Encyclopaedia of Architecture .... 12

Hampden's (Bishop) Memorials 3

Hare on Election of Representatives 5

Habtwig's Harmonics of Nature 9

Polar "World 9

Sea and its Living Wonders .... 9

Tropical World 9

Haughton's Manual of Geology 9

Herschel's Outlines of Astronomy 8

Hewitt on the Diseases of Women 10

Hodgson's Time and Space 7

— Theory of Practice 7

Holmes's Surgical Treatment of Children . . 10

Holmes's System of Surgery 10

Hooker and Walker-Auxott's British

Flora 9

HoRNES Intr. duction to the Scriptures . . 14

■ Compendium of the Scriptures .. 11

How wo Spent the Summer 16

UowiTi'a Australian Discovery 16

• Northern Heights of London .... 16

Rural Life of England 16

Visits to Romarkable Places .... 17

HuBMCu's Pope Sixtus ."J

HrauEs's Manual of Geography 8

Hume's Essays 7

Treatise on Human Nature 7

Ihne's History of Rome 2

Ingelow's Poems 18

Story of Doom 18

Mopsa 18

Jameson's Legends of Saints and Martyrs . . 12

Legends of the Madonna 12

Legends of the Monastic Orders 12

Legends of the Saviour 12

JonxsTON's Geographical Dictionary 8

Jukes on Second Death 15

-on Types of Genesis 15

Kalisch's Commentary on the Bible 5

Helirew Giaunnar 5

Keith on Destiny of the World 14

Fulflhnent of Pi'ophccy 14

Keel's Metallurgy, by Ceookes and

ROHRIO 13

KiRBY and Sfence's Entomology 9

Latham's English Dictionary 5

River Plate 8

Lawlor's Pilgrimages in the Pyrenees .... 10

Lecky's History of European florals 3

Rationalism 3

Leisure Hours in Town 6

Lessons of Jlidtllc Age

Lewes's Biograi)hical History of Philosophy 3

Lewis's Letters 4

LiDDELLand Scott's Greek-English Lexicon 6

Abridged ditto 6

Life of 5Ian Symbolised 13

Slari-'aret 31. Hallalian 14

LiNDLEY and Moore's Treasury of Botany 9

Lindsay's Evidence for the Papacy 14

Longman's Edward the Tliird 2

Lectures on History of England 2

Chess Openings 20

Lord's Prayer Illustrated 11

Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Agriculture .... 13

— Gardening 13

Plants 9

Lowndes's Engineer's Handbook 12

Lubbock's Origin of Civilisation 9

Lyra Eucharistica 16

Germanica 11, 15

Messianica 15

ry 10

iNOTT'n British

10 Scriptures . . It

lio Scriptures .. li

: 16

very 16

ts of Loudon.... 16

a;laiKl 16

lable Places .... 17

rapliy 8

n Nature 7

its and Martyrs.. 12

i» Madonna 12

[■Monastic Orders 12

c Saviour 12

Dictionary 8

j, 15

n the Bible 5

liar 5

iVorld 14

voplu'cy 14

r Ceookes and

mology 9

ary 5

he P.yrpnccs .... 16

can florals 3

oryofPhilosopliy 3

lk-Enp;lish Lexicon 6

Iged ditto 6

lan li

casury of Botany

Papacy 14

liird 2

istory of England 2

s 20

Agriculture .... 13

Gardening 13

Plants 9

dhook 12

ation 9

11,15

NKW WORKS lUBLisiiKD nr LOXGMAXS .\ni> CO.

•23

Lyra M ystica 16

Macai'LAY's (Lord) Lssays 3

ilistrry of England .. 1

iiays of Ancient Rome 18

Jllsccllancous Writings 7

Spceclies 5

Works 1

JIacfaruen's Lectures on Harmony 11

MacLeod's Elements of Political I'lcoiioiny 5

Dictionary of Political Economy 5

Elements of Banking 10

Theory and Practice of Banking 10

McCuLLOCU's Dictionary of Coumierce .... 19

Geographical Dictionary .... 8

Maguire's Life of Father Mathew I

Pu-3 IX 11

Ma let's Overthrow of Germanic Confede-
ration 2

Man'MXQ's England and Christendom .... 15

Marcet on the Larynx 11

Marshall's Physiology 11

Maesiiman's History of Lidia 2

Life of Havelock 4

Martineau's Endeavours after the Cliri-s-

tiau Life 15

Massingderd's History of the llcforniation 3

Matueson's England to Delhi 10

Maundeu's Biographical Treasury 4

Geographical Treasury 8

Historical Treasury 3

Scientiflc and Literary Treasury 10

Treasury of Knowledge 20

Treasury of Natural History . . 9

Mat's Constitutional History of England. . 1

Melville's Digby Grand 17

General Bounce 17

Gladiators 17

Good for Nothing 17

Holniby House 17

Interpreter 17

Kate Coventry 17

Queen's Maries 17

Mexdelssohn's Letters 4

Meuivale's Fall of the Roman Rci)nblic • . 2

Romans under the Empire 2

Merrifielp and Evers's Navigation .... 8

Miles on Horse's Foot and Horse Slioeing. 19

on Horses' Teeth and Stables 19

Mill (J.) on the Mind 5

Mill (J.S.) on Liberty 4

Subjection of Women 4

on Representative Government 4

on Utilitarianism 4

's Dissertations and Discussions 4

Political Economy 4

Mill's System of Logic 5

Hamilton's Phi!osoj)hy 4

Inaugural Address at St. Andrew's . 4

Miller's Elements of Chemistry 10

Hymn Writers 15

Mitchell's Manual of Architecture 12

Manual of Assnying 13

Monsell's Beatitudes 15

His Presence not his Memory. . 15

' Spiritual Songs ' 15

Moorb's Irish Melodies 18

LallaRookh 18

Journal and Correspondence .... 3

Poetical Works 18

(Dr. G.) Power of the Soul over

the Body 15

Mouell's Klements of rsycliolcpy 7

Moreli.'s Mental Philosoiihy 7

Miller's (Max) Chips from a German

Workshop 7

Lectures on the Science of Lan-

Kuago ; . 6

(K. O.) Literature of Ancient

Greece 2

JruKcnisoN on Liver Conijilaints 11

M cue's Language and Literature of Greece 2

New Testament Illustrated with Wood En-
gravings from the Old Masters 12

Newman's History of his Religious Opinions 4

Nightingale's Notes on Hospitals 20

NiLSSOji's Scandinavia 9

Nortiicote's Sanctuary of the Madonna . . 14

NouTiicoTT on Lathes ai\d Turning 12

Norton's City of London 16

Notes on Bo. ks ;JC

Odlino's Animal Chemistry 10

Course of Practical Chemistry . . 10

Manual of Chemistry 10

Lectures on Carbon IQ

Outlines of Chemistry 10

O'Flaxaoan's Irish Chancellors 4

Our Childien's Story 17

Owen's Comparative Anatoii.y and Physio-
logy of Vertebrate Animals 9

Lectures on the Invertebrata 9

Packe's Guide to the Pyrenees lO

Paoet's Lectures on Surgical Pathology . . 10

Pereira's Manual of Jlatcvia Mcdica 11

Perkins's Italian and Tuscan Sculptors .. 12

Pewtner's Comiirehensive Specifier 20

Pictures in Tyrol 16

Piesse's Art of Perfumery 13

Chemical, Natural, and Pliysical Mngic 13

Ponton's Beginning 9

Pkatt"s Law of Building Societies 20

Puenderoast's JIastery of Languages .... 6

Prescott's Scripture Diineulties 14

Preseut-Day Thoughts, by A. K. II. B 6

Proctor's Handbook of the Stars 8

Saturn 8

Other Worlds than Ours 8

Sun 8

Ra^'s Westward by Rail 16

Recreations of a Country Pai son 6

Reichel's See of R-mie 14

Reilly'S 3Iap of Mont Blanc 16

Reimann ou Aniline Dyes 13

Reynolds's Glaphyra 18

Riley's Memorials of London 10

RiVERs's Rose Amateur's Guide 9

RoBUiNs's Cavalry Catechism 19

Rogers's Correspondence of Greyson 7

Eclipse of Faith 7

Defence of Faith 7

Roqet's Thesaurus of English Words and

Phrases 5

Roma Sotterrauea 16

■21

NEW VVUKKS puiiLisiiiKD my LONGMANS and CO.

i< ■■

I 'if i^ ^ f

RoNALPs's Fly-Fisher's Eiitomol' gy lU

Kobe's Loyola U

Hotiiscuilu's Ismclites 11

Rowton's Debater B

Udlk's Karaite Jews II

llussEi.i. on Govenimcnt and (^institution l
'a (Earl) Speeches antl Despatchi s l

Sandaks's Justimaii's Iiislitulcs 5

.Scott's Lectures on the Fine Arts il

Albeit Durcr 11

Seebohm's Oxford Reformers of 1 lOS 2

Sewell's After Life 17

Glimpse of the World 17

History of the Early Churdi .... .S

Journal of a Home Life 17

Passing Thoughts on Religion . . !.'>

Poems ( f Bygone Years 18

Preparation for Coniniuuion .... 15

Principles of Education 15

Readings for Conflrmation 15

Readings for Lent 15

Examination for Conflrmal -n .. 15

.Stories and Tales 17

Thoughts for the Ago 13

Thoughts lor the Holy Week .... 15

SnAKSrEARE'a Jlidsuramer Night's Drca:u,

illustrated with Silhouettes 12

SinrLEY's Four Cardinal Virtues U

Invocation of Saints 15

Shout's Church H istory .'5

Smart's Waltceu's English Dictionariis . . 5

Smith's (SouTinvooD) I'hilosophy of Health 20

(J.) I'liul's Voyage and Shipwreck 14

(Svdney) Lile and Letters 3

Jriscellancou!. Works . . 7

Wit and Wisdom 7

SouTnET's Doctor 5

Poetical Works IS

Stanley's History of British Birds

Stebbing's Analysis of Mill's Logic 5

SiEniEN's ■''>< I'- 'astieal Biography 4

— — — und of Europe 10

Stjrlixg's 'f Hegel 7

Sii ,, xrxiAM Hamiitox 7

Stonehenge on the Dog 19

on the Greyhound lU

Stetcki A nd's Tudor Princesses 4

Queens of England 4

Strong and Free 7

Sunday Afternoons at the Parish Church of

a Scottish University Cily C

Taylor's History of India 2

(Jeremy) Works, edited liyKDKX 1.")

TniRLWALL's History of Greece 2

Thomson's Conspectus 11

Laws of Thought .'i

Three Vi'tddinKS 1"

ToDD (A.) on Parliamentary Government . . 1
and Bowman's Anatomy and Phy-
siology of Man 11

Tkexch's lerno 17

Realities of Irish Lire 2

TiiOM.ori:'s Harchcstcr Towers 17

Warden 17

Twiss'.-, Law of Nations lit

Ty.n da li.'s Diamaguetism 8

Faraday as a Discoverer 4

Lectures on Eloclrieity It

Lectures on Light 8

Lectures on Sound S

HeataModeof M.-tiin; 8

E^snys on the Imagination in

Science

Uncle Peter's Fairy Talc IS

Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and

Mines 12

Van Der Hoeves's Handbook of Zoology. . 1)

Visit to my Discontentc.l Cousin 17

Warburton's U anting Songs 18

Watson's Prii.i ii)Us and Practice of Physic 10

Watts's Dictionary of Chemistry 10

Webb's Objects for Common Telescopes .... 8

Webster & WtLKixsox's Greek Testament 1-i

Wellington's Life, by .leio 4

West on Children's Diseases 10

on Nursing Children £0

Whately's English Synonymes 3

Ldcic 5

Illictoric 5

WiiiTj; and Riddle's Latin Dictionin-ics . . c

WiLcociv3"o Sea Fisherman 10

Williams's Aristotle's Ethics 5

History of Wales 1

WiLLiAx;3 on Climate of South of France. . lu

Consumption 11

WiLLicii's Popular Tables 20

AViLLis's Principles of Mechanism 12

WixsLOW on Light 8

Wood's (J. G.) Bible Animals it

Homes without Hands .... !>

(T.) Chemical Notes 10

Woodward and Cater's Encyelonavlia .. 3

Yardley's Poetical Works H

Yoxge's H istory of England l

Englisli-Greek Lexicons C

Two Editions of Horace IS

YoUATT on the Dog 19

on the Horse 19

Zeller's Socrates "

Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics. . 3

Zigzagging amoi.gst Dolomites Ii3

ii^m

SrOTTISWCODE AND CO., PUISTKUS, NEW-STUEET SQL'Alli:, LOSIJO.N.

CO.

itary GovcninnMit . . l
! Anatomy and Pliy-

risULiie 2

Towers 17

iin 8

I Discoverer 4

Kloctrieity y

Light 8

Sound S

JofMuti.in; 8

ho Imagination in

lo IS

, Manufiicturcs, and
12

idbookof Zoolotry..
'. Cousin 17

Songs IS

Practice of I'liysic 10

lieraistry 10

non Telescopes.. .. S

S Greek Testament li

•LKIO 4

ises 10

-'11 20

onymes 5

tin Dlctioniirios ..

«n 19

thics 5

'alos 1

Sontli of France., lo

3n 11

s 20

^chanism 12

nalij <)

tlioiit Hands !i

tfls 10

Encyclopojdia .. 3

is IS

.nd 1

ixicons

Borace IS

'• "

IS, and Sceptics.. a
litcs 1(3