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Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la m^thode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY BEING OUTLINES OF THE STRUCTURE, PHYSIOLOGY, AND CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS WITH i FLORA OF THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA BT ALPHONSO WOOD, Ph.D 6'^ ■'••^•rvcsiar-JWWlM'' ;;^jww NEW YORK :• CINCINNATI .;. CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY I n woorrs bota>^ical series Wood's Object Lessons in Botany Wood's Lessons in Botany Wood's New American Botanist and Florist (Lessons and Hora) Wood's Descriptive Botany (Flora only) Wood's Class Book of Botany Wood's How to Study Plants Wood's Illustrated Plant Record Wood's Plant Record, with Check Tablets Copynght^869^i88t,byA.SMUKNKsJ^ ' CLASS BOt)K PREFACE. Thb Class-Book of Botany was first offered to the student in 1845. It was originally prepared with immediate reference to the wants of the author's own pupils, with scarcely a hope of approval from the coinnmnity beyond. The evt*iit, however, proved that the wants of his own pupils were precisely the same as those of myriads of others ; and the use of the book, notwithstanding its numerous impeifections, soon became general. The lapse of fifteen years has done much to develop not only the knowledge of our native Flora, but of the science of Botany in general ; and materials for the revision of our whole work have indefinitely accumulated. In this revision, which seems to be demanded not less by the growing appreciation of scientific studies as a means of intel- lectual and moral discipline, than by the progress of the science itself, we have still confined ourselves to the limits of a single volume^ and sternly resolved against any essential enlargement, except such as the increased territory of our Flora requires. This we have done with direct reference to the convenience and the means of the thousands of youths who will still enter upon this delightful pursuit, and make their text-book their vade mecum. The labor expended in this condensation will be appreciated by few, and those few, while they justify the mo- tives, will regret the necessity. The limit of our Flora in this new series has been much extended. It now embraces the territory lying East of the Mississippi River with the exception of the Southern Peninsula of Florida, and South of the (Jrcat Lakes and the River St. Lawrence. The States bordering upon the western shores of the Mississippi, although not strictly included, are essentiallij so, as well as those provinces of Canada upon the north- ern shore of the St. Lawrence. This Class-Book is, therefore, now professedly adapted to the student's use from Quebec to New Orleans and from St. Paul to St. Augustine. The southern peninsula of Florida is neglected in consequence of the author's inability to visit that region hitherto. During his extended tour southward in 1857, the Seminole war rendered the route to th« VI PREFACE. / : Everglades unsafe, or at least undesirable. The species omitted are generally unknown northward of Key West, Students at Mi anopy, Ocala, to St. Augustine, will scarcely miss them ; but should they do so, they will confer a grateful favor by contributing specimens of such to the author. That every sj>')cics of native plant in this extensive region is accu- rately defined, or even noticed, we cannot presume ; yet this has been (Mir aim ; and as in the former series, so here, we have distrusted every source of information except that of our own personal inspection. Therefore, into nearly every section of this territory, from the St. Lawrence and the Lakes to the Gulf, and from the Sea-Coast to the Great River, the author has made repeated excursions in delighted con- verse with the vegetable world. Together with the plants of spontaneous growth which constitute our proper Flora, we have inchiUed in our sketches also our exotic Flora ; that is, all those plants which seem to us to have attained a geneial cultivation in this country, either as useful, curious, or orna- mental. By this accession, learners in the city, as well as in the coun- try, may be supplied with subjects for illustration and for practice in botanical analysis; and all with the means of acquainting themselves with the beautiful tenants of their own fields, gardens, and conserva- tories. From the multiplication of species and genera we have studiously refrained, believing that our books already contain more than Nature will warrant. In the case of any doubtful specimen, which might have served as the basis of a new species, or possibly genus, (had this been our aim), we have always inclined rather to the extension of the limits of some kindred groiip for its reception, having less apprehension of error in this direction than in the opposite, with all due regard for the permanence of true species. The same principle has compelled us to disallow the claims of many reputed species of the best authors. In the sequence of the Natural Orders, we have, in common with all recent American authoi*s, mainly adopted the arrangement of De Can- dollc, — an arrangement seen, in part, in the * Flora of the State of New York,' by Dr. Torrey. It commences with those Orders supposed to be of the higher rank in organization, and proceeds gradually to the lower, regarding the completeness of the flower and the distinctness of its parts as the general criterion of rank. Tables of analysis by the dichotomal method were first in the Class- Book applied to the genera of plants, and introduced into :,^eneral use. They are now regarded as indispensable, and have been adopted into tlieir Floras by nearly every subsequent author. In the present new P K K F A CB. ith all 1 ', Can- ■New seel to ,o the ess ol ■;■': Class. il use. ^-' 1 into It new 1 i 1 series, we have jorreatly modified, extended, and improved this system, adapting it to the analysis of Species as well as of Orders and Genera. By means of this addition, our Flora is now adapted to class exercises in analysis througho'xi, from the Grand division to the Species — an im- improvement which will be duly appreciated by the practical teacher. An analytical Key to the Orders, mainly artificial, more simple than any hitherto constructed by us, founded, as in the previous edition, almost solely upon characters taken from the flowers and leaves (not fruit), will readily conduct the student to that Order where any given flowering specimen may beleng. Next, under the Order, a table of th« utmost simplicity, analyzes the Genera, mostly in such a way as to do but little violence to their natural aflUnities. Lastly, under the Genus (when large enough to require it) another table conducts to the species in groups of twos or threes, which groups are instantly resolved oy a brief diagnosis in italics catching the eye in some part of the des<'rip- tion which follows. The limited space allowed us in the Flora compels us to use very sparingly illustrative engravings in tiiis part of our work, which occa- sions us less regret considering the copiousness of illustration in the scientific treatise in the former part. Those engravings are designed partly with reference to the Flora, where frequent references will be found. The few which we have adopted in the Flora, are prepared with reference to the deficiencies of the former part. In other words those which have no illustrative figure in the former treatise are gen- erally furnished with one or more in the Flora. Throughout the work, these are mostly from original sketches and drawings on wood by the author's own hand. Others are copied from Lindley, Ilenfrey, Payer, (fee. In addition to those colaborers in Botany, whose invaluable aid is aciknowledged in former editions, namely Dr. Edward E. Phelps, Dr. James W. Bobbins, Dr. Joseph Barratt, Dr. Albert G. Skinner, Mr. I. A. Lapham, Dr. Truman Ricard, Dr. II. P. Sartwell, Dr. John Plum- mer. Dr. S. B. Mead, Mr. S. S. Olney, ewey, D D., of Rochester, N. Y., the venerable pioneer in American Caricography, has placed us and our readers un- der renewed obligations by additional contributions to the genus Ca- rex, rendering it complete for the extended territory of our present Flora. Communications containing specimens, critical notices or ''orrectiona, or soliciting information, will always, as heretofore, be acceptable. West Fakms, N. Y. ,b of with k the B also id her d, the emeiit luincy, of our 1 their jna. Bach- lir very ;s; and •ded U9 State of »^ith the .nd with ir Flora, ecimena d to his fenerable Lera un- jnus Ca- prepent rections, CONTENTS. PAOB PRBTACE 3 Introductigx 9 Chapter I. — Thb Leading Principles of Science; — Mental and Moral Discipline its Aim and End 9 Chapter II. — The Departments of Botany 12 Chapter III. — Apparatus. — Methods of Study 16 Part First. — Structural Botany, or Oroanogkapuy 17 Chapter I. — Primary Divisions of the Vegetable Kingdom it Chapter II.— The Term of Plant Life 19 Chapter III.— Thb Ph^nogamia ; — How Developed 22 Chapter IV.— The Root, or Descending Axis 24 Chapter V. — The Stem, or Ascending Axis 30 Chapter VL — ^The Leaf-Bud. — Vernation 41 Chapter VII. — The Leaf 46 § Phyllotaxy, or Leaf- Arrangement 48 § Morphology op the Leaf 5t § Or the Stipules 61 § Of the Veins 52 § Form op the Leaf, or Fig i re 54 § Margin 59 § Apex 59 § Compound Leaves. ... 60 Chapter VI IL — Transformations of the Leaf 63 Chapter IX. — Inflorescence 67 § Flowering t.'i Chapter X. — Morphology of the Flower 77 § ^Estivation 79 § Thb Florvl Organs 81 § The Plan of the Flower 83 Chapter XL — The Floral Envelopes. — Perianth 91 Chapter XTL— The Essential Organs 99 f The Stamens, or Ani)r(ecium. ... 99 § Thb PisTiiis, or Gyncboium 104 6 Thb Ovules 108 i ' ; ; ) ' ▼Ul OM TKMT8 . FAttl Chapter XIII.— The Fbuit; — Pericarp no Chapter XIV. — The Fruit; — ISebd 117 § Germimation 121 Chapter XV. — The Crtptooamia. — Organs 124 Part Second. — Physiolooical Botany 130 Chapter I. — Thk Vegetable Cell 130 Chapter II. — I'iie Tissues 134 Chapter III. — The Epidermal System 137 Chapter IV. — The Ligneous System 139 § Structure op Leaves 146 Chapter V. — Op Vegetation, or the Physiology op Plant Life 146 § Fertilization 148 § Ripening of Fruits 151 Chapter VI. — Of Absorption 152 § Circulation 153 § Transpiration 166 § Respiration 156 Chafper VII. — Review of the Piuncu'lks op XuritirioN 158 Part Third. — Systematic Botany 164 Chapter I. — Of the Classification of Plants 164 Chapter II. — Op the Artificial System 166 Chapter III. — Op the Natural System 169 Chapter IV. — Nomenclature. — Ana^^ysis 174 § Index and Glossary 180 § Key Analytical to the Natural Orders 191 Part Fourth. — Descriptive Botany ; — The Flora 1 99 Orders of the Polypetal^ 200 Orders of the Gamopetal.s; 393 Orders op the Apetal^ 601 Orders of the Conoide^, 659 Orders of the Spadiciflok.e 6G6 Orders of the Floride^k 676 Orders op the Graminoide^ 731 Orders of the Cryptoqamia 810 TkQm 110 in 121 124 . 130 . 130 . 134 . 137 . 139 . 146 . U6 . . 148 . . 151 .. 152 . . 153 .. 166 .. 156 .. 158 ... 164 ... 164 ... 166 ... 169 114 180 191 , 199 . 200 . 393 . 601 . 659 . 666 ,. 676 .. 131 .. 81« i 1 -fs>^'' LI3RARV, % JUL 2 a 1902 I N T R D F C TT^4f : -.-x^^ »• ♦ •• CHAPTER I. LEADING PRINCIPLES OF SCIKNCE : MENTAL AND MOKAL DISCIPLINE ITS AIM AND END. 1. Plants as related to Man. The vegetable kingdom maintains tonrardE man several important relations. Besides its obvious utility as the source of hie ftK)d, shelter, clothing and medicine, it I'uraisbes an exhaustless Held tor interesting and disciplinary study. 2. Proof that Nature is related to Mind. This remark is commonplace. But the fact stated is neither a necessity nor accident. Since the phenomena of Nature are ordained subject to the cognizance of the human understanding while yet their depths are unfathomable by it, it is evident that God made them for each Other. It is certainly conceivable that He miglit have ordained otlierv/ise. 3. Illustration. Tiie phenomena of vegetation, or of natuie in goneral, might have been all simple and uniform, thus awakening no curiosity, presenting no motive for study. Or on the other hand, they might have involved plaTis so intri- cate as to defy all efforts of the mind in their investigation. In Uiis case, as in tlie former, the mind and nature would have remained lor ever estranged. 4. The study of Nature successful. But an intermediate course hath seemed good to an All- wise and Beneficent Creator. The works cf His Hand are commensurate with the powers of the understanding. We study tiiein not in vain. Step by step His plans are unfolded ; and research, althougii never reaching tlie goal, yet never wearies, nor fails of its appropriate reward. 5. — Pj.easur'lBle. Hence the study of nature, through this Ijcautifnlly adjusted relaliou, becomes a source of the purest pleasure, being ever accompanied by fresh discoveries of truth in the plans and operations of a sublime Intelligence. 6. — Disciplinary. But a liiglier purpose than present pleasure is accomplished by tliis means, namely, discipline. Enterinur life as a mere germ, the soul expands into intelligence and virtue through the teachings of surrounding objects anfl influ- ences. In this good work the beauty, purity and wisdom displayed in the vegeta- ble world bear a full sharo. These invite to investigation ; and their tendency is to impress upon their votaries the characteristics of their own sincerity and loveliness. 7. Creative Wispom never works in vain, nor merely in sport. Even the flying cloud which now passes over the sun has its mission ; the forms which it assumes, and the colors, were each necessary and divinely appointed for that special purpose. The hills and valleys, which seem scattered in accidental confusion, have received each their contour and position by design, according to the ends foreseen. Consequently, each stone or mineral composing these hills was also the work of special deeigo, as to its magnitude, form and place. Ml f f 10 INTRODUCTION. 8. No ACCIDENT OR CAPRICE IN NATURE. Much more in the living kingdoms of nature may we look for an adequate purpose and end accomplished by every movement and in every creature of the Divine hand. Each species is created and sustained to answer seme worthy end hi tlie vast plan ; and hence no individual, animal or plant is to be regarded in science as insigniticant, inasmuch ns the indi- vidual constitutes the species. Nor is accident or caprice to be found in the form of the leaf or the color of t!ie flower. There is for each a special reason or adaptation worthy of unerring wisdom. 9. Object of natural Science. In the study of nature we are th.erefore concerned in reasons and ends as well as in forms and appearances.' That iovesti- gatioti which ceases contented with the latter only is puerile. It may amuse, but can scarcely instruct, and cm never conduct to that purest source of the student's enjoyment, namely, the recognition of Intelligence by intelligence. 10. DiiSiuN, A SETTLED PRINCIPLE IN SCIENCE. The end or purpose, it is true, is not always as easily discerned as the form and fashion are. In a thousand in- stances the end is yet inscrutable. Nevertheless it is now a settled principle of science that there is an end — a purpose — a reason, for every form which we contem- plate ; and the adaptation to that end is as beautiful as the form itself. That tlie tendril of the vine and tlio runner of the strawberry were happily adapted to a special purpose is readily a;si of death is apparent, while the triumph of life is real. In tiie " grain of mustard" there is literally a faith — an energy which will raise it from the dust, " a tree." Yet, as in the wheat and all other seed, "it shall not be quickened except it die." Hence, 28. Plants may teach us lessons in sacred things. While wo study the fa Jts and the forms of the vegettible world, we should also aim to learn the purposes accomplished, and the great principles adopted in its creation. "We should also learn to recognize here the tokens (too long overlooked) wliich declare that nature sym- pathizes with humanity in the circumstances of the Fall, the Redemption, and the Life. Such study alone is adapted to acquaint us with the thoughts of the intelli- gent Creator, and lo discipline aright the mind which was created in His image. 29. Botany combines pleasure with improvement. It conducts the student into the fields and forests amidst the verdure of spring and the bloom of summer ; to tiie charming retreats of Nature in hor wild luxuriance, or where she patiently smiles under the improving hand of cultivation. It furnishes him with vigorous exorcise, both of body and mind, which is no less salutary than agreeable, and its ■ubjects of investigation are all such as are adapted to please the eye, refine tli© teste, and improve tlie heart. 'S- «* ♦ >» CHAPTER II. THE DEPARTMENTS OF THE STUDY. ;i 30. Three great departments in nature are universally re- cosTiiJzed, commonly called the mineral, vegetable, and animal king- doms. The first ('(»nstitutes tlie Inorganic, the other two the Organic World. 31. A MINERAL is an inorganic mass of matter, that is, without dis- tinction of ] arts or organs. A stone^ for example, may be broken into any numbi • of fragments, each of which will retain all the essential characterisucs of the original body, so that each fragment will still bo a stone. 32. A plant is an organized body, endowed with vitality but not with sensation, composed of distinct parts, ^ach of which is essential to THK DEPARTMENTS OF THE STUDY. 13 the completeness of its being. A tulip is composed of organs which may be separated and subdivided indefinitely, but no one of the frag- ments alone will be a complete plant. 33. Animals, like plants, are organized bodies endowed with vitality, and composed of distinct parts, no one of which is complete in itself, but they arc elevated above either plants or minerals by their power of per- ception. 34. These distinctions, long since suggested by Linnaeus, the founder of botani- cal science, are perfectly obvious and definite in the higher grades of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. But in descending the scale, we recognize a gradual approach, in both, to it'organic riattei*, and consequently to each other, so that in the lowest fonns of life all traces of orgauization are lost to our perception, and the three kingdoms of nature, like converging radii, apparent- ly meet and blend in a com- mon centre. 35. The position of thr PLANT-Wt)RLD IN RANK and oflBce is intermediate. While inferior to the animal in re- epect to perception and in- stinct, it is superior to the mineral in its vitality. In office it constitutes the food and nourishment of the ani- mal, the vesture and orna- ment of the mineral world, whence alone itself is fed. In other words, plants feed on minerals, animals feed on plants. FiGtrRB 1. A diagram ilhistratlng these views of the thre* 36. Physics is the kingdoms of nature— how related to each other. general name of the science which treats of the mineral or inorganic world. 37. Zoology relates to the animal kingdom. 38. Botany is the science of the vegetable kingdom. It includes the knowledge of the forms, organs, structure, growth, and uses of plants, together with their history and classification. Its several de- partments correspond to the various subjects to which they relate. Thus 39. Structural botany, or Organography, treats of the special or- gans of plants as compared with each other, answering to Comparative Anatomy in the science of Zoology. Morphology is a term often used in a similar sense ; but it especially relates to the mutual or typical transformations which the organs undergo in the course of development 40. Elementary botany treats of the elementary tissues — the o^ ganic elements out of which the vegetable fabric is constructed. I f 14 INTEOUUCTION. 41. Physiological botany is that department which relates to the vital action of the several organs and tissues, including both the vital and chemical phenomena in the germination, growth, and reproduction of plants. It has, therefore, a direct and practical bearing upon the labors of husbandry in the propagation and culture of plants, both in the garden and in the field. 42. Systematic botany arises from the consideration of plants in relation to each other. It aims to arrange and classify plants into groups and families, according to their mutual affinities and relative rank, so as to constitute of them all one unbroken series or system. 43. Descriptive botany, or phytology, is the art of expressing the distinctive characters of species and groups of plants with accuracy and precision, in order to their complete recognition. A flora is a descriptive work of this kind, embracing the plants of some particular country or district. 44. Botanical Nomenclature, which is the art of properly apply- ing names to the species and groups, is intimately associated with the above department. Terminology relates to the explanation and appli- cation of botanical terms whereby the organs of plants, with their nu- merous modifications, are accurately designated. This is, therefore, inseparable from Structural Botany. 45. Ultimate aim op botany. Finally, in its extended sense, Botany com- prehends also the knowledge of the relations of plants to the other departments of nature, particularly to mankind. The ultimate aim of its researches is the develop- ment of the boundless resources of the vegetable kingdom for our sustenance and protection as well as education ; for the healing of our diseases and the alleviation of our wants and woes. This branch of botanical science is called 46. Applied botany. It includes also several departments, ^ Medical Botany, or Pharmacy, Agricultural Botany, or Chemistry, Pomobyy, &c. 47. Plan of the work. In the following pages, designed as a complete although compendious treatise for the special convenience of the learner, we shall commence with Structural Botany, whose subjects (the constituent organs of plants) are conspicuous and most readily com- prehended. 48. Secondly, the cell and the elementary tissues will claim our at- tention. Thirdly, we shall inquire into the vital activities of ail these organs, and endeavor to explain the phenomena of vegetable life. Fourthly, the principles of vegetable nutrition which constitute the foundation of agricultural science. 49. In the PiPTH place we shall treat of Systematic Botany, the principles of arrangement adopted in the Natural System, and the methods of Botanical Analysis. 60. Lastly, the Natural Orders will be defined, and illustrated by our flora, both native and cultivated. nrraoDucnoic. 15 61. NOTWlTHSTAifDiNO the extreme brevity of thig work, the author believes that DO principle of the science eesential to a liberal course in Botany is omitted. The brevity is attained by a studied conciseness of expression, and by the omissioa of all needless illustrations, theoretical views and wordy discussions. In the flora those multitudinous repetitions which are liable to encumber the descriptions of allied groups are avoided, without the sacrifice of minuteness by means of copious tables of analysis. CHAPTER III. APPARATU S — M ETHODS OF STUDY, 62. The proper season for the commencement or the study of Botany ia schools is in late winter, at the opening of the first session or term after New^Years. The class will thus be prepared before hand by a degree of acquaintance with first principles, for the analysis of the earliest spring flowers — the sweet Epigsea, Anemone, Erigenia or spring beauty, of the North, tlie yellow jessamine, Chaptalia, or Cryso- gonura of the South, the blood-root and violet every where. 53. Specimens of leaves, stems, roots, fruit, flowers, Ac, in unlimited supply are re- quisite during the whole course. In the absence of the living, let the dried specimens of the herbarium be consulted. Crayon sketches upon the black-board, if truthful, are always good for displaying minute or obscure forms. In the city, clas?-^ in Botany may employ, at small expense, a collector to supply them daily with fresli specimens from the country. Moreover, the gardens and conservatories will furnish to such an abundant supply of cultivated species for study and analysis, with almost equal advantage ; since the present work embraces, together with the native flora, all exotics which are in any degree common in cultivation. 54. An herbariusi (h. s., horttis siccus, dry garden), is a collection of botanic specimens, artificially dried, protected in papers and systematically arranged. Her- baria are useful in many wayt> ; (a.) for preserving the knowledge of rare, or inacces- sible, or lost species ; (6.) for exchanges, enabling one to possess the flora of other countries ; (c.) for refreshing one's memory of early scenes and studies ; (d.) for aid- ing in more exact researches at leisure ; (e.) for the comparison of species with species, genus with genus, &c. 65. For collecting botanic specimens, a strong knife for digging and catting ia needed, and a close tin box eighteen inches in Icnglli, of a portable form. EuL-Iost'd iu such a box, with a little moisture, specimens will remr.in frosli for a week. 56. Specimens for the herbarium should represent the leaves, flowers aiiri fruit, and, if herbaceous, the root also. Much care is requinito in so drying thorn a.s to preserve the natural appearance, form and color. The true stxjret of this art con- jiats in extracting the moisture from them by pressure in an abuudanoo of dry, bibulous paper, before decomposition can take place. 67. The drying press, to be most efficient and convenient, should consist of a dozen quires of ordinary blotting paper, at least 11 x 14 inches, two sheets of wire gauKe, (same size) as covers, stiffened by folded edges, and three or four leather •traps a yard in length, with buckles. When in use suspend it in the wind and suu- nhine. In such a press, the specimens dry well in feir weather without onoe olianging. If boards be used for corers instead of wire-g-iuze, ^he papers mast be dumged and dried, daily. / i I H ' ti 10 INTRODUCTION. 58. Succulent plants raay be imraersod in boiling water before pressing, to hasten their desiccation. 59. The lens, eitiier single, double, or triple, is almast indispensable in the or- dinary pursuits of Morphology or Phytography. In viewing minute flowers or parts of flowers the use of the iens can not be too highly appreciated. For dissection with the Ic'iJS, a needle inserted iu a handle, a penknife and tweeters ar« required. Tiie dried flowers of the herbarium need to be thrown into boiling water before dissection. 60. The compound microscope is undoubtedly a higher aid in scientific inves- tif^ation tiiau any otlier instrument of human invention. It is like the bcstowment of a new sense, or the opening of a new world. Through this, almost solely, all our knowledge of tlio cells, the tissues, growth, fertilization, &c., is derived. The skillful use of tliis noble instrument is itself an art which it is no part of our plan to explain. For such information tlie student is referred to the works of Carpenter and Quekett. . . 61. On the preparation op" botanical subjects for examination we remark briefly. Tlie held of view is necessarily small, and only minute portions of objects can be seen at o ice. The parts of it are to be brought under inspection success- ively by the movements of the stage. 62. The tissues of leaves, Ac, are best seen by transmitted light. They are to be divided by the razor or scalpel into extremely thin parings or cuttings. Such cuttings may be made by holding the leaf between the two halves of a split cork. They are then made wet and viewed upon glass. Tbe stomata are best seen in the epidermis stripped off; but in the sorrel leaf (Oxalia Violacea) they appear beauti- fully distinct (§678, Fig. 585,) upon the ootiro leaf. 63. Woody tissues, &c., may be viewed either as opaque or transparent. Sec- tions and cuttings should be made in all directions, and attached to tbe glass by water, white of egg, Canada balsam. To obtain the elementary cells separately for inspection, the fragment of wood may be macerated in a few drops of nitric acid added to a grain of chlorate of potassa. Softer structures may be macerated sim- ply in boiling water. 64. Certain reagents are applied to the softer and naore recent tissues to ef- fect such changes in the cell contents, of either color or form, as shall render them visible. Thus sulphuric acid coagulates the primordial utricle (§ 645) ; a solutioa <^ iodine turoa it blue \ sugar and nitrie acid chaage it to red. QUESTIONS. INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER I. will i! lu® f "''J^'^* *':®**«** <*f in this chapter ? What IS the " end and aim " of all science ? 34, 35. 36 3< CHAPTER II. 30. Name the three kingdoms of Nature. 61. What IS a mineral ? A stone? 32. What is a plant ? A tulip ? 33. What is an animal ? vllu^r. t^'t'^ee kingdoms perfectly distinct ? lixpliun the diagram. n'Z i! -1'^ Vegetable kingdom related to the Animal f How IS It related to the Mineral kingdom 9 '^°"°'"' Define the science of Physics. Define the science of Zoology 38. R..peat the full definition of the science of Botany. 39. O what does Structural Botany treat ? ^ 40 Of what does Elementary Botany treat? Ao ^J"^'^^ ?^^^ Physiological Botany treat? Ao v^L * '^ *^^ ^"^ <^f Systematic Botany ? 43. What of the art Phytology ? What is a Flora ? ». Some of the uses of Botany. CHAPTER III. 62 wSvVif**!^'?^-'^^**^'' this chapter? 56. wE JiTtof in '"• ''''^"''■''* ^""^ collecting specimens ? Whnf i?X. . ^P'^cimens are wanted for the herbarium » W. Desc ibe'thVSir:^' °^ '^' "^^^ 5*" P'-^F*'-'"^ the specimens ? ^ me remainder of thi. chapter m.y b. read aloud or recited by th. p«p„. ^ the teacher • <4UUKXloMS ON PAKT FIRST. CHAPTER I. State the title of this cliapter. 65. Name the two Natural Giand Divisions of the Vegetable kingdom. 66. What of the Organs, or Organic System of the Phaenogamia? How do the Crjptogamia diflFer from this? 67. How does the Fern differ from the Rose ? How does the Lichen differ from a Violet ? 68. Name the two subdivisions of the Phaenogamia. 69. What plants are comprehended among the Exogens ? ExpUiin the meaning of the word. 7C. Wiiat plants are comprehended among the Endogens t Explain the import of the word. 71. Why are the Exogens called also Dicotyledons? Why are the Endogens called also Monocotyledons? 72. How may these two subdivisions be known by their leaves? How may they be distinguished by their flowers ? 73. What is said about the two-fcM name of a plant ? Which name is provincial, and which universal ? 75. Show Ly example how the Latin name is double. 76. Recite verbatim the definition of a species. 77. Notice an example of a species. 78. How may we define a variety ? Give an example. 80. R(!cite verbatim the definition of a genus. 81. Please illustrate by two good examples : — Clover ; Pine. CHAPTER II. Repeat the title of this chapter. 83. Wherein does animal life differ from plant life ? 84. Name the several stages of plant life. 85. Notice the five picture sketches of its biography. 86. How much does the " term of plant life " vary ? Strange exception of the castor-oil bean. 87. What of flowering and fruiting ? When do they prove fatal ? How does the florist's " tree mignonette " bear on this question ? 89. State the definition of " Annual herb," " Biennial herb." 91. Also define "Monocarpic herb ," " Perennial plant." 93. What is the herbaceous perennial ? The woody perennial ? What three distinctions among woody perennials? 94. What the stature of a, bush? Of an undershrubf 96. What is the form and stature of a tree ? Of a shrub ? 97. What is remarked of the age of trees ? 98. How may the age of a tree be estimated ? 99. Can you Instance some trees remarkable for age? 101. Please instance some trees remarkable for grandeur. 102. Now give the distinction of trees relative to their verdure. I ■J| 5'r WOOD 8 CLA»S-UOOK OF BOTANY Ul i CHAPTER III. 103. What is the earliest stage of the plant? 104. In growing, whither does the radicle direct itself? What is the tendency of the plumule ? 105. Explain the structure of the bud. How does it grow ' Why is the original bud called also terminal ? 106. What sort of axis does the terminal bud alone develop ? 107. What other buds are also found ? Whence arise the branches? 1 10. Whence does the flower originate ? 111. What then is the r jure of the flower? 112. From what organ does the fruit originate? 113. Explain these views by the figure of the paeony and its parts. CHAPTER IV. 114. 116. 117. 118. 119, 120. 121. 122. 124. 125. 127. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 143. 144. >46. Of what does this chapter treat ? Define the root. How distinguish root from stem? Please state the two-fold office of the root. What is the leading propensity of the root ? What are the only proper appendages of the root? What end or purpose is answered by the multiplication of these ex- tremities ? What is the part designated by the term collum f What are the spongioles, or spongehtt f What are the fibrillae ? Their office and use ? Why should a tree or shrub be transplanted in Spring ? Name the two definite modes of root-development. Define accurately the axial mode. The inaxicd. Grive instances of them both. Name the four varieties of the axial, or tap-root. Define the ramous tap-root. The tuberous. Define vhe fusiform tap-root The conical. Napiform. How are all these thickened roots reservoirs ? Name the six forms of inaxud roots. Describe, with examples, the fibrous root. .Describe the fibro-tuberous root. Moniliform. Tubercular. What is the thickening matter in all these cases? What roots are said to be adventitious? What roots are said to be cirrhous? What carious style of root has the screw-pine ? Describe the adventitious roots of the banyan. Describe the curious habit of the manj^jrove tree. How may the growth of adventitious roots be favored t Mention a method of raising dwarf trees. Axial and inaxial — which requires deep tillasre ? If two crops are sown togf>ther — what shonH they be ? What is the nature of those plants called Eniphvtes ? What are Para.sites? Give examples of these classes. Read the paragraph on subterranean stems. TT iilil <4UKST1U^S ON CHAPTER V. What is the title of this chapter ? Define this phrase. 147. What is the geueral idea of the term "axis?" 148. Does the ascendiDg axis always continue to grow erect ? What is the idea of the procumbent stem ? Of the decumbent ? What the idea of the ascending stem? Of the subterranean? 149. How may this last be distinguished from roots? 150. £.rplain the development of the simple stem. Wlier*^ may the original plumuls bud be always found ? 151. Explain the development of a branching stem. If the axillary buds grow, what do they then become ? 153. Is there an}' apparent plan in the arrangement of the branches f Please define the alternate arrangement. The opposite. Define the verticillate. Give examples of each mode. 154. What varieties in the " angle of divergence " in branches ? What is Doticeablu in the beech ? The oak ? elm ? 155. What are some of the distinctions made by nurserymen ? 156. What is a Sucker ? A Stolon, or Layer? A Cion? 158. How are the grape-vine and hop propagated ? 159. Define an Ofi^et. Define the Runner. 161. What is a Node ? An Internode ? 162. Why does the stem diminish upwards? 163. Can you describe the process of the growth of the stem? 164. State briefly, one great exception to this rule. 166. Give the precise definition to the "leaf-stem." 167. Give the precise definition of the "scale-stem." 166. Name tLe five principal forms of the leaf-stems. 167. Name tlie six principal forms of the scale-stems. 168. Distinguish between the herbaceous and woody leaf-stema. 1G9. What is tlie caulis? Define caulescent. Acaulescent. 170. What is the culm ? What stems are called trunks ? 172. What forms of trunk have you noticed? 173. Distinguish the " excurrent " from the " solvent " axis. Instance some examples of each. 176. What term is applicable to the stem of the palm tree ? 177. Describe the singular .stock of the Cactus tribe. 178. Describe tht^ vine and its two varieties. Which Is furnished with tendrib, the climbers or twiners? 179. AVhat is the law in regard to the course of the twiners? 181. How is the creeper defined? Its two classes please mention. How is tlie witch grass best cultivated ? 183. What can be said of the lUility of such repent stems ? What prevents our sandy or clayey hills from washing ? 183. What is the proper description of the root-stock ? 184. Show, by figure 52, the manner of its growth. 185. Describe the premorse root-stock. 186. The stem of clover, asparagus, etc., in winter, is what? 187. What is a tuber? Show by fig. 54, etc., how it grows. 189. What is a corm? Show how it grows. 191. Describe the bulb. Show, by fig. 60, how it multiplies. 193. Varieties in bulbs — describe some. Finally, notice the gradation la tuber, corm, and bulb. WOODS CLASS-BOOK OK BoTANT. CHAPTER VI. What is the topic of this chapter ? \9'). What two kinds of buds are mentioned ? 196. Repeat the definition of the leat-bud. 197. What is the nature of the scales ? Show this by figs. 67, 61 198. Where are bud-scales needed and found V 1J>9. How are the buds protected in rain or cold ? 200. Which is the parent bud * What the axillary bud ? 202. Distinguish the two Ivinds uf axillary buds. 203. When may the axillary become terminal ? 204. What if a part of them be suppres-sed ? What if all ? 20.5. When is the axis said to be brachiate? How in the pink? (Fig. 70.\ 207. What are ast method of displaying it? 213. Considering eacli leaf alone, when is it said to be reclined? When conduplicate f Plaited ? Circinate ? When is it convolute ? Involute? Revolute ? Which variety is seen in oak (fig. 71,)? In the tulip-tree? Fe»»? Birch? Cherry? Dock? Balm-of-Gilead ? Sycamore? 214. Considering the leaves in respect to each other, when are they obvoluie? When triquetrous ? Eqiiitant ? 215. Stat^ the principle of " budding." What are bulblets ? CHAPTER VII. 217. 218. 219. 2-JO. 221. 222. 223. 224. 226. 227. 228. 229. 230. 231. 232. 233. 234. 235. 236. 237. What is the subject of this chapter ? How does the leaf figure in landscape scenery ? What is the general characteristic of the leaf? What variations in the color of the leaf? What is the etymology of the word Phyllotaxy? Explain " leaves radical." Leaves cauline. Leaves ramial. What is the alternate arrangement of leaves ? Scattered ? Ros»- late ? Fasciculate ? Oi)posito ? Verticillate ? If you reduce all these to two types, what are the two ? W^hat experiment reveals the true nature of the alternate type ? Can you show that the opposite leaved type may be spiral ? Decussate leaves — what are they ? State an established law in pl-mt-development Will you carefully define the elm cycle ? Calling this the J cycle, what does the numerator denote ? Wliatth© denominator? How is the alder cycle ? C.illing this the ^ cycle, what does the 1 denote ? The 3 ? Desciibe the cherry cycle. Why call this the f cycle ? Describe the Osage orange cycle. Why denominate this tlie g cycle ? Show how these cycles are related to each other. If the third is ^ and the fourth g, what will the fifth be ? In what plants is this (the ,A|) cycle realized ? What cycle is next in order ? What its numerical sign ? You may read the remarks on the higher cycles. » Tl . . ' tJLK.STIO.NS ON 239. 240. 241. 242. 243. MOKPilOLOGY OF TUB LEAF. What is the blade? What is the petiole / Explain the meaning of the word sesn^e. PetiolaU. What are stipules? How many to each leaf, if any? Explain the meaning of the word erstipuJate. Stipulak, Name the three distinct parts of a complete leaf. To what transformations are they liable ? OF THE PETIOLE. What is the more common form of the petiole ? What is peculiar "n the petiole of the aspen ? 244. What is there peculiar in the petioles of the Asters, etc.f What peculiarity in the leaves of the mullein ? 245. How is the amplexicaul petiole, or leaf, described ? What constitutes a sheath ? (See figs. 102, 104.) 246. In what sort of leaves do we find compound petioles? OF THE STIPULES. 247. What is the location of the stipules? Appearance ? What is remarked of their presence or absence ? 248. What of the stipules of rose (fij?. 100) ? Of pansy (fig. 102)? 249. What plants exhibit ochrece ? Wliat their nature ? 250. When the leaves are opposite, what are their stipules called ? 251. The ligule of grasses, what is it? What are stipels? Explain fig. 102. 103. 104. 105. OF THE VEINS. 253. How do you distinguish a simple leaf? A compound f 254. Of what is the frame- work of the leaf composed ? 255. Why are they called veins rather than ribs ? What is denoted by the term venation f Name the four organs of venation. 256. Please describe the mid-vein. What leaf has such? If there be several such, as in maple, what are they called? 257. What branches shall we call the veinlets? The veinulets? 258. The venation of the Exogcns — name and describe it The venation of the Endogens — name and describe. The venation of the Cryptogamia — name and describe. Name the three forms of the reticulate venation. Now please describe them — the feather-veined. 260. The palmi-veined. The tripli-veined. 262. What varieties in the parallel venation ? What venation in fig. 106? 10< ? 108? 109? 110? FORM, OR FIGURE. 263. Can you show the connection between the figure of the leaf and its renattonf 264. On what principle shall we arrange or classity leaf-forms ? 265. The first cliss, or feather- veined leaf-forms, define it. Name and describe the three forms belonging to it. a. Define the second class of feather-veined leaf-forms. Name and describe the fow forma belonging to thi« claas. if! WOODS CLAaiS-BOOK OF BOTANY. vn 266. Iq the thnrd class, where are the longest veinleLs ? Name and describe the four forms of this class. 267. In the fourth class, how are the lowest veinlets? Note the form of the cordate leaf. The auriculate. The sagittate. The hastate. Observe fig. 110— what is its form? Also of 111? 112? 113? 114? 115? 116? 117? Observe fig. 130— what is its form ? What of 131? 136? 137? 268. On wiiat do the pinnatifid forms depend ? The term j»mn«D'8 CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY. XVII 709. Where is the cambium layer found ? What is it ? 710. Why is it called the generative layer ? 711. Why \a the growth of Exogens unlimited? 712. Why is the bark most sought in medicine, etc, ? 713. What of a cross-section of an endogenous stem ? 714. Explain particularly its structure. 715. As to these bundles — of what does each consist? 717. Has the Endogen a true bark ? Why does it split with difficulty 7 718. Why are these plants called inside-growers, or Endogens '( 719. Why is the caudex of the palmetto, etc., often smaller at base? 720. In what plants is the acrogenous structure found ? Why are they sc called, i. e., point growers ? 721. How does a cross-section of one of them appear ? (Fig. 600.) Here describe the figures 595 and 596. 722. What is the rank ofthe mass-growers ? What is the' r only tissue? What semblance of stems have they V 724. What can you say of the flbrilhe of the root ? (See the fig.) 725. What may be said of the pileorhiza ? Show it in the figures. 726. How does the root grow, and penetrate the soil ? 729. What is the substance of the veins ? 730. How many layers of the parenchyma are there ? When are the two alike, and when unlike ? 732. What is the normal place of the stomata ? How in floating leaves ? 733. What is the condition of the chlorophylle ? 734. The vessels of cienchyma — where, and of what use ? Explain fig. 604, and show the parts, as the epidermis, the two layers, chlorophylle, spiral vessels, stomata, etc. CHAPTER V. 736. What inquiries are we now to start ? 738. What problem remains unsolved? What phenomena do we refer to the vitality of the plant? 739. What is the lowest form of life? Whence does it spring? 740. How prove that the vegetable kingdom is subordinate ? 742. In what steps does the process of vegetation consist ? What are the vital phenomena included in vegetation ? 744. What two kinds of organic matter make up the cell ? Write out the symbols of these two. Which resembles animal matter ? 745. What does the cell imbibe ? From what fluid ? 746. What chemical decomposition ensue<* ? What becomes of the water formed ? What of the cellulose ? 747. How is chlorophylle formed ? What becomes of the excess of tlie cellulose ? What globule within a globule ? 74). What becomes of the excess of protoplasm ? 750. What per cent, of gluten and starch in wheat ? Why is extra flour deficient in gluten ? 751. Can a plant consist of a single cell ? Give an example. 752. Describe the two modes of cell growth. 753. How is growth distinguished from reproduction ? 754. What is the embryonic vesicle ? Its origin? Its destination? 755. How does it receive its impulse in this direction ? 756. Trace the growth of the pollen grain after it falls on the stigma. 757. Trace the course of the pollen tube, and in fig. 607. 758. Show the process of growth in the fertilized cell, and in fig. 608. 769. How does Schlfciden's view differ from the above ? Explain fig. 609. T .'K XVllI QUESTIONS ON What Btore m 760. In the Coniferae, where does tiic pollen fall ? 761. What is the state of the embryo in the miiture seed ? laid up for it? 762. What chemical changes ensue ? What if. diastase ? Dextrine ? Whence is the yeast? The heat? The sugar? 766. In the process of ripening fruits, what material is formed? 767. Whence is the honey in the flower ? What the use of the sugar ? 768. Of what use is the honey to the plant ? CHAPTER VI. 770. What the subject ? What is the most important office of the root 7 771. Illustration, by a plant of spearmint, hydrangea, etc. 772. What organs absorb the water in these cases? 773. Illustrate this by a radish plant. 774. In transplanting trees, what special care must be used ? 775. What of the force of this absorption ? How may it be shown ? 777. Name the two causes of the ascent of the sap. 778. Illustrate capillary attraction by glass tubes. By a napkin. 780. Illustrate cudosraose by dried prunes. 781. Illustrate by a bladder and long glabs tube. 784. Of what use to the vegetable is absorption ? Have the roots the power of choice ? Give examples. 785. What otlier organs absorb? What illustrations are given? 787. In what direction is the flowing of the sap? 788. How does it advance in the tissue of a Cryptogam ? 789. In higher plants, what is noticed in the different tissues? 790. What vessels and passages convey air only ? 791. Wliat seems to be the moving force which raises the sap ? 792. Through what tissue does the sap chiefly ascend ? 793. Through which layers, and why ? 794. What is the composition of the crude sap? 795. HoAV do you account for the issue of sap from the sugar maple In early Spring ? What causes the flow to cease ? 796. How does the crude sap become the true sap ? 797. Trace the distribution of this fluid as it returns from the leaves. 798. Specify the places where this sap makes deposits. 799. In what direction is the growth, from above or from below ? 800. Illustrate this by the girdling process. Why does the tree die? 801. Illustrate by a ligature. Illustrate by a wound in the trunk. 803. What the etfect of cutting a branch just below a node? 801 What of girdling a potato plant ? Fruit tree? Why? 800. Where does the flow called rotation occur ? Describe it. 808. What is the process called transpiration ? It occurs where and when I 809. What other process depends upon it ? Does it convey away pure water only ? 810. How much water did a sunflower transpire per tlay ? A cabbage ? 811. Describe an arrangement for showing the quantity of transpiration. 812. What do we understand by respiration in plants ? 813. What experiment with an air-pump shows its importance? 814. Why does the tree suffer when its roots have been buried too deep? 815. Define respiration in plants. Where does it occur? 816. What does the vast extent of the respiratory apparatus show? 817. State in order the six facts given in relation to respiration, 818 State carefully the two opposite phases of respiration. -4 WOOD 8 CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY. xTx 819. When does the former phase become visible ? When the latter f 820. Explain the phenomena of blanched plants. 821. Describe the interesting experiment of Saussure. 822. Why is no oxygen obtained when boiled or distilled water ia used ? 8_'4. What are the results of transpiration and respiration on the sap ? 825. Wliat proportion of carbonic acid in the air? Whence is it derived? How much is added to the atmosphere annually ? 826. Wliy does the carbonic acid not accumulate in the air ? 827. How might the air become poisonous for animals? 828. Now show how the animal and vegetable kingdoms mutually aid each other. CHAPTER VII. S29. Name the four organogens, i. e., organic elements. 830. In what proportion does euch exist y In what proportion all ? What the i)er cent, of carbon ? What gives solidity and strength? 831. What do the oxygen and hydrogen form in plants y Give some examples of its quantity from the table. 832. Name some earthy elements found in plants. 833. Give from the table some examples of the proportion of ashes and other elements in vegetables. 834. What is the object of inquiry in Agricultural Chemistry ? 834. What is the food of plants? Whence comes their nourishment? Whence their carbon ? Their oxygen? Hydrogen? Nitrogen? 835. What the whole quantity of carbon in the air ? 837. Of what does soil consist ? Its organic materials. 838. Of what is water composed ? Whence the ammonia in rain? 839. What is the composition of ammonia V 840. What source of nitric acid in the air? 841. What are air-plants ? Give some examples. 842. Name three requisite conditions of healthy vegetation. ~ 843. What of the supply of the first ? Of the second ? 844. What is the object of tillage ? What of sub-soiling ? 845. What the object of manuring ? What the use of amendmenUf 846. What is the good of bone-manure ? What of guano V 848. What is fallow ground? What its benefit ? 849. What gives efficiency to all these materials ? 850. Can you here state the outlines of digestion ? 851. What are the constituents of the proper juice? 853. From this vital fluid what is first formed? Next? Thirdly? 853. Where are gum, starch, and sugar deposited ? 854. How does sugar differ in composition from starch ? 855. How may starch become cellulose ? How become sugar ? 8;")(). Can you distinguish the vegetable products into two classes I 857. On what principle is the table constructed ? Illustrate. PART THIRD. CHAPTER I. 858. What is the object and aim of Systematic Botany ? 860. What is the higher purpose accomplished by it? «) ■; Kx wood's cjlass-uook of botany. 861. How does it appear that the subject is vaatt 862. Mention a wrong way to study. 8G3. What causes the Umits of species ? How may the student beoom* acquainted with all the individuals of a species ? 864. Give an example of this mode of study. 865. Define a genus. Give an example of a genus. 868. How are the Genera associated into Orders ? 869. For example, how is the Order Ckuciper^ made up ? The CocifarsB f 870. Into wliat groups are the Orders themselves associated f CHAPTER II. 873. Subject of this chapter ? Illustrate an artificial classification. 874. Who was Carl von Linnd ? What system did he invent ? 875. What are its defects as a system ? 876. Are these defects objections to it as a key? Is it now in use? 877. How many classes in the Linnaean system ? (Further examination at the teacher's option.) CHAPTER III. 886. The subject? What is the aim of this system? 887. Uow does it difier from the Artificial System ? 888 What the principle of the species and genera? 889. What rule is given as to the relative value of characters? 891. As to history, who may be regarded as the founder ? What did he f Whal did Linnaeus ? JussieuV Robert Brown ? DeCandoUef 892. What uncertainty in the system yet remains ? 893. Whence is the difficulty iu settling these divisions ? 894. Is there more than one true Natural System? 895. What is the first and highest division of the Natural System ? Define the Phaenogaraia. The Cryptoganiia. 896. Wliat of the indeuniteness of natural groups ? 897. Into what two provinces are the Phaenogamia next resolved ? State the diagnosis of the Exogens. Of the Endogens. 898. What divisions next follow ? Define the Angiospermae. Define the Gymnospermae. Name the two classes formed by the Endogens Describe each. 899. Into what two pro > mces is the sub-kingdom Cryptogamia divided ? Define the Acrogens. Define the Thallogens. 900. What two classes correspond with these two provinces ? Define the Angiosporae. Define the Gymnosporse. 901. Wliat name is given to the fourth set of groups ? Are the cohorts quit* natural groups ? Why not '< 903. Whose plan is generally adopted in this country ? Into what three cohorts are the Angiospermae divided ? Define the Dialypetahe. The Gamopetalae. Tlie Apetalae. 904. How is the class Petaliferie divided ? Define the Spcidiciflorae. De- fine the Florideae. 905. The class Grlumiferae is equivalent to what cohort? 906. Name the three cohorts of the class Angiosporae. 907. Name the three cohorts of the class Gymnosporae. 908. Write on the black-board the synopsis of the Natural System. « '^UL 2U 1902 PART F I R ^^^Oatt^iO^^ STRUCTURAL BOTANY; OR, ORGANOGRAPHY. -»> ♦■•»- CHAPTER I. PRIMARY DIVISIONS OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 65. Two NATU.iAL Grand Divisions of thc Vegetablb Kingdom have long been recognised by botanists, viz., tl>e Plisenoganiia or Flowering Plants; the Cryptogamia, or Flowerless Plants. Besides the obvious distinction made by the presence and absence of the flower, 2, Soea (flowers double)— an Exogen. 3, Lily — an Endugen. 4. Fern — an acrogenous Cryptogam. 5, Licbeu— a Uiallogenous Grypto^aui. -y !T ,i ; i J ! ..;' f:,! !i'i;l 18 PBIMART DIVISIONS OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 66. These Grand Divisions are further distinguished by their organic structure and general aspects. In the Phaenogaiuia we find a system of f^ompound organs, such as root, stem, leaf, bud, flower, suc- cessively developed on a determinate plan ; while in the Cryptogauiia, a gradual departure from this plan commences, and they become, at length, in their lowest forms, simple expansions of a uniform tissue, Vf ithout symmetry or proportion. This distinction is randered perfectly clear by a reference to 67. Examples. Compare a rose with a fern. In the former a regular axis bears buds which are unfolded, some into leaves, others into flowers succeeded by fVtiit. In the fern no buds nor flowers appear, and the fruit dots sprinkle over the back of the leaf. Again, contrast the violet with a lichen, where neither stem, root, nor leaf appears, much less flowers, but disc-like expansions with fruit-dust (spores) produced indifferently in any part of them. 68. Subdivisions of the Ph^enogamia. This grand division is itself very naturally resolved into two subdivisions, named by De Candolle Exogens and Endogens. 69. Exogenous plants or Exogens (outside-growers), including all the trees (except palms) and most herbaceous plants of temperate regions, are so named, because the additions to the diameter of the stem are made externally to the wood already formed. 70. Endogenous plants or Endgg^ens (inside-growers), including the grasses and most bulbous plants of temperate climates, and the palms, canes, etc., south, are so named from the accretions of .he stem taking place within the parts already formed. 71. These subdivisions .\rb more accurately distinguished by the structure of the seed. The seeds of the Exogens consists of two equal seed-lobes, called cotyledons, as seen in the pea. The seed of the Endo- gens consists of but one seed-lobe or cotyledon, as in the Indian Corn. On this account Exogens were first called Dicotyledonous (two-cotylc- doned) plants, and Endogens, Monocotyledonous (one-cotyledoned) plants ; — names quite appropriate, but too hard and long for general use. 72. They are also very readily distinguished by their leaves, which are net-veined in the Exogens, and parallel-veined in the Endogens. Moreover, their flowers are remarkably different, being almost always three-parted in the latter and about five-parted in the former. But all these distinctions, with some others, 'vill be more definitely stated hereafter. 73. The Xamb of a plant or other natural object is twofold, — the trivial or popular name, by which it is generally known in the country ; and the Latin name, by which it is accurately designated in science throughout the world. For example, strawberry is the popular name, and Pragaria vesca the Latin or scientiflo name of tlie same plant. 74. In elementary treatises, like the present, for the sake of being readily under- 8t(H)(l, plants are usually called by their popular names. Yet wo eiimestly recoin- ni(>n(l to the learner to accustom himself early to the usoof the more iK!Curato uumos •mploycd in science. TERM OF PLANT LIFK. 19 76. The Latin name is always double; — generic and specific. Thus Frwjaria is generic, or the name of the genus of the plant, veaca is specific, or the name of the species. 76. A Species embraces ail such individuals as may have originated from a common stock. Such individuals bear an essential resemblance to each other as well as to their common parent, in all their parts. 77. For example, the white clover (Trifolium repens) is a species embracing thousands of cotemporary individuals scattered over our hills and plains, all of common descent, and producing other individuals of their own kind from their seed. 78. Varieties. To this law of resemblance in plants of one common origin there are some apparent exceptions. Individua's descended from the same parent often bear flowers differing in color, or fruit differing in flavor, or leaves diff'ering in form, etc. Such plants are called varieties. They are never permanent, but exhibit a constant tendency to revert to their original type. 79. Examples. Varietiea occur chiefly in species maintained by cultivation, as the apple, potato, rose, Dahlia. They also occur more or less in native plants (as Hepatica triloba), often rendering the limits of the species extremely doubtful. They are due to the different circumstances of climate, sr;\ and culture to which they are subjected, and continue distinct only until left again to multiply spontaneously from seed in their own proper soil, or some other change of circumstances. 80. A Genus is an assemblage of species closely related to each oilier in the structure of their flowers and fruit, and having more points of resemblance than of difference throughout. 81. Illustration. The genus chver (Trifolium) includes many species, as the white clover (T. repens), the red clover (T, pratense), the buffalo clover (T. reflexum), etc., agreeing in floral structure and general aspect so obviously that the most h.nsty observer would notice their relationship. So in the genus Pinus. no one would hes- itate to include the white pine, the pitch pine, the lon^-leafed pine (P. strobus, rigida, and palustris), any more than we would fail to observe their differences. 82. Thus individuals are grouped into species, and species are asso- ciated into genera. These groups constitute the bases of all the systems of classification in use, whether by artificial or natural methods. »•-♦-•* CHAPTER II. TERM OF PLANT LIFE. 8.3. Plant Life defined. The vital principle in the plant or its life is k .'vn only by its effects. In the animal these eft'ects are, in kind, twofol 1, indicating two kinds of life, the organic and the nervous life. In the plant the latter kind is wanting, and the sum of its vital phe- nomena is popularrly expressed iii the one word, vegetation. f : li 80 1*BHM OF PLANT LIFE. 84. Stages of plant life. The successive phenomena of vegetation are germination, growth, flowering, fruit-bearing, sleeping, dying ; and we may add plong with these, absorption, digestion, secretion. The development of every plant, herb or tree, commences with the minute embryo, advances through a continual series of transformations, with a gradual increase of stature, to its appointed limit. 85. The life of the plant is a biography. Its form is never permanent, but changiog like a series of dissolving views. The picture which it presents to the tyo to-day diflers, perhaps imperceptibly, from that of yesterday. But let the views be sticceasively sketched when it sprouts from the seed in spring, when clothed in its leafy robes, when crowned with flowers, when laden with ripe fruit, and when dead or dormant in winter — and the pictures difter as widely as those of species the most opposite. 86. The term or period op plant life varies between wide extremes, from the ephemeral mushroom to the church-yard yew, whose years are reckoned by thousands. The term of life for each species is, of course, mainly dependent on its own laws of growth, yet is often modified by the climate and seasons. Thus the castor oil bean (Riein^i^ is an annual herb in the Northern States, a shrub in the Southern, and a tree forty feet in height in its native India. 87. Flowering and fruit-bearing is an exhausting process. If it occur within the first or second year of the life of the plant it generally proves the fatal event. In all other cases it is either pre- ceded or followed by a state of needful repose. Now if flowering be prevented by nipping the buds, the tender annual may become peren- nial, as in the florist's tree-mignonette. 88. We distinguish plants, as to their term of life, into the an- nual ((X), the biennial ((D), and the perennial {%). 89. An annual herb is a plant whose entire life is limited to a single season. It germinates from the seed in spring, attains its growth, bio; - soms, bears fruit, and dies in autumn, as the flax, corn, morning-glorj . 90. A BIENNIAL HSRB is a plant which germinates and vegetates, bbar- ing leaves only the first season, blossoms, bears fruit, and dies the second, as the beet and turnip. Wheat, rye, &c., are annual plants, bnt when sown in autumn they have the habit of biennials, in consequence of the prevention of flowering by the sudden cold. 91. MoNOCARPic HERBS. Tho century plant (Agave), the talipot palm, Ac, are so called. They vegetate, bearing leavi'S only, for many years, accumulating ma- terials and strength for one mighty effort in fructilicotion, which being accomplished, they die. But although tho vital principle is extinguished in the parent, it survives multiplied a thousand fold in the seed. 92. Perennial plants are such as have an indefinite duration of life, usually of many years. They may be cither herbaceous or woody. 93. Hekbacbous perennials, or perennial herbs, are plants whose % :-'4 TBRM OF PLANT LIFE. 21 parts are annual above ground and perennial below. In other words, their roots or subterranean stems live from year to year, sending up an- nually in spring flowering shoots, which parish after they have ripened their fruit in autumn ; as the lily, dandelion, hop. 94. Woony perennials usually vegetate several years, and attain well nigh their ordinary stature before flowering ; thenceforward they fructify annually, resting or sleeping in winter. They are known as trees, shrubs, bu&hes and undershrubs — distinctions founded on size alone. 95. A SHRUB is a diminutive tree, limited to eighteen or twenty feet in stature, and generally dividing into branches at or near the surface of the ground (alder, quince). If the woody plant be limited to a still lower growth, say about the human stature, it is called a hush, (snow-ball, Andromeda.) If still smaller, it is ati undershrub (whortleberry). 96. A TREE is understood to attain to a height many times greater than the human stature, with a peimanent woody stem, whose lower part, the trunk, is unbranched. 97. Longevity of trees. Some trees live only a few years, rapidly attaining their growth and rapidly decaying, as the peach ; others have a longevity exceeding the age of man, and some species outlive many generations. 98. The age of a tree mat be estimated by the number of wood- circles or rings seen in a cross section of the trunk (§ 667), each ring being (very generally) an annual growth. 99. Examples. The known a^e of an elm, as stated by De Caudolle, was "36 years; of a larch, 676; a chestnut, 600; an orange, 630; oaks, from 810 to 1600; yews, 1214 to 2820. 100. Adansox estimated the age of the baobabs of Africa at 5000 years. Liv- ingston reduces it to 1800. The yew trees of Britain, as described by Baltour, are of wonderful longevity. One in Bradburn church-yard, Kent, is 3000 years old, and the great yew at Hodsor, Bucks, twenty-seven feet in diameter, has vegetated 3200 years. IDl. Magnitude. At the first establishment of Dartmouth College, a pine tree was felled upon the college plain which inejisured 210 feet in height. In the Ohio Valley the red maple attains a girth of 20 feet, the tulip-tree of 30, and tiio syca- more of more than 60. But the monarch tree of the world is the Sequoya gigantea — the California pine. One which had fallen measured 31 feet in diameter, and 363 feet in length. Among those yet standing are some of still greater dimensions, aa beautiful in form as they are sublime in height, the growth (as estimated by the wood-circles) of more than 3000 years. 102. Trees are again distinguished as decidous and evergreen — the former losing their foliage in autumn and remaining naked until the following spring; the latter retaining their leaves and verdure through- out all seasons. The fir tribe (Conifcrae) includes nearly all the ever- greens of the North ; those of the South are far more numerous in kind, e. g., the magnolias, the live-oaks, holly, cherry, palmetto, Ac. 22 THE PHifiNOGAMIA — HOW DEVELOPED. CHAPTER III. THE PH^NOGAMIA — HOW DEVELOPED. 103. The embryo. The plant in its earliest stage of life is an em- hryo, contained in a seed. It then consists essentially of two parts, the radicle and the plumule. We may discern both in many seeds, as the pea, bean, acorn. 104. Growth of the embryo. After the seed begins to grow or germinate, the embryo extends itself in two directions, to form the axis of the plant. The radicle or root-end grows downward, penetrating the dark danip earth as if to avoid the light, and forms the root or descending axis. The plumule, taking the opposite direction, ascends, seeking the light, and expanding itself as much as possible to the influence of the atmosphere. This constitutes the stem or ascending axis, bearing the leaves. 106. Growth of the terminal bud. first the ascending axis is merely a hud, that is, a growing point, clothed and protected by little scales, the rudiment- ary loaves. As the growing point ad- vance}, and its lower scales gradually expand into leaves, new scales suc- cessively appear above. Thus the axis is always terminated by a bud. 106. Axillary buds. By the growth of the terminal bud the axis is simply lengthened in one direction, an undivided stem. But besides this, buds also exist, ready formed, in the axils of the leaves, one in each. 107. How branches are formed. These axil- lary buds, a part or all of them, may grow and develop like the ter- minal bud, or they may always sleep, as in the simple-stemmed mullein or palm. But in growing they become branches, and these bran'iheu Acorn (se«d of Qutrcxu paiu$ ^'! li ■:! 112. The fruit. After the flower has fulfilled its oflSce, the de- ciduous parts fail away, and the remaining energies of the plant are directed to the development of the pistils into the perfect fruit. Let us illustrate this doctrine by tracing out 113. A VIEW OP THE organs OP THE p^j^i, for example, (r) The roet with its numerous ^ers and flbriUat (some fibers tuberous) coutinues the axis downward, and {s) the stem upward. The kaves (a) approaching the summit, gradually lose their characteristic divisions, and at length become simple bracts, (6) still undoubted leaves. Next by an easy gradation they appear as sepals (c, d, e,) in the calyx, the outer envelope of the flower, with stalk expanded and blade contracted. Then by a somewhat abrupt transition tliey pass into the delicate and highly colored petals of the corolla {/, g,), still retaining the essential marks of the leaf. To the corolla next succeed those slender organs called stamens (to, n), known to be altered leaves from the fact of their being often converted into petals {i, h). Lastly the pistils (o,) destined to bear tha seeds, two or more central organs green in color, are each the result of the infolding of a lea^ the mid-vein and united edges being yet discernible. ■ » ♦ ■ ■ CHAPTEK IV. THE ROOT OR DESCENDING AXIS. I '1^ lU: • I '■■; 114. Definition. The root is the basis of the plant and the princi- pal organ of nutrition. It originates with the radicle of the seed ; the tendency of its growth is downward, and it is generally immersed in the soil. U5. Diagnosis. Rot. are distinguished from stems by their downward di- rection, by the presence of absorbing fibers, (fibrillae), and by the absence of color, pith, buds, leaves, and all other stem-appendages. 116. Office. The two important offices in vegetable life which the root is designed to fulfill, are obvious to every one, viz., to support the plant in its position, and to imbibe from the soil the food and moist- ure requisite for its growth. How well God has adapted its structure and in- stincts to this twofold purpose observa- tion is continually showing. 117. The leading propensity of the ROOT is, to divide itself into branches, and its only normal appendages are branches, branchlets, fibers and fibrillae, which are multiplied to an indefinite extent corres- 32, a. Extremity of R rootlet of mapio ponding with the multiplication of the with lt« flbrm« and spongtole (inuKnl- ^^ ^- ^ ^^^^^ rpj^j^ ^^ ^^^^ fW<1 M diameters.) ' *^ ' THE ROOT, OR DESCBNDINO AXIS. 26 insures a firm hold upon the earth, and brings a large absorbing sur- face in contact with the moist soil. 28. White clover— an ^^.>^»..>v^^. 85. Screw-pine (Pandanus). 3G. Banyan (Ficuu ludivu). i M THE ROOT, OK DESCRIPTIVE AXIS. 29 Km couttuulng to advance, send down other roots, which in turn become columns similar to trunks, until a single tree becomes a grove capable of sheltering an army of men. 138. The Manorove (Rbizopora), of the West Indies, sends down axial roots from its brsuiches. The seed germinates before detached, sending down its long radical until it reaches the mud in which these trees grow. Thus the you.^g plants gain a firm standing before quitting their hold of the parent tree. 139. To FAVOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF ADVENTITIOUS K00T8 On any particular part, Aieep that part in contact with moist soil. We often observe such roots to ariso naturally, in prostrate branches or stems, at those points which touch the ground. In slips, cuttings, &c., the same thing occurs artificially. Hence to increase tlio roots of the potato vino, or corn, heap the earth against the stems. The madder plant, which is cultivated solely for the ricli coloring matter in its roots, is success- fully treated in no other way. Its adventitious roots are excessively multiplied liy deep spading and high " hilling." 140. To PRODUCE DWARF TREES it Is only necessary, by any contrivance, to re- tain a quantity of moist earth against the base of the selected branch until it strikes root. Afterwards it may be severed from the tree and transferred to ll.e soil. (Fig. 40, d). 141. Axial and inaxial roots in agriculture. This distinction must never be lost sight of. The former strike deep, anchor firmly, and draw their nourishment from the lower strata of the soil. The latter abide near the surface, and feed upon the upper soil. Hence let us Icaru a. Which class of crops requires deep and which shallow tillage ; b. Which should succeed each other in the rotation of crops ; c. Which may bo sown together in the mixture of crops. 142. To TRANSFORM A TAP-ROOT TO A FIBROUS. At a certain distance below the oolluni sever the tap-root without otherwise disturbing the plant. The consequence will be an increased growth of the lateral or fibrous roots nearer the surface of the ground. ,\ 87. Old oak trunk with horizontal branch bearing epiphytes and parasites, a, A fern (Polypodlum Incanum). b, Epidendruui con- op«eiimV cc, Long moss (Tillandsia). d, Mistletoe (Vlscum). #, Lichen. 143. Epiphytes (eTTf, upon, 0t;TOv, a plant), a class of plants, called also air-plants, have roots which are morcly mechanical, serving to fix such ! I I 30 TUB ROOT, OR DESCRIPTIVE AXIS. H plants firmly upon other plants or trees, while they derive their nour- ifihmont wholly from the air. The long-moss (Tillandsia) and Conop- seuiu are examples. 1 44. Parasites — three classes. Very different in nature are the loots of those plants called parasites, which feed upon the juices of other plants or trees. Such roots penetrate the bark of the nurse-plant to the cambium layer beneath, and appropriate the stolen juices to their own growth, as the dodder and mistletoe. Other parasites, although standing in the soil, are fixed upon foreign roots, and thence derive t-'ither their entire sustenance, as the beech-drops and other leafless, col- rless plants; or Apart of their sustenance, as the cow-wheat (Melam- pyrum), Gerardia. 145. ScBTERRANEAy STEMS. As tbefo are serial roots, so there are subterranean stems. These are frequently mistaken tor roots, but may be known by their habit- ually and regularly producing buds. Of this nature are the tubers of the Irish po- tato, the root-stock of tlie sweet flag, the bulb of the tuHp. But even the true root may sometimes develop buds — accidentally as it were, in consequence of some injury to the upper axis, or some other unnatural condition. () ■ » ♦ CHAPTER V. THE STEM, OR ASCENDING AXIS. MM ;! ■'■ ! ii 146. Definition. That part of the plant which originates with the plumule, tends upward in its growth and expands itself to the influence of the air and the light, is called the stem or ascending axis. 147, The general idea op the axis is the central substantial portion of the plant, bearing the appendages, viz., the root below and the leaf-organs above. Although not marked by gay coloring or fantastic forms, yet we regard the stem with a lively interest for its substantial value, its gracefulness and lofty propor- tions, its infinite gradation of form and texture from the tender speedwell crushed beneath the foot to the strong forest oak. Hi 8S. Procnmbent stem — Ghiugenes bispidtila. 148. Direction of its growth. Although the first direction of the stem's growth is vertical in all plants, there are many in which this direction does not continue, but changes into the oblique or horizontal, eitlier just above the surface of the ground, or just beneath it. If the THE STUM, OR ASCBNUINO AXIS. 31 stem continues to arise in the original direction, as it most commonly does, it is said to be erect. If it grow along the ground without rooting it is said to be procumbent, prostrate, trailing. If it recline upon tha ground after having at the base arisen somewhat above it, it is decuvu bent. If it arise obliquely from a prostrate base, it is said to be ascend^ ing, and if it continue buried beneath the soil, it is subterranean. in of this )ntal, If the 89. Decumbent hIciii — Anngallis arvcnsis. 149. Subterranean stems may be readily distinguished from the roots by the natural and habitual presence of buds in the former, regu- larly arranged, while no buds (unless rarely adventitious) exist in the latter. 150. Stems are either simple or branched. The simple stem is produced by the unfolding of the primary bud (the plumule) in the di- rection of its point alone. As this bud is developed below into the lengthening stem, it is continually reproduced at its summit, and so is always borne at the termination of the stem. Hence the axis is always terminated by a bud. 151. The Branched Stem, which is by far the most common, is pro- duced by the development of both terminal and axillary buds. The axis produces a bud in the axil of its every leaf, that is at a point just above the origin of the leaf-stalk. These buds remain inactive in the case of the simple stem, as the mullein, but more generally are devel- oped into leafy subdivisions of the axis, and the stem thus becomes branched. 162. A Branch is, therefore, a division of the axis produced by the development of an axillary bud. This bud, also, ever renewed, is borne at the termination of the branch, so that axillary buds each in turn be- come terminal. 153. The Arrangement of the Branches upon the stem depends therefore upon the arrangement of the leaves, which will be more par- ticularly noticed hereafter. This arrangement is beautifully regular, according to established laws. In this place we briefly notice three general modes : . The alternate, where but one branch arises from the node on differ- ent sides of the stem, as in the elm. i i 't'l »2 THE STEM, OR ASOBNDINO AXIS. If iiii !!|B The opposite, where two branches stand on opposite sides of the same jaode, as in the maple. Verticillate, where three or more branches, equidistant, encircle the stern at each node, as in the pine. 154. Tif-j ANGLB OP DIVERGENCE in branches is also subject to definite rules more ob^ ious in tlie earlier stages of growth. While the divergence is uuiforiu in tlio same species, it varies to every degree of the circle in difl'erent species, greatly affootiug the form of the tree. In general, without marking the exact degree, branches are said to be erect (Lombardy poplar), spreading or obliquely ascending (common), divaricate or at nearly a right angle (oak), dcflexed (beech), and pendu- ious (weeping willow). 155. Certain kinds op branches are noted for their tendency to proihice adventitious roots, and tluis to become independent plants. Nurserymen avail themselves of this property in propagation, and name such branches cions, stolons, offsets, slips, layers, cuttings, and runners. 156. The Sucker is a branch issuing from some underground por- tion of the plant, leaf-bearing above and sending out roots from its own base, becoming finally a separate, independent plant. The rose and raspberry are thus multiplied. I'i » b e . iti' 111. into the air. The witch-grass (Triticum repens) is an example. Such plants are a sore evil to the garden. They can have no better cultiva- tion than to be torn and cut to pieces by the spade of the angry gar- dener, since they are thus multiplied as many times as there are fragments. t b Fig. 61. Creeper of " Nimble Will," or witch-gTMS ; a, Bud; ?>&, Bases of culms. 182. Utility. Repent stems of this kind are not, however, without their use. They frequently abound in loose, sandy soil, which they serve to bind and secure against the inroads of the water and even the sea itself. Holland is said to owe its very existence to the repent stems of such plants as the mat-grass ( Arundo arenaria), Carex arenarius and Elymus arenarius, which overran the artificial dykes upon its shores, and by their innumerable roots and creepers apparently bind the loose sand into a firm barrier against the washing of the waves. So the turf, chiefly conrposed of repent grass-stems, forms the only security of our own sandy or clayey hills against the washing rains. 183. The rhizome or root-stock differs from the creeper only in being shorter and thicker, having its internodes but partially developed. It is a prostrate, fleshy, rooting stem, either wholly or partially subter- ranean, often scaly with the bases of undeveloped leaves, or marked with the scars of former leaves, and yearly producing new shoots ancF roots. Such is the fleshy, horizontal portion of the blood-root, sweet- flag, water-lily, bramble (the latter hardly different from the creepei"). 184. The growth of the rhizome is instructive, marking its peculiar character. Kach joint marks the growth of a year. In spring the terminal bud unfolds into M 62 a Fig. 63. Rhizoma of Solomon's-seal (Polyi^onatum multlflora) a, Fragment of the first year's irrowth ; 6, the second year's growth ; c, growth of the third year ; d, growth of the present (fMirth) year, bearlne the stem which, oo decaying, will leave a scar (seal) like the rest. 6S, Pr«' morse stem uf Trillium. THE STEM, OR ASCENDING AXIS. 39 iT. kto leaves and flowers to perish in autumn — a new bud to open the following spring — and a new internode with its roots to abide several years. The number of joints in- dicates, not the age of the plant, but the destined age of each internode. Thus if there are three joints, we infer that they are triennial, perishing after the third sea- son, wbile the plant still grows on. 185. The premorse root-stock, formerly described as a root, is a short, erect rhizome, ending abruptly below as if bitten square off (pruiinorsus). This is owing to the death of the earlier and lower in- ternodes in succession, as in the horizontal rhizome. Scabious, Viola podata, benjamin-root (Trillium) are examples. 186. Crown of the root designates a short stem with condensed internodes, remaining upon some perennial roots, at or beneath the sur- face gcli after the leaves and annual stems have perished. 187. The tuber is an annual thickened portion of a subterranean stem or branch, provided with latent buds called eyes, from which new plants ensue the succeeding year. It is the fact of its origin with the ascending axis, and the production of buds that places the tuber among stems instead of roots'. The potato and artichoke are examples. 66 63 54 krs bnt |r»> Tubi'is as tlioy grow. 54, The common potato (Skilanum). 65, Artichoke (Iklianthtis) 66, Sweet potato (Convolvulus). 188. How THE POTATO GROWS. The Stem of the potato plant sends out roots from its base, and branches above like other plants ; but we observe that its branches have two distinct modes of development. Those branches which arise into the air, whether issuing from the above-ground or the under-ground portion of the stem, expand regularly into leaves, &c , while those lower branches which continue to grope in the dark, damp ground, cease at length to elongate, swell up at tho ends into tubers with developed buds nnd abundance of nutritious matter in reserve for renewed growth the following your 40 THE STEM, OR ASCENDING AXIS. a : ■i.? II : 1.1 w ( : U' ! \M 189. The corm is an under-ground, solid, fleshy stem, with con- deijsed iuteruodes, never extending, but remaining of a rounded form covered -^ ith thin scales. It is distinguished from roots by its leaf-bud, which is either borne at the summit, as in the crocus, or at the side, as in the colchicum and putty-root (Aplectrum). 190. How THE cORM GROWS. The corm usually accomplishes its part in vegeta- ikin in ono or two seasons, and then gradually yields up its substance and life for the nourishment of the new progeny formed from the axils of its uppw scales in (Vise of the Crocus and Gladiolus, or the single new corm from the axil of a lateral scale, as in Colchicum. » 68 87 67, Corins of putty-root (Aplectrum) ; a, of last year, 6, of the present year. 58, Scale bulb ct white lily. 59, Scale bulb of Oxalis violacea. 191. The Bulb partakes largely of the nature of the bud. It con- sists of a short, dilated axis, bearing an oval mass of thick, fleshy scales closely packed above, a circle of adventitious roots around its base, and a flowering stem from the terminal, or a lateral bud. 1 92. How MULTIPLIED. Bulbs are renewed or multiplied annually at the ap- proach of winter by the development of bulbs from the axils of the scales, which increase at the expense of the old, and ulti- mately become detached. Bulbs which flow- er from the terminal bud are necessarily either annual or biennial : those flowering from an axillary bud may be perennial, as the termi- nal bud may in this case continue to develop now scales indefinitely. 193. BuLDS arc said to be tunicated when they consist of concentric layers, each entire and enclosing all within it, oo. BuibofLiHumsuperbum, with habit as in the onion. But the more com- "^ '^ rhizome; a, full-grown bulb sending up a terminal stem c, and two olftets 6fc, for mon variety is the scaly bulb — consist- the bulbs of next year. ing of fleshy, concave scales arranged spirally upon the axis, as in the liiv. THE LEAF-BCD. 61 » 41 64 61, Corm of Crocus, with new ones forminf! above: 62, Vertical section of the same ; 68, Sec Men of bulb of Hyacinth with terminal stape and axillary bulblet ; 64, Section of bulb of Oxalis Tiolacea, with axillary scapes. 194. The tuber, cobm and bulb are analogous forms approaching by degrees to the character of the bud, which consists of a Uttle axis bearing a covering of scales In the tuber the axis is excessively developed while the scales are reduced to mere linear points. In tlie corm the analogy is far more 65 evident, for the axis ia less excessive and the scales more manifest, and lastly in the bulb the analogy is complete, or //^ t overdone, the scales often becoming excessive. ♦« ♦ •• ws|| CHAPTER VI. THE LEAF-BUD. 195. It is but a step from the study of the bulb to that of the leaf-bud. Buds are of two kinds in respect to their contents; the leaf-bud containing the rudiments of a leafy stem or branch, the Jlower- hud containing the same elements transformed into the nascent organs of a flower for the purpose of reproduction. 196. The leaf-bud consists of a brief, cone- shaped axis with a tender growing point, bearing a protecting covering of imbricated scales and incip- ient leaves. 66. Branch of pear tree. The terminal bud «f, havinir been de- stroyed, an axillary bud supplied its place, and formed the axis h. c. Thickened branch with flower-buds, Vorniitinii. 77, nt'bircli li-iif; 7n of lilac, (inilulfiiu-); 7!>. cherry leuves, (coiiviilute) ; SO, duck bud, (rcvoliiti); 81, balm «if Gileud, (involute). 214. The gkneral vernation is loosely distinguished in descriptive botany as valvate (edges meeting), and imbricate (edges overlapping), terms to be noticed hereafter. The val- vate more often occurs in plants with opposite leaves Imbricated vernation is F^QUiTANT (riding astraddle), when conduplicate leaves alternately embrace^the outer oncj the next iimer, by 92. Vernation of Sy- its unfolded margins, as in the privet and iris. Obvolute, or half-equitant, when the outer leaf^ embraces only one of the margins of the inner, as in the sage. Triquetrous, where the bud is triangular in sec- tion, and the leaves equitant at each angle, as in the Carices. 215. The principle of budding. Each leaf-bud may be regarded as a distinct individual, capable of vegetating either in its native position, or when removed to another, as is extensively practiced in the important operation of budding. 216. BuLBLETS. In the tiger-lilv, Cicuta bulbifera, ooTi Qv ■ *i. '^ » 'I ' 83, 84, Showing tho process and Aspidium bulbiferum, the axillary buds spon- of" budding." taneously detach themselves, fall to the ground, and become new plants. These remarkable little bodies are called hulblets. ::'<' 1902 9 _..0- THE LEAF. AFTER VII THE L EAF. 217. Its importance. The leaf constitutes the verdure of plants, and is by far the most conspicuous and beautiful object in the scenery of nature. It is also of the highest impoitance in the vegetable econ- omy, being the organ of digestion and respiration. 218. The leaf is characterized by a thin and expanded form, presenting the largest possible surface to the action of the air and light, which agents are indispensable to the life and increase of the plant. 'J 19. The color op the leaf is almost universally green, which of all colors la the most agreeable to the eye ; but its intensity vaiies by infinite shades, and is often finely contrasted with the more delicate tints of the flower. Towards maturity its verdure is changed, often to the most brilliant hues, as red, crimson, oran-re, yel- low, giving our autumnal forest scenery a gaiety, variety, an 3 splendor o^ coloring which the wildest fancy could scarcely surpass. m in ^ PHYLLOTAXY, OR LEAF- ARRANGEMENT 220. As the position of the leaf upon the stem marks the position o» t»ic cixillar bud, it follows that ttie order of the leaf-arrangement will be the order ol the branches also. The careful investigation of this subject has developed a science of unexpected exactness and beauty, called phyllotaxy { bruDch of cherry,— cycle f- I 48 PHYLLOTAXV, OR LEAF ARRANGEMENT. case of the subsequent development of the branch, as often occurs in the Berb- oris and lurch, their spiral arrangement becomes manifest. In the pines the fas- cicles have fewer leaves, their number being definite and cliaracteristic of the species. Thus P. strobus, the white pine, has 5 leaves in each fascicle, P. palustris, the long- leaved pine, has 3, P. inops, 2. 2"26. The opposite leaved type is also spiral. The leaves in each circle, wlicther two or more, are equidistant, dividing the circumference of the stem into equal arcs. The members of the second circle are not placed directly above those of the first, but are turned, as it were, to the right or left, so as to stand over the intervening spaces. Hence there may be traced as many spirals as there are leaves in each whorl. 227. Decussate leaves result from this law, as in the motherwort and all the mint tribe, where each pair of opposite leaves crosses in di- rection the next pair, forming four vertical rows of leaves. Therefore, it is 228. Ax established law that the course of development in the growing plant is universally spiral. But this, the formative cycle as it is called, hf,s several variatious. 95 !>4 93 -^i 92, 93. 04, sliowinp tlio cnurne of the spiral threafl and the order of the leaf-succession in tiie ixos of elm, nldur, and cherry. U.*), axis of Osugu-oruuge with a suction of the bark peeled, dis- playing the order of the leaf-scars (cycle |). 229. The elm cycle. In tae strictly alternate arrangement (elm, linden, grasses) the spiral thread makes one complete circuit and commences a new one at the third loaf The third leaf stands over tlie first, the fourth over ilie second, and so on, forming two vertical rows of leaves. Here (calling each complete circuit a cycle) we observe 230. First, Tliat this cycle is composed of two loaves ; seeond, that the angu- lar distance between its leaves is h a <'yclp (180°); third, if we express tills cycle mathematically by j. the numerator ( 1 ) will donote the turns or revolutions, the de- nominator (2) its leaves, and the ft-action itself the angular distance betwcv the leaves (J of 3(300). PHYLLOTAXV, OR LUAF ARRANGEMENT. 49 lie 231. The alder cycle. In the alder, birch, sedges, &c., the cycle is not com- plete until the fovrth leaf is reached. The fourth leaf stands over the tirst, the tifth over the second, &c., forming tliree vertical rows. Here call the cycle 4- ; 1 denotes the turns, 3 the leaves, and this fraction itself the angular distance (J- of 3(50*'). 232. The cherry cycle. In the cherry, app) , peach, oak, willow, etc., neither the third nor tlie fourth leafj but the sixth, stands over the first ; and in order to reach it the thread makes two turns around the stem. The sixth leaf is over the lirst, the seventh over the second, &c., forming five vertical rows. Cnll this the f cycle; 2 denotes the turns, 5 the leaves in the cycle, and the fraction itself the n- gular distance (f of 360°). * 233. The Osaqe-orange cycle. In the common hedge plant, Osape-orange, the holly, evening primrose, flax, etc., we find no leaf exactly over the first until we come to the 9th, aud in reaching it the spiral makes three turns. Here the leaves form eight vertical rows. It is a f cycle ; 3 the number of turns, 8 the number of leaves, and the fraction the angular distance between the leaves (f of 360°). 234. The cycles compared. These several fractions which represent the above cyclf'H fi>— Ti a series as follows : ^, ^, ^, f, in which each term is the sum of the two preceUiu-:. The fiflli terms in order will, therefore, be J>^; aud this arrangement is actually realized iu 9fi. Phyllotnxy of the i-ono (cycle ;j*, ) <>f Pinns serotiiia. it", cherry nycle (j), as Been from nbuve, forming iit'cessurily thut kind uf utbtivutiou called quinoiintiul. 235. The white pine cycle. In the young shoots of the white pine, in cone.-* of inoHt pines, in flea-buue (Erig^^rou Oanadensc), in. loaves. Examples are found in the kScoteh pine, honseleek. Jkr. 237. How Ti nETRRMrvt; tttr nmnER cycles. To tnioe the course of the for- mative spird m these higlntr cyelos becomes difficult on accfint of the close prox- imity of tiie leavew. In the pine cone (Pig. 96, Pinus serotina) several sets of see- ondi*.-^' ftpinils are seen ; one stt of live parallel spirals turniiii!; right (1 — 6 — 1 1 — 16, !■ 60 THE RUOT, OR DESCENDING AXIS. etc., the common difference being also five) ; two sets (one of three, the other of eight) turning left ; and still another set, of thirteen, sttepest of all, turning right (1 — 14 — 27, etc.). Now the sum of the spirals contained in the two steepest sets gives the denominator of the fraction expressing the true formative spiral sought. Thus, 8-|-13=-21. The numerator corresponding is already known, and the fraction is . See also the white pine cone, whose cycle is _»^. 238. Diagram 97 represents the leaves of a cherry cycle as seen from above, and reritled in the sastivatiou of tiie flowers in the rose-family. J) 2T *t % MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF. 239. General character. The leaf may be regarded as an expan- sion of the substance of the bark, extended into a broad thin plate by means of a woody frame work or skeleton, issuing from the inner part of the stem. The expanded portion is called the lamina or blade of the leaf, and it is either sessile, that is, attached to the stem by its base, or it is petiolate, attached to the stem by a footstalk called the petiole. 240. Stipules. But the regular petiole very often bears at its base a pair of loaf-like appendages, more or less ap- parent, c?.lled stipules. Leaves so appendaged are said to be stipulate, otherwise they are ex- stipulate. 241. Therefore a complete leaf consists of three distinct parts ; the lamina or blade, the petioie, and the stipules. 242.. Transformations. Both the petiole, blade iind stipules are subject to numerous mod- iiicatitms of form. Either of them may exist without the others, or they may all be transformed into other orpans, as pitchers, spines, tendrils, and even into the organs of the flower, as will /; , hereafter appear. OF THE PETIOLE. 243. The form of the distinct petiole ia rarely cylindrical, but more generally flattened or channeled on the upper side. When it is fiattened in a vertical direction, it is said to be compreHsed, as in i\w aspen or poplar. In this case the blade is very unstable, and agitated by {w. L«ttf of willow (Saiix tj^g \^^^l breath of wind. Inciting ; n, the stipules. The • n ix i ini.lvein is a-lined : veinlets 244. ThE WINGED PETIOLE IS tlattcnctl Or CX- 2-iin.-.i; veinuU'tsNinKk'-iined. pj^tifj,,^ i,ito a margin, but laterally instead of »9. clover lenvps ; », stipules, , ,, • .i x o a* aI p, petiole, /, leaflets. Vertically, as in the asters. bometnnes tliQ OF THE STIPULES. 51 margins outrun the petioles, and extend down the stem, making that winged or alate also. Such leaves are said to be decurrent {decurroj run down). Ex. Mullein. 245. The amplexicaul or stem-clasping petiole is dilated at the base into a margin which surrounds or clasps the stem, as in the umbilifers. Frequently we find the stem-clasping margins largely developed, constituting a sheath — with free edges in the grasses, or closed into a tube in the sedges. 246. The petiole is simple in the simple leaf, but compound or branched in the compound leaf, with as many branches (petiolules) as there are divisions of the lamina. OF THE STIPULES. 247. Stipules are certain leaf-like expansions, always in pairs, situated one on each side of the petiole near the base. They do not occur in every plant, but are pretty uniformly present in each species of the same natural order. In substance and color they usually resemble the leaf, sometimes they are colored like the stem, often they are membranous and colorless. In the palmetto its substance is a coarse net-work re- sembling canvass. 100 101 100, Rose liiii; odd-pinnate, witli mlnato stiimles. 1«1, Violet, (V. tricolor), with simple leaf ( Oi (^nil tree compound stipules. 248. Stipules are often adnate or adherent to the petiole, as in the rose ; more generally they are free, as in the pea and pansy. In thesi' cases and others they act thie part of leaves ; again they are very small and inconspicuous. 249. An ochrba is a membranous sheath inclosing the stem from the node upwards, as in the knot-grass family (Polygonacese). It is formed of the two stipules cohering by their two margins. In case the two stipules cohere by their outer margin only, a double stipule is formed opposite to the leaf, as in the button-wood. If they cohere by their inner margin, the double stipule appears in the leaf axil, as in the pond-wocd (Potamogeton). i 1 !; i 52 OF THE VEINS. 250. Inter-pbtiolab stipules occur in a few opposite leaved tribes, a^ tiie Ga- lium tribe. Here we find them as mere bristles in Diodia while in Galium tliey look like the leaves, forming whorls. Such whorls, if complete, will be appar- ently 6-leaved, consisting of two true leaves and four stipules. But the adjacent stipules are often united, and the whorl becomes 4-leaved. 102 103 104 105 102, Leaf of Conloselinuin, tripinnate, with sheathing petiole. 103, Leaf of Polysoniiin Penn- sylvanicum, with its (o) ochiea. 104, Culm of grass, with joint (,;), leaf (') ligiile (.v). 105, Leaf of pear-tree, with slender stipules. 251. The Ligul.: of grasses is generally regarded as a double axil- lary stipule. The leaflets of compound leaves are sometimes furnished with little stipules, called stipels, 252. Stipules are often fugacious, existing as scales in the bud, and falling when the leaves expand, or soon after, as in the Magnolia and tulip-troe. OF THE VEINS. 253. Leaves, simple and compound. A leaf is simple when its blade consists of a single piece, however cut, cleft or divided ; and com- pound when it consists of several distinct blades, supported by as many branches of a compound petiole. 254. Nature of veins. The blade of the leaf consists of, (1) the frame-work, and (2) the tissue commonly called tha pare nc hi/ ma. The frame-work is made up of the branching vessels of the foot-stalk, which are woody tubes pervading the parenchyma, and conveying nourishment to every part. Collectively, these vessels are called veins, from the analogy of their functions. 255. Venation is a term denoting the manner in which tlie veins arc divitled and distributed. The several organs of venation, differing from each other only in size and position, may be termed the midvein, veins, veinlets and veintilets. (The old terms, niiih'lh and nerves, being anatomi(!ally absurd, are here discarded). 256. The midvein is the principal axis of the venation, or prolong- ation of the petiole, running directly through the lamina, from base to OF THE VEINS. 53 1^ |o apex, as seen in the leaf of the oak or birch. If there be several simi- lar divisions of the petiole, radiating from the base of the leaf, they are appropriately termed veins ; and the leaf is said to be three-veined, five-veined, etc. Ex. maple. 257. The primary branches sent off from the midvein, or the veins we may term the veinlets, and the secondary branches, or those sent off from the veinlets, are the veinulets. These also branch and subdi- vide until they become too small for vision. I(i6 109 Varieties of venation. 106, foather-veiiicd,— leaf of Betula populifolia (wliite bircli). ly ins upon a leaf of plum-tree; same venation witli different outlines. 107, I'almate-vcined.— liiif of wliito maple, contrasted with leafofCercis Canadensis. . 108, 1'arnilel venation.--plant of "tliroo-leaved Solomon's-seai," (Asterantliemum trifoliatura Kunth) 109, Forked venation,— cliiiibius; fern (Lygodium). 258. Modes of venation. Botanists distiiiifuish three priticipa. modes of venation, which are in crencral chai-actcristic of tlie three grand divisions of the vegetable kingdom already noticed. Reticul.Xte, or net-veined, as in the Exogens : thi.s kind of veiuv- tion is characterized by the frequent reunion or inosculation of its nu- merously branching veins, so as to form a kiid of irregular net work. Parallel-veined, as in the Endogens. The veins, whether straight or curved, run parallel, or side by side, to the apex of the leiif, or to the margin, and are always connected by simple transverse veinlets. Fork-veinbd, as in the ferns (and other Ci-yptoganiia, where veins are present at all). Here the veins divide and subdivide in a furcate manner, and do not re-unite. I 11 li- 54 FORM OR FIGURE. 259. Of the reticulate venation, the student should carefully note three leading forms, the feather-veined, the palmate-veined, and the tripli -veined. The feather veined (pinni-veined) leaf is that in which the venation consists of a midvein giving off at intervals lateral veinlets and branch- ing veinulets. Ex. beech, chestnut. 260. In the radiate-veined (palmi-veined) leaf the venation con- sists of several veins of nearly equal size, ladiat'ng from the base towards the circumference, each with it* own system of veinlets. Ex. maple, crow-foot. 201. The tripli-veinrd seems to be a form intermediate between the two others when the lowest pair of veinlets are conspicuously stronger than the others above them towards the apex, extending with the midvein towards the sammit. 262. In parallel-veined venation the veins are either straight, as in the linear leaf of the grasses, curved, as in the oval leaf of the orchis, or transverse as in t'.io Canna, Calla, &c. FORM OR FIGURE. 114 "0 118 Forms of leaves. 110, Rhododendron maximum. Ill, Alnus glutlnosa (cult). 112, Poly- gonum saglttatuni. 113, Pawpaw. 114, Impatiens fUlva. 1 15, Celtis Americana. 116, Clrcaea Lutetiana. 117, Catmint. 118, SolidagoCanadensis-atripll-velned leaf. 2G3. That infinite variety of beautiful and graceful forms for which the leai is disfinpuished becomes intelligible to the student only when viewed in connection with its venation. Since it is through the veins alone that nutriment is conveyed for the development and extension of the parenchyma, it follows that there will be the greatest extension of outline when the veins are largest and most numerous. Consequently the form of the leaf will depend upon the direction of the veins and tlie vigor of their action in developing the intervening tissue. In our dascription ! -f:. ; FORM OR FIGURE. •ft of individual forms of outline we shall select only the most remarkable, leaving others for explanation in the glossary. 2G4. The most obvious arrangement is that which is founded upon the modes of veining ; but it should be premised that different forms of venation often give rise to the same outline. Were we required to characterize our idea of the abstract, typical leaf-form, we should sketch an oval outline of surface, with equal sides and unequal ends. The nearest approach to this we find among the 119 120 121 122 128 124 125 126 Diagrams of pinnate-veined leaf-forms. 119, orbicular, 120, oval. 121, elliptical, 122, oblong, 128, cuneiform. 124, spathulate, 125, oblanceolate, 126, obovate, 127, deltoid, 128, lanceolate, 129, ovate. 205. Feather-veined leaves. Of these, the following forms depend upon the length of the veinlets in relation to each other and to the midvein. When the lower veinlets are longer than the others, the form of the blade will be (1) ovate, with the out- line of an egg, the broad end at the base ; (2) lanceolate, or lance- shaped, narrower than ovate, tapering gradually upwards; (S) deltoid or triangular shaped, like the Greek letter A. a. If the middle veinlets exceed the others in length, the leaf will be (4) orbicular, roundish or quite circular; (5) elliptical, with the outline of an ellipse, nearly twice longer than broad; (6) oval, broadly elliptical ; (7) oblong, narrowly elliptical. 266. When the veinlets are more largely developed in the upper region of the leaf its form becomes (8) obovate, inversely ovate, the narrow end at base ; (9) oblavxeolate, that is, lanceolate with the narrow end at base; (10) spatulate, like a spatula, with a narrow base and a broader, rounded apex; (11) cuneate or cuneiform, shaped like a wedge with the Doint backwards. 267. Again, if tub lowest pair of veinlets are lengthened and MORE OR LESS RECURVED, the Icaf wiU be variously modified in respect to its base, becoming (12) cordate, or heart-shaped, an ovate outline with a sinus or reentering angle at base; (If.) auriculate, with ear- shaped lobes at base; (14) sagittate, arrow-shaped, with the lobes pointed, and directed backwards; (15) Aas^a^e, halbert-shaped, the lobes directed outwards. ''^, lit rl'ti 56 FORM OR FIOUKE. 268. PiNNATiFiD FORMS. The following pinnate- veined forms, ap- proaching the compound leaf, depend less upon the proportion of the M 196 185 180 181 182 133 Forms of leaves. 130, Sllene Vlrginica. 131, Magnolia Fraseri. 1S6. Arabis dentata. 137, Polygonum arifolluin. 182, Hepatica acutlloba. 133, Asaruiu Virginicuin. VU. Hydro- cotyle Americana. 135, II. umbeData. vcinlets than upon the relative dcvcloj iuent of the intervening tissue. The prefix pinnated is obviously used in contrast with palttutted anioiifr palmate-veined forms. 142 189 188 140 141 Feather-veined leaves, approaching the compound. 138, Querciis iinbrioaria— undulate 139, Q. alba (white oak)— iobatc-sinuate. 140, Q. 11 a'-rocarpa— lyrate. 141. AUilsridium (milk- weed). 143, Blplnnatifld leaf of Ambrosia artetnisifolia (hog-weed). 269. PiNNATiFiD (pinna, feather, fndo, to cloavc) feather-cleft, the tissue somewhat sharply cleft between the voinlcts about half way to the midvein, forming oblong segments. When the segments of a pinnatifid leaf are pointed and curved backward it beconu's runrinale, i. I'., re-uncinate. When the terminal segvient of a pinnatifid leaf is FOKM OR FIGl HK. m orbicular in figure- and larger than any other, presenting the form of the ancient lyre, the form is termed It/rate. Featbcr-vetiied leaves almost compound. 14S, Nlfcelk (pinnaHsf^ct). 144, Clelidonium ma- jus. 145, Thistle (Cirsium lanceolatuni). 146, Dandelion (runcinate-lyrate). 270. PiNNATELY PARTE ) iiupHes that the incisions are deeper than piutmtifid, nearly reaching the midvein. In either case the leaf is said to be sinuate when the incisions (sinuses) as well as the segments are rounded and flowing in outline. Such segments are lobes, and the leaves lobate or lobed, a very generic term. ^' . The palmate venation presents us with a set of forms which - "f, a general, broader in proportion than the pinnate, having the breadth about equaling the length. Such a leaf may be rarely broadly ovate or broadly cordate^ terms which require no further explanation. Or it may be Reniform, kidney-shaped, having a flowing outline broader than long, concave at base ; or Peltate, shield-form, the petiole not inserted at the margin but ■ the midst of the lower surface of the blade. This singular form evi jtly results from the blending of the base lobes of a deeply cordate leaf, as seen in hydrocotyle. It may be orbicular, oval, etc. 27'2. Palmate forms. The following result from deficiency of tis- sue, causing deep divisions between the veins. Leaves thus dissected arc said to be pabnately-lobed when either the segments or the sinuses are somewhat rounded and continuous. The nuinber of lobes is de- noted by such terms as bilobate, triloba le, five-lobed, etc. ' ; i 68 4 FORM OR FIUURK. h ■.<■■ iff ' m Palnmte-vflined leaves. 147, Menlspermum Cnnadense. 148, Passiflora cerulea. 149, Broua. Bonetia papyrifera. 150, Oak geranium. Leaves are jmlmateli/ cleft and palmately parted, according to the depth of the incisions as above described. But the most peculiar modi- fication is 273. The pedate, like a bird's foot, having the lowest pair of veinlets enlarged, recurved, and bearing each several of the segments (148). 274. The forms of the parallel- veined LEAVES are remarkable for their even, flowing outlines, diversified solely by the direction and curvature of the veins. When the veins are straight the most com- mon form is 276. The linear, long and narrow, with parallel margins, like the leaves of the grasses — a form which may also occur in the pinnate-veined leaf, when the veinlets are all equally shortened. The ensiform, or sword-shaped, is also linear, but has its edges vertical, that is, directed upward and downward. 276. If the veins curve, we may have the lanceolate^ elliptical^ or even orbicular forms ; and if the lower curve downward* the cordate, sagittate, etc., all of whicl- are shown in the cuts. The palmate or radiate form is finely illustrated in the palmetto and other paloM, whose large, fan-shaped leaves are appropriately termed flabel- liform (fan-shaped). 277. The leaves of the pine and thb fir tribe (Coniferae) gen- erally are parallel-veined also, and remarkable for their contracted 151, Ensiform leaves of iris. 152. Aceroseleavesof Pinns. 163, Subnldte leaves of Juniperus com- munis. FORM OR FIGURE. 50 forms, in which there is no distinction of petiole or blade. Such arc the acerose (needle-shaped) leaves of the pine, the subulate (awl-shapcd) and scale-form leaves of the cedars, etc. MARGIN. The following terms apply to the various modifications of the margin, as such, not affecting the general outline of the leaf. a b c d t f g h k I 164. Diagram of leaf-margins, a, entire ; 6, undulate; c, repiiud ; untln .-^. 174. SavmciMiia psitliicina, 175, S. purpurea. Ufi, S. Oronovii, />. Diuininoixlii. 177, Acacia lictcnipliylla, its pliyllodla, i'.OS. AsciDiA or pitcluTS, are surprisinfj; I()riii8 of loaves, expressly contrived, n3 il' liy art. for lioldinjj water. The pitchers of Sarraceiiia, wlioso several species nro eoiDiiKin ill hotijs Nortii and Sniitii, iiro evidently formed by the blending of the in- \niuto iiiari^iiis of the broadly winged pt!tioles, so as to form a complete vase. The broad (■xpaiision wliioh appears at the top may be regarded ns the 'u: )in>» These piti'liers eoiitaiii water, in wliieh insects are drowned, being p'.ovortod froiu eecajn ing liy tiie doliexed hairs at the mouth. r,. TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE UKAF. t)5 ^:x^-'^^l,t 309. Nepentuks. The yreenhoUHe pitclier-pliiut 1*4 i» Imtivt' of r even totally suppressed, as in the Cruciferse. 936. In color they are usually green, often colored, sometimes bril- liantly, as in painted-cup. Sometimes they are scale-like, and again tliev arc evanescent membranes. 336. The spathe is a larije bract formed in some of the monoeotvle- dons, enveloping the inflorescence, and often colored as in the Arum, C'alla, or membranous as in the onion and daflfodil. Bracts also con- stitute an m 191 190 1S9 Bracts (Ji, h, h,). 1S9, Cornus Canadensis, with an involucre of 4 coloreil bracts. 190, Ui'patica triloba, with an involucre of 3 green bracts. 191, Culla palustrls, ullli a colored spatlic of one bract. 337. Involucre when tliey are collected into a whorl or spiral group. In the Phlox, Dodecatheon, and generally, the involucre is green, but sometimes colored and petaloi with its cliaff-sc.ile (bract). 194, Acorn of uioss-cup oak (Q. macrophylla). 195, Poa jiraten.-is ; /; spikelet entire, g, gluuies, separated ; c, a flower separated, displaying the twu pak'se, o stamens, and 'i styles. 330. In the grasses the bracts subsist under the general name of chaff. The bracts situated at the base of a spikelet of flowers, are called tlio glumes, corresponding to the involucre. Those situated at the base of each separate flower are palece^ answering to the calyx or corolla. The pieces of which each calj/x is composed (generally two) are called valves or pales. 340. Other examples of the involucre are seen in the cup of the acorn, the burr of the chestnut, beech, etc. 341. The forms of inflorescence are exceedingly various, but may all be referred to two classes, as already indicated ; the axillary^ in which all the flowers arise from axillary buds, the terminal, in which all the flower-buds are terminal. 342. Axillary inflorescence is called indefinite, because the axis, being terminated by a leaf-bud, continues to grow on indefinitely, de- veloping bracts with their axillary flowers as it grows. It is also called centripetal, because in the order of time the blossoming commences with the circumference, and proceeds towards the centre in case of a level topped cluster, as the hawthorn, or with the base, and proceeds towards the summit in case of the lengthened cluster, as the mustard. The student will readily perceive that the circumference of a depressed (flattened) inflorescence corresponds to the base of a lengthened one ; and also that the centre of the former answers to the summit of the latter. For when the axis or rachis is lengthened, it is the centre which bears it along with it at its apex, leaving the circumference at the base. 343. Terminal inflorescence, on the other hand, is definite, im- plying that the growth of the axis as well as of each branch is definitely arrested and cut short by a flower. It is also centrifugal, because the INFLORESCENCE. 71 blossoming commences with the central flower and proceeds in order to the circumference, as in the sweet-william, elder, hydrangea. In this kind of inflorescence all the flowers arc considered tonnirial because they do in fact (except the first which terminates the axis) terminate latf.ral branches 8U cessively produced on a definite plan at the node ne^t below the primary flower. 344. Both kinus of inflokescexce are occasionally combined in the samo plant, wliere the general system may be distinguished from the partial clu-iers which compose it. Thus in the Compositse, wliilo the florets of each head u[)en ceutripetiiUy, the general inflorescence is centrifugal, that is, the terminal head i^ developed before the lateral ones. But in the Labiata) the partial clusters (verticil- asters) op'>n centrifugally while the general inflorescence is indefinite, proceeding from the base upwards. 345. Of centripetal or axili .ry inflorescence the principal VARIETIES ARE the spikc, spadix, catkin, rareme, corymb, umbel, pani- cle, thyrse, head. 346. The spike is a long rachis with sessile flowers either scattered, clustered, or crowded upon it, as plai tain, muUeiii, vervain. The so- called spikes of the grasses, as wheat, timothy, are in fact compound spikes, bearing little spikes or spikelets in place of single flowers. 347. The spadix is a thick, fleshy rachis with flowers closely sessile cr imbedded on it, and usually with a spathe, as in the Arum, or with- out it, as in the Typha. 200, Spiranthes cernua; flowers in a twisted spike. 201, Orontium aquaticum ; flow«,raoB * naked spadix. 202, Betula lenta; flowers in aments. 348. The catkin or amentum is a slender, pendant rachis witVi scaly bracts subtending the naked, sessile flowers, and usually caducous, as in birch, beech, oak, willow. 349. The raceme is a rachis bearing its flowers on distinct, simple pedicels. It may be erect, as in hyacinth, Pyrola, or pendulous, as in currant, blackberry. ■''m 1^! IMAGE: EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // (./ /. 1.0 I.I KM lU Its 111 14.0 25 II U ■ 2.0 1.6 JS 3^ ?^ m w 1^ '/ Photographic Sciences (Corporation 33 WIST MAIN STRUT WIBSTIR.N.Y. USIO ( 71* ) •73-4903 \ 72 INFLHRKSCK.VCK. 350. The corymb differs from the raceme iri luivinjx tl»e lower jicdi' eels lengthened so as to elevate all the flowers to about tiie same level, as in the wild thorn. ft ?i Hi m 4. ■, h ii ll! i ^-^ ■- 20T !i05 204 2oe 203 203, Andromeda racemosa; flowers in asecund raceme. 204. Verbascum Bhttaria; raoeme. 2(15 Lollum perenne ; a compound spike or a spike of spikelets. 206, Dipsacus syjvestris • licad with an Involucre of leaver 207, Osinorliiza longistylis ; a compound umbel. 208, Its fruit. 351. An umbel consists of several pedicels of about equal length radiating from the same point, the top of the common poduncUras milk weed, ginseng, onion. When the pedicels of an umbel become 20*, Btapbylea trifolia; a pendulous, paniculate cyme. 210, Catslpa; apanicli l'^' INFLORESCENCE. 7.'} '■I themselves umbels, as in caraway and most of the Umbeliferae, a mm- ■pottnd umbel is produced. Such secondary umbels are called umbtllets and the primary pedicels, rays. 352. The panicle is a compound inflorescence formed by the irregu- lar branching of the pedicels of the raceme, as in oats, spear-grass, (-'atalpa. 353. A TiiYRs*: is a sort of compacit, oblong, or pyramidal panicle, as in lilac, grape. 354. A ii.iAD OR CAPiTiLUM is a sort of reduced umbel, having the flowers all sessile upon the top of the peduncle, as in the button snake- root, button-bush, clover. B'lt the more common examples of the oapiiuluiu are seen in the Compos- itif, wlure the summit of the peduncle, tliat is, the receptacle, is dilated, bear- ing the sessile flowers above, and scale- lil\e bracts around, as an involucre. 355. The capitulum of the CoMi'OsiT.ii is often called a com- ponnd flotecr from its resem- blance, the involucre answering to a calyx, the rayn to the corolla. The flowers are called Jforets, those of- the outer circle, Jlorets of the rni/, generally difterinjv in form from those of the cen- tral portions, the Jlorets of the disk. 356. Of terminal inflores- cence THE FOLLOWING VARIETIES are described : cyme, fascicle (verticilaster), glomerulo. 2is Venonia fiisciculata; flowers In a dlacoiil head with nn irnbricatud invuhicre. 211, A s'ngle tt -ver romoining on the receptacle. 212. A fru' . .ned with the pappus. 213, Muli:e- dir , a bead. 214, A single tlower rninainiii!^ un the receptacle. 21S, A fruit with pN'Pii»- Diaprains; 21(1 of a cyme ; flowers numbered In the order of their development. 217, Cyme Am- Ugiate. 218, Cyme half developed -b soorpoid racame. 857. Cyme is a general term denoting any inflorescence with centri- iL.; ■ttik Stit ^y It I 74 INfLOBSSCENCE. fugal evolutions, but is properly applied to that level-topped or fastigiate form which resembles the corymb, as in the elder. If it is loosely spreading, not fastigiate, it is cal'ed a cyniose panicle^ as in the chick- weed, spergula, etc. If it be rounded, as in the snowball, it is a fflohous cyme. MO 219 220, Myosotis palustris; scorpoid racemes. 219, Stellaria media ; a regular cyme. 358. A SCORPOID CYME, as seen in the sundew, Seduni, and borrage family, is a kind of coiled raceme, unrolling as it blossoms. It is un- derstood to be a half-developed cyme, as illustrated in the cut. 359, The peculiar evolution of the CYME is well illustrated in the chick-weed (Alsine media). The first opening flower terminates the axis and stops its growth. Then from the pair of axils next below issue two opposite branches, each bearing a pair of leaves and a terminal flower. Nexr,, the same process is repeated with each of these two branches, and so on indefinitely. Thus the stem becomes repeatedly forked, each fork having an older flower in its angle. 3G0. Evolution of the scoRPOin ra- CEME. But let only one branch be developed at tlte node next below the flower, and tliat always on the same side, and wo have a scorpoid raceme or cyme. Other irregulari- ties occasioned by partial development may also variously disguise the cyme, 361. Fascicle. This is a modifi- cation of the cyme, with crowded and nearly sessile flowers, as in sweet-william (Dianthus). 362. Glomerulb, an axillary tufted cluster, with a centrifugal evolu' tion, frequent in the Labiatse. etc. When they occur i i the axils of 331, Bptgelia Martlandloa ; a scorpoid raceme. i FLOWERING. 75 opposite leaves and meet around the btem, each pair constitutes a ver- ticilaster or verticil, as in catmint, hoarhound. 363, How THESE MODES ARE MUTUALLY RELATED. All the forma of inflorescence above described may, after all, be shown to be but modifications of a single ty'»o, as follows : Let us commence with the spike, a slender rachis with sessile flowers. Conceive that pedicels be developed for the flowers, = a raceme ; let tlio pedicels branch, — 228 227 226 225 224 223 222 221 Diagrams illustrating the forms of inflorescence ; graduated from tlie spike tu the uuiiipound umbel, showing how related to each other. a panicle ; or let them all bo lengthened to the height of the rachis, =- a corymb. Now suppress tlie rachis to a p jint, making all the pedicels equal, =— au umbel. Once more, suppress all the pedicels, = a head. Now, if in each case we suppose the evolutions of the flowers to be reversed, we have a cymose inflorescence. Fi- nally, l.y a metamorphosis still more remarkable, The entire inflorescence is sometimes transformed into attenuated tendrils, as in the grape. FLOWERING. 364. Definition. In the bud the floral leaves (sepals and petals) infold the floral organs (stamens and pistils) and conceal them from view. Flowering consists of the opening or expansion of those envel- ops, displaying every organ now perfected in growth and beauty, and ready for the exercise of its function. 305. Period of flowering. Each species of plant has its own special season for flowering, uniform in the same climate, but varying in diflferent climates according to the general temperature. Hence each month and each day of the month mark the date of flowering for some one or more species, and these facts, when duly observed and recorded in their proper order, constitute the floral calender for that locality. 366. The floral calendar is an index of climate, and may vary to a considerable degree in diflferent years for the same locality or for different localities in the same year. Such a calendar is prepared by the botanical student when he carefully journalizes his discoveries from day to day throughout the season, ...( I! H m I !' w m h r iiL 76 FLOWERING. II II 3 11 II 11 II 4 II II 11 II 5 u 11 II 6 II II 11 7 II 11 II 8 II 11 11 9 (1 u 11 u 10 11 II u 11 11 12 M. 11 11 2 P. M. It 1. 4 II II ii 5 11 1 ; 11 6 i< 11 11 7 11 II 11 8 II II 11 12 (i Ii .167. Kx.vMPLES. At Savannah the red maple, shad-bush, blood-root, flower in Ffcljruary ; in tho District of Columbia in March; at Concord, N. H., in April. In New Knglaud tiie witch-liazel flowers in February; Hepatica in April; dogwood in May; cidfr in June; lilies in July; boneset in August; asters and Solidagos in ^kptenilier and October; and chrysanthemum in November. .■!68. The floral clock. Eadi plant has also its definite hours in the day for openinj; its flowers and for closing them — for waking and sleeping; and a careful record of these facts (aa once made by Liniueus) may seem to indicate the hour of tlio day. Thus, Tho mortiino: glory opens at (about) 2 A. M., and closes about 10 A. M. Kutland beauty Vegetable oyster Poppy Bitter-sweet "Water-lily Scarlet pimpernel Caleiihila arvensis Areiiiiria rubra Oriiithogalum umbellatuui Pass! flora coeruloa Pyrethrum Marvel of Peru Silene noctiflora Evening primrose Lyclinis vespertina Corcus grandiflora 3(39. The coloks of flowers constitute one of their chief attrac- tions, and are of special interest to the florist. By various modes of culture lie may often change at will those colors, thus producing nu- merous varieties, as in the tulip and dahlia. But in scientific descrip- tions the colors are seldom employed as characteristics on account of their variableness. .370. Classification of colors. De Candolle divides the colors of flowers into two scries ; 1, those having yellow for their type and (•aj)able of varying to red and white, but tiever to blue ; 2, those having blue for tluMr type, and capable of varying to red and white, but not to yellow. The first scries is called Xnnthlc, the second, the Cyanic. Both scrit's commence with green (which is composed of blue and yel- low) and end in red, thus : Green. Bluc-grcen. Blue. Blue-violet. Violet. Violet-red. IwED. Yellow-green. Yellow. Yellow-orange. Orange. Orange-red. HORPHOLOOT OF THB FLOWER. 11 371. ExAMPLBS. The tulip wa3 origmally yellow. All its numerous varieties are of the xanthic series. So alao the rose and Dahlia. Florists have never yet ob- tained a blue tulip, rose, or dahlia. The geranium varies throughout the cyanic series, and a yellow geranium is unknown. Ditlbrent species of the same genua may belong to different series, so also different parts of the same flower. ■ » ♦ » ■ CHAPTER X MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLOWER. 372. The flower as the standard op beauty. So it has ever been regarded. Through this attribute, so evidently divine in its origin, it breathes on the heart an influence wliicii is essentially spiritual, always pleasing, elevating, and pure. The benevolent Thought which first conceived of this crowning glory of the vegetable world had evidently in view the education of man's moral nature as well as the reproduction and permanence of vegetable nature. 373. The flower in the light op science. The pleasure of the florist in contemplating the flower as merely an object of taste is not diminished when ho comes to view it in the light of science. Parts which he before regarded as embel- lishments only, now assume new value as indispensable agents in fulfilling a great design ; every organ takes form according to the sphere of its office, and the beau- ftil flower no longer appears as the possible accident of a chance- world. 374. Its nature and origin. Wo have before observed that the flower-bud is, in nature and origin, one and the same with the leaf-bud. Now a letjf-l»ud is regularly unfolded into a leafy branch. A flower- bud is unfolded into a flower. Hence the flower, in its nature and origin, is one and the same with a leafy branch. 375. Theoretical view. When, therefore, this now necessity arises in the life of a plant, viz., the perpetuation of its species, no now principle or organ is evoked, but the leaf, that same protean form which wo have already detected in shapes so numerous and diverse, the leaf, is yet once more in nature's hand molded into a series of forms of superior elegance, touched with colors more brilliant, and adapted to a higher apiiero as the or-gans of reproduction. 376. The evidbncb on which this theory rests may be referred to two sources; namely, natural and artificial development. Wo mention a few instances of each kind, earnestly recommending the student to study for himself the many facts which will fall under hia own observation bearing upon this deeply intorostiug tlioory. 377. Case op the poppy. The ordinary complete flower, «. g., the poppy, con- sists of four kinds or sets of organs, viz., the s^als (outside), petals next, stamens and pistils, and each kind is quite different and distinct from the others. The meta- morphosis of the leaf, first into the sepal then the petal, etc., is so abrupt that it oeoms to lose its identity at once. But there are some 378. Cases m the natural development of plants where the transition of the leaf is gradual, changing insensibly, first to bracts then to sepals, thus appa- rently making the metamorphosis in queatioa viaibU before our eyes. Such oases 1 hi' 18 MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLOWER. MO 289 288 287 286 235 281 238 282 2S1 280 229 229, Papavfar (poppy) ; «, stamens ; jo, stigmas. 230, Sepal. 281, Petal — all very different. 282 Petals of the water-lily (Nyinpluea) gradually passing into (240) stamens. are exactly in point. The leaves of the paeony, large and much divided below, become smaller and more simple above, gradually passing into bracts and thence into sepals. In Calycanthus the sepal passes into the petal by gradations so gentle that we can not mark the limit between them. In the lilies these two organs are almost identical. In the water-lily, where the sepal, petal, and stamen are all thus graduated, the transition from petal to stamen is particularly instructive. These two forms meet half way by a perfect series of gradationw. when a narrowed petal is capped slightly with the semblance of an anther. And finally, cases of a close resemblance between stamen and pistil, so unlike in the poppy, are not wanting, as in the tulip-tree. 379. Flowers always regular in the early bud. An early examination of flower-buds often exhibits the several kinds of organs much less diverse than they subsequently become. See the early bud of columbine. Those flowers which are 248 Wl 241 t41, Ranunculas acrls ; a single flower. 242, R. aoris, fi. plena, a double flower. 248, Epacrlt impressa; the flowers obanging to leafy branches (Lindley). iESTIVATION. n called irregular, as the pea, catmint, violet, are regular, like other flowers, in the early bud ; that is, the several petals are at first seen to be precisely similar, becom- ing dissimilar and distorted in their alter growth ; so in the stamens and other or* gana. 380. Cases is artificial development or teratology {npa, a monstrosity, Uyoc), where organs of one kind are converted into those of another kind by cul- tivation, aftbrd undeniable evidence of the doctrine in question — the homology of all thafioral organs with the leaf. Such cases are frequent in the garden, and how- ever much admired, they are monstrous, because unnatural In all double tiowers, as rose, pajony, Camillia, the stamens have been reconverted into petals, eitiier wlioUy or partially, some yet remaining in every conceivable stage of the transition. In the double butter-cup (242) the pistils as well as stamens revert to petals, and in tlie garden cherry, flowering almond, a pair of green leaves occupy the place of the pistils. By still further changes all parts of the flower manifest their foliage affini- ties, and the entire flower-bud, after having given clear indications of its floral char- acter, is at last developed into a leafy branch. (Fi/. 24:5.) 381. In Clarkia, Cklastrds, damask rose, and oilier garden plants, cases have be/, the petals are apparently but two strangely deformed bodies. A careful inspection, however, generally reveals the other three, very minute, in their proper places, as displayed in the cut. (283.) 427, "Organs opposite" is a condition much less frequent than "organs alter- nate," but is highly interesting, as being sometimes characteristic of whole families. Thus in the primrose, thrift, and buckthorn families, the stamens always stand op- posite to the petals I 428. How HAPPENS THIS ? Amon[' the primworts this question is solved in the flowers of Lysimacbia and Samolus, where we find a circle of five teetli (abortive filaments) between the petals and stamens, alternating with both sets, thus restoring the lost symmetry. Hence we infer tliat in such cases generally a circle of alter- nating organs has been either partially or wholly suppressed. In the buckthorn, however, a diflerent explanation has been given. ii III ii'ji ) Diafjrams. 272, Flower of Samohis, showing the rudimentary stamens alternating with the perfect. 273, Flower of a Labiate plant, showing the place of the deflcient stamen. 274, Flower of Asariim ; three sepals, twelve stamens, etc. 275, Flower of Saxifrage ; two pistils, ten sta- mens, etc. 429. The MUiiTiPLiCATiON OF ORGANS is exceedingly common, and usually ac- cording to a definite plan. The increase takes place, as a rule, by circles, and con- sequently by multiples. That is, c. g., the stamens of a V flower, if increased, will be so by 3s ; of a V flower by 5s, etc., sometimes to the extent of twenty such circles. 430. Crowfoots and roseworts. In the crowfoot family the stamens are al- most always multiplied. Tiie carpels are also generally multiplied, yet often, on tlie contrary, diminished, as in the pseony. In Rosacese, also, tlie stamens are generally multiplied, while the carpels exist in all conditions as to number. Thus in straw- berry they are multiplied, in the apple they are regularly five, in agrimony roducod to two, and in the cherry to one. 431. Other cases. In Magnolia the V flowers have three sepals in one circle, six or nine petals in two or throe circles, numerous stamens and carpels in matiy circles of each. In the V flowers or blood-root there are two sepals, eight petals, twenty-four stamens, and two carpels. 432. Increment by clusters (chorisis). In other cases the organs seem to be increased in number by clusters rather than by circles, as when in the same circle several stamens stand in the place of one, e. g., in squirrel-corn, st. johnswort, lin- den. Such cases afford wide scope for conjecture. Perhaps each cluster originates by division, as the compound from the simple leaf; or as a tuft of axillary leaves ; or thirdly, by a partial union of organs. 438. Apprndioular organs (§ 40*7) consist of spurs, scales, crown, glands, etc., and often afford excellent distinctive marks. The old term til, IK* - m I Mi I m (■ ■ 88 THK PLAN OF THE FLOWER. 279 87« 277 978 276, Flower of Aurantitim Limeta (Lime-treo) ; 8ta- uiiiis in five sets. 277, One of the sets. 278, Flower of Hypericum iEgypticum ; stamens in three sets. 279, Flower of Tecoma radicans ; petals cohering into a tube, free only at top. Sepals also coherent. nectary was indiscriminately applied to all such organs, because some of them produced honey. 434. Spurs are singular processes of the flower, tubular and pro- jecting from behind it. In columbine each petal is thus spurred ; in violet, one petal only. In larkspur, a petal and a sepal, the spur of the latter inclosing that of the former. The curved spur of the jewel-weed belongs to a sepal. (280, 281.) 435. Scales are attached to the inner side of the corolla, usually upon the claw of the petals, as in butter-cups, or within the throat of the corolla tube, as in the Borrageworts. Similar appendages, when enlarged and conspicuous, constitute a crown in catchfly, corn-cockle The flowers of Narcissus are distinguished by an excessively large crown or corona, with its parts all blended into i tube or rim. Flower of Delphinium ronsnlida (common larkspur), displaying, 9, a, h, a, s, the Are sepals, fis thn upper one spurred ; 0, tiie corolla of four petals here united into one and produced into ft opur. 2S1, Flower of Impatiens fiilva (touch-me-not). 282, Displaying, 8, «, «, y, the four se- pals, iS', the anterior one, being probably double, and ;/, saccate and spurred ; p, p, the two petals both double. m THE PLAN OP THE FLOWER. 89 436. Glandular bodies are often found upon the receptacle in the places of missing stamens or carpels, or as abortive organs of some kind. Examples are seen in the Crucifers and grape. In grass-Parnassus they are stalked and resemble stamens. 437. Union of orqans. This condition in some way occurs in almost every flower, and more perhaps than any other cause tends to disguise its plan and origin. The separate pieces which stood each as the representative of a leaf, now, by a gra- dual fusion, lose themselves in the common mass. Nevertheless, marks of this pro- cess are always discernible either in parts yet remaining /ree, or in the seams where the edges were conjoined. The floral organs may unite by cohesion or adhesion. 438. Cohesion, when the parts of the same whorl are joined to- gether, as the sepals of the pink, the petals of morning-glory, the sta- mens of mallows, the carpels of poppy. 439. Adhesion, when the parts of different whorls are conjoined, as the stamens with the corolla in phlox, with the pistils in milkweed, ladies' slipper ; or calyx with ovary in apple or wintergi'cen (Gaulthcria). 440. The adjective free is used in a sense opposite to adhesion, implying that the organ is inserted on (or grows out of) the receptacle, and otherwise separated from any other kind of organ. The adjective distinct is opposed to cohesion, implying that like organs are separate from each other. This subject and also the next will be more particularly noticed in another chap- ter. 268 884 285 283, Flower of Aconituin Nnpellus displayed ; s, s, a, «, s, the five sepals, the upper oive hooded ; p,p, p, the five petals, of which the two upper are nectaries covered by the hood, and the three lower very minute. 284, Flower of Catalpa, 2-lipped, 6-lobed. 285, Corolla laid open, showing the two perfect stamens and the three rudimentary. 441. Irregular development. Our typical flower, it will be re- membered, is regular ; and observation proves that all flowers are ac- tually alike regular in the early bud. These inequalities or "one- sided" forms, therefore, which characterize certain flowers are occasioned by subsequent irregular growth from a regular type. The irregularity of flowers may consist I i I i! 90 THE PLAN OF THE FLOWER. 1. In the unequal size of like organs (petals of mullein). 2. In their dissimilar /orm« or positions (petals of the pea). 3. In the unequal cohesion of like parts (petals of Lobelia). 4. In unequal suj}pressions (stamens of the Labiate flowers, where, indeed, as in many other flowers, all these phases of irregularity are combined). 886 287 288 289 2S6, Flower (mngnlfled) of Myosurus; a vertical section showing Its elongated receptacle, etc. 2S7, The same, natural size. 288, Flower of Isopyrum biternatum ; vertical section, showing the convex or globular receptacle, etc. 289, Flower of rose, showing its excavated torus. 442. The regular receptacle has no internodes. It bears the several whorls of the flower in close contact with each other, and is usually short and depressed. 443. Lengthened receptacle. When these whorls are numerous, as in buttercups, tulip-tree, the receptacle is necessarily elongated. So in Myosurus, blackberry, strawberry. In the two latter it imbibes the nutritious juices of the plant and becomes a part of the fruit. 444. Excavated recepta- cle. On the contrary, the to- rus instead of lengthening may be hollowed out in the center. The carpels of the rose are sit- uated in such a cavity, while the other organs are borne upon its elevated rim. In Nelumbium the carpels are immersed in as many separate excavations in a large, fleshy receptacle. 445. But the internodes op the torus are sometimes developed, e. g., in noble liverwort a short inter- node between the corolla and calyz 880, Flower of Cleome pungens, showing iti ovary, o, mounted on a long stype. THE FLORAL ENVELOPS. 91 has changed the latter (technically) to an invulucre. In the pink a similar inter- node renders the ovary s/ipito^. In the Capjr family the torus is developed into long intemodes, sometimes raising the ovary upon a long stipe, sometimes the sta- mens and ovary. 446. The disk is a portion of the receptacle raised into a rim some- where in the midst of the whorls. It is found between the ovary and stamens in paeony and bdckthorn. It bears the stamens in maple, inignionette, and crowns the ovary in the Umbelliferae. Finally 291 292 998 291, Paeonla Montan, showing Its very large diak (cf) sheathing the ovaries (p). 292, Pistil of the lemon, with its base surrounded by the disk, d. 298, Section of flower of Alcbemilla, show- ing its single simple pistil, large disk, etc. 447. Combined deviations are quite frequent, and sometimes ob- scure the typical character of the flower to such a degree as to require close observation in tracing it out. The study of such cases is full of both amusement and improvement. 448. For example, the V poppy has suppression in the calyx, multiplication in the stamens and carpels, and in the latter cohesion also. The V sage has cohesion and irregularity in the calyx, every kind of irregularity in the corolla, suppression and irregularity in the stamens, suppression and cohesion in the pistils. The V Cypripedium is perfectly symmetrical, yet has irregular cohesion in the calyx, great inequality in the petals, cohesion, adhesion, and metamorphosis in the stamens, and cohesion in the carpels. (In this way let the pupil analyze the deviations in the flower of Geranium, holly- hock, moth mullein, larkspur, sweetbriar, touch-me-not. Petunia, snapdragon, violet, Polygala, squirrel-corn, Orchis, henbit, monk's-hood, Calceolaria, etc.) CHAPTER XI. THE FLORAL ENVELOPS, OR PERIANTH. 449. Idea of the typical flower. In our idea of the typical flower, the perianth consists of two whorls of expanded floral leaves encircling and protecting the more delicate essential organs in their midst. The outer circle, calyx, is ordinarily green and far less conspic- uous than the inner circle of highly colored leaves — the corolla. "■^ it WM 92 THE FLORAL ENVELOPS, OR PERIANTH. ill M iir w [fci 450. EzcsPTiONS. But to this, as to all other general rules, there are many ex- ceptions. Strictly speaking, the calyx and corolla are in no \ ay distinguishable except by position. The outer circle is the calyx, whatever be its form or color, and the inner, if tiiere be more than one, is the corolla. 451. Rules. The sepals of the calyx and petals of the corolla are, according to rule, equal in number and severally disconnected save by the torus on which they stand. 462. Resemblances. The sepals more nearly resemble true leaves in texture and color ; but the petals in form. Both have veins and re- tain more or less the same venation which characterizes the grand di- vision to which the plant belongs (§ 258). 453. Parts. Both blade and petiole aro. distinguishable in the floral leaves, especially in the petals. The blade or expanded part is here called limb or lamina ; the petiolar part, when narrowed into a stalk, is called the claiv. 454. Nature of the sepals. The sepals are more generally sessile, like bud-scales, and appear to represent the leaf-stalk only, with margins dilated like a sheathing petiole. In confirmation of this view, we find in some flowers, as the paeony and rose, the lamina also developed, but smaller than the petiolar part. 455. Forms of petals. In form or out- line there is a general resemblance between the limb and the leaf. It is ovate, oval, lanceolate, obcordate, orbicular, etc. In margin it is generally entire. Some peculiar forms, however, should be noticed, as the bilobate petal of the chickweed, the pinna- tifid petal of mitrewort, the inflected petal of the Umbeliferae, the fan-shaped petal of pink, the fringed (fimbriate) petal of cam- pion (silene stellata), the hooded sepal of Napellus, the saccate petal of Calceolaria, Cypripedium. 456. Nectary. The limb is, moreover, often distorted into a true nectary, spurred, as already shown (§ 434), or otherwise de- formed, as in Napellus, Coptis, etc. Forms of petals. 294, Butter- onp, showing the scale at base. W5. Mignonette, fringed at top. 996, Silene stellata, fringed and UDgniciilate. 297, Flower of OHinorhizu longistylis, petals in- fected. 298, Flower of Mitella diphvlla, petals pectinate-pinna- tifld. 299, Petal of Oerastium natau, S-olefU THr. FLORAL ENTELOPS, OR PERIANTH. 98 457. Union. We Lave seen that the floral organs are often in va- rious ways united. Considering their crowded state in the flower, we rather wonder that they do not always coalesce in their growth. 458. The calyx with united sepals was called by the eaily botanists monoisepalous ; the corolla with united petals was called tnonopetaloun {jxovog, one — from the false idea that such an organ consisted of a sin- gle piece or leaf!). Opposed to these terms were polypetalous {jrokvg^ many), petals distinct, and polysepalous, sepals distinct. 459. The monosepalous calyx, or monopetalous corolla, al- though thus compounded of several pieces, is usually described as a simole organ, wheel-shaped, cup-shaped, tubular, according to the de- grto of cohesion. The lower part of it, formed by the united claws, whether long or short, is the tube ; the upper part, composed of the confluent laminae, is the border or limb ; the opening of the tube above is the throat. 460. The border is either lobed, toothed, crenate, etc., by the dis- tinct ends of the pieces composing it, as in the calyx of pink, the calyx and corolla of Primula, Phlox, and bellwort, or it may become by a complete lateral cohesion, entire, as in morning-glory. Here the com pound nature of the organ is shown by the seams alone. 800, Flower of Saponaria (bouncing bet) ; petals and claws quite distinct. 3(il, Phlox; clawl united, with lamina distinct. 302, 8i)igelia (pink-root), petals still further united. 808, Quamo- clit coccinea, petals united throughout. 461. A terminal cohesion, where summit as well as sides are joined forming a cap rather than cup, rarely occurs, as in the calyx of the garden Escholtzia and the corolla of the grape. 462. The modcs of adhesion are various and important, furnishing some of the most valuable distinctive characters. An organ is said to be adherent when it is conjoined with some dissimilar organ, as stamen with pistil. All the organs of our typical flower are described as /reft $^ % 04 TUB FLORAL ENVELOPS, OK PERIANTH. P; m'i ft 'Sf. 463. Htfooynous (vttw, under, yvvq, pistil) ia an adjective term in frequent use, denoting that the organs are inserted into the receptacle under or at the base of the free pistil or ovary. It is, therefore, not applicable lo the pistil itself. Thus the outer organs of butter- cups are hypogynous. 806 805 804 807 808 Section of flowers. 304, Jeffersonta diphylla, hypogynous. 805, Viola rotnndifolia. 808 Phaseoliis multilloriis (bean, organs spirally twisted). 307, Pyrus (Pear), perigynous ; ovaries nearly inclosed. 808, Prunus (plum) ; ovary not inclosed. 464. Perigynous (rrept, around) denotes that the organ is inserted on the calyx-tube around the free ovary. Thus in Phlox the stamens are inserted on the tube of the corolla. In cherry both stamens and petals are (apparently) inserted on the calyx-tube. The calyx can never be perigynous. 465. Epigyngus (cnl, upon) denotes that all the organs are appa- rently inserted upon the ovary, as seen in the apple, caraway, sunflower. The common phrases " calyx superioi*," " ovary inferior," have the same signification as calyx epigynous, all implying the apparent insertion of the organs upon or above the ovary. 466. There is also another set op terms in use, of the same application, founded upon a more modern view of the floral structure, viz., "calyx adherent," " ovary adherent." "Which is the better form of expression will depend upon our location of the receptacle- AAA THE FLORAL ENVELOPS, OR PERIANlK. 810 96 811 809, Rlbes aureum (Missouri Currant) ; stamens and petals p«riff. ; ovary inferior. aiO, Sasl- fiaga Virgiuiensis ; hall' superior. 811, Fuchsia gracilis (Ear-drop); inferior; stamens «pij>e- titlons. 467. In the cases above cited, it is commonly taught that the receptacle is \o- cated at the base of tlie ovary, and that all the organs thence arising are adherent to its sides. Another doctrine is alsc* taug'it, viz., that the receptacle itself may be elevated and become perigynous or epigynous, or, in other words, the ovary may be imbedded in the foot-stalk. That it is so in the rose ( 289 ) we can hardly doubt. The so-called calyx-tube of the cherry, peacli, is certainly an analogous structure, more expanded, and so is the more contracted " calyx tube" of the apple, pome- granate. The analogy extends throughout the Kosewort;!, and perhaps still further. 468. Calvx HALF-SUPERIOR. Calyx inferior or free, ovary superior or free, are all phrases of the same import as calyx hypogynous. Be- tween the two conditions, calyx interior and calyx superior, there are numerous gradations, of which one only is defined, to wit, calyx half- superior, as exemplified in the mock orange (and 310.) 469. Special forms of the perianth, whether calyx, corolla, or both, have been named and described. "We may arrange them thus : — Polypbtalous, regular — Cruciform, rosaceous, caryophyllaceous, liliaceous. Ir- regular — papilioaaceous, orchidaceous. MoNOP^iTALOUs, regular mostly — rotate, cup-shaped, campanulate, urceolate, fun- nel-form, salver-form, tubular. Irregular — ligulate, labiate. 470. Cruciform (crux^ a cross) or cross-shaped, implies that four long clawed, spreading petals stand at riffht angles to each other, as in the flowers of the mustard family (Crnciferfe) in general. 471. Rosaceous, rose-like ; a flower with five short-clawed, spread- ing petals. 472. Caryophtllaceous, pink-like ; a five-petaled corolla, with long, erect claws and spreading laminte. 473. Liliaceous, like the lily ; a flower with a six leaved perianth, each leaf gradually spreading so as to resemble, as a whole, the funnel' fonn. i 06 w- % THE KLURAL ENVKLOI'S, OR PERIANTH. tlS S14 815 Forms of corollas. 812, Cheiranthus (stock). 813, SUene regiii (scarl.^t catchfly). 314, Pyrin coronaria. 316, Amaryllis (Atainasco lily). 474. Papilionaceous, butterfly-sliaped ; a corolla consisting of five dissimilar petals, designated thus : the upper, largest, and exterior pe- tal is the banner (vexillum) ; the two lateral, half-exterior, are the wings (alee) ; the two lower, interior petals, often united at their lower mar- gin, are the keel [carina). The flowers of the pea, locust, clover, and of the great family of the Leguminosae in general are examples. 8l« 817 818 818, Papilionaceous flower of the Pea. 817, Displayed ; d, the vexillum ; a, a, the alse ; c, c, the carinie. 318, Section of flower of Dicentra GucuUaria. 475. Rotate, wheel-shaped or star-shaped, is a monpetalous form, with tube very short, if any, and a flat, spreading border, as the calyx of chickweed, corolla of Trientalis, elder. It is sometimes a little ir- regular, as in mullein. 476. Cup-shaped, with pieces cohering into a concave border, as in the calyx of mallows, corolla of Kalmia, etc. 477. Campanulate or bell-shaped ; when the tube widens abruptly at base and gradually in the border, as in the harebell, Canterbury bell. THK KLORAL ENVELOPS, OR PKKIANTH. 97 478. Urceolate, urii-sliapeil ; an obloui^ or globular corolla with a narrow opening, as the whortleberry, heatb. 479. Funnel-form (infundibulitbrin), narrow tubular below, gradu- ally enlarging to the border, as morning-glory. 480. Salveh-fokm (hypocraterit'orm), the tube ending abruptly in a horizontal border, as iu Phlox, Petuuia, both of which are slightly ir- regular. 481. Tubular, a cylindraceous form spreading little or none at the border, as the calyx of the pink, corolla of tlie honeysuckle. It is often a little curved. Tubular flowers arc common in tlie Composita}, as the thistle, sunflower, when they arc often associated with 482. LiGULATE (ligula, a little tongue), apparently formed by the splitting of the tubular on one side. The notches at the end plainly indicate the number of united petals composing it, as also do the paral- lel, longitudinal seams. 483. Labiate, bilabiate, lip-shaped, resembling the mouth of an ani- mal. This very common form results from the unequal union of the parts, accompanied with other irregularities. In the labiate corolla three petals unite more or less to form the lower lip, and two to form tlie upper. In the calyx, when bilabiate, this rule is reversed, accord- Forms of corollns. 818, Campnnula Americana; rotate. 319, Campanula dlvaricata. 820 Andromeda, urceolate. 821, Convolvulus (morning-glory). 822. Petunia. 828, Lonicera eem- pervirens (honeysucltle). 824, Dandelion ; ligulate corolla (c), !5-toothed ; a, five antiiers united into a tube around », the style. 82.\ Synnndra grandiflora, ringent, upper lip 2-lobed, lower 8-lobed. 826, Llnarla (yellow inapdragon), personate. 827, Cypripedlum acaule, orchidaceous. 7 98 THB FLUHAL ENVELOPS, OR PERIANTH. ing to the law of alternation of organs ; two sepals are united in the lower lip and three in the upper, as seen in the sage and the Labiate Order generally. Labiate tlowers are said to be galeate or helnieted when the upper lip is concave, as in catmint ; ringent or gaping when the throat or mouth is wide open ; personate or masked when the throat is closed as with a palate^ like the snapdragon. 484. Orchidaceous, a form of the perianth peculiar to the Orchis with that large and singular tribe in general. It is a 6-parted double perianth, very irregular, characterized chiefly by its lip (labellum), which is the upper petal (lower by the twisting of the ovary) enlarged r.nd variously deformed. Certam reduced forms of the perianth require notice ht^re : 485. Pappus [ndmrog, grandfatlier, alluding to his gray hairs) is a term applied to the hair-like calyx of the florets of the Compositae and other kindred orders. The florets of this order are collected into heads so compactly that the calyxes have not room for expansion in th 3 ordinary way. The pappus is commonly persistent and often in- creases as the fruit matures, forming a feathery sail to waft away the seed through the air, as in the dandelion and thistle. It varies greatly in form and size, as seen in the cuts, sometimes consisting of scafex, sometimes of hairs, again of feathers or bristles. Sometimes it is mounted on a stipe, which is the beak of the fruit. 380 888 .S32 Cypsela (incorrocUy culled achenium) of tho Conipositro, with various forms of piippus. 82*, Eolii)tii piocumbens, no papi)iis. 329, Ambrosia triflda. 830,lleliantliu» grosse-serratus, pappus 2-awni',ii. 331. Agerntiun conlzoides. pappus of five scales. 8.3'i, Mulgedium, capillary pappus — cypsi'la slightly rostrate. 833, Lactuca elongata, rostrate cypsola. 486. Other reductions. Again, the calyx or the limb of the calyx is reduced to a mere rim, as seen in the Umbelliferae. In the amenta- ceous orders the whole perianth diminishes to a shallov cup, as in the poplar, willow, or altogether disappears, as in tho birch, ash, lizard-tail. (204-267). 487. SETiB, meanin'g bristles in general, is a term specifically used to denote the reduced periantli of the sedges. In the bog-rush (Scirpus) there is, outside the stamens, a circle of six setae, which doubtless rep- resent a 6-Ieaved perianth. In the cotton-grass (Eriphorum) the seta3 are multiplied and persistent on the fruit, becoming long and cotton-like. THB FLORAL ENVELOPS, OR PERIANTH. 99 8Sfi 8S4 488. Perioynium is the name given to the urceolate perianth of Carex, in- vesting the ovary but allowing the style to issue at its summit. It is evidently composed of two united sepals. 489. Glumes and pales represent the floral envelops, or rather the invo- lucre of the Grasses. Their alternating arrangement clearly distinguishes the n from a perianth. They occur in pairs, the smaller usually above. The glumes envelop the spikelet, the pales the single flower, and often within the pales are two or three scales representing the perianth, surrounding the stamens and ovary, all which are illustrated in the wheat. (196.) 490. The duration of the calyx and corolla varies widely, and is marked by certain general terms. It is caducous when it falls ott' im- mediately, as the calyx of poppy, corolla of grape ; deciduou • when it falls with the stamens, as in most plants ; and persistent if it remain until the fruit ripens, as the calyx of apple. If it continue to grow after flowering, it is accrescent, and if it wither without falling oft' it is marescent. 334, Flower of Sclrpus lacustris, inasr- nilieil ; consistins t/f six setie, tlircc sta- mens, three pistils united, except the stignm.s. 335, Flower of Carex rivuliiris 9 , with (I, iis gluii'ie, p, its bottle-sliapcd perigyniuni, 2-tootiie(l at top, envelop- ing the triple ovary ; stigmas, three. » > ♦ »« CHAPTER XII. OF THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. § THE STAMENS, OR ANDRGECIUM. 491. Position. Within the safe inclosure of the floral envelops stand the essential organs — the stamens and pistils, clearly distinguisli- able from the perianth by their more slight and delicate forms, and from each other by various marks. In the complete flower the androe- cium next succeeds the corolla in the order of position, being the third Bet, counting from the calyx. 492. A PERFECT STAMEN cousists of two parts — the filament, corre- sponding with the petiole of the typical leaf, and the anther, answering to the blade. Within the cells of the anther the pollen is produced, a substance essential to the fertility of the flower. Hence the anther alone is the essential part of the stamen. •k jW 100 THE STAMENS, OR ANDRdCIUlf. *! Audrcrciuin (iind gyncccium) of Frnnkenia (after Peyer). 337, Stamen (adnate) of morning- plory. 338, Saiiiu enlarged, with pollen grains discharged ; /, filament ; a, ii, anther, 2-lobed ; c, top of the connectile. 839, Itanunculus. 340, Same, cut transversely. 341, Iris cut transversely (extrorse). 342, Amaryllis, versatile. 343, Larkspur, innate. 344, Same, cut. 493. The filament (Jilum, a thread) is the stalk supporting the anther at or near its top. It is ordinarily slender and filiform, yet firmly sustaining itself with the anther in position. Sometimes it is capillary and pendulous with its weight, as in the Grasses. 494. The anther is regularly an oblong body at the summit of the filament, composed of two hollow parallel lobes joined to each other and to the filament by the connectile. In front of the connectile, loitking toward the pistil, there is usually a furrow ; on its back a ridge, and on the face of each lobe a seam, the usual place of dehiscence or opening, all running parallel with the filament and connectile. Tlio stamen, as thus described, may bo considered regular or typical in form, and is well exemplified in that of tlie buttercup (Fig. 339). But the variations of struc- ture are aa remarkable hero as in other organs, depending on circumstances like the following — 495. AxTACHAfENT OF FILAMENT TO ANTHER. This may occur in three ways. The anther is said to bo innate when it ''lands centrally erect on the top of the fila« ment, adnate when it seems attached to one side of the filament, versatile when connected by a single point in tlio back to the top of tlie filament. 496. Dehiscence, or tlio modes of opening, are also three, viz., valvxilar, where the seam opens vertically its whole length, which is the usual way; porous where the colls open by a chink or pore usually at t!i0 top, as in Rhododendron and po- tato ; opercular when by a lid opening upward, as in sassafras, berberis. (346.) •197. The facing of the anther is also an important character. It is infrorse when the lines of deiiiaconco look toward the pistil, as in violet ; extrorse when they look outward toward the corolla, aa in Iris. 498. The connectile is usually a nioro prolongation of the filament, terminating, not at the base, but at the top of the anther. If it fall short, the antlier will be emarginate. Sometimes it outruns the author and tips it with a terminal append- age of some sort, as in violet, oleander, Paris. Again, its base may be diluted into Hpurs, aa in two of the stamens of violet. 499. Dimidiate anther. If the connectile be laterally dilated, as we see gra. dually dono in the various spocios of tho Labiate Order, the lobea of the anther will bo separated, forming two dimidiate anthers (lialved nnthors) on one filatneut, u£ in »ige, Pruoella. Such are, of course, 1-colled, (351.) THE STAMENS, OU ANDRECIUM. 101 849 346 S47 848 34!) Peculiar forms of stamens. 845, Pyrola rotuidifolia ; p, dehiscence by pores at top, 3.'M) Vaccinium uliginosum ; p, dehiscence. 847, Beiberis aquifoliiun, anthers opening (.S4fi) by valves upward. 848, Anther of Violet, Introrse, with ar appendage at top. 349, Oleander, sagit- tate, api)en(laged. 364, Catalpa, lobes of anther separated. 351, Sage, lobes of anther widely separiited, on stipes ; &, barren lobe without pollen. 852, Mulva, anther 1 -celled. 853, Ephedra (after Peyer), anther 4-celled. 500. The cells of the anthers are at first commonly four, all parallel, becoming two only at maturity. In some plants the four are retaineJ, as in the anthers of Ephedra. (353.) In others, as mallows, all the cells coalesce into one. (352.) 501. Appendages of many kinds distinguish the stamens of different species. In the Ericaceae there are horns, spurs, tails, queues, etc. In onions and garlic the lilament is 2 or 3-forked, bearing the anther on one of the tips. Sometimes a pair of appendages appear at base, as if stipulate. It is often conspicuously clothed with kairs, as in Tradescantia. 856 863 MO 861 F«e»itlal orf^ans. 386, Rhododendron, five stamens («), on« pistil (p), oblique or slightly Ir- regular. 357, Flower of .Asculus (Buckeye), regular, 6-tootbed calyx (c), *'ery irregular 4-p«- taled corolla, seven stamens unequal, one style («). 859, Flower of Hydrastis; «, sepals decidu- ous. 860, dame, showing the distinct pistils and one stamen remaining. 861, Anemone thallo- trolde^ the gynoerium of distinct, ribbed aohani*. 866, Trillium, tiz stkinenB (a), three pistili (p). 358, Stapbylea trtfolia. I 102 THE STAMENS, OR ANDRECIUM. 502. Staminodia, or sterile filaments with iboitive anthers or none, occur singly in many of tlie Pigworts and Labiates, or in entire whorls next within the petals, alternating with them, as in loose-strife ; in all cases restoring the symmetry of tlie flowers. They are generally reduced in size, as in Scrophularia, rarely enlarged, as iu beardtongue (Pentstemon). 503. 'VuE NUMUER of the stamens is said to be dcjlnite when not ex- ceeding twenty, as is sometimes definitely expressed by such terras as follow, compounded by the Greek numerals, viz., monandrous, having one stamen to each flower ; diandrous, with two stamens ; 2)entandrouii, with five stamens. If the number exceeds twenty, it is said to be in- definite (denoted thus, c: ) or polyandrous. 504. The position or insertion of the stamens (§ 463) maybe more definitely stated here, as hypoijynouK, on the receptacle below the ovaries ; perigynoas^ on the calyx around the ovary ; epipetalous, on the corolla, as in Phlox ; epiyynous, on the ovary at its summit, and gynandrous {yvvrf^ pistil, dvdpeg^ stamens) on the pistil, that is, when the stamens are adherent to the style, as in Orchis, 605. Inequality in length is definitely marked in two cases, as tetradynamous (re-rpagj four, dvvafiig, power) when the stamens are six, whereof four are longer than the other two, as in all the Crucifers ; didynamous, where the stamens are four, two of them longer than the other two, as in all the Labiates, etc. 866 8C5 864 863 862 r M2, Colllnsia verna: / a flower enlarged, cut, showing the slightly dtdynamous stamens, etc. 8«8, Stamens (diadelphous) of a Leguminous plont. 864, Stamens (syngeneBlous) of a Com- posito ; /, filaments distinct ; a, anthers united ; «, stigmas revolute, etc. 366, Tt-tradynamous •tiimeusof a Cruoll'er. 866, Gynandrous column of Cypripedlum ; o, ovary; r, torus; », sterile ■tuuien ; a, two pollioia ; c, stigma. 606. Cohesion is as frequent with stamens as with petals. They are monadelphous (d6eX6g^ a brother) when they are all united, as in mallow, into one set or brotherhood by the filaments ; diadelphom in two sets, whether equal or unequal, as in pea, squirreJ-corn ; polyadel- I: I THE STAMENS, OR ANDRECIUM. 103 phous, many sets, as in St. John'swort ; and syngenesiouSy when they are united by their anthers, as in the Compositje. Finally, 507. The absence of the stamens altogetlier, whether by abortion, as in the 9 flowers of Veratrum, or by suppression, as in oak, occurs in various modes, rendering the plant monoecious (6* ), dioecious ( 5 ? ), or pv^lygamous ( <5 ^ ¥ )> as already explained (§ 421). 508. The pollen is in appearance a small, yellow dust, contained in the cells of the anther. When viewed with the microscope it appears as grains of various forms, usually spheroidal, or oval, sometimes tri^ angular or polyhedral, but always of the same form and appearance in the same species. Externally they are curiously, and often elegantly figured with stripes, bands, dots, checks, etc. 871 Pollen grains. 367, Pinus larlco. 368, Basella rubra. 869, Ranunculus repeis. mus grandidorus. 371, Passiflora incarnata. 509. Each grain of pollen is a mem- branous cell or sack containing a fluid. Its coat is double, the outer is more thick and firm, exhibiting one or more breaks where the inner coat, which is very thin and expansible, is uncovered. In the fluid are suspended molecules of inconceivable minute- ness, said to possess a tre- mulous motion. When the membrane is exposed to moisture it swells and bursts, discharging its contents. g^a, Section of the Passion-flower (Passiflora cwrulea); 610. PoLLINIA. In R, bracts of the involucre; «, sepals ; p, petals; <»,«, statnl the Orchids and Silkweed nl'imas'*''"''' ^'"'"'"'' ' "''"'*" "' """'''' '^'''^'""«"*' 'ii\ m 104 THE PISTILS, OR OYNOICIUM. ti'ibe, the pollen grains do not separate as into a dust or powder, but all cohere into masses called pollinia, accompanied by a viscid fluid. THE PISTILS, OR GYNCFCIUM. 511. POSITION. The GyncEcium occupies the center of the flower at the termination of the axis. It consists regularly of a circle of distinct pistils, (§ 406), symmetrical in number with the other circles. It is subject to great variation. The pistil may be ul^tinct and simple, as in columbine, or coherent in various degrees into a compound body, as in St. John's v.ort. 8T9 376 Pistils. 372, Sympliytum, basilar style, ovary 4-parteil. 371, ? Fl. of EmbltcR (Euphorbia- cere), branching styles. 373, Mirabilis Jalapa, globular stlg. 377, Fl. ot Luzula, stigmas linear. 874, Feathery stigmas of a grass. 379, Stigmas of Aster. 376, Rumex. 376, Poppy. 878, Filiform stigma of Zea Mays, (Corn). 512. Exception. Also instead of being free and superior, as it regu- larly should be, it may adh jre to the other circles, as already explained (§ 462), and become inferior, that is, apparently placed below the flower, as in the currant. 513. The number of tlie pistils is by no means confined to the ra- dical of the flower. They may be increased by multiples, becoming a fipiral on a lengthened receptacle, as in tulip-tree, or still remaining a circle, as in poppy. On the other hand they may be reduced in num- ber often to one, as in cherry, pea. Certain terms are employed to denote the number of pistils in the flower, such as monogynous, with one pistil, trigonous, with three, polygynotis, with many, etc. 614. The simple pistil may usually be known from the compound, by its one-sided forms — having two sides similar and two dissimilar. If the pistils appear di.stinct, they are all simple, never being united into more than one set, as tlie stamens often are. THE PISTILS, OR GYNtECIUM. 105 615. The parts of a simple pistil are three, the ovary at base, th« ttigma at the summit, and the style^ intervening. Like the filament the style is not essential, and when it is wanting, the stigma is sessile upon the ovary, as in crowfoot. In order to understand the relation of these parts we must needs first study 516. The morphology of the pistil. As before stated, (§ 380), the pistil consists of a modified leaf called a carpel {Kapvoq, fruit), or carpel- lary leaf. This leaf is folded together (induplicate) toward the axis, so tliat the upper surface becomes the inner, while the lower becomes the outer surfac ) of the ovary. By this arrangement two sutures or seams will be formed, the dorsal, at the back by the midvein, the ventral, i-i front by the joined margins of the leaf. o7S bis oVi bis iJSO 381 3S2 y&ti 3S4 ;jsj 885, Simple pistil of Strawberry, the stylo lateral. 86, Simple pistil of Crowfoot, out to show the ovule. 380, Snuiiie pistil of the Cherry. 38i, Verticiil section showing the ovnlo (c), style (>(), stigma {a). 382, Cross-section of the same. 884, ("ompound pistil of Sprinsr-beaiity. 883, Cross-section of tlie same sliowing the 3 cells of the ovary. 378, Expanded carpdlary leaf of the double cherry. 379, Tlie same partly folded as if to form a pistil. 617. TiiLUSTRATiON. This view of the pistil is remarkably confirmed and illus- trated by the flowers of the double cherry, wlicre the pistil may be seen in every degree of transition, reverting toward the form of a leaf. This carpellary leaf stands in the place of the pi,stil, having tlie edges infolded toward each other, the midvein prolonged and dilated at the apex. 518. If this be compared with the pistil of the cherry seen in the figure (.378, 379), no doubt can bo entertained that the two sides of the leaf correspond to tho walls of tho ovary, the margins to tho ventral suture, tho midvein to the dorsal su- ture, and the lengthened apex to tho style and stigma. Sometimes tlie flower con- tains two such leaves, which always present their faces toward each other. This corresponds to the position of tho true carpels, in which the ventral sutures of both are contiguous. 519. The doctrine deduced. Many other plants, as tho rose, Anemone, Ranun- culus, flowering almond, exhibit simihir transformations of the pistil, making it prob- able that it is formed upon the same plan in all plants. The ovary, therefore, is the blade of a leaf; folded into a sack ; the style is tho length med apex folded into a tube ; the stigma, a thickened and denuded portion of the upper margin of the leaf. <4H .V.,! 106 THE PISTILS, OR OTNCECIUM. U4*' mi 520. Tna PLACENTiB are iisually prominent lines or ridges extending along the ventral suture within the cell of the ovary, and bearing the ovules. They are developed at each of the two edges of the carpellary leaf, and are consequently closely parallel when those edg, s are united, forming one double placenta in the cell of each ovary. 521. The simple carpel, with all its pai*s, is completely exemplified in thepesfc- pod. When this is laid open at the ventral a>.^uro, the leaf form becomes manifest, .vith the peas (ovules) arranged in an alternate order along each margin, so as to form but one row when the pod is closed. In the pod of columbine the ovules form two distinct rows ; in the simple plum carpel each margin bears a single ovule, and in the one-ovuled cherry only one of the margins is fruitful. 522. The stigma is the glandular orifice of the ovary, communicat- ing with it either directly or through the tubiform style. It is usually globular and terminal, often linear and lateral, but subject to great va- riations in form. It is sometimes double or halved, or 2-lobed, even when belonging to a single carpel or to a simple style, as in Linden, where these carpels are surmounted by three pairs of stigmas. 523. The compound pistil consists of the united circle of pistils, just as the monopetalous corolla consists of the united circle of petals. The union occurs in every degree, always commencing at the base of the ovary and proceeding upward. Thus in columbine we see the car- pels (pistils) quite distinct ; in early saxifrage cohering just at base ; in pink as far as the top of the ovaries, with styles distinct ; in evening primrose to the top of the styles, with stigmas distinct ; and in Rhodo- dendron the union is complete throughout. 88T 888 389 390 391 392 893 887, Ovary (follicle) of Larkspur, composed of single carpellary leaf. 388, Ovaries of the Col- umbine, five, contiguous but distinct 889, Compound ovary of Hypericum, of carpels united below with disUnct styles. .S90, Ovary of another Hypericum of three carpels completely united. 301, Ovary of Flax ; carpels five, united below, distinct above. 392, Dianthus (Pinlc). 393, Sasifrnga. 524. To determine the number of carpels in a compound ovary is an important matter. It may be known, 1, by the number of styles; 2, by the number of free stigmas (remembering that these organs are liable to be halved, § 622); 3, by the lobes, angles, or seams of the ovary ; 4, by the cells ; 6, by the placenta. THE PISTILS, OR 0> NECIUM. 107 525. Two MODES OF COHESION in the carpellary circle greatly affect the structure of the ovary and fruit. First and regularly, the carpels may be closed as when simple, and conjoined by their sides and fronts, as in lily and marsh mallow. In this case, 1, The compound ovary will have as many cells as carpels. 2, The partitions between the cells, i. e., the dissepiments {dissejno, to separate) will each be double, will meet in the center, will be verti- cal and alternate with the stigmas. 3, The single carpel can have no true dissepiment. If any ever occur it is regarded as spurious, being a membranous expansion of the dorsal suture or the placentae, as in flax. 4, The placentae as well as the ventral Siiture will be axial, and the dorsal suture on the outer wall, opposite the stigmas. 526. Again, the carpels may each be open and conjoined by their edges, as the petals in a monopetalous corolla. So it is in the com- pound ovary of the violet, rock-rose. In tins case, 1, There will be no dissepiment (unless spurious, as in the Cruciferae), and but one cell. 2, The placentae of each carpel will be separated and carried back to the wall of the ovary, i. e., they will become parietal (paries, a wall.) 527. Intermediate conditions. Between the two conditions of axile (or cen- tral) and parietal placentas we find all degrees of transition, as illustrated in the ditt'erent species of St. John'swort, and in poppy, where the inflected marpins of *he carpels carry the placentae inward, well / n.'gh to the axis. Moreover, tbo placentae l/l/l are not always mere marginal lines, but 894 896 896 897 897, Flower of Dodecatheon Meadla. 894, Vertical section showing the free central placenta. 895, Vertical section of Lucojum (Snow-flake). 896, Cross section of ovary. m .■8 'lA 108 THE OVULES. •n often wide spaces covering large portions of ihe walla of the cell, aa in poppy, water-lily, and in other cases, as Dutura, thoy become large and tieshy, nearly till- Jug the cell. 528. A FREE AAiLK PLACRNTA, without (lissepiments, occurs in some compound, ouc-ccUed ovaries, as in the pink and primrose orders. This anomaly is explained in two ways : first, by the obliteration of the early formed dissepiments, as is actually seen to occur in the pinks ; secondly, by supposing the placenta to be, at least in some cases, an axial rather than a marginal growtii ; that is, to grow from the point of the axis ratlier than from the margin of the carpellary leaf, for in primrose no dissepiments ever appear. 404 808 406 898. Sainolus Valerandi, section of flower showing the free axile placenta. 399, Ovary or Bcrophulariiiceae. 400, Ovary of Tulip. 401, Cross-section of ovary of Flux, 5-eelled, falsely 10-celled. 402, Ovary of Violet, 1-celleiL 403, Ovary of Fuchsia, 4-celled. 404, Ovary of rock- rose, 1-celled, 5-carpelled. 405 Gentianacete, 2-valved, 1-celled. 529. A. FEW PECULIAR FORMS of the Style and stigma are worthy of note in our narrow limits, as the lateral style of strawberry, the basilar style or the Lahintae and Borrageworts, the branching style of Emblica, one of the Euphorbiacea; ; also, 530. The globular stigma of Mirabilis; the linear stigma of Gyromia; the feathery stigma of grasses ; the filiform stigma of Indian corn ; the lateral stigma of Aster; the petaloid stigmas of Iris ; the hooded stigma of violet (371 — 379). 531. Stigma wanting. In the pine, cedar, and the Coniferae generally, both the style and stigma are wanting, and the ovary is represented only by a flat, open, carpellary scale bearing the naked ovules at its base. THE OVULES. 532. Their nature. Destined to become seeds in the fruit ovules are understood to be altered buds. Tlicir development from the mar- gins and inner surface of the carpel favors this view ; for the ordinary leaves of Bryophyllum and some other plants do habitually produce buds at their margin or on their upper surface; and in the mignonette ovules themselves have been seen transformed into leaves. THE OVULES. ioy 415 416 417 414 412 411 410 406, Pistil of Cclosia, tlie pericarp (k'tiiclied shDwing the young ovules. 413, Flower of Rhu- barb ; pericarp rciuoved siiowini: the young ovule. 407, A biniilar ovule (orthotropous) of Polyironum. 40s. Tiie same, full fjrown ; foramen at top. 409, Section showing its two coats, nucleus unur- tion of the funiculus adheres to the testa, fonning a ridge called raphe, reachini; from the chalaza to the h'dum. 638. It 18 CAMPYLOTROPOU8 wheu curved upon itself. In this state the niicropyle is brought near to the chalaza, and both are next the placenta, as in the pinks and Cruciferse. 539. Amphithopous when half inverted, so that its axis becomes parallel with the placenta, as in mallow. Here the raphe exists, but is short. In catnpylotropous there is no raphe. The ovule contains no young plant (embryo) yet; but a cavity, the embryo sac, is already provided to receive it just witliin the upper end of the nucleus. 540. The relations of the ovule to the pollen grain will be more suit- ably discussed hereafter under the head of fertilization. We briefly remark here that the immediate contact of the two is brought about at the time of flowering by special arrangements ; and that, as the undoubted result of their combined action, the embryo soon after originates in the embryo sac. CHAPTER XIII. mv- THE FRUIT. 641. Its origin. After having imbibed the pollen which the an- thers have discharged, the pistil or its ovary continues its growth and enlargement, and is finally matured in the form of the peculiar fruit of the plant. The fruit is, therefore, properly speaking, the ovarxj brought to perfection. 542. State op the other parts in fruit. The other organs of the flower, having accomplished their work, the fertilization of the ovary, soon wither and fall away, -.ome of them, however, often persist, to protect or become blended with the ripening fruit. Thus the tube of the superior calyx {§ 446) always blends with the ovary in fruit, as in currant, cucumber, apple, etc. In Compositae the persi.stoiit limb enlarges into the pappus of the fruit. In buttercups tiie fruit is beaked with the siiort, persistent style. In Clematis, Geum, it is caudate (tailed) with the long, growing style. In the Potato tribe, Labiata;, and many others, the inferior calyx continues to vegetate like leaves until the fruit ripens, 543. Consolidated fruit. In some cases the fruit, so-called, consists of tlio re- ceptacle and ovaries blended, as in blackberry, strawberry. Again, in mulberry, fig, pine-apple, the whole inflorescence is consolidated into the matured fruit. 544. A rule and exception. As a rule, the structure of the fruit agrees essentially with that of the ovary. In many cases, liowever, the fruit undergoes such changes in the course of its growth from the ovary as to disguise its real structure. An early examination, therefore, is always more reliable in its results than a late one. PEKICAKP. Ill 646. For sxample, tlie oak-acorn ia a fruit with but one cell and one st-ed, al- though its ovary had three cells and six ovules 1 This singular change is due tu the non-development of five of its ovules, whije the sixth grew the more rapidly, obhl- crated the dissepiments by pressing them to the wall, and filled the whole space itself. Similar changes characterisso the chestnut, hazelnut, and that whole order. The ovary of 422 419 419 41S, Section of the ovary of an ncnrn. 3-celIed, 6-ovuled. 420, Section of ovary of Birch, 2-ce!le(l,2-ovulfd. 419, Vertical section ofthe same in frii't. 422. Perl-;'..rpor Mipniomtte open soon after flowering. 421, Naked seed of Taxus Canadensis, durrounded, not, covered by the fleshy pericarp. the birch is 2-colled, 2-ovuled ; but by the suppression of one cell with its ovule, the fruit becomes 1 -celled and 1-seeded. 546. On the other hand the cells are sometimes multiplied iu the fruit by the formation of false partitions. Thus the pod of thorn-apple (Datura) becomes 4-celled from a 2-celled ovary, and tiie longer pods of some leguminous plants havo cross partitions formed between the seeds. 42S 427 428 425 424 423 Capsule, 427, of Scrophularia, 2-celled ; 42.S, of Datura Stramonium ; 425, of Iris ; 426, show- ins its mode of dehiscence (loculicidal) ; 424, of Colchlcum, 3-celled. 42S, Regma, ripe fruit of Geranium, the carpels (cocci) separating from the axis an60. Caryopsis, the grain or fruit of the grasses, is : thin, dry, 1- seedod pericarp, inseparable from the seed. 601. Samara; dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent, furnished with a mem- branous wing or wings (ash, elm, maple). 662. Glans or nut ; hard, dry, indehiscent, commonly 1-seeded by suppression (§ 646), and invested with a persistent involucre called a eupxile, either solitary (acorn, hazelnut) or several together (chestnut, beechnut). 663. Drupe, stone-fruit ; a 3-coated, 1-celled, indehiscent pericarp, exemplified in the cherry, peach. The outer coat (epidermis) is called the epicarp, the inner is the nucleus or endocarp^ hard and stony ; the intervening pulp or fleshy coat is the sarcocarp (dap^, flesh). These coats are not distinguishable in the ovary. PRRICABP. IIT) 564. Tryma, a kind of dryish drupe, 2-coated, the epicarp tibro- fleshy (butternut) or woody (hickory), the nucleus bony with its cell often deeply 2-parted (cocoa-nut). 565. Et^rio, an aggregate fruit consisting of numerous little drupes united to each other (raspberry) or to the fleshy receptacle (black- berry). 566. Berry, a succulent, thin-skinned pericarp holding the seeds loosely imbedded in the pulp (currant, grape). 567. Hesperidium a succulent, many-carpeled fruit, the rind thick, leathery, separable from the pulpy mass within (orange, lemon). 668. Pepo, an indehiscent, compound, fleshy fruit, with a hardened rind and parietal placenta) (melon). 569. The pome is a fleshy, indehiscent pericarp formed of the per- manent c^lyx, containing several cartilaginous (apple) or bony (haw) cells. 570. The pyxis is a many-seeded, dry fruit, opening like a lid by a circumscissile dehiscence (plantain, henbane, Jeffersonia). 571. The follicle is a single carpel, 1 -celled, many-seeded, opening at the ventral suture (columbine, larkspur, silk grass). 672. The legume or pod is a single carpel, 1 -celled, usually splitting into two valves, but bearing its l-oo seeds along the ventral suture only, in one row, as in the bean and all the Legumiuosae. It is sometimes curved or coiled like a snail-shell (Medicago). 673. The loment is a jointed pod, separating across into 1 -seeded portions (Desmodium). 574. SiLiQUE. This is also a pod, linear, 2-carpeled, 2-valved, 2- ccllod by a false dissepiment extended between the two parietal pla- centie. To this false dissepiment on both sides of both edges the seeds are attached (mustard). 675. SiLiCLE. This is a short silique, nearly as wide as long (shep- herd's purse). The silique and silicle are the peculiar fruit of all the Crncifera). 576. Capsule (casket). This term includes all other forms of dry, dehiscent fruits, compound, opening by as many valves as there are carpels (Iris), or by twice as many (chickweed), or by pores (poppy). 677. The reoma is a kind of capsule like that of the Geranium, whose dehiscent carpels separate elastically but still remain attached to the carpophore. 578. Strobile or cone ; an aggregate fruit consisting of a conical or oval mass of imbricated scales, each an open carpel ( 9 flower), bearing seeds on its inner side at base, i.e., axillary seeds (pine and the Gymnosperms generally). 679. The conk (syncabpium, avv, together) of the Magnolia tribe \«i| i^ m 116 PERICARP. 442 449 441 Fruits. 441, Kt.iui'io of lliibus villoBUS (Blackberry). 442, Pepo' section of ciiciunbrtr. 449, Beiry, Giiipc. 448. Pome, Onitietfus (Haw). 444, Pyxis of .TefTersonia. 44.5, Legume of Pea, 446, Lomcnt of Desmodium. 447, Siilque of Siiiapis. 448, 8ilicle of Capsella. is a mass of confluent, closed pericarps on a lengthened torus (cucinn- ber tree). 680. The fig (syconus) is an agc^regate fruit, consisting of numer- ous seed-like pericarps inclosed within a hollow, fleshy receptacle wliere the flowers were attached. 681. Other confluent fruits (sorosis) consist of the entire in- florescence developed into a mass of united pericarps, as in the mul- berry, osage-orange, pine-apple. 451 460 462 449, bis. IL/^ 44», bis, Strobile of PInus. 460, Tlie FIk (syconus). 461, Sorosis of Mulberry. 4.V2, Hip of Rosa» achenla nearly inclosed in the leathery calyx tube. THE SEED. 117 CHAPTER XIV. THE SEED. 582, The seed is the perfected ovule, having an embryo formed with- in, which is the rudiment of a new plant similar in all respects to th« original. The seed consists of a nucleus or kernel invested with 583. The integument8 or coverings. The outer covering is the testa, the inner the tegmen, as in the ovule. The latter is thin and delicate, often indistinguishable from the testa. 46:J 4M 46i 462 460 458 454 455 456 457 45S 459 Seed of Water- Lily (Nyinphiea), cnlartfsd section; '<^ft,, alhiimen ;