^, ^f^^. >.^, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // ^ >. -^ 4^ ■» ■'>> 1.0 I.I 11.25 ■a 12.8 Vi lU ct u liO 25 2.2 2.0 u |i4 6" moiograpnic Sciences Corporation 33 WIST MAIN STRKT WiUTIR,N.Y. I4SM (716)172-4503 4. ^\ 3>^ V <^ "^ ^1^"^ ^J^ \ ^^z^^ ^ CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICIVIH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian da microraproductions historiquas \ <\ ^ T«chnieal and Bibliographic Notaa/Notas taehniquaa at liibliographiquaa Tha Inatltuta haa anamptad to obtain tha baat originai copy availabia for ftiming. Faaturaa of thia copy which may ba bibiiographioaily uniqua. which may aitar any of tha imagaa in tha raproduction. or which may aignifieantly ehanga tha uauai mathod of fiiming. ara ehaeliad balow. □ Colourad covara/ Couvarturo da eoulaur pn Covara damagad/ Couvartura andommagAa □ Covart raatorad and/or laminatad/ Couvartura raataurAa at/ou palliculte □ Covar titia miaaing/ La titra da couvartura manqua □ Colourad mapa/ Cartaa gdographiquaa it eoulaur D D D D D Colourad ink (i.a. othar than blua or black)/ Encra da eoulaur (i.a. autra qua blaua ou noira) I — I Colourad plataa and/or illuatratlona/ Planchaa at/ou illuatratlona un eoulaur Bound with ottiar matarial/ Rail* avae d'autraa documanza Tight binding may cauaa shadowa or diatortion along intarior margin/ Laraiiura aarrte peut cauaar da I'ombra ou da la dislbraion la kHig da la marga inlAriaura Blank laavaa addad during raatoration may appaar within tha taxt. Whanavar poaaibia, thaaa hava baan omittad from filming/ II aa paut qua cartainaa pagaa blanchaa ajoutiaa iora d'una raatauration apparaiaaant dana la taxta. maia, loraqua cala Atait poaaibia. caa pagaa n'ont paa 4ti film^aa. Additional commanta:/ Commantairaa supplAmantairaa: Th to L'Inatitut a microfilm^ la maiilaiir axampiaira qu'il lul a itA poaaibia da sa procurer. Lea dAtaiia da cat axampiaira qui tont paut<*tra uniquaa du point da vua bibliographiqua. qui pauvant modifier una image raproduita. ou qui peuvent exiger une modification dana la m^hoda normahi da fiimaga •ont indiquAa d-deeaoue. rn Coloured pagea/ D Pagaa da e juiaur Pagae damaged/ Pagee endommagAaa □ Pagaa restored and/or laminated/ Pagae reatauriaa et/ou peilicul4ea Pagae dieeoloured. ttainei or foxed/ Pagee dAcolor^NM. tachetiee ou piqui Pagee dAcolor^NM. tachetiee ou piquAea Pagae detached/ Pagee dAtachAea Showthrough/ Tranaparance Quality of prin Qualiti inigala do rimpreaalon Includae aufiplamentary mateni Comprend du metiriel aupplAmentaira ^nly edition available/ Seuie Mition disponibie rn Pagae detached/ rri Showthrough/ r~] Quality of print variae/ r~| Includae aufiplamentary material/ r~: ^jnly edition available/ Pagaa wholly or partially obscured by errata slips, tissuaa. etc.. have been refilmed to eneure the beet poaaibia image/ Lee pagae totaiement ou partiallement obacurcias per un feuillet d'errata. une pelure. etc.. ont 4ti fiimiea i nouveeu de fepon i obtenir la mellleure image pcssible. T» po of fill Or be th si< ot fir sic or Th sh< TH vti Ml dif em be( r'.gl req ms This item is filmed at tha reduction ratio checked below/ Ce docuipent eat film* au taux de riduction indiqu* ci*deeaoua. 10X 14X 18X 22X 2SX aox y ~ 12X 16X aox a4x 28X 32X Th« copy filmtd h«re hat h—n r«produc«cl thanks to tha ganarosity of: National Library off Canada L'axampiaira fiim4 fut raproduit grica i la g*n4rositA da: BibiiothAqua nationala du Canada Tha imagas appaaring hara ara ;ha batt quality poasibia considaring tha condition and lagibiiity off tha original copy and in kaaping with tha ffilming contract spaciffications. Original copiaa in printad papar covara ara fllmad baginning with tha front covar and anding on tha laat paga with a printad or llluatratad impraa- sion, or tha back covar whan appropr'ata. All othar original copiaa ara filmad baginning on the first paga whh a printad cr llluatratad impraa- •ion, and anding on tha last paga with a printad or llluatratad imprasaion. Laa imagas suhrantas ont 4tA raproduitaa avac la plus grand aoln, compta tanu da la condition at da la nattatA da Taxamplaira film*, at an conformity avac las conditions du contrat da fllmaga. Laa axamplairaa originaux dont la couvartura an papiar aat imprim4a sont filmte an commandant par la pramiar plat at an tarminant soit par la darnlAra paga qui comporta una amprainta d'impraaslon ou d'illustration, soit par la sacond plat, aalon la caa. Tous las autras axamplairaa originaux aont filmis an commandant par la pramiAra paga qui comporta una amprainta d'impraaairn ou d'illustration at an tarminant par la darnlAra paga qui comporta una talla amprainta. Tha last r^cordad frama on aach microficha shall contain tha symbol — ^> {moaning "CON- TINUED"), or tha symbol y (maaning "END"), whichavar appllaa. Un daa symbolas suivanta apparattra sur la darnlAra Imaga da chaqua microficha, salon la caa: la symbols «»• signiffia "A SUIVflE", la aymbola ▼ aignifia "FIN". Maps, platas. charta, ate, may ba filmad at diffarant raduction ratios. Thosa too larga to ba antiraly includad In ona axpoaura ara fllmad baginning in tha uppar laft hand corner, lafft to right and top to bottom, as many fframaa as raquirad. Tha following diagrams illustrata tha method: Laa cartaa, planchas, tableaux, etc., peuvent Atre f llmAa k daa taux da reduction diff Grants. Loraque la document est trop grand pour Atre raproduit en un aeul ciichA, 11 est f llmA A partir de I'angle supArieur gauche, de gauche k droite, et de haut en lias, on prenant la nombre d'imegea nAceaaaire. Les diagrammea suivants illuatrent la mAthoda. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. WITH AN APPENDIX coktainino Thb Statutory Provisions and the Regulations relating to Continuation Classes, Duties of Teachers and Pupils, Agreements, etc., the Courses of Study and Requirement for High and Public Schools, County Model Schools, Normal Schools, AND THE Ontario Normal College. JOHN MILLAR, B.A., Deputy Minister of Education for Ontario. TORONTO: WII^LIAM BRIGGS, Wesley Buildings. Montrbal: C W. COATSS. Halifax: S. F. HUESTIS. M5 . 1 '. ', *■'. ' -.ft. ' .'■ ,-■«'" I EMTMttD Moording to Act of the ParlUtment t>f Can«da, in th« ytar oim tbotuand «ight hundrad ftnd ninety-Mvan, by WiLi.'\M BmoGS, at the Dtpwrtneat of Agriculture. > v:--'/ *' A; • '■.'-. j! ■ •.','■ PREFACE. > '. , .:. * •"."-}-]'• '-'■■ ' Tbb foUowing pages aro the outcome of seyeral yesra' experi- ence and observation as a teacher, and of a careful study of many of the best books on systems of education and on the science of pedagogy, llie aim has been to prepare a volume especially adapted to the wants of Canadian teachers in High and Public Schools, and to present, in an intelligible and scientific way, the broL 1 outlines and essential diaracteristics of School Management and the principles and practice of teaching. Many well-known features of our educational sjmtem render it unnecessary for the purposes of the teachers of this Province to discuss, at any great leng^th, several topics that find a legitimate place in standard works of the kind that are designed for use in England or in the United States. The fact that in Ontario every candidate for a position as teacher is required to take a course of professional training, will be a sufficient excuse for omitting many details and useful illus- trations that are readily and fully brought to notice in the County Model Schools, the Normal Schools, and the School of Pedagogy. It should also be recollected that our High and Public Schools are placed under the supervision of Inspectors whose scholarship and practical acquaintance with education enable teachers to receive officially from them timely sug- gestions that might otherwise call for consideration in a book on the government of schools. The statutory requirements W r IV PREFACE. respeoting uniform text-books, programmes of study, duties of trustees, etc., have, to a further extent, limited the scope of the work. It is believed, however, that other matters of School Management, which concern both High and Public Schools, are discussed more fully, and it is hoped not less scientifically, than in the larger volumes that are now in use. .V In the preparation of the work, advantage has been taken of the valuable contributions from leading American and European writers to the subject of pedagogy. It would be Impossible to give full credit to the many persons — many of them teachers or Inspectors in Ontario— from whom the author has, under various circumstances, gathered opinions which have helped to foi^ his convictions on many questions here discussed. He has not scrupled to make use of any available facts or arguments from the Educational Reports of other countries that in his judgment throw light upon the function of the school, and he has not hesitated to dissent from the views of some eminent writers upon a few topics concerning which his reading and observation have led him to form differ- enii conclusions. He may, however, claim to have been guided mainly in the formation of the views set forth, not by the study of theories, but by the practical knowledge he acquired as a teacher, either as assistant or as principal, in the rural school, in the graded city school, or in the High School, or Collegiate Institute. It is hoped the book may be found to embody the leading thoughts on school organization, instruction and government, so far as they are serviceable in the school-room.- Attention is not given— partly for reasons already mentioned — to the many mechanical details of school work. The object has been to 4e9crib9 tb9 fundamental princi|>les that shoiild 4ir9ct t^e fl PREFACK teacher in the discharge of his duties, and to furnish a scien- tific basis upon which the intelligent educator may build his own methods and shape his own devices. The wants of young teachers, and especially the needs of ungraded schools, have been carefully kept in mind, but it is felt that the great principles that underlie teaching and discipline are the same for all classes of schools and for all subjects of instruction. Soir: chapters, though dealing with subjects, the considera- tion of which could not be excluded from a treatise on Sohool Management, necessarily introduce questions that have, in Canada, as well as in other countries, been matters of some controversy. It is not, therefore, to be presumed that the opinions expressed will meet with universal acceptance. An effort has been made, however, to discuss every subject fairly, and though the author cannot hope to agree with the theories and methods advanced by all persons, the belief is entertained that the conclusions he has reached will be concurred in by the great body of teachers, Ins]r' 'ors and other practical educationists. " No attempt has been made to describe or sugg&' methods of teaching specific branches of the curriculum. Tho many valuable books, in which this kind of professional work is taken up, should be carefully studied by those who aim to become specialists in certain departments. What most teach- ers need, however, is not a knowledge of "methodology," but a thorough acquaintance with those broad principles of psychology and the science of education that are applicable to every subject of the school course. There is danger that the value of "methods" and "lesson plans," which are not, however, condemned, may be unduly magnified in the minds of young teachers, and that " specialization " in the case of FRKVAOI. 80I100I woffk may be onrsMonably eialted unleas wid« ■ohoUnhip and ability to teaoh a namber of aabjooU are oon- tinuad to ba ragavAed aa naoaaaary attainmanta d thoaa who an to baooma adaoatoia in tha higheak aanaa of tha term. It is beooming move generally aoknowladged that from a noiml, iatallaotaal, and material point of riew, national edu- cation ia tha great qoaation of tiia futore, and that progreaa can ba aeeaved mJy 6y rmiting M« «tof«u of the Ucuktr. Higher attainmanta in all matterri that oonoem the qualiftoa- tiona of thn taaehar ara felt to ba needed, and the oonriotion ia growing that in the p a rfwm anoa of hia daty the important work of akoraefcr bmUding must be maintained aa the diief function of tha iohool, and that this tiuth must plaoe in tha foregronnd the pnvmaUty of the educator aa tlie gr e at dmitmtwm. To train hia pnpila so that they may become uaaful oitiMiM — men and wom«i of the highest diaiacter — , inflaanoad by lofty aima and fillei with noble impulaes, ahould ba tha ambitioa of evary peiaon who enters the prof easion. If this Tolume shall help to inspire candidates for the toacher'a ealling with higher aa^rations for adTanoament and oaefulness, and ahall, in aonw aeasore, increase publio interasA in the important qnaation of national education, the anthor'a labors in its praparaftioa will not hava been in Tain. "S' Edooatiov DiPARmm, JOHN MILLAB. V. I « - . • •'; ' r ^ . . ■ ■■■ ' i ■ , '•: ' r CONTENTS. ' ,. V •■■ -' — - ■' • .. -"I • OHirm FACi L Thx FuMonoN or thb School ....*.... n. Phtsioal Gui^iubi 18 in. iNTXUJtOTUAL DXVKIX>PMKNT ......... 32 lY, Tki Flaci or Bsuoion ix Ijchool 43 ., V, MoRAX* Trainino fia VL Ohaeaotbb BniLOiNo , 7^ Vn. The Teaohsb's QuAuriCATioNS 02 VIIL DnoipuNB. 103 IX. School Incentives 113 X. Punishments 129 XL School Organization 152 Xn. School Programmes 169 XIII. Methods or Conducting Recitations 184 Xrv. Principles or Teaching ........... 204 XY. The Art or Quzstionino 210 XYI. Written Examinations 237 Appendix 266 'J. Indkx 304 '....■' ,=-.,. -■ //, / i\ J. ** What is the Teacher*8 toorkf It is to develop the tntnd, to mould the heart, and to form the character of the future citizens, magistrates, and rulers of our land? It is to teach and implant that which is the on^y true guarantee of liberty, order, and social stability — the essential element of a country'* prosperity and happiness." — Extnot from official circular of Augrust 14th, 1860, the flnfc addrawed to the teaohere of the province by the Rev. Egerton Byenon, LL.D., Chief Superin- tendent of Education. £'■."'- :» _,-'■ -... 7 ■f'.i * .. . : "> . SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. . »■ I M CHAPTER I. -. ■ \ ;■■.■■. X THK FUNCTION OF THE SCHOOL. ' Correct Views Needed. — In order to know how to manage a school well, it is important to have right views regarding what is to be accomplished. Every person active in educational work should understand the nature and extent of his responsibilities, and the means by which his duties are to be performed. One of the chief causes of failure in teaching is the l ack of well-defined purpose on the part of those entrustedwitk the training oi pupils. A knowledge of the end to be reached determines the means to be employed, and directs aright the methods to be used. A wrong view of education leads to bad school management, and this produces bad teaching, bad discipline, bad training. Without a proper conception of the ends to be sought, the principles to be followed, and the methods to be adopted, in managing a school, there can be no ideal, no distinct aim, and no right appreciation of the value of the teacher's work. The function of the school, its responsibilities and its limitations, are matters that should be understood by the practical educationist. School Manas:ement— School Management ig jbhat department of the Soienoe of Education which trjafai of r-: 10 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. I ; . t he best means of directing school affairs ao as to secure e fficiency . It includes not only school^gso^omy, but also schoo l dis cipline and school ethics. It has for its object the regulation of all school work, and embraces all that (pertains to the training given by the teacher. The orgam^ zation of the school, the government employed, the! programmes of study taken up, the methods of instruction 1 adopted, the examinations held, and the promotions made, 1 are all included in what the term implies. The school J| buildings and furniture, the use of text-books^ attention to records, as well as the duties of inxpectors, teachers, trustees and pupils, are matters, connected with the same depwianent of education. The scope of Sdiool Management is therefore veciy extensive and many voliimeB would be needed to convey a fair knowledge of its details. In a more restricted sense, it merely includes a knowledge of th ose princtples of the Scienoe of JBdueatiog nrhicfa will enaULe the teaehflr to dirflctJntelli iriMit^y the fo roes »t his oonunMods^In other words, the prindples and general ineiiiodsby which pupils «re tau^t and governed, are what it moiniy embraces, and the teacher is sueoess- fol in the Art of Teanhing, who trains children to be •ymmetrically developed men and wpmfin*' "^ "^^ tib«> pnwftra ^f body and of mind.^ Complete education will embrace the traimng, by appropriate exercises, of the physical and mental faculties. This will necessitate the acquisition of such knowledge as will benefit the individual and the community. The child is not to be train ^ pr^j|f^arily tn aion. However important these matters may be, they are only of secondary consideration to the teacher. The chief object he should have in view is that of training each pupil to become a man or a woman in the highest sense of the term Any narrow conception of the scope of education limits the horizon of the educator, and restricts the application of those principles upon which every efficient system of instruction is based. '* The purpose of education is to give to the body and to the soul «11 the beauty and all the perfection of which they are capable."— Pfato. s 11 FUNCnON OF THE SCHOOL. 13 "I oall m oompleto and generoiu edaoation that which fits a man to perfonn jnstly, skilfully, and magnanimously all the offices, both public and private, of peace and of war." — Milton. ** Education is the preparation for complete living.*' — Spencer. '* Education is the preparation of the individual for reciprocal union with society ; the preparation of the individual so that he can help his fellow-men, and in return receive and appropriate their help.'*— JT. T. Harris. Kinds of Education. — ^To reach full development the child passes through a complex process. This process is harmonious, beautiful and consistent, but it is varied in its nature. The varieties of education are parts of what must be combined in due proportion if the result is to be complete. If any essential department of education is neglected, the effect will be harmful or disastrous. The full y educated person jiasjg tored his m fnd with Irnnwladgft in su ch a way that his inteUe ctualig.iLuIties.ffly.e~bim a^^\]] and power. His moral nat '"^ ift a^ #^ftlrft1^po/^ fjiof. hfi.hftP a delicate appreciation of duty, and a will f^a.^-. r«>nffi]y responds to *^^hg„^*^^V^» f>^ *^" anligbf-Piy^^ nnnanifln^A His body has been t raine d to per form its functions in obedience to the intelligent demands of his moral impulse s. He has, besides, recognized his relationship to his Maker and to his fellow-beings. In addition to these essential features of a general education, he has, so far as his ability and opportunities will permit, received such special training as will fit him for the position in which he is placed as a member of society. It is evident education has many sides, but it is convenient to speak of it under the heads here enumerated, viz.: (1) Religious Education; (2) Moral Edu- cation; (3) Intellectual Education; (4) Physical Education ; and (5) Special Education. The first of these is chief in importance; but, as will be shown hereafter, it does not (»me within the range of ordinary school work. Special XSi*>^ r 14 aOHOOL MANAGXIIXNT. Educafcion, except in a alight way, has also no plaoa in the programmes of elemeintary or secondary schools. Means of Education. — All the influences in life that go to form character are the means that give a person his education. I n early inf ancy the child is educated by the experience gained through the n atural activity of the instincts . The simple knowledge acquired in childhood develofM mental activity, and the ezeroiae of the inteUectnal and physical faculties forms habits. Under the guidance of p arents , influences of a potent kind are brought to bear oiTthe plastic nature of the ehild. If these influenoee are exercised with definite purpose, and in a methodical and otherwise judicious manner, a great and good start has been made before the school days have begun. Im pnlae a that are th e product of the home , of as sociati on with young companions, and of the wnv ironm ent generally, soon mould the nature of the child. Sel f -educa tion commences before school life is entered upon, and continues to be the main process in every educational force. In the school the intellectual faculties are exercised under the inteUigent guidance of the teacher, and the moral convictions i\re formed or strengthened. In his intercourse with society in his own reading and reflection, and in his relatiomi with the Church and other organizations, the opinions and liabits of the pupil are powerfully directod. His training does not end when he leaves school. The education which is carried on in mature years, when the full possession of his mental powers has been gained, furthvw determines his character as a man and the position he will occupy. The more commanding his position in life, and the greater the demands made on his mental faculties, the more con- tinuous will be the forces that make for higher intellectual development. , . ■X'.- THE TUVOnOV OF THE BOROOL. 15 ' Scope of School Education.'-School life hat to do with various a«p«ot0 of the sifttiure of the child. To promote hif morsl well-being comes fint in Talne. Hi* intdleetiial faonltiee are onltiTated in order that he maj readilf acquire such knowledge as will enlarge hit powers and increase his skill. In view of the dependence of mental development upon bodily strength, the school must give due a^jtention to physical culture (Chapter II.). Human happiness, as wdl as human usefulness, depends largely upon the cultivation of the moral nature. Intellectnal exercises should be carried on at all times with the object of building up character. As will be shown hereafter (Chapter Y.), good teaching implies good moral training; but it is well known that the intellect may be sharpened while the moral nature is blunt. There can be no sound cultivation of the moral faculties that does not enlist in its service the intelligence of the pupil. A mere apprehension of the rules of conduoty without a rational conception of righteousness, will never raise a person high in the scale of moral dignity. When the intelligence is exercised regarding moral principles, and when these principles are actua^./ tested by daily applying them, they become more pregnant with meaning, more commanding in obligation, and therefore more serviceable as guides through life. Harmonious development demands that other agencies than the school should perform their functions. Th^ duties of parents or those of the Church cannot be thrown on the teacher. Beligious, moral, intellectual and physical education should be carried on concurrently j but this does not imply that the scope of school education is the same in each case. It is not the province of the teacher to prescribe the food necessary for the soul any more than it is to prescribe the kind of food which parents should give 16 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. to their children for the nourishment of their bodies. A want of due recognition of the function of the school, and a tendency to ignore the other educational agencies, have given rise many times to gross misconceptions and unreasonable expectations. Limitations. — The school is limited in its functions; i^d, as a consequence, the responsibility of the teacher, though great^ has also its limitations. The school is a powerful agency in mentally and morally enlightening the people. It is desirable to magnify the calling of the teacher, but the practice of measuring his worth by the success of a few brilliant pupils should be deprecated. In this respect the teacher is exposed to great temptations. The public have not a ready means of measuring a teacher's worth by the highest standards. The best work is not always noticed. Honors won and certificates gained by the bright members of the class are too often the only tests appreciated (Chapter XYL). As a teacher sows, so will he reap. The desire to turn out clever pupils as graduates of his school is not to be ignored, but the teacher who puts forward success of this kind as the chief criterion of his ability, may find his value estimated by his own standard when failure comes to students of his school who have weak intellectual powers. It is not the function of the school to furnish brains to children. " Education can improve nature, but not com- pletely change it," was the opinion of Aristotle. No educational process can drav) out what is not in the mind. The most skilful teacher has no philosopher's stone to turn into gold what is only lead. The average pupil is not a genius. It is not in the power of the school to create, bnt to strengthen and improve. The child at birth is not ,:. »:&;!* THE FUNCTION OF THE SCHOOL. 17 68. A 8ohool| rencies, ins and Lotions ; leacher, >ol is a htening : of the by the ed. In stations, leacher's c is not ined by ily tests > will he iuates ler who iriterion own il who rains to >t com- . No mind. Ito turn is not [create, is not without inherited tendencies. Failure to recognize this fact has lA to many disappointments in education. The function of the school is not to supersede, but to supplement, the education of the family. It is bound, so far as opportunity allows, to maintain equally with the parent, the pupil's bodily strength. It must foster the growth of morality, which it is the duty of parents to implant, and must make up, so far as possible, for any defects in parental discipline. It must strengthen with due prudence religious sanctions (Chapter IV.), as the only sound basis of morality, and never use any means that would arouse denominational hostility. It is not the function of the school to train pupils for special callings in life. What occupations pupils should follow may often need guidance, but in no case should the Public School be made an institution for fitting pupils for any particular trade or profession. Doubtless the success of students in school will often determine the course subsequently taken up; but mental development neces- sarily gives greater choice in deciding upon a future career, and in any country with an efficient school system, aspira- tions and ambitions are not only to be expected, but to be commended, f REFERENCES. Roaenkranz.— The Philosophy of Educaticm, Part I. Z^tcne.— Institutes of Education, Lectures L and IL Payne.— Lectures on the Theory of Education. , ^SjKTtcer.— Education, Chapters II., HI. and IV. Landon.— School Management, Part I. ^ain.— Education as a Science, Chapter L fTaiTM.— Report as Co mm j nw i w w r of ff^iOM^iiDn for UOO'91. CShapter XXIX. . » . - ■•^■i^ \ • ■ • y-'^^r. ■■■;■ ' .^:Vv CHAPTER II. PHYSICAL CULTURE. Importance of Physical Training.— Any system of education would be seriously detective that did not give prominence to the laws of health. The value of bodily strength was felt by the Persians, the Greeks, and the Romans ; and the n<*tions of modtrn Europe and of America are becoming n^ore fully alive to its demands. The researches of science, and especially the study of hygienic laws, are saving intelligent nations from blind empiricism. Protection against disease is an important matter, since a condition of health is the foundation upon which all physical culture must rest. •; V. v It is clear that matters of every-day occurrence call for more attention to all that affects bodily vigor. Not one person in ten takes proper care of his health. Broken-down constitutions indicate lamentable negligence. Statistics show an amount of sickness that might have been lessened. Premature deaths are numerous. Experimental psychology has furnished us with data that may be turned to great advantage. Sweden has pointed out the large number of boys and girls — especially the latter — that are troubled with headaches and weak spines. Germany has called attention to the defective eyesight of many of its people. French physicians have urged a halt regarding the pres- sure of school studies. Educational reformers in England, Canada and the United States are strongly advocating '■% PHYSICAL CULTURE. 19 more attention to physical training. The words of the immortal Juvenal — **Men9 aana in corpore satio " — embody a principle which should be widely recognized. The Duty of the School. — Physical culture must have its placo in the school. Physiology and hygiene should form part of the curriculum. Sanitary conditions cannot be ignored by trustees. The health of the child, his rapid growth during school age, and the effect of this rapid development upon his ability to study, demand the careful attention of all school authorities. , -r- In a new and sparsely settled country, where the inhabitants are mostly connected with agriculture, some of the dangers to health which beset large cities are absent. The problems relating to school life become more complin cated when questions affecting a supply of pure water, the disposal of sewage, the heating and ventilation of large buildings, and the organization of graded schools, are pressing for solution. The haste to advance from one class to another, the demands upon the young organism in the critical period of its growth, the aspirations that stimulate mental activities, and the numerous exposures to danger, render it imperative that the work of the school should be carried on in such a way as will not foster intellectual development at the expense of bodily vigor. Instruction in Hygiene. — The ignorance of the most elementary principles of hygiene so often shown, proves that the subject should have its place in the public school programme. It may be made interesting to pupils if divested, as it can be, of many of the terms pertaining to anatomy, physiology and chemistry. Children should have some scientific knowkdge of the food they enjoy, l^e air they breathe, the rest they require, the bodies they use, the care required of the eyes, and the voioe to be trained. 20 SCHOOL MANAOBMBirr. It is irratioDal to require students to understand mathe- matics, history, botany, drawing, philology, et<}., and at the same time to give them no means of gaining a knowledge of the muscles, the nervous system, respiration, digestion, the evils of narcotics, the circulation of the blood, and the laws that govern the development of the body. Healthfulness of School Site.— The site of \ school should not be chosen where children may be exposed to accident, or where there is danger of con- tracting disease. The day is gone by when, for the sake of getting a site for nothing, a school is located near a swamp, or near stagnant water, where malarial or mias- matic vapors abound. If built in a town or city, it should not be placed w)iere the occupants breathe the gases and effluvia arising from improperly drained streets, neighboring factories or stables, or leaky and defective sewers. Apart from sanitary requirements, the mir- roundings should be attractive, the grounds fenced, well laid out and ornamented, and necessary provisions made to secure ready ingress and egress. For purposes of health, one of the most important accessories of the school-house is the play-ground. Whether it is used as a place for continuing the discipline of the school-room, or simply as a spot where the children may be free to pursue their games, its size, location and exposure should be carefully considered. Pupils are more easily con- trolled when their environments are agreeabla Good facilities for play and recreation are essential to good discipline. Interest should be taken in Arbor Day observances and in every other means of improving the school grounds. The cultivation of the aesthetic taste in these, and in other directions, will secure greater regu- UkHtj of attendance, and promote good order and that \ II A' ■ PHTSIOAL CULTURE. 21 in love for Bohool life wkioh, in itself, is helpful to physical growth. The Building^. — This is not the place to mention in detail the requirements of school architecture. The regulations compel trustees to comply with important sanitary conditions. In the erection of a school-house, utility, c omfort and beauty may be combin ed. Health is the first consideration. It is hard to preserve order in a room where no regard has been paid to these requirements. The school-house should be the pride of the community. Commodious schools furnish more working space and a better supply of pure air. Small, low, over-crowded school-rooms show wretched economy. A few paltry dollars will often be grudged for what may be needed for the comfort, health, and even for the safety of the lives, of children. School Furniture. — The furniture of a school should be selected with due regard for the comfort of the pupils. Good order, as well as health, forbids the use of seats that are too high or too low. Dangling feet or cramped limbs are soon att-^ended with restlessness and disturbance. In a rural school, seats of different heights are usually provided. Even in a graded school, unless thare are practical diffi- culties in the way, a similar arrangement has its advan- tage, when pupils of different sizes are put in the same class. The object is sometimes met by the use of foot- rests, or by means of " adjustable " seats and desks — i.e., seats and desks that may be adjusted to the size of the occupant. It is to be regretted that sufficient attention has not always been given to the question of suitable school furniture. Not to speak of nervous disorders, round shoulders, sunken chests, curvature of the spine, and other physical defects, which are often due to improper positions it SCIKX i. MANAGEMENT. of pupil* in sctiuol, much inattention and disorder ara fraoeuble to the Hume cuuhas. Heating;. — The (< mperaturo of a school should be from 65 to 70 degrees, i^'ahrenheit, so that every pupil is oointorta^ W warm, whatever part of the room he occupies. The thermometer should be frequently consulted. A tem- perature too high or too low distracts attention, renders pupils dull, destroys intellectual activity, and endangers health. School trustees are slow in adopting modern methods of heating. A common stove, without any pro- vision for ventilation or any plan of moistening the air, is still found in many rural schools and even in some city schools. Defects of this kind render it the more imperative for the teacher to see that the children are not exposed to draughts, or to excessive heat or cold. Carelessness here is next to a crime. More excusable to neglect grammar or arithmetic than to be blind to the importance of the health ond physical comfort of the ;[>upils. Ventilation. — Good school wurk needs pure blood, and pure blood largely depends upon pt^re air. Anyone who in winter enters a crowded and badly ventilated school, and notices the vitiated atmosphere which pupils and teachers breathe, will not wonder at the disastrous results to health that are ascribed to bad ventilation. Bad air sends noxious elements to the blood, depresses the organs of circulation and respiration, produces languor, and destroys th'? |»'o b- ures of school life. It makes the pupils stupid, s'nl 'J. v apt to cause the teacher to grow irritable and cross, in a badly ventilated room the energy flags, weariness follows, the work i^uffers, and the order is poor. Listlessness, head- ache, giddi/A. 1 and dulness are signs of a vitiated atmos phere. I^ c -.Al ventilated room a good teacher feels energetic, a.titi ^f^ okuldreu 7f;^ily respond to his detnftuda for mental <6Ck\ertk< i. PHYSICAL CULTURE. 28 ■ ■ ■■ t ; The question of ventilation is clo»uly ooiineoted with that of heating, and bo h are now receiving much attention. Unfortunately, window ventilation ia stili thf^ only method adopted in a great many sch«x>ls. To protect tlie pupils from exposure, and to keep the room supplied with pure air, will require careful study. The lack of thought an the pt' '^' of the teacher often compels children to sit in a room wiiich for one hour is filled with a hot, stifling atmosphere, and for the next with air almost as cold as that outside. A teacher who becomes so absorbed in teaching as not to anticipate the state of the atmosphere for the u»xt hour, is unfit for his position. Lighting^. — Light is essential to good health. A half- lighted room has a gloomy look, and exercises a depressing effect on teacher and pupils. Children should tiot be al lowed to sit with the sunshi ne either coming i n tE< a r It is a mistake, however, eyes or beating on their ne aas. to exclude sunlight from the room. Large window s and plenty of them will, with a judicious arrangement of blinds, readily secure all that is desired. Pupils should not be required to face the windows. Facing the light often produces pain in the eyes, headache, general nervous irritation, and possible injury to the sight. Th&.beg ^ light for a scho ol-room is from the left of the pupils. Buildings are not always planned wUlTIEis oSj« ?t in view, and, therefore, greater care devolves upon the teacher. Too often low windows, glazing (which diminishes the light), and badly tinted walls are to be found, as well as an arrangement of furniture which brings pupils in their own light. The cultivation of house plants is to be encouraged, but the absurd habit of darkening rooins by placing too many plants in the windows should be avoided. , ^ , . •. ^. u BCtlOOL MANAGSMfiKT. Cleanliness. — "Cleanliness is next to godline^s,^ is a maxim the truth of which science will not dispute. Nothing is more certain to sanitarians than that disease revels in dirt, dampness and darkness. Soap and civ iliza- Hnn ftrft inspp^^ahlft A free use of water promotes mental growth as well as physical vigor. The school-room must be kept scrupulously clean, and children must be trained to avoid bringing in dirt, spitting on the floor, or forming other objectionable habits of this nature. A judicious teadier can, without giving offence, accustom children to pay proper attention to personal cleanliness. Much good may be accomplished by giving plain talks to little chil- dren on the necessity of forming regular habits, and on the consequent importance of attending promptly to all the calls of nature. In these matters parents are often remiss, and a false delicacy limits teachers in their duties. It is time trustees were compelled to give more attention to the construction of the outside buildings. Care should be taken to have the closets frequently cleaned, and placed under regular inspection. Apart from sanitary considera- tions, negligence here is an obstacle to moral training, and a sure sign, if overlooked by the teacher, of bad discipline. The paths leading to the closets, where the latter (as is generally the case) are separated from the buildings, should be kept free from dampness, dirt or obstruction. In winter the snow should be promptly cleared away. Care- lessness is a sure sign of neglect on the part of the responsible school authorities. Disinfectants when needed should be applied. It is scarcely necessary to add that the closets, if not properly connected with the building, should be screened or sufficiently retired, and not con- spicuously placed in the play grounds. Separate provisions for the sexes is imperative. PHYSICAL CULTUIIB. 25 \ Fatigue. — The brain, like any other physical or^an, ■ is benefited by effort, but it becomes wearied with over- exertion. For healthy exercise it needs the nourishment that comes from good food, pure water, fresh air, and a vigorous circulation. Mental ^exercise sho uld be suited to the stage of d evelopment and to th ft a-gftof ^^ift-pipiT^'Tlitt first intellectual enorts should not go much beyond the acquisition of knowledge gained through the senses. JThe power of attention cannot be secured at once, and further . time will be needed for that of conception, judgment and reason. To attempt at an early age llie abstractions of grammar, the principles of science, or the reasoning of mathematics, is to produce weariness and to dwarf the intellect. Fatigue may often be prevented by a wise arrange- ment of the time table (Chapter XII.). In the case of young children, school life should not be made unhappy by assigning much home work. There should be no x interference with the necessary physical exercises of the , evening. Abundant sleep is & primary condition of sound health, profitable study, and mental and physical growth. Frequent alternation of oodily and mental exertion will often prevent fatigue and promote physical, as well as intellectual, development. It is a sound rule in elementary classes to avoid the continuation of any effort up to the point of weariness. Children need rest, and any neglect of sleep or recreation is pernicious in its consequences. A healthy child is benefited by mental exercise, provided the exertion does not cause fatigue. The annual examination, if the classification is good, should never injuriously affect the bodily condition of a scholar who has had during the year proper intellectual work of a reproductive nature. When work has been done in a 26 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 7., f hurried way, and pupils expected, by storing their memories with badly-digested matter, to complete in one year what should require two, it is no wonder that the examination is approached with nervous anxiety, or that it demands a vast expenditure of effort, and gives rise to worry, fatigue and even bodily collapse (Chapter XVI.). Good teaching produces pleasure and not tatigue. Mental fatigue may be due to the neglect of bodily exercise, but it is a mistake to require immediately from the over-taxed student a large amount of physical exertion. His condition may demand economy of nervous energy, perfect repose of brain, and therefore no difficult gynr- nasties. A good walk, or a run in the green fields, vdll free the mind and rest the head better in such a case than any system of physical exercise. There are physiological reasons that should prevent a thoughtful teacher from ignoring the apathy often shown to drill and gym- nastics by intellectual students. Severe gymnastics are not desirable in any case. To become a scholar and an athlete is difficult. Physical Exercise. — Physical growth, like intellec- tual or moral development, cannot be secured without exercise. Lessons in hygiene will not give bodily strength. Exercise of the body is a direct relief from exercise that is purely intellectual. If the limbs are exercised, a better growth of the various structures of the brain is the result. Bodily exertion promotes also moral restraint, and secures oetter discipline in school. Too often it has been supposed that physical culture is valuable only because it sustains and improves the bodily strength by expanding the lungs, quickening the circulation, and developing the muscles. It does all this and more. It contributes to brain growth, uid to the symmetrioal development of the mental faculties. ■V J* PHYSICAL CULTURE. If •V .■-;* In the matter of moral training it promotes courage, fortitude, deti^rmination, and obedience. It tends to restrain the appetites and passions, as well as to check tendencies to selfishness. Each class of physical exercises has its own character istic effect. A thletics will develop perseverance, courag e, and power to adapt o ne's self to emergencies. Greece, Home and England present illustration. Gymnastic* will develop e ndurance an ( ^ faith ii^ one's powers, a« witnessed in Germany. Calisthenics, as practised in Sweden and France, will promote grace of movement. No one of them should dispense with the spontaneous exer cises of the school-yard. ■ Exercises which call into action the greatest number of muscles are the best. In addition to the ordinary occu- pations of life, there is a variety of common forms of exercise. Walking, using the bicycle, riding on horseback, rowing, swimming, skating and playing lawn-tennis or football have their respective advantages. They take per- sons into the open air and sunshine, and thus supply the lungs with air, enrich the blood, and exercise the muscles. There is danger of over-straining in physical as well as in mental exercises. This is especially true during the nascent period of each organ. Some exercises' of a physical kind, as well as some of an intellectual nature, F.hould not come early in life. "The body does not grow alike in all directions and at all times. In the first stages of development the lower organs receive the most nourishment, and at a later stage the brain and arms. Eadi organ and each faculty has a nascent period. When we shall have determined the order of the nascent periods, we shall have a ■cientifio basis for education never before known. The nasouit period of the arms comet before that of the wrists and hands. So the child should work wi^ luU-anu iiiov«m«its htiof bauBg 28 SCHOOL MANAQBMEMt. expected to make use of the fingers If an organ is exercised much before the period of greatest growth, it is dwarfed and stunted from over- work. If not exercised till after that period, the energy developed goes to waste. If the work comes before that period, the organs suffer from over-work ; if after, from under- work."— flf. Sltan/ey ZTo/i. Recess — Study exhausts. Amusement of the proper kind is the best hygienic agency. Recreation is essential to good work. School life must have its periods of play. The more studious the boy the more vigorous should be the recreation. Injury will follow any reversal of Nature's methods of recuperation. Three or four hours of daily work may be plenty for pupils under seven years of age. The number, length and distribution of recesses must vary with the agds of children. Exercises during recess should, if the weather permits, be taken in the open air. Play is the most healthful of all exercises. " Play," says Richter, "is, in the first place, the working off at once of the overflow of both mental and physical powers." Plays which are dangerous, or which tend to make pupils rude, should be prohibited. The intermission gives good oj^or- tunities for judging character and developing the moral nature of children. It helps to cultivate a healthy public sentiment among pupils. The outbursts of passion, differ- ences of opinion, and accidents of the play- ground, are positive forces of childhood. They are primitive embryonic forms of that society in which adult life moves. "I am a great stickler for the old-feushioned recess — the wild recess ; the pupil bursting out of the school-room, running about, shouting, and pushing his fellows. It is the recess that recreates the pupil and restores the nervous energy. After the enjoyment of a little freedom and a run, the child returns to the sohool-room and does his work better. But these set exercises which strain the attention •£ the child are hurtful."— If. T. JJofTM. ' r PHYSICAL CULTURB. 29 I is fed \ od, hat er- Games. — For the older pupils hardy and vigorous games should be encouraged. Cricket, football, lacrosse and base- ball have long held prominence. In he case of High School students, football has at present most popularity. Even younger hoyz may engage in this game if they are not allowed to come into collision with those much bigger and stronger than themselves. It is well for the teacher to be frequently on the play-ground to suggest games, and thus quietly to select what is invigorating and refining. It is no harm to allow girls to " romp " and take abund- ance of outdoor recreation. False views of decorum often debar them from play. Every school-yard should have a portion fenced off for the girls, where they may play ball, lawn tennis, or other games. More physical vigor, and less music and painting, would not harm many young women. Gymnastics. — High School and College students need a system of bodily exercises to develop muscular strength, and to promote general physical culture and health. In the employment of the severe gymnastics, regard should be had to the age and physical constitution of the students. Much injury may be done by requiring all the members of a school or class to perform the same exercises. It is doubtful whether, up to the age of entering a High School, pupils need much more than abundant opportunities for the outdoor sports and recreations in which their natural activity will prompt them to engage. False views of the purposes of gymnastics are often held. It should be understood that the object is not to turn out athletes, but to promote physical culture. The practice of sending all the members of a class into the gymnasium to engage indiscriminately, and without direction, in any exercises they may choose, is to be coi^deinped. The building should 30 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. be properly heated, and fitted up with simple appliances of the most approved character, and the regular masters should give proper directions regarding the exercises, unless a special instructor is provided. Calisthenics. — This system of physical exercises for girls is based on the same principle as gymnastics for boys. Apparatus may or may not be used. The movements are neither violent nor complicated. Unlike the common active sports of girls, their advantage consists in their systematic regulation, so as to give regular action to the muscles. A great variety of beneficial, graceful and interesting exercises may be performed with such simple instruments as wands, dumb-bells, light-weights, etc. The movements train to promptness, develop grace of body, promote harmony of action among a number of pupils, and break up sluggishness. A judicious use of calisthenic exercises will prevent many nervous ailments to which girls are liable. Care is necessary in their use. When not taken in the open air, the room during winter should be properly heated, and should be well lighted, ventilated, and kept free from dust. The dress worn should be light and easy, and the exercises should not be prolonged. Much intellectual exertion must not be expected if the physical system has become jaded and fatigued. The exercises, for neither boys nor girls, should be taken immediately before or after meals. Early in the morning, or near evening, is the best time for both gymnastics and calisthenics. ■ Military Drill. — Military or Swedish drill may be an efficient substitute for certain gymnastic exercises. It is found to be not only an effective means of giving physical culture, but an excellent method of forming habits of attention, order, subordination, and prompt obedience. V. PHYSICAL CULTURE. 81 Many a boy with ungainly walk, stooped shoulders, or sluggish movements, may be cured by a few months' practice in drill. The body becomes better set up, the chest is expanded, the shoulders are thrown well back, and the head is kept erect. The step also becomes elastic, and the limbs are moved with ease and precision. Drill is a method of physical culture that is inexpensive to trustees, and capable of being taken up by any intelli- gent teacher and adapted to the conditions of all classes of pupils. Too often the real purposes of drill are lost sight of. The main object is to develop the body, and not to foster any ardor for military glory or display. Manual Training^. — This is a late additicm to the curriculum of city schools in some countries The most grotesque notions are prevalent with many persons as to the object of Manual Training Schools. A boy is not taught a trade but he is taught many principles that underlie all trades, and he acquires facility in the use of all the common tools. A Manual Training School affords the students of a large city opportunities which those in the rural districts enjoy. It co-ordinates literature with art, and both with science and mathematics; so that the youth learns that no form of honest labor is without its inherent dignity, and that beauty and utility are not necessarily separated from the every-day life of the mechanic. Incidentally, Manual Training Schools furnish physical culture, which, though limited in its scope, is highly valuable to the class of boys that attend these institutions. Schools for girls are also established. REFERENCES. McLaren. — ^Physical Education. Morrison. — The Ventilation and Warming of School Buildings. Harris.— Report for 1891-92, Chapter XIII. Marble. — Sanitary Conditions of Schoolhouses. t >' , \- CHAPTER III. INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT. The Chief Work of the School.— The main busi- ness of the school is the intellectual development of the pupils. This statement does not mean that a higher object than growth in intelligence is not the end of education. In the formation of human character, it may be assumed that the proper order of mental faculties is (1) Will ; (2) Sensibility ; (3) Intellect. It is true, neverthe- less, that the reflex action of sound intellectual culture is the principal means by which the propensities and tastes of an individual are ennobled, and his moral sense strengthened. Self -exertion is, in most respects, the only instrumentality that secures culture. None of the faculties can be developed except by exercise, and no exercise is to be commended that is not directed by intelligence. Hence the >eed of guiding children until they have acquired sufficient knowledge to direct their exercise themselves. The school furnishes the best means of enabling children to acquire that knowledge by which their mental and bodily powers may be intelligently directed and improved. The Acquisition of Knowledge. — Intellectual development is mainly secured by the proper acquisition of knowledge. This implies that the teacher should possess the necessary knowledge, and have the ability to impart it aright. If reading, writing and arithmetic are considered in their possible applications, it is evident their ac<]^uisiti,0A INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT. 33 >' . V may be regarded as the basis of school eduoation. They furnish that elementary knowledge which is to serve as food for present mental and moral growth, and as a found- ation and starting point for future acquisitions. If viewed as instruments of learning, it is clear the child needs real knowledge to fit him to dischargi intelligently the duties of life. He must acquire information in those branches that contribute to his happiness and usefulness. The posse ssion of knowledge does notugiiftranteflJBfiadom. The person who knows a great deal is not necessarily educated. An educated person has powerandskiUr- which depend upon the proper acquisition of knowledge. Judg- ment and reason are not always ' haracteristics of a mind stored with Learning. It follo\/S| therefore, that the methods of instruc tion in school have much to do with the usSfflness of the information which children receive. Cramming^. — ^This is a term used to denote a faulty method of imparting knowledge. It implies the practice of filling the mind with badly arranged facts, and no^ allowing sufficient time to generalize them, to compare them with previous acquisitions, or to determine their full significance. Knowledge put into the mind in such a way is not digested or assimilated, and instead of furnishing power and skill, becomes useless lumber. Cr ammi ng and educating are not the same. The former is pouring som e- thing into the mind ; the latter is.develoj^ing the mind by ap propriat e exercise. C ramm ing unduly develqps the memory. Qo od teaching cultivates alLthe mental faculties in proper proportions. In elementary education, cramming is especially perni- cious. Crowding the memory with definitions, rujes, facts, names, dates, etc., is one of the common forms it once assumed. The powers of the mind were also burdened 34 SCHOOL MANAOKMENT. M .: with ft multiplicity of studios. Its most noticeable form of late years is undue hasto in promotions from one class to another. The imprudent desires of parents to see their children put in a higher class, and the habit of estimating a teacher's worth by the success of pupils at examinations, are obstacles in the way of checking the evil. Unfair criticism is, however, often heard in this connec- tion. There can be no mental growth without exertion. Intellectual activity is not a sign that cramming exists. A school where children are not earnest is poorly managed. Written examinations properly conducted are not an evil, but a benefit. To gain power and skill the acquisition of knowledge is necessary, and k nowledf ife is of l ittle intel- l ectual val ue if it has not been the result of aotivityr labo r^ study, sel f-denia l. In a school where pupils are not ambitious, desirous of being promoted, and anxious to pass examinations, the teaching is poor from a moral, as well as from an intellectual, point of view (Chapter VI ) Instruction. — Instruction is the main process of impart- ing knowledge. To become intelligent, pupils must be trained to exercise the powers of the mind on the know- ledge they receive. In this way they become educated. Children are not necessarily being educated when they receive instruction. This is where mistakes are often made. Instruction is only a subordinate branch of educa- tion. The former enables the pupil to learn many things ; the latter, to use knowledge aright. Instruction gives resources for a course in life; education furnishes rules serviceable for all times and for all careers. Ail instruction should be educative. Its methods should cultivate the mind and the heart. Knowledge should throw light upon the rules of duty, and remove prejudices, unmanly passions and evil tendencies that are the result :'i INTBLLKOrUAL DETEIAPIIBNT. Ik • i^ of ignorance. Instruction should supply mental food thsit can be digested. It should influence the feelings and the voli- tions. Nothing should be £ut Jnto thQ roindLthHt will not train and develo p its powers . Instruction, to be educative, must follow natural law s. It must, therefore, develop in proper order the senses, the powers of observation, and the faculties of language, abstraction, generalization and reason. Instruction, to be educative, must awaken interest . New matter must be added to the old by natural connection. What is familiar must be made the basis for acquiring what is unfamiliar (Chapter XVI.). Fondness for the sub- ject must be cultivated. Dislike for a lesson must bo removed. Satisfactory attention demands that there be no antagonism between teacher and pupil. Fear is opposed to interest. Instruction, to be educative, mu st keep in view the chief aim of teaching. Knowledge must be regarded oiily UU aiu lustiUUiout. In giving instruction, the teacher must deliberately ask if the information imparted fits into the harmonious development of the child's powers. The whole future of the child must be considered (Chapter VI.). Obsenration. — Before entering school, children have acquired many ideas from their environments. Their powers of observation have already received considerable development. Their senses have been cultivated. They have formed impressions. Their powers of perception lead to the reproduction of simple ideas, to simple general- ization and to simple abstraction. Conception, or the faculty by which the products of perception are grouped, supplies them with a variety of materials for thought. It is evident, therefore, that young children should be furnished with plenty of objects on which to exercise the senses. Ideas and words should go together. Instead of the se SOHOOL MANAGEMENT. maxim, "Things before words," the principle to be fol- lowed is, "Things and words." Sound teaching calls for < the direct progress from ideas to words, and also the converse process which comes from going bock to things from words. It is clear that the instruction given to pupils during the first years of school life should be mainly from their surroundings. Elementary science should have a place in the course, for the purpose of developing and training the senses and cteating the habit of observation. The eye learns to see by seeing, the ear learns to hear by hearing, and in like manner the other senses are trained. The maxim of Oomenius is true, " Let things that have to \ye done be learnec^ by doing them." Children must be directed so that they may learn to observe with order, regularity, accuracy and rapidity. It is not sojmuch- 5sliat_i8_ac5^uired that^is valuable, as jbhe habit of observation acquired. The child, properly trained, gains knowledge with little expenditure of time or labor, « and with constant pleasure. The powers of observation are extended to facts of geography, history, drawing and a variety of subjects besides natural phenomena. Observation goes on with the development of memory, imagination and reason. Attention.'*'' — The power of c ^ntinuous attention is the most valuable result of intellectual training. Ability to fix the mind upon that which is brought before it shows a high degree of mental development. The aim of the teacher should be to instil such habits of self-control as will train his pupils to direct at will their own intellectual *Goiisult on the sabjeot of AUemtion, "Applied Psychology," MoLellan, pa^e 50, and " OiitU»«s pf |>ajc!^ology," SiUIy, chapter iv. '%- '»• •^/ INTfiLLKCTUAL DEVELOPMENT. 5*? aotivitiefl. Power to interest pupils in the early stages of instruction is most valuable. Young children need con- stant ch.uige of exercises, short and well-adapted lessons, and the presentation of the known before the unknown, the simple before the complex, and the concrete before the abstract, it is a serious mistake to expect a young pupil to be able to fix his mind long on one subject. It is a grave wrong to Ecold a child for not doing that which is beyond his strength. Like other powers both of body and mind, attention grows in strength and vivacity by being frequently exercised. Pupils are not all interested alike. Skill is needed to hit upon devices that will keep a number of children steadily active in one direction for a long time. Care must bo taken to keep them in good spirits. To cultivate a love for knowledge is more valuable thtm to impart knowledge. Haste in study weakens the power of attention, and it is to be condemned. .■:%,, Imag^ination. — The faculty of imagination, or the , power of reproducing fictitious combinations of concep- tions, exists to a greater or less degree in every mind, and has its effect in moral and intellectual actions. The neglect of its cultivation is pernicious, but not more injurious than its abuse by undue stimulation. Thoi work of the imagination is complementary to that of observation. Its function is to lift the mind from the contemplittion of the actual and to carry it beyond the field of mere ob^^ervatioD. Almost every branch pursued in school affords some means for the cultivation of the imagination. Its best fitlds are found in geography, history, and poetry. Stories told to children may, if used with discretion, afford u most valu- able opportunity for the purpose. The delineation of ideal life which is true to nature should be pictured to children. That in which the sentiments are ambiguous in character, or morbid in action, should be carefully avoiderl. t ,« 88 SCHOOL IIANAGlBMlEl^t. irf. For young children pictures which do not give details are the best means of exercising the imagination. With older pupils elaboration, attention to artistic finish, and description in language, may be used with advan- tage. When the teacher can throw himself into his subject so as to excite the curiosity of his class, and carry his pupils along with him by the force of sympathy, the effect will be intensified. In all cases it is the duty of the teacher to watch carefully the trend of the child's imagination. The power gained must be such as will promote the right kind of intellectual and moral develop- ment. " It is natural for the imagination to prefect itself ; to r -tempt to embody its image)^ in outward form. These outward modes of expil^ssion may be very largely guided and controlled without interfering unduly with the inward moods and dispositions whence they flow. Drawing, modelling, designing, even pl&iting, stick- laying and machine work may be made, not oaly means of training the impulses, the sense organs and the functions of intelligence, but also the imagination. Composition work and essay writing are means which should not be neglected ; the choice of subjects and the mode of treatment both being of importance." — McLellan. "The imagination of the pupil can be led by means of the classical works of creative imagination to the formation of a good taste both as regards ethical merit and beauty of form. The proper classical works for youth are those which nations have produced in the childhood of their culture. These works bring children face to face with the picture of the world which the human mind has sketched for itself in one of the necessary stecges of its development. This is the real reason why our children never weary of reading Homer and the stories of the OP. Testament." — BosenJcram. Memory. — The power of reproduction is an important acquisition. Ability to retain and recall the ideas we have formed is a valuable feature of intellectual develop- ment. Without memory the fruits of conception and INTBLLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT. 89 imagination would go to waste. The memory is efficient according to the accuracy with which it retains ideas, and the promptness with which it produces them when required. A good memory will exhibit fidelity, tenacity and readiness. Ability to retain and reproduce impressions is largely a matter of cultivation. In training the memory a wise discrimination is needed. What is important, general, or principal must be remembered, instead of what is trifling, specific, or subordinate. Much help may be gained by attention to classification, order, localization as to time or place, similarity in character and points of contrast. With the same object in view instruction should be definite, hurry should be avoided, and attention and perseverance should be constantly cultivated. (Chapter XIY.) An impression is reproducible in proportion to the ^8trengjybL.^dviyaoity wim which it is first made. It follows that for the purpose of fixing an impression, a real object is better than any picture of it, and that a picture of it ia better than a mere verbal description. Direct sensations, concentrated attention and frequent repetition, develop the power of reproduction. It should be under- stood that forgetf ulness is not necessarily a sign of care- lessness ; but rather an indication that the impression formed is weak and that repetition is required. ** A considerable element in the art of teaching is skill in patting questions to children so as to exercise their power of recalling and reproducing what they have learnt. It is only by frequent going back that the meaning or content of verbal knowledge is preserved fresh. In order to test the knowledge of things, the teacher must call on the pupil to give out what he has learnt in his own words. By such skilful questioning he will find out how far the learner has seised and retunad the distinotiva features of the subject matter attended to, so ■• to keep hia mental images clear and distinct."— :!>• 45 School mai^ag£:ment. A pupil must acquire much on faith, but it is irrational to insist upon mmitting to memory words, rules and formulae without connecting with them some intelligent apprehension of their meaning. Memorizing which calls forth no exercise of the pupil's conceptive power, no exercise of the imagination, or no cultivation of the reasoning faculties, is not to be defended. Memorizing, or "learning by heart," in order to produce a show of knowledge, should be condemned. Children must, how- ever, commit to memory many things they do not rightly understand. With the young, memory is strong and logical perception weak. " It sounds very fascinating to talk about understanding every- thing, learning everything thoroughly, and all those broad phrases, which plump down on a difficulty, and hide it. Put in practice, they are about on a par with exhorting a boy to mind he does not go into the water until he can swim." — Thring. Language Training. — Training in language .*nd in ideas should go on concurrently. The habit of giving what are called " language lessons " is liable to much abuse. There is no necessity of any artificial plan to help the child to give expressions for his perceptions. The ordinary conversations will suffice. An attempt to force the development of speech may lead to vain and thoughtless garrulity, or to the production of erroneous impressions. .{ • • The school is concerned in the correction of the bad habits of speaking that may be formed in early childhood, and in that development of language which comes from knowledge and the necessary association of words and ideas. There is considerable diversity of opinion refi'arding the best methods of teaching grammar, composition, read- ing and other rabjects that give exercise to the language / INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT. 41 faculties. It is clear that from the inseparable connec- tion between words and conceptions, every subject of the curriculum should be used to some extent for purposes of language training. It therefore follows that the teachers of mathematics, science, etc., are responsible, along with the teacher of English, for perfecting the pupil in his ver- nacular language. . ,:< Ability to use the English language well shows a high stage of mental development. The power to express valu- able thoughts in choice composition comes from the best kind of intellectual training. Perhaps there is no 1)etter test of sound scholarship and of a well-cultivated mind than the reproduction in writing of what a person has studied, considered or investigated. The Reasoning; Faculties. — The prevalence of error and the' force *of prejudices show the need of training in that which will enable one to form correct opinions. Children should be taught at an early age to check selfish motives, to search for true principles of action, and to exercise due caution in restraining their emotions. The child soon learns to observe with exactness, to com- pare readily, to trace analogies, to detect differences, and to come to simple decisions. Gradually the cultivation of the judgment may be extended to matters that are complex and abstract, and moral questions may receive consideration. An attempt at sustained argument is out of place in elementary classes. To some extent, however, there may be a beginning in formal demonstration before Euclid is taken up. The great difficulty which some children experience in mathematics is due partly to haste, and partly to an entire neglect of any preliminary training of the reasoning faculties. Ability to reason xa UVV '4,2 BOaoOL MANAQBMKMT. possessed by many. It implies good thinking, and good thinking is not to be expected without wide culture. While it is a mistake to expect a high development of the reasoning faculties from every student, it is also a mistake to suppose that any child can be made intellectually or morally strong if denied the aid that comes from those subjects that are known to be valuable for this purpose. Children need to be warned against hasty induction, against taking a mere accidental circumstance for a condi- tion or cause. They should also be/ directed to draw conclusions from principles, and cautM^ned against making wrong deductions. / '■>•".-■ ,;^-:',:^ : \ REFERENCES. .^i'0,.;/^:^5-: McLettan. — Applied Psychology, Chapters m. and IV.^ SvUjf.—StvLdioa of Childhood. Traqf. — Psychology of Childhood. Svtty. — Outlines of Psychology, Chapters II. -X. Baldwin. — Elementary Psychology of Education. 6se SO* m, di- iw CHAPTER IV. THE PLACE OF RELIGION IN SCHOOL. The Problem that is Presented.— The great im- portance of moral training as a department of education, and the generally accepted opinion that morality must rest on a religious basis (See duties of teachers in Appendix), have given rise to much discussion regarding the place of religion in the Public School. The consideration of the question cannot be overlooked in a work on School Management. Among those who discuss the duties of the teacher regarding religion, there is much difference of opinion. There is a sense in which religion cannot be taught in the Public School without presenting very serious practical difficulties. If children require such religious teaching as will induce them to believe that the acceptance of the special doctrines of their Church is a Christian duty, or that the iiiterpretation of the Bible as given by their denomination is the only sound one, it is clear that religious instruction cannot in a mixed community become part of the school programme. There is another sense in which religion may be given a place that will meet with general approval. If religion is m ainly som ething that shouldjbe observed in all the acHoni o| li^t-i^ i'^ Earcl to see how it can be excluded from ihe school, the farm, the shop, the office, and the legislative halls. The praotical problem, so often discussed, is whether religion may be taught in such a way as to meet with (he 44 SCHOOL MAKAQEMENT. approval of different denominations. The pedagogical problem— the solution of which has a prior claim for con- ' sideration — is wh ether th e teach er must give religiou s i nstruction in-order to make moral training effective . Unfortunately inany persons have too often ignored the the solution which educationists give to the pedagogical problem, and by assuming thati the one who trains in grammar and in morals must also train in dogma, have given rise to animosities which have promoted neither charity nor any other Christian virtue. The science of education and the judgment of the ablest teachers should afford the best means of ascertaining the proper place of religion in school. If it once can be established that instruction in religion and training in morality must be^ combined by the teacher, there can be no justification, apart from expediency, for undenom- inational schools. No nation can ignore the ethical training of the young. Morality must be taught in school even should national education be abandoned and sectarian schools restored. On the question of the place of religion in school, three views are advocated by different classes : 1. Secular Schools. — One class of persons oppose the use of any kind of religious exercises. They base their objections generally on the question of expediency. They hold that denominational differences render it impossible to give religion a place in the school without stepping on the dangerous ground of sectarianism. For the purpose of avoiding strife, and with the object of providing an educational system acceptable to all classes, they favor schools that are purely secular. They assume, that if all exercises of a religious character are dropped, no sectarian difficulties will ain means merely the absence of religious instruction, aud with others a neutral attitude on the value of religion. A system of secular schools that leaves the value of cgligionan open quesHoh, cannot settle the difficult It will not meet tBo'wistEes^of "EHose who believe tEat'religious instruction shouid form part of the daily work of the school. It will not satisfy those who hold that religious motives are essential to moral training. Besides, if diffi- culties present themselves to the teacher, they will not be removed by any compromise of ^jhis kind. To abolish religious exercises does not prevent, and cannot prevent, the reference to religion that comes up in giving efifective instruction in literature, in history, and in science. To exclude religion from the school is impossible. A few persons of this class are not friends of religion in any form, and object to the use of any incentives in moral training that are based on principles to which they do not subscribe. A position neither for nor against religion is what they maintain should be taken by the teacher. It is evident, however, that a neutral attitude is practically impossible. No neutral ground on the question of religion will be received with favor by any Christian body. The so- called neutral position would be a surrender. Evexy class of citizens should, doubtless, receive reasonable considera- tion, but concessions should not take the form of capitula- tion. Freedom of the State from Church control is now generally accepted as an axiom of government. The acceptance of this principle does not, however, call for the abolition of all laws founded on Christianity, or the reinpval pf any references to the Peity from school books 46 SCHOOL IfANAGEMENT. in order to satisfy, if possible, some one who says in his heart there is no Qod. It should be recollected that agnostic writers of eminence have never denied the value of religion in ethical training. Herbert Spencer recognizes the importance ot Christianity as a moral force, and the late Professor Huxley advocated the use of the Bible in school. As a people we are a Christian nation, and while the conscientious convictions of all classes should be respected, it will be unsafe to pander to that element which has done harm to civilized nations, and which is certainly not made up of those who are most active in the community in preserving law and order, and in sustaining those injstitutions that have for their object the improve- ment of the race. The man of intelligence and uprightness, even though his ^ligious opinions are far from what would be considered orthodox, never objects to the forma- tion of character on Christian principles. That very small minority which is made up of those who scoff at religion and have no respect for Christian ministers should not dictate to the majority. 2. Denominational Schools. — A second class of persons assume quite an opposite attitude, and maintain that religious instruction should form an integral part of school work. They believe that morality cannot be taught effectively unless lessons in religion are given in the school They hold that the Church should have due recognition in the course of study prescribed, and contend, with more or less definiteness, that instruction in the Bible, in the catechism, or in the dogmas of the Church, must have a place in the programme. ^"*- It must be admitted that persons maintaining these views ear appeal to the general acceptance of such opinions for centuries, It must also be conceded that THE PLACE OF RELIGION IK SCHOOL. 47 every Christian nation rf Europe has attained its present educational status under a systera largely of this kind. The Public School is the gift of Christianity to the race. Its primary function was to impart religious instruction. With the establishment of absolute religious freedom and the multiplication of sects, it lost the distinctive characteiistics it had received from the Church. By the diffusion of intelligence among the masses there has resulted an increased development of the intellectual element. It has accordingly been urged that any lessening of the influence of the Church on the original purposes of the school will endanger morality. It has been further contended that any sound instruction in moral duties must be based on definite denominational principles, and that authorized religious views are essential as a guide to conduct. ' Opinions of this kind prevail among some of the most intelligent members of the communiuy. Separate or parochial schools, and denomiL:*wtional colleges, have been preferred by many people. Unanimity regarding the comparative merits of national and denominational educa- tion is far in the distance. Unanimity on this question, as well as on many other questions, is not, however, essential to national greatness or to educational progress. It is better to have some variety in social, political and educational agencies, than to have dead uniformity. Pri- vate schools, for instance, are not usually regarded as efficient as public ones, but they have their use among people of diversified aims and marked social distinctions. In like manner denominational schools and colleges, though not generally preferred in this country, have their own field of usefulness, and often stimulate the state institu- tions to greater activity in many things that pertain to 48 SCHOOL MANAQEMENT. the formation of important phases of character. The advocates of denominational education press upon public ^ attention the need of duly recognizing religion as a factor in moral advancement. The raiaon cPetre of sectarian schools and universities is a belief that the religious element cannot, with safety to the State, be ignored. Their existence furnishes the conviction that undenomi- national institutions cannot retain popular sympathy if religious sanctions are set aside as incentives to right action. v- • It should be mentioned here that the vexed question of State aid to denominational schools and colleges, an well as the extent to which they should be under public control, is a political phase of the subject the consideration of which would be foreign V> '>' "^ork of this kind. 3. National Schools. — A third class of persons hold that moral training in school requires religious sanctions, but not religious instruction. This opinion prevails in this country and in the United States, and it is steadily gaining ground in most countries of Europe. Wherever the separa- tion of Church and State has met with favor, and wher- ever a spirit of union and tolerance has grown, there has been less demand for dogmatic instruction in religion, and greater importance has been attached to the essentials of Christianity. Increased good-will among different classes, and the removal of sectarian questions from the arena of politics, have promoted united efforts in educational, as well as in social and philanthropic, movements. More frequently than formerly, to do good in this life has been proclaimed as the chief duty of the Christian, and the character of men has been felt to be of more value to the State than their doctrinal views. The Church, like a tree, is known by its fruit) and no PPQ Qhuroh, it is held, prO' duces 8^ the good fruit. .?■ THE PLACE OF RELIGION IN SCHOOL. 49 le le -1^' lis ] ^g , a- ■■•* ''■ jr- V;f 3,8 ■,;A-. .;. . id oi 1 ■■\ :.• It is felt that no denomination can claim ezolusiTe possession of those principles that are essential to morality. Good citizens are found among both Roman Catholics and Protestants. Neither moral worth nor material prosperity is dependent on a belief in the special tenets of any one sect. National greatness and national progresa do not« require the people of the State to adhere to any one form of Christian faith. Judged by the experience of England France, Qormany, Italy, Canada and the United State j, religious instruction, even when given in schools, is no guarantee that people will be free from sin and crime. Children have turned out bad who had all the advantages from religious instruction in their homes, in the church, and in the school. In spite of the evident advantages of reli-;ious instruction the conclusion must be admitted, that, apart from the question, by whom it should be given, it can never make up for defects in the other factors that are essential to the development of character. Every civilized nation has assumed in its legal enact- ments, and in its administration of justice, the omnipo- tence of Qod. The civil oath which is exacted by the State shows the character of the national will It assumes that religion is a quickener of the indi- vidual conscience, and that a belief k\ moral responsi- bility is firmly established in the human heart. On these grounds the use of religion, but not necessarily religious instruction, has its place in every well-conducted Public SchooL Like the State, the school may employ for its own ends those motives and incentives which human natii .*e possesses as its divine attributes. The State does not foster the special views of any sect, when it admits religion to be the essential basis of morality. The value of religious training may be assumed without an examination of its principles. 50 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. •I II '* You might m well say that we shall not u«e tha loiilight, nnl we teach the chemiitry of it ; that we shall not breathe air unleia we analyze it in the aohoola, aa to eay that you oannot uae religious sanotiona, unless yon use the dogmatic definitions of religion. We do not want definitions, we do not want dogma stated, but we want recognition of Ood and obedience to His wilL" — White. The end of the school is not to teooh religion, but to train children to become good citizens. The adyooates of sectarian schools often say that the parent has an inalien- able right to decide how his child shall bo educated. It may be admitted that he has certain rights, as well as duties, regarding the religious, moral, intellectual and physical training of his children. He cannot relieve him- self of any of his natural obligations should the State make no provisiod to grant him assistance for the discharge of his duties. If the State, in its interests, decides to confine its efforts to what will assist the parent to train his children morally and intellectually, their religious and physical wants must still receive the attention of the parent. The parent is a criminal in the eyes of the law if he allows his children to starve even though he assumes the State should supply them with food. His religious obligation is not removed if the State, in its wisdom, should also refuse to do regarding religion what it assumes should be left to the parent or the Church. In either case the will of the State, and not that of individuals, is supreme. The aim of national institutions of learning is to develop character, and religion is simply an instrument to be used foi the purpose only so far as necessary. If religion is not the end of the school instruouon in its doctrines can form no part of the teacher's duties. If religion is to be ad led to the subjects of the Public School curriculum, it is evident from its transcending importance it must receive greater recognition on the time table than either reading or arith- THE PULOl Of BELIOION IN SOHOOLi 51 metio. The Nomud School coarse must, in that event, include methods in Bible teaching, and results must bo tested in the same way as in grammar, history or arithmetic. Once the necessity of religious instruction in creeds or dogmas is admitted, the establishment of denominational schools instead of national schools is the logical outcome. Morality is not confined to the teaching of any one religious body. Those who do wrong have not lived up to the doctrines of their Ch rch. The motives which flow from a belief in a personal God as the creator and moral ruler of the world; in the dependence of man on his Maker, and in his obligation to love and serve Him; in the immor- tality of the soul, and in the accountability of every in telligent person to the Supreme Being, are recognized principles of every efficient system of ethics. Reverence for authority is a necessary condition of obedience to law, and this implies a reverence for, and a belief in, the Source of all law. These facts prove that in promotin/i: moral training, the teach r ib required to assume all tho princi- ples of Christiauity that are essential to his purpose. No teacher is justified in excusing himself for any failure in securing moral results on the plea that he is precluded from using the highest incentives. As a mutter of fact, moral training is secured in the good Church school by exactly such means as it is secured in the good Public School. "Without inviting comparisons, it will scarcely be held that the moral character of pupils taught in sectarian schools is superior to that of those trained in national institutions. The population that reaches this continent from countries where education is denominational, is certainly not made up of those who are more obedient to law and stronger upholders of order thau the people who have grown up in this country under the influences of national schools. Here 52 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. no caste, no social barriers, no religious animosities separate those who have been taught in the same school. Education . to them becomes the temple of the nation, uniting all olast^es, all nationalities and all creeds. The school e£Eaces unreal distinctions, develops the noblest features of hu- manity, and unites in a great brotherhood those whom Christianity would include in a common fold. The efficiency of national schools is the crowning evi- dence of the soundness of the principles upon which they have been established. More and more have the sectarian barriers in the case of colleges been thrown down. By the federation and affiliation of various educational institutions, a national university, undenominational in its character, has been developed in this country. Our High Schools are supported by all religious bodies, and scarcely a whisper is heard in favor of establishing second- ary schools under sectarian control. Parents have little fear regarding the ethical training given by good teachers. The adherents of various denominations are found in the same Public School, and unless bad qualifications mark the teacher in charge, the religious convictions of no child are in the slightest way interfered with, and the training given tends to build up Christian character. ** The inestimable glory of the common school is that it contams all the necessary factors of an embryonic democracy. With the altruistic motive controlling the teacher and his methods, the conditions are perfect. Here mea>sures and gauges of history are acquired by actual experience ; here civics is essentially practised ; the roots of after life, the springs of action, are all here. Home is the centre ; the Church makes home better ; but the common school is the place where the lessons gained in both may be essentially practised. Here classes learn to respect each other ; the children of the rich and the poor, the intelligent and the ignorant are fused and blended by mutual action and mutual love. The common schools present a perfect means cf moral tnuning, order, work and play, all tending to the ooltivation of true man* hood."—/'. W. Parker. ^ . THE PLACE OF RELIGION IN SCHOOL. 53 iains the the are Relig^iOUS Sanctions. — It is assumed that religion is the basis of moralityi and that religious influences have directly or indirectly contributed to the moral status of every well-conducted person. It is assumed that any attempt to base moral obligation solely on human autho- rity has always resulted in the weakening of the conscience and the enfeebling of the will, and that no nation has ever achieved moral excellence that did not hold the Supreme Being as the final source of obligation. It is further assumed that however some philosophers may theorize, no system of ethics has yet been proclaimed that shows any signs of superseding the morality of the Bible. When children have been admitted to school they have already received in their homes and in the Church some preliminary training in reUgious beliefs. Under ordinary circumstances they will continue to receive from the same sources further religious knowledge. If these statements are admitted, the teacher has already, without giving religious instruction, the essential incentives at hand for the highest type of moral training. This attitude on the question of religious instruction does not exclude religion from the school. It merely prohibits the teacher from giving lessons in the Bible, in any catechism, or in the dog- matic principles of any Church. The principles of Chris- tianity cannot be excluded from the school so long as proper discipline is exacted and efficient instruction given in the ordinary branches of the curriculum. No school can be fairly called " godless " where the teacher's duties, from a pedagogical point of view, are faithfully performed. The use of the Bible in school for moral ends does not neces- sarily involve its use in the technical sense of the term. While the teacher, if well qualified, will be acquainted with the Bible as the best work on ethics, he ia chiefly \ 54 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. concerned with morals or practical ethics. It is not necessary for him to investigate and discuss before hii class the ultimate basis of moral distinctions, in order to teach his pupils to be obedient to their parents, to be honest and truthful, and to abstain from every kind of wrong-doing. Sufficiently imperative sanctions for good conduct may be accepted as binding upon children irre- spectivie of their denominational training. It is here contended 'Jiiat apart from the assumed prac- tical (Ufficulties in the way of giving, through the teacher, religious instruction in the Public School, sound principles of teaching would condemn the methods of this kind which are ordinarily proposed. The question is one to be dis- cussed in the field of pedagogy, and not in that of theology or politics. What the schools need to promote better moral training is not more religious exercises, but better teaching. It is not an addition to the school programme that is wanted, but greater skill in taking up the branches already found in the curriculum. Better qualified teachers will secure better discipline, and good discipline means good moral training (Chapter Y). The well qualified teacher wiU use with intelligent discrimination, motives to right action in such a way ab to form good habits in his pupils, and to promote in them, as a consequence, that line of conduct which is the result of habitual efforts to do right. What the teachet* is called upon to do is not to give lessons in the common doctrines of religion, but to use religious sanctions as school incentives at such times, and only at such timeSf as sound discipline will warrant. A good teacher will rarely bring to his aid the highest class of incentives (Chapter IX). Neither the parent nor the teacher will find it prudent to use, without extreme care, motives of a religious character in order to induce children to do rights THE PLAOB OF RELIGION IN SCHOOL. 66 ** Tet there ia danger in associating the inflnenoes of religion too closely with the routine work of the school ; it is at least ,pw probable that the former will thereby be brought down to ^e level of the latter, as that the latter shall be raised to the level of the former. There are strong reasons why religious motives should not be used as ordinary means of discipline, f i the one hand the inflaence of the religious sentiment as a practical principle of con- duct, to overrule the many mor*" r-t-lpable motives which presenl themselves to children, and pai ularly to children at school, is, even in the most favorable circumstances, seldom so great as to be relied on. . . . As for the habit which some indulge in, of appealing in a routine way to such motives in connection with the incidental faults of childhood, nothing is more to be reprobated ; its folly is only equalled by its criminality." — Currie. The Duty of the Church.— The parent is respon- sible for the training of his children; but whatever ' ication of a religious nature he is not competent to give them, should be undertaken by the clergy or the authorized representatives of the Church. If the Sunday School and other agencies of the Church are not sufficient to provide rehgious instruction, the denominations con- cerned shoidd either separately or unitedly supplement their ordinary functions. In most communities the machinery of each religious body performs its work without any call for aid from the school authorities. In some towns and cities the trustees have placed the sc^pols at the disposal of the Churches for giving to the pupils on certain days instruction of a religious nature. Tlare is no reason why school hours might not be sf^t apart for this purpose. In a Roman Catholic community, for instance, it would be quite consistent with the position here taken for the authorities of that Church to give religious instruction at stated hours to childrer. of its faith. In Protestant communities, each denomination might adopt a similar plan, or two or more denominations might unite r- 56 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. \\ in the work of religious training, with excellent results. In some localities, both Protestants and Roman Cath- olics have shown such liberality as to unite in securing suitable addresses from the clergy of the different denomination represented. A method of this kind adds to the value of those religious sanctions which every good teacher employs, and surrounds the work of the school with an interest helpful to education as well as to religion. It sets at rest the cry for religious teaching in the school, and gives more definiteness to the respon- sibilities of the Church, the home and the school. It makes no departure of a reactionary kind from the principle of non-sectarian education, but calls for the full utilization of the respective functions of teacher, parent and clergyman. It^ gives freedom to each Church, each locality and each parent, and adds no additional responsi- bility to the teacher, or relieves him in any way from the obligation of discharging those duties for which he has been trained. (See Sec. 7 of Statute in Appendix). DCTOtional Hxercises. — Devotional exercises have had a place in the daily programmes of most schools. Unless there are special reasons to the contrary, it is best to hold them at the beginning of the day's work, when the teacher is free from the worries of the school and when reverence and solemnity are most easily secured among the pupils. Generally the readin«^ of a short passage from Scripture selections, recommended for the purpose, and the use of a short prayer, constitute all that is necessary. A song of praise or thanksgiving may be added with advantage in elementary classes. The object is not to impart religious instruction (as the Bible lessons should be read without comment), but to recognize the obligation to God of both teacher and pupils, and to A ■ THE PLACE OF RELIGION IN SCHOOL. 67 awaken and d eepen relifQo iM emotio nal as well as to afford aHsuitable prept^racion for the sacred nature of school duties. Freedom shoidd be given trustees to meet, within reasonable limits, the prevailing religious sentiment of the locality ; and the conscientious scruples of parents should be guarded Experience has shown that where a spirit of religious toleration and patriotism influences school author- ities, no difficulty will arise in connection wHh exercises of this kind. If they are conduct^ in a perfunctory manner, or are attended with any partisan feeling, no good will result. If the Bible or the form of prayer is not read in a reverent manner, it is dear incompetence marks the teacher as unfit for his calling. Fortunately the day of immoral or irreligious teaching is past, and few teachers are now found who fail to recogni/(c. the sacred nature of the usual devotional exercises. The age of wrangling over trifling denominational differences is, it is hoped, also over, and broader views of Christian duty have promoted more charitable feelings among neighbors holding different religious senti- ments. Teachers of ability and experience will readily testify to the value of devotional exercises, as a means of strengthening the moral convictions of the pupils, and of sustaining the discipline of the school. Persons who see no good in such exercises have probably in mind the defective qualifications of many teachers a generation ago, and the contentions in some localities where partisan animosity and sectarian bitterness predominated, rather than Christian zeal and Christian liberality. It would certainly bode ill for that Church unity for which many work and pray, if on the educational field of battle a united front cannot be presented against the common enemy — ignorance and crime. f^ J- ■' ■■■\ '1 1 ^ ♦ CHAPTER V. : - - MORAL TRAINING. ' The Need of Moral Education.— The highest aim of education is the formation of character. Sound ethical training, no doubt, calls for the due cultivation of the intellectual and physical faculties, as well as the develop- ment of the emotional nature. Mere physical and intellectual power may, however, do harm if achieved regardless of moral training. Morality is essential to the welfare of the State. History affords numerous illustra- tions of the disastrous results that follow when the intellect is sharpened, but the moral nature neglected. The rapid growth of knowledge among the community, and the increased power which intellectual attainments give, render the question of national ethics more and more pressing on public attention. The extension of commerce, the growth of industries, the spread of democratic institu- tions, and the dependence of individuals and communities upon one another, make it imperative that principles of righteousness should form an essential part of every child's education. The numerous opportunities presented to per- sons of sharp intelligence for the sudden acquisition of wealth, the facilities for gaining political power, and the temptations to which young men of mere shrewdness are exposed, show that if training in right action is ignored in a system of popular education, ruin may come to the State in spite of our much-valued civilization. The money valv* ■ V v" MORAL TRAININa. II 59 of mere sharpness is strikingly apparent^ and the intense passion for gain is noticeable on every side. The rapid growth of cities has, no doubt, increased the eflEbrts to do good, but it has also stimulated the worst forces of the times. The altered relations of the working-classes to other sections of the community, have created serious social disturbances. The rapidity with which intellectual power lias supplanted physical force, has given the man of brains extraordinary influence among his fellows, and has made the outlook, though on the whole encouraging, yet in many respects alarming. Every day brings its disclosures of untruthfulness, dishonesty and corruption. Intemperance and profanity are prevalent; defaulters and gamblers exist; and scandals in public life are not unknown. It is idle in the face of crimes brought to the public gaze by means of the press, and in view of what the courts reveal, to deny the urgent need of training in morality. The changed conditions of our day demand that ethical instruction should be given by the school, as well as by the home and the Church. The time has gone by when the family could suffice for its own needs either commercially or educationally. The separation of Church and State has rendered it necei^sary for the latter to discharge some of the functions at one time assumed by the former. The responsibility of the parent is still the same, and the vitalizing office of the Church is no less essential than formerly ; but more than ever the ordinary citizen is accustomed to look to the school as the great agency of modem times for effective assistance in the moral, as well as in the intellectual, development of his children. Unjust Charg^es. — Admitting the prevalence of evils which perplex, but which should not discourage society. CO SCHOOL MAKAOBMXNT. I and admitting the responsibiUtj whieh m«il be iliMVd bj the school with other edacational agenoiei^ charges are ft^uently made against the Public School which are grossly ui^air. The imputation that the school is greatiy at fault is too serious to be passed over. If training in right action is lost sight of by teachers, we may look for a future of national disaster or ruin such as befalls eyery people who depart from righteousness. The frequency with which crimes are committed by persons who have a fair intel* lectual education, and the resorts t(' the tricks of the sharper by many graduates of our scho often the imp^eotions of the school are regarded as only rouj.ee of prevailing troubles. More attention to bjeot of the curriculum is often assumed as all that is needed to make the people wise, happy, prospwous :\ < KORAL TRAINING. ei and moral. It is a faot tbat no human ag«noy it more beset by advooatet of plausible nostrums than the Public Sohools, and while inrestigation and fair oriticiam should always be weloomed, any remedies not founded on sound podagogioal principles should be rejected. The charges referred to spring sometimes from prejudice, but more frequently from careless observation or wrong deduction. They are so often repeated by those who might be assumed to possess good judgment, that they become dangerous. Some persons have called for the authoriza- tion of suitable text-books in ethics, or the regular use of the Bible in the teaching of morals, while others go ro far as to condemn any system of education that is not controlled by Church influences. Now, it must be at once asserted that it is very unfair to make the school the scapegoat for all the evils that are rampant in society. The school is not the only agency upon which rests the responsibility of promoting morality. The teaeher cannot go into the streets and by-ways and compel children to come within the range of his influence. He cannot visit the homes of his pupils and counteract the bad training of those who have reached positions of parental authority without realizing its responsibilities. He cannot always implant principles of obedience, truthfulness, honesty, courtesy and charity, in the minds of children who, from their in&noy, have been furnished with examples of an opposite kind. It is too much to expect during the short time which the average ohild remains in school that the teacher's influence >vi\l overcome the bad associations too often met on the stroets, the vile literature so readily procured, the wicked- p.dss of tiie low theatre^ tiie de^^'ading effects of the saloon sustained by public opinion, the example of fast young men, and the hundred other evils that pollute the currents 61 80HOOL MANAOEMENT. •f; of life in all large oitiee. It cannot be denied that the school has its duty to perform, and that it may become in future a far more effective means of promoting morality, but it is unreasonable to expect teachers to be able to stamp out evils which society constantly tolerates. The school should, no doubt, be the efficient ally of every agency that helps to make righteousness the dominant force in the community. It is safe to say that, in spite of the alleged defects of the school every parent who is not relegating his own duties to the Church or to some other agency, finds no more effective support in promoting morality than the well-qualified school teacher. The Personality of the Teacher.— A teacher of high moral character is the chief requisite of moral train- ing. "As is the iteacher so is the school," is a maxim which applies as much to the power of the teacher to impress his own moral qualities, as to the ability he wields to inc'pire with his own intellectual power. In the early life of the child there is shown a remarkable power of imitation and a readiness to incorporate in his own nature whatever is exhibited in the conduct of those by whom he is surrounded. The deportment of pupils towards their teachers and towards one another, the kindly way or the uncouth manner, the attention or listlessness, the polite words or the rude reply, are all daily inwrought in permanent outline and unfading colors into the warp and woof of which the habits are thoughtlessly formed. A teacher should exemplify in his own character all he would have his pupils become. That strict adherence to honesty and truthfulness, that close application to duty and regard lor life's opportunities, that calmness of manner in periods of disturbance, and that spirit of Christian unselfishneM which he is desirous of cultivating as traits -;>'.. .'J MORAL TRAINING. 68 V' in the character of each pupil, he must possess as essential elements of his own qualifications. A high standard of living is demanded of the teacher, not only for its direct influence upon the young, but also for the added power which his words of counsel give. The child naturally looks to him for guidance, and if he finds in the teacher a spirit of reverence, sincerity, honesty, truthfulness, industry and unselfishness, he is dispose! to practise these virtues himself. The teacher, whether good or bad, leaves his everlasting imprint on every child placed under his care. He can hide nothing from the child's power of intuition. Whatever the teacher is becomes immortal through the souls of his pupils. Of all lessons, the best is the living lesson. Example is always better than precept. The Christian teacher will not hide his light. If placed in charge of a school, it matters little to what Church he adheres. No need for him to give lessons in the Bible, creed or catechism ; he is the real text-book. If he has formed his kinship with the Divine, and has recognized the source of the highest inspiration for his duties, he will be a living epistle, known and read of all. The life of the teacher outside of school must be in keeping with the moral principles he tries to inculcate. It is idle for him to expect his pupils to profit by his moral instruction, if truthfulness, honesty, temperance, prudence and diligence, are not characteristics by which he is known to the community. Dr. Arnold, in writing of the qualifica- tions desirable in a teacher, said, " The qualificatioi^ which I deem essential to the due performance of a master's duties here may, in brief, be expressed au the spirit of a Christian and a gentleman. . . . He should study things * lovely and of good report ; ' that is, he should be public spirited, liberal, and enter heartily into the interests, honor, and 64 SCHOOL MANAOIMENT. general respectability and diatinotion of the society which he has Joined." "The p«rtonality of th« haadmastor iM •T«rything. It it th« ultimate louroe of power in the eohool, the central organ whiob senda oat ite life-giving ourrente through the whole organism And let me here add that, if I am in favor of excluding direct t -ligioua teaching from our schoola, I am not in favor of excluding religious influence. That, too, flows from the personality of the true master. For if he be reverent, a truly pious soul, humble in his estimate of self, not valuing his petty schoolmaster's authority on its own account, but using it lovingly as an instrument for higher ends, he will be sure to communicate of his spirit to his pupils, and by that spirit will open their hearts, better than by any doctrinal teaching he could give, to the reception of the highest spiritual truths."— ild^. " As Milton would have the poet himself a poem, so the excellent teacher of moraU wiU be morality incarnate; showing forth its gospel as weU as its law in the daily exhibition of sweetness and light, he will be 'not virtuous, but virtue' itself I How difficult, but how necessary, is such a preparation of the heart and will in a weU-rouiided instructor of children or of men, one does not need to reiterate to the teacher who has found his true vocation." — Oilman. "Not the most eloquent exhortations to the erring and dis- obedient, though they be in the tongues of men or of angels, can move mightily npon your scholars' resolutions till the nameless, unconscious, but infallible pressure of a consecrated, earnest heart lifts its holy light into your eyes, hallows your temper, breathes its pleading benedictions into your tones, and authenticates your entire being with its open seal." — Hvntingtan. ** The most vital element of governing power is a positive moral character and life. We thus come back in our analysis to the one essential fact of the school, the teacher; and we reach the one essential fact in the teacher, characUr. Through all the methods and measures of the school must run the vitalizing influence of the teacher's inner life. . . . If the writer had the power of making one law for the governing of American schools, and only one, and this in a single sentence — a law to be written over every school- MORiLL TRAINING. 65 room-door — h« would hftve little difBotilty in dotermining what it would be. It would be in about these words : No man or wmum »haU enter htre cu a Uaeher tohoM cAorocfer and Itft are not M moitU for the youug to copy, "— WhiU* Good Discipline Promotes Morality.—A poor disoiplinarian is a poor teacher of morals. A pupil learns every-day morality as an art and not as a science. In early childhood the will and example of the parents ar^ supreme in directing thought and in securing action. The power of imitation is strong in infancy. Selfishness soon appears, and skill is essential in forming such he ^ its as will cultivate a regard for the rights of others, and foster a spirit of self-control. Gradually the knowledge an>i reason of the child become factors that require l 'ef ul attention, if right conduct is to be culti/ated. Socn doing right may become a habit, and every successful effort in that direction strengthens the will and promotes moral training. The function of school government is training pupils in habits of self-control, so that they may become self-governing in conduct. Self-control implies self-denial, subordination of present to future good, resistance to temp- tation, and the cultivation of all those qualities which make virtue itself. Oases are constantly arising in the discipline of the school which, if dealc <» vlh calmly, seri- ously, and judiciously, promote habits of regularity, punctuality, accuracy, courtesy and many other valuable features of character. Ethical truths and maxims, expressed in a didactic form, often fail to make moral duties intelli- gible to a young pupil, or to bind his conscience. More effectively are his moral convictions strengthened byhavips^ his surroundings pure and healthful, by watching carefully his efforts to overcome temptations, and by cultivating his power to choose the right and to reject the wrong. A good \ r 66 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. fUioiplinarian will see that all the aiiAngements of the 8#k«^ make it easy for pupils to do right. A moral man, if dtfloieBt in powers of discipline, will make a poor teacher of morals. Many a Christian father, from a lack of governing power, finds his son, instead of proving a bless- ing to hun in old age, bring down his grey hairs with sorrow to the grave. The good example of a moral parent or toacher is not enough. Judgment and skilly are essential in moral training. Heart power is valuable, but will power is also needed in that discipline which cultivates morality. Kindness is praiseworthy, but not when it becomes indulgence. A child properly trained grows up feeling that the observance of law is a duty. The discipline of % well-conducted school gives him a power which draws ffeeadily in the direction of right action. Under such conditions his nature becomes accustomed to yield to right inclinations (Chapter YI.). The school that is exerting the best moral influence, is not the one in which most attention is given to religious instruction, but the one tiiat is under the best discipline (Chapter YIIL). The machinery of a well-managed school is a most powerful instrument for forming good habits in a pupil and for strengthening his will, Su that he may overcome the evils to be met in the battles of life. Some of the sterner virtues which are much needed in this age, are especially fostered by a well-organized school. Such an institution draws pupils from all classes and conditions, and gives tibem a foretaste of those social and industrial relations for which they are to be prepared. The school is an epitome of liooiety. J ustice, forb earanp e, cov. jSesy , and~otS 8dian ee to au^iori^ are drawn in as the breath of scluol life, when a good state of discipline is established. Tho school is a society or a community with interests common to ail its MOBAL TRAINING. 67 members. It promotesi m no other ageooy can de^ those altruistic virtues which characterize a Christiait. people. The Tarious exercises of the day help to enthrone reason and will above desire and caprice, and thus ten4 to exalt the spiritual man above the natural man. That discipline is bad, and does not promote morality, which is secured only by the force of authority. That system of control which cultivates a spirit of obedience to law by means of intelli- gence, and which leads each pupil to subordinate his selfish interests to the general good, is more valuable to the State than the study of civics. It is not formal lessons in the duties of citizenship that is needed in school so much as that discipline which fashions the young into self-directing beings, which gives them rational conceptions of their duties to others, which trains them to industrious habits, and which promotes those other virtues that render them useful mem- bers of society. (See Duties of Teachers in Appendix). The Moral Value of Good Teaching.— Bad intel- lectual training is a Iiindrance to ethical culture. The bad teacher of the subjects of the curriculum, even though he be a moral man, is a poor teacher of morality. The right direction of the will is inseparable from the cultiva- tion of the understanding and the feeling. The acquisition of kno wledge and the creation of a right disposition must proceed togechen 5ny defect in the former affects the lat^Eer: In the^anagement of the child perfect uniformity and consistency are required of the teacher. The law ,of conduct, the relations between cause and effect, the love of approbation, the desire for personal comfort, the fo/ce of habit and obedience to authority, are matters that come up in the ordinary work oi the sohooL The demand for bet ter moral trainin g o&n be met only by P V t"^ viding better L-- -UJ. rf»l ..« in V ' 68 SCHOOL MANAGBMSMTT. seleoting il laatratio na for aaeh lesson, in making use of ^nHlftir^na question s, in i^ec eiTing answers from pupi^ and in attending to t he othe y ^ featu res of a recita- tion, greatly affect the moral as veil as the intellectual impolses of children. There can be no more erroneous opinion than that of supposing that the best intellectual teaching and the best moral teaching may be secured apart — one from the other. There is no neutral ground in human thoughts, words or actions. The moral disposition of the child is not a department of his nature, but the tone and attitude of his whole life. Every well-taught lesson in grammar, arildmietio, botany or Latin, is a force in the development of moral character. To say that a teacher does his work well from an intellectual, but) not from an ethical, point of view, is a contradiction. " As a man thinketh in his heart so is he," and "out of the heart the mouth speaketh," are sound pedagogical maxims. To train a child to act and speak rightly he must be trained to think rightly. This implies that the person giving the training should havG power to direct thought. Habits make up character, but habit is developed by " doing," and this in turn calls for skill on the part of the one who directs. Good teaching stimulates, inspires, controls, and fixes mental action. If a thought or an act is right it leads up to what is good, true and beauti- ful. If wrong it leads down to falsehood, dishonesty, sin. The good teacher kads his pupils to think, to speak and to act correctly, and thus develops moral as well as intellectual tendencies. When a child is trained to form true con- ceptions, to arrange facts logically, to reason accurately, and to grasp the force of conclusions, he is thereby receiving moral training. Power of abstract thought and ability to form complex judgments are absolutely essential MORAL TRAINING. 69 "^ t- „ , bial to the growth of right motives. To acquire a spirit o^i charity and libe ralit y, intellectual culture is needed. Truthfulness requires as its basis the power to adjust the mind accurately to realities. Honesty is best promoted by imparting an intelligent conception of the rights of others. The will is most easily trained when knowledge and feeling are wisely brought into play. In short, intel- lectual training is organically related to character and conduct; and that country is doing most to promote moraUxuaiBg in its schools, which is doingjnost to provide w ftll-trained teacher s. Incidental Moral Instruction.- -The moral training given in school should be mainly incidental. Impressions are most lasting when made without formality. The incidental and every-day lessons in diligence, honor and truthfulness, imparted when some school experience in class or on the playground has prepared the minds of the pupils to receive them, are of more value in character- building than are the moral truths which some distant facts illustrate and teach. The proposal, sometimes made, to prescribe, for school purposes, a course of lessons in religion, or some text-book in ethics, arises, if the teacher is to use them, from a misconception of the way character is formed. Morality is no more to be taught by rote, nor in any other way by means of a book, than football or swimming. Doing good is the only way to become good. Familiar talks to young children on conduct have their value, but they should never take the form of lectures or labored sermons. "Every Publio School teacher is bound, then, I hold, to make the school hours a time for instruction in character, so far as this is compatible with the chief object of imparting the elements of knoivledge. But this does n t. by any means, neeesaarily imply I i IPII SCHOOL MANAGEMENT, f ! that we should »dd » new branch to the course of study, which it il often too full already of varied subjects, or that text-books of ▼irtue or moral theory shall be put into the hands of children in •rder that they may learn to define elaborately and recite by rote the mles and distinctions of a formal morality. On the contrary, I can imagine few studies more dry, repulsive and ineffectual in reaching their proposed aim than such a study of monln ! In the highest degree it is true of instruction in this art of life that it should come direct from the teacher's lips and pure frtm the teacher's heart and example." — OUman. A sohool may have no formal teaching of rules of conduct or instruction in precepts, but it may have what is better — it may have a moral atmosphere from which the life of the child is unconsciously built up, in the same way as a plant or a tree. Books on ethics are, doubtless, valuable to the teacher. In fact, every educator vnll include in his pro- fessional reading some of the best works in moral science. Just as in the case of instruction, in drill or in gymnast- ics, where the pupils are not usually dependent on a text- book, the teacher will not fail to read on the subject of ethics some good treatise that deals with its principles. If it is not wise to use the Bible as a text-book in school, there is no reason why its p recepts may not be appealed to in the ordinary work of the school. At all events, the Bible, as the highest court of appeal in settling questions of conduct) will always be within the reach of the teacher. In any case moral lessons should not, as a rule, be assigned a fixed place on the programme. The force of a moral precept depends almost entirely upon its adaptation to the time and circumstances. When the minds of children are open for the reception of the special truth, the good seed may be sown. With young pupils occasions of this kind will often occur, and short — very short— moral lessons may then be appropriate. "^^ '3 MOfUkL TRAINING. 71 ''Your Committee would mention, in this oonntotioD, iastmotien in morals and mannen, which ouglit to be given in a brief eeriee ef letsons eaush year with a view to build up in the mind a theory ef the conventionalities of polite and pure-minded society. If these Icawozis are made too long or too numerous, they are apt to become oflaaltf to the ohild's mind. It is, of course, nndexstood by your committee that the substantial moral training of the school is perfonned by the discipline rather than by the instmotion in ethical theory. The child is trained to be regular and punctual, and to restnda his desire to talk and whisper — in these things gaining self-oontool day by day. The essence of moral behavior is self- control. The school teaches good behavior. The intercourse of a pupil with his fellows without evil words or violent actions is insisted on and secured. The high moral qualities of truth-telling and sincerity are taught in every class exercise that lays streu en accuracy of statement."— jRepor< of Committee ^Fifteen, Dr, FT. T, Harriet Chairman. Incidental instruction in morals caUs for high qualifica- tions on the part of the teacher. Wide scholarship, pro- fessional training, and the skill that is gained hj experi- ence, are important requisites (Chapter YII.). In no part of his duties will judgment, tact and common-sense be more in demand. The events of each day will contiiu- ally furnish ample opportunities for introducing timely instruction and wholesome advice regarding matters that affect character. Instruction of this kind must be given without apparent effort^ and with no dey^arture from the ordinary duties. In the case of young ohildren, the little incidents of the school-room nvay be employed te encourage, to stimulate and to strengthen the efforts te de right. With older pup*'!*^, the facts from biography er history, the inspiring thoughts from lit* rature, the beautiep and mysteries which soience reveals, and the logic .>' mathomatios, may be used without esteatation to buMd up moral excellence. A teacher is not prohibited fro» usini^ \ ! I 72 SCHOOL MANAQBHBMT. in *^tm plaoe^ illiuitraiionB from the Bibla He must have Uvtio pi f ''er as a teacher of morals who cannot turn to pro- fitalL$« uooount the parable of the wise and fooli;:!h virgin«3, that of Halt talents, that of the sower, or that \v{ tho proci?- gal The history of Joseph, of Moses, of DanieJ, or -d Paul, is not beyond the use of a good t>eachfx*. Ai^oi &V. ch'U may be said in behalf of moral tniining, the need of the sohoolfi is teachers who have the requisite qualifications. The gentle admonition, the >:endei-, loving rebuke, the word' in season, will never be wanting to him \vho»f'>nM of training in morals. All the sub- jects o£ the cjuniouluni may be made serviceable for this purpo : ' ' [ Oilman and Jackson. — Conduct as a Fine Art. ' SuUy. — ^The Teachers' Hand-book of Psychology, Chapter XX. (Also various papers published in the proceedings of the Ontario Educational Assooiation and in those of the N. E. A* of the U. S. A.) f , •'I'r'i - > . ^; : '.I CHAPTER VI. II OHARAOTER BUILDING. The End of Educatioa — Th^ fnrn^atiftn ?^ *^^«^i'^*^^^ is ih0 end to be sought in all the efforts of the teacher. The educated person is one who possesses mental and physical power, systematized knowledge, intellectual skill, pure and elevated tastes, and right habits. It is further assumed that one who has been so trained that he cem be depended upon to act rightly has a good character. It follows that besides the original meaning of the term, the word "character" has come to have an ethical sig^v^'ficance. It is customary to find it used for " good character." A. good character means a moral and virtuous conditio.' i' mind, and such control of the feelings and thoughts as will subserve the ends of morality. In this respect it follows that the moral character of a person is the sum of the tendencies and habitudes which he has acquired, and which are called virttiea. The excellence of his character is estimated by the strength of these dominant dispo- sitions. The mental equipment of each individual is thb product of inherited and acquired forces. Hereditary tendencies areP powerful, but tkey may be controlled and directed to a large extent by the influences to which each person iiL subV>^*f 0i \ 76 80H00L MANAOEMKNT. and strongth of purpose. To do his part in developing .such forces as will cause his pupils to act aright is, there; fore, the main work of th'> teacher. Ee is successful as a character builder it' Li^ o '. uiueuces those placed under his care that, when '.'ley r jiUir upon the activities of life, they will follow wit}i persistence what is reasonable, just, and virtuous. Periods of Development. — A ''^^'id inherits from his parents a physical const ituuon and a wide range of aptitudes. His nature is extremely plastic, and therefore it is possible to lessen constitutional weaknesses, and to develop "levating powers and tendencies; It is the duty of the vtarent to supply whatever is needed to promote proper physical and mental growth. In the formation of character, man^ tastes must be cultixated, the feelings mubb be controlled, the habits must be formed, and the will must be^^rengthened. As soon as Che child 'S admitted to school, new activities are arouied, new tastes are developed, and new habits are created. It will at once devolve upon the teacher to strengthen, check, create or destroy tendencies, tastes and habit" For this purpose there is needed discretion in tLe use of that stimulus, incentive or punishment which the conditions require. The ultimate aim should bn to su^>ordinat«3 the phj^sical and intellectual naturo to the conti-ol of conscience and will. <^. ■ ■ ; ■;;: -'vv-.. Systematized Knowledge. — Ii. the process of charac- ter building, knowledge plays an important part. Conduct that is not based on intelligence has ..ctle to commend it. The man of character is contin^^ 7 arMing to his stock of knowledge. Where there is no luoellec. aal growth there is no moral growth. The highest tjpe of character demands sysvt ^atized knowledge, and the acquisition of knowledge \ ^ ' C7T4K vCTEB BUILDING. t. is an objeot to be sought in improving the moral nature. Information gained should not depend upon the memory. It follows that " cramming," (Chapter III.) as popularly understood, has no place in intellectual development, and therefore has no use in the formation of character. Knowledge which is systematized is scientific in its nature ; and, as a consequence, can be traced to the general principles upon which it rests. Only that knowledge is valuable which is available. Power. — A properly-trained person has power within reasonable limits to gain whatever will contribute to his physical, intellectun ' , moral and spiritual strength. He has, besides, that energy which will enable him to think and to act in such a way as will secure good results. Education is weak unless it gives a person power to guard his health and to improve his bodily strength. It is defective unless it enables him to add to his intellectual endowment? and to apply his knowledge to useful purposes. It is also defective if his will power is not sufficiently developed to cause him to resist evil by accepting what is rights and rejecting what is wrong. Power is acquired by the cuftivation of proper habits. In training to right action it is necessary tiO take into con- sideration the imitative power of the child, his inteUlge/ice or legislative power, and his will, or what may be termed his exec utive p ower. In addition, his power of reflection must be cultivated, in order to influence succeeding actions. The teacher is continually called' upon to determine how he will give eflfe -t to the growth of each power, what order he will adopt in his moral teaching, what incentives he will employ, and what measures of coercion he should bring to his aid., Will power is an important object to be sought in the formation of character, but the intelligence and the emotioz^ need tc be cultivated at the same time. \ 78 \ SCHOOL MANAQEMSNT. TralninsT of the Will. — The «dll nrigtnatoi >nH iv^n- trok aoti piM < f f body ai^djn^ nd. It oontroU the thoughts and feelings. Decision, firmness and constancy are fea- tures of strength of will. Defects of will, constituting the weak-minded, are inconstancy, stubbornness, irresolution and wilfulness. That which determines the will is called a motive. The child who is inclined to do wrong should be influenced by a counteracting motive. The foundation of all edjjgation is the c ultur e of the wpL To train the will is usually the chief difficulty in education. The successful trainer of the will secures subjection and restraint, and at the same time fosters liberty and inde- pendence. The change from authority to freedom must be gradual. If hastened, disobedience may result; if delayed, self-con^trol is not cultivated. The child becomes weak and vacillating, if his intelligence and feelings are neglected while efforts to train the will are made. Fear- fulness of responsibility and weakness of purpose will follow, if the authority of the teacher is unduly used as a motive. Harsh discipline is opposed to real strength of will The discipline which has no trace of sympathy with child nature, no provision to strengthen half-formed pur- poses, no appreciation of hidden motives, but a stem tone of authority, combined with relentless severity, is sure to have, as a result, minds sullen, gloomy, suspicious, and cunning.'* Tastes. -The educated man has pure and elevated liastes. Tastes are natural and acquired. Some children frequently manifest extraordinary tastes in certain direo- , tions. The early cultivation of proper physical and mental tastes is an important duty of parents and teachers. It is * Consult "Applied Psychology," MeLeUan, Chapter VI., and « OuUiaes of Psychology," SuUy, Chapters Xm. and XIV. \ '■ «fr \ CHABAOT£B BUILDING. II 70 neoesMry to check any natural tendency to form bad tastes. Some bad habits, such as indulgence in the use of tobacco or intoxicating liquors, are the result of persiatenoe in practices which are at first unpleasant. A taste for music, drawing, literature, or other subjects of study, appears natural to some persons. In most cases a taste for what is elevating is acquired by judicious cultivation. It is evident that the tastes of a person have a powerful influence on the formation of his character. What a man relishes determines his sources of enjoyment, his associations and his activities. The likes and dislikes of a man shape his life. Indulgence in what is good elevates and r'^'^.nes. The gratification of evil tastes lowers and degrades. A taste may become so strongly developed that if it is evil it can scarcely be resisted by knowledge, judgment or reason. Pure and elevated tastes give power and inspiratic ., and become factors which largely determine the course in life that is pursued, and the character that is formed. It is the duty of the teacher to provide such conditions as will help to form pure and elevated tastes. Those tastes that are natural should be improved if good ^ checked if bad. Many tastes will have to be former' ijr which there is no inherited tendency. In some ses constitutional antagonisms will have to be resisted, luw^ou judgment is often needed in the use of the proper stimulus A love for good reading, music, mathematics, eto.f can be created in the case of some pupils only by skilful instruc- tion. A love for bad literature, sinful pleasures or evil asso- ciations, can^be best destroyed by furnishing, to take their place, something which will be elevating and ennobling. In creating a taste for what is good, as well as in destroy- ing a taste for what is bad, persistent and continued use of the proper means may be required. The right stimulus \ -t.^ r'\ 80 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. will in time produce a tendency. By repeated exercise pleasure will result ; and, as in the case of a habit whiqh has been developed, the taste will become a feature of the character. .r--\' Habits. — It is said that character is made up of "a bundle of habits." The knowledge, skill, power and tastes of a person are usually the result of his habits. The formation of all habits, whether of body or mind, comes by persistent eiTort of the intelligence and the will. Too often the acquisition of knowledge^ rather than the formation of good habits, is assumed to be the end of educational efforts. This is a great mistake. In elementary schools, especially, the formation of good habits should receive greater prominence. If proper physical, intellectual, and moral habits are formed in childhood, the work of education is fairly begun. The child requires to have his physical habits so formed that he executes promptly and energeti- cally whatever he undertakes. Indolence is soon wanting. He always does his best, and employs the organs of the body to accomplish right ends. He guards his physical energy by the use of proper modes of living, and by the use of suitable recreation and amusements. Right intellectual habits will promote power and skill. These will be manifested in ability to fix the attention, to con- duct observations, to examine causes, to reflect, to persist ill mental effort and to express in language what ha& been acquired. Right moral habits v/ill secure prompt obedience to the dictates of conscience. The rights of others will be recognized early in life. Selfishness will cease to dominate as a motive, and self-control will hold sway. Habits are formed by frequent repetition of acts that promote the end in view. By the aid of propter incentives the teacher leads his pupils to act repeatedly in a right ■t' II CHARACTER BUILDING. 81 manner. The doing of what is right thus becomes a habit with children. Their modes of thinking and acting be^ come fixed, and they become strong to resist temptation. Natural instincts are powerful, but there is in habit a weapon with which inherited tendencies and early formed inclinations may be overcome. The child is born, not with habits already formed, but with the capacity of habit. The character of no person need be bad. Much of the teacher's power has often to be exercised in reversing inclinations that are due to defective home training and bad environments. Early habits are most readily formed, and therefore childhood, with its plastic nature, should not be entrusted to weak character builders. The teachers of elementary schools should be good discip- linarians. The activities of young children require to be carefully directed. Pupils who are restless, impetuous and troublesome, are not necessarily bad. If properly trained such characteristics may be turned to good account. They constitute the elements by which noble natures may be formed. Some of the most valuable habits which by law (See Appendix) the teacher should cultivate in his pupils, . are here considered : 1. Regularity. — Irregularity of attendance is the bane of many schools. It is frequently due to the indifterence of parents, to inefficient instruction, or to defective modes of discipline. Irregularity reiards progress, and inconveni- ences both teacher and pupils. Truancy, if not nipped in' the bud, may lead to serious crimes. Indifference to any school duty must not be allowed to grow. No child should feel that he can absent himself a day and escape the teacher's p'»tice. 'Kl®-S9Y^S^§5^1-Of Jchool^QjLia^^ is_defectiyfijyheB_attendance4»-^tionaL~ Parents should be informed, if necessary, when their children are absent. Irregularity of attendance, if nnf / \ 82 SCHOOL MAN/^OEMENT. justifiable, should receive proper punishment. A loss of some privilege, as position in the class, may answer the purpose in most cases. By making school work attractive, and by securing the co-operation of parents, regularity of attendance may become a settled feature of the school. Regularity as a habit is not confined to attendance. All the operations of the school should go on systemati- cally. Pupils should be trained to habits of promptness in connection with every duty. IS^eglect may allow tend- encies to grow that will continue through life. Fickleness may result, and become a hindrance to progress. Regu- larity promotes perseverance, without which the battles of life are not won. It has a marked bearing on all that affects the industrial, social and moral institutions of the country. 2. Punctuklity. — In business, in mechanical and in pro- fessional pursuits, it is the man who is punctual who has a chance to win in the struggle. To be behind time is to invite failure. The school has much to do with the formation of habits of punctuality. Pupils should learn to realize the evil of lateness. Unless home duties, bad roads, long distance to school, stormy weather, o; other legitimate causes stand in the way, lateness should receive no toleration. The plan of sending a pupil home for " a note" is, except in special cases, a senseless practice. When the pupil is himself to blame a "please excuse" recommendation from the parent should not be required. It may be very desirable, however, to inform the parent so that his co-operation may be gained. As in the case of irregularity of attendance, a neglect of punctuality should be punished. A teacher that allows pupils who come late to take their places at pleasure has a badly disciplined school, and fosters a habit which may cling to them in after life. CHARACTER BUILDINa 83 3. Industry.— The welfare of the State demands dili- gence on the part of its citizens. Idleness is the mother oi vices, and the foe of national prosperity. Labor is a fun- damental law of life. The men who get on in the world are persons of application. Diligence is a function of the will. If not spontaneous in its growth, an artificial development must be cultivated by appropriate incentives. Industry involves constant decision, self-denial, and the execution of choices. There is no wealth, no progress, no bright future, where there is no diligence. The good man works hard. . « The school is pre-eminent cis an agency for fostering the spirit of industry. It does not teach trades, but it imparts a love for work. It inculcates diligence, which is an element of success in every trade or calling. It calls into action the several mental powers, secures attention, and trains to habits of application. The child that is not kept busy becomes retitless, mischievous, weary, discontented and unhappy. The brightest and happiest classes are those in which every scholar is usefully employed. The whole atmosphere of a well-conducted school is one of activity, and the law of work is felt everywhere. Pupils should not be allowed to 2orm idle habits. The taste for certain subjects may require development. Skill in making a lesson interesting will do a great deal. Patience and discernment will be in demand. Children must be trained to habits of attention, encouraged to form reso- lutions, and aided in carrying them out. A pupil should be habituated to perform a certain amount of work in a regular time, to abstain from thinking about irrelevant matters, to adhere t. ■■■i ■ '. • • 1- noisj , i right to disturb others, and that the power to keep quiet is essential to the prosperity of the school and to the formation of character. Men of talk are not needed so much as men of thought and of action. 5. Neatness- — Neatness is a personal virtue, and any disregard of its value is indicative of a lack of refinement and self-respect A loss of self-esteem is generally followed by carelessness of personal appearance. Improvement in health, intelligence or morals, is not to be expected of one who exhibits dirty face and hands, untidy clothes and unkempt hair. A slovenly way of attending to duties shows a lack of culture. An efl&cient workman sets a high value on neatness. A well-conducted school fosters habits of cleanliness, order and neatness. A school-room that is dirty or untidy, from waste paper, apple-cores, nut-shells, or other refuse, shows indifference to the formation of character. Neat- ness in preparing exercises, and in arranging books, slates, copy-books, pens, pencils, ink-bottles, etc., will develop habits that will be continued in after life. Many children may come from homes where there is great lack of refine- ment. Every efficient system of education should set in motion forces that will touch the lowest stratum of society. Vigilance on the part of the teacher will be constantly needed. Pupils should not be allowed to. attend to duties in a slovenly manner. Children are imperfectly trained if they are not inspired with a desire to do thvir best. Thoroughness is a feature not only of an orderly society, but of a well-governed school. 6. Obedience. — Submission to law and order is a mark of a well-governed community. The most highly civilized countries are those in which laws are wisely enacted and well administered. Respect for parents and teachers, \ 86 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. ■ ••» \. ,■;.^..;:.r and reverence for rulem and magistrates, are virtucii which, when cultiyated in youth, secure law-abiding mem- bers of society. V Young children must be trained to do what they are told before they are competent to understand the value of obedience. There is a necessity for undisputed authority in childhood. As children grow older, authority may be relaxed in ^vor of moral suasion. The teacher must understand to what extent it may be safe to lessen I'estraints, and to allow a pupil to act on his own responsi- bility. Threats and constant entreaties are unknown in good government. Obedience should become choerful. Unwise regulations and commands weaken a te&oher's influence. No law should be a dead letter. Rules should l;^ carefully considered before being made. An injudicious order should be promptly withdrawn. For advanced pupils — especially those in a High School — it is often well to see that rules meet with favor before being announced. Pupils should be led to feel that they and the teachers have a common interest in good government. In a well-disciplined school the students are self-govern- ing. Commands should not be multiplied or needlessly repeated. The practice of the best teachers favors " few rules." The governing force of the teacher should never be exhausted. Children are not so much impressed with the ' power they see as with what they feel is kept in reserve. The school should make up, as far as possible, for defective homo training. The boy who refu^bs to obey his parents may, under the infiuenoe of a go^ teacher, become quite amenable to law. The good example of other pupils often cures stubbornness and obstinacy. The boy who refuses to do what is required of him must be dealt vnik #PV CHARACTER BUILDING. 87 promptly. Isolation from the other members of the dass, until there is time to speak to him in priTate^ may be pmdont. An opportunity for reflection frequently hastens refcurmation. Signs of repentance should be recognized, and honest efforts to do better should be encouraged. Firmness and discretion should mark the teacher's methods. 7. Truthfulness. — Truthfulness has been called the centra] pillar of character. Without it society could not be kept together. Exaggeration, equivocation, dissimula- tion, the breaking of promises, and trickery of every kind, are departures from this virtue. The man whose wcnrd is as good as his bond has weight in the community. The educated man is a searcher for truth ; he is also a lover of truth. The way to make children truthful is not by set lessons, but by constantly cultivating habits of truthfulness. Pupils should be instructed in the great value of accuracy, but iins is not enough. They should be compelled — wisely, kindly, lovingly — to abstain from all kinds of deception. Children should feel that they can be trusted. It is a serious mistake to call a pupil a liar. Dr. Arnold's view on this( question is too well known to need repetition. No use should be made of cunning, espionage, or any under- hand method of ascertaining facts. Falsehood, when made clear, should be followed by suitable punishment. It should be remembered that untruthfulness is often the result of fear, habit, or thoughtlessness. Fear should never become the governing agency in promoting truthfulness. Children often receive scanty credit for the struggles ihey make to do right. The teacher who cannot look down into the heart of a little child, and understand its conflict* ing emotions, has much to learn. Tak-t;elling should be discouraged. It leads to mean, *?v \ 88 SCHOOL MANAOGMENt. '>/ sneaking habits, fosters an uncharitable spirit, and pro* yokes resentment. There may be occasions when pupils may be expected to tell what they know about crimes ths^t have been committed. Immoral tendencies must be crushed, and the honor of the school maintained. To deny a teacher assistance in a crisis is to prove the existence of a very bad state of discipline. Instances of this kind should be rare, and furnisli no warrant for indiscriminate reporting. 8. Honesty. — Honesty is a cardinal virtue of a well governed school. Without a regard for the rights of property, and without a respect for character, all trust would disappear. Pupils must be taught that it is dis- honest to take advantage in a bargain, to seek credit for what is not their due, to cheat in games, or to retain pro- perty found, when the owner may be ascertained. Chil- dren may be selfish in infancy ; but, if properly trained, they soon betray a sense of shame or wrong when detected in the act of appropriating to themselves what belongs to others. A pupil shows resentment if his rights are invaded, and it is evident his sense of justice affords a ready means of cultivating the habit of honesty. Pupils are often slow to recognize the forms of dishonesty that do not consist in taking valuable articles of property belonging to another person. They should be taught that dishonesty cannot be excused because the thing in question is trifling in value, because it belongs to the school, or because custom has sanctioned the fraud as harmless. They should understand, as they get older, that when they interrupt the class, take up the time of the teacher unnecessarily, or keep other pupils back by their indolence, they are not dealing honestly with their fellow pupils. They should learn that it is dishonest to depreciate or CHARACTER BUILDING. 89 . misrepresent the talents, attainments, motives, or opinions of others, either by exaggeration or suppression of some important par^*' ular. In short, the oultivation of altruism, or rather that Cliristian unselfishness which is embodied in the Golden Rule, should be a paramount object in character building. Pupils so trained are not likely to go wrong. « Bring up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old he will not depart from it." The cultivation of this virtue requires discretion. Chil- dren are ready to catch the spirit of the one who leads them. It will not do to be suspicious of pupils. It is not of ^en that a child is entirely bad. To tell a pupil that he is d^ honest, and will yet go to the penitentiary, may be sufficient to crush all germs of manliness. Deliberate breach of honesty must be punished. Pro- perty destroyed must be made good. Lost articles, if found, must be restored to the owners. The habit of copying from another must be prevented. Vigilance on the part of the teacher is necessary to put a stop to various dishonest practices. A teacher who is literally or meta- phorically blind is no good. Mr^ny a form of dishonesty, if not checked, will become a .sease which will sap all self-reliance ;>r hor.Qst independent effort, and will extend its degrading influences to the after life of the pupils. 9. Courtesy. — The man who is gruff in his manner, rude in his conversation, or selfish in his disposition, repels people and fails to ^vin success. True manliness exhibits gentleness, refinement, and that politeness which is void of veneering. Right actions proceed from right thoughts. Courtesy is a product of good motives. Churlishness, or the disposition to tyrannize, show 3 a want of culture. A good heart is the basis of kind actions and pleasing words. The school may be a powerful means to overcome 90 r SCHOOL MANAQKMBNT. y rl,- rottghnept^ ill-manners, profanity, or the use of obeeene language. The r < «I atmosphere of a good school is often a source of now life to children whose surroonrh i-^j have made iaem rude^ mean, untruthful, or dishonest It should lead them to be polite, to be ready to respond with " thanks " for acts of kindness, to restrain resentment, and to cultivate unselfishness. The little responsibilities to be discharged by pupils toward one another may be turned to good account. Pride in the 8cho )endent effort, rather than on account of any constan aulus exerted by the teacher. The power of the teacher need not be lessened by cultivating in his pupils a spirit of self-reliance. If he does not give them a chance to " stand alone " they may fall, not merely when the test of an examination is applied, but when they are confronted with the actual struggles of life. Too often pupils leave school with an abundance of knowledge, but with no habits of self-control. With numerous examples of this nature, it is no wonder that people are so ready to undervalue education. The treatment of children who have, through neglect, formed habits of stubbornness, demands patience, firmness and judgment. The absurd theory about " breaking the will " is a relic of a time when child nature was poorly understood. A pupil who has a strong will has a nobler gift than genius. Tlie world needs more persons of strength of purpose, and fewer persons who are weak, irresolute and cowardly. The "breaking in" process is opposed to correct principles of training in the case of a rational being. Obstinacy must be cured by the use of counteracting incentives. To perpetuate a system of blind submission to authority in the school life of a stubborn boy, is to throw him eventually upon the world either br(^en-spirited, or so deficient in moral strength, that he rushes ixjJ» excesses as soon as restraints are removed. ■,V' IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) h 1.0 1.1 itt m m m ■^ «2.0 M \m i 1.4 Uil 1.6 -^ •2*^aX * Fhotogra^c SciHices Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STMn WnSTIR,N.Y. MSM (716)a7a-4S03 CHAPTER VII. THE TEACHER'S QUALIFICATIONS. Physical Attainments. — A teacher should have good health. A person with a sickly constitution will break down under the mental strain of the school-room. That cheerful spirit, so valuable to the disciplinarian, is not often possessed by one whose frame is weak or whose body is racked* with pain. The careful study that must be made of the disposition and progress of each child requires the utmost life and vigor on the part of the teacher. That indomitable energy which compensates Tor many faults, and almost compels success, is not to be found when the health is feeble and the 'uodj weak. Other callings should be sought by " the lame, the halt and the blind." It is the duty of the teacher to take care of his health. Close confinement, disregard of hygienic laws in the heating, lighting and ventilation of school buildings, the nervous strain in preserving order, and the worry which wears faster than work, often undermine the constitutions of fairly robust teachers. Exercise, food, sleep, air, bathing, and dress will all need proper attention, or the energy will soon begin to flag. To govern well it is necessary for the teacher to exhibit that physical develop- ment and vigor which will furnish him with a ready supply of bodily strength for each day's work. The school has no place for the indolent, sleepy, lethargic teacher. There is no reason why good health should give THE teacher's QUALIFICATIONS. 98 way under the duties of the school-room if proper care is, taken of the body. An energetic teacher, if prudence is exercised, has no need of becoming lifeless, irritable, or " behind the times." Scholarship. — The tea?her should be a guod scholar and a logical thinker. His kno\v ledge should be far in advance of what he teaches. It should be systematized, broad and thorough. High scholarship commands respect, but ignorance is despised even by children. The teacher must know his subject, not simply from the point of view of the college student, but from the many sides that it is presented to the various pupils of his class. Good scholar- ship has often enabled a teacher, otherwise lacking in governing power, to control large classes by the clearness, accuracy, definiteness and fulness of his illustrations. It is probable, more than three-fourths of those teachers who are wenk disciplinarians are weak as a result of inadequate academic knowledge, or as a result of having their scholar- ship arranged only after the manner of an ordinary uni- versity student. The good teacher knows his subject well. This implies that he also knows the difficulties which each part of it presents to each pupil. The teacher must possess fresh knowledge — he mus<» be a constant student — his scholarship must improve year by year. When he ceases to learn, his mind will become stagnant, his methods will become fixed and mechanical, sympathy with the pupils' efforts will cease, his discipline will become harsh, and any love he once had for teaching will grow cold. The reply of Dr. Arnold, of Rugby, when asked why he spent several hours daily in his study pre- paring what he had taught for years, is significant. His answer, " I wish my boys to drink from a running stream, ^4 Qot from a stagnant pool," shows a deep insight into 94 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. the oonditions pf all true tsaohing. "Dead" teachen are a great hinciranoe to educational progress. No gooc^ teacher should become an "old fogy." Professional Attainments. —The teacher needs special training. Academic study and professional study are very different. The former gives power to apply know- ledge, the latter power to present knowledge. The teacher must not only understand a subject in relation to its prin- ciples and applications, but also in its relation to the mind of the learner. He must understand child nature and the principles and methods by which physical, intellectual and moral development may be secured. No person should be allowed to teach who has not attended a training school The maxim, ruueittir turn fib is misleading. Natural gifts are valuable to any one who follows a high calling. Teachers of the highest genius are rare. Skill to teach, to govern, to form character, is not generally acquired without industry. Inborn gifts alone never made a good, teacher. There is a science of education which must be mastered under expert guidanlce by every person who bom fit to become a teacher. The well-known fact?, applied psychology and the most approved methods of in- struction are essential requirements of professional attain- ments. The development of the child, and not the subject of study, should be the guide to the teacher's efforts. The teacher needs to observe, read, think and practise, if he is to become successful in his calling. A lack of power, method and skill will make the most brilliant scholar a failure in the school-room. A knowledge of school organi- zation, programmes of study and principles of teaching may be acquired. The elements of governing power, the conditions of favorable control and the devices of discipline may be ascertained. THE teacher's QUALIFICATIONS. 95 The teacher should be a oonstant student of pedagogy, watching the progress of education, reading school joui^^ nals, and taking an active part in the discussion oi educational questions. His experience should make him progressive without becoming radical, fanatic, or an advo- cate of *'fad8." Every year in active work should make the teacher more valuable as an educationist. *'It ia in away psrfeotly true that only by teaohing oan one beoome a teacher. But not any and every sort of thing which paases for teaching or for ' experience ' will make a teachei: any more than sawing a bow across violin strings will make a violinist. It is a certain quality of practice which produces the expert and the artist. Unless the practice is baaed upon rational principles, upon insight into facts and their meaning, * experience ' simply fixes inoorrect acts into wrong habits. Non-scientific practice, even if it finally reaches sane and reasonable results — which is very unlikely — does so by unnecessarily long and circuitous routes; time and energy are wasted that might easily oe saved by wise insight and direction at the outset." — McLdlan and Dewey. **Ii college graduates ire put directly into teaching without special study and training, they will teach as they have been taught. The methods of college professors are not in all cases the , best, and, if they were, High School pupils are not to be taught and disciplined as College students are. High School teaching and dis- cipline can be that neither of the Grammar School nor of the College, but is ««• generit. To recognize this truth and the special differ^ Mioes is vital to success. This recognition comes only from much experience at great loss and partial failure, or by happy intuition not usually to be expected, or by definite instruction and directed practice. Success in teaohing depends upon conformity to prin- ciples, and these principles are not a part of the mental equipment of every educated person." — Report of the Committee qf Fifteen. Personal Mag:netism.— The great teachers of the past had an element in their character which gave them power to influence and control children. They had that personal magnetism which brings a man friends and sur- tounds him with associates, though he may have neither 96 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. wealth nor position to bestow. The teacher who possesses this magnetic character will not fail in discipline. He wil\ be obeyed by pupils, sustained by trustees, and defended by parents. His pres3nce in the school will be an incentive to right action. His bright and cheerful disposition, his apt and ready power of presenting knowledge, and his ability to inspire and direct, will draw pupUs to him. He will not obtrude unnecessarily the forces of discipline. His authority will be recognized, his courage will be ready for any crisis, his sympathy, patience and toleration will be apparent in every decision, and though felt by the pupils to be simply their helper, he will be their director and commander. Doubtless this is one of the highest qualifications of the teacher. It is largely an accumulation of the noblest Features of human nature. It is natural to some persons, and its value has tended too much lo exalt natural aptitudes at the expense of characteristics that are the result of scholarship and of professional training. The. person who is devoid of sympathy, wanting in energy, repulsive in manner, erratic in ability, ungovernable in temper, or burdened with some other idiosyncrasy of character, should be advised by the Principal of the Train- ing School iio undertake some other calling. There are plenty of persons who will, by necessary application, become good teachers, without granting certificates to those who will never be successful in managing children. Executive Ability. — Much of the success of a teacher depends upon his administrative ability. Good classifica- tion, well-constructed time-tables, skill in making promo- tions, prudence in dealing with trustees, and judgment in his relations with parents, will do much towards inspiring co):ifidence in his ability. The best teachers are leaders. THB teacher's QUALIFIOATIOKS. 9V Their counsel can be relied upon, and their judgment is cool ani deliberate. They understand human character «nd are able to meet prejudices, and even hostility, with courage, fairness and discretion. Executive ability calls for system in all that relates to teaching and governing. Order, regularity and prompti- tude are pillars of discipline. Pupils must be kept inter- ested and busy. Pupils trained to habits of order in dchool will have orderly habits through life. The teache r who manages wel l^ias^ met hod in all his arrangemen ts. The work goes on with ft sort of military precision, but in such a way as to strengthen self-activity, self-control and independence on the part of the pupils. E xecutive ability requires b oundless en ergy. Energy keeps the requisite mac? mery in motion, infuses life and vigor into each recitation, overcomes difficulties, and evokes and directs every power of each pupil. Dulness or disorder, or mischief, or meanness, is not found under an administration of this kind. The teacher needs the quali- ties of a statesman and a diplomatist. The principal of a large school will require that insight into human nature which makes the successful ruler. Often the duty will devolve upon him of smoothing asperities, allaying antagon- isms, enlisting educational forces, and maturing plans for important changes in the management of his school. Tact. — No teacher ever governed a school well who had not tact. Tact is the power of mee ting difficulties with promptness and discretion . Quickness of perception ir taking into account all the bearings of a case and the ulterior consequences of any line of action, and a readiness of resource in appropriately adjusting means to ends, are constantly required in school discipline. Tact enables a loacher to have his wits about him in case of a crisis. 7 98 SCHOOL MANAOBMBMT. 11''' Like a general on the field of battle, he is frequently con- fronted with unforeiieen difficulties. Without a moment's^ )\ouoe he has often to decide whether a stem rebuke, or tiie <* soft answer that tumeth away wrath," is to be employed. Thfl tflac her lyith tact is pr epar ed for emergencies . If he makes a mistake, he retraces tiis steps with dignity and without humiliation. He is never restless or fussy. He checks impending danger before opposition has time t^ make headway. He is fertile in resource. He does not needlessly irritate or jar the feelings of children. H% allays any indications towards rebellion by removing an\ real grievance. Disturbing elements become aids in pro- moting order. An angry parent is met in such a way as to become a friend, and the people of the entire com- munity regard hiW with confidence and respect. Comnion-oense. — Common-sense has to do with mat ters of every-day occurrence. The teacher's work is in a sense mainly made up of little things. Common-sense is needed by every person who hopes to succeed. A lack of this qualification on the part of the teacher is fatal to good discipline. Without it blunders are continually made. "A lack of common-sense will cause a teacher to give lessons far too difficult, to put an absurd question to a pupil, to make uncalled-for remarks, to discourage a timid child, to whip a boy for a trifle, to keep the school-room uncomfortabl3r warm or cold, and to do many other senseless things, where only a little judgment is needed. Some teachers have nc presence of mind. They are continually doing the thingt. they ought not to do, and leaving undone the thin;;? they ought to do. They are hopelessly " at sea " in the simple matters of discipline. They make motintains out of mole-hills, and fail to prevent mole-hills from becoming mountains. Tact may be necessary to meet the hreez^ II THE TSAOHER'8 QT7ALIFIOATION8. M that has grown to the magnitade of a whirlwind. A little common-sense will often enable a teacher to see the gathar> ing cloud when it is not larger than a man's hand, and will furnish him with means of meeting the storm suooesf fully or of dispersing it. Vigilance. — Good work in the school requires the teacher to be constantly watchful. E ternal vigilance is the price of freedom from trouble . The teacher needs good eyeslind ears. A teacher who is so mentally blind or deaf tbat he does not know what is going on in his class, will fail as a disciplinarian. In some schools pupils may constantly whisper, pass papers from one to another, copy at examinations, or become quite inattentive^ without being detected. The teacher goes on with his demonstra- tions regardless of noise, interruptions, or the general indifference of the pupils. If order reigns, it is only when the confusion has become so great as to call forth a storm of wrath from an angry teacher. The teacher should be ja ble to " *a ke in " t fb« ai*^^"«t<-iAn ~^£ny signs of inu^ Terence or disorder at any moi should not escape his notice. A mere glance of fh-^ eye should bring the idle to a sense of duty. The timiii hould be permitted. The centre of control should be gradually transferred from the teacher to each of his pupils. AVhat they are becoming is to be kept in view rather than what they are doing. Characteristics of Good Discipline. — In a properly disciplined school pupils are attentive. Attention forms the avenue to the higher intellectual processes. With young children voluntary attention is not to be expected ; , but, as they pass from the elementary stages, it is necessary' that they should acquire the power of fixing their thoughts. Those hobits (Chapter VI.) which constitute character — such as industry, order, neatness, obedience, truthfulness, etc.— become prominent features of well-trained pupils. In a school that is characterized by good discipline there is a high moral tone. Gkxxi government requires that the discipline should be regular. Uniformity, f.rmness, and discretion are observed in the enforcement of rules. The natural instincts a,re j^ followed and utilized in securing obedience. Submission to authority is maintained without any apparent effort The discipline is unobtrusive. It is kind. Love is supreme. Fear is not a controlling force. Justice reigns. Anger, vacillation, carelessness^ and unreasonable demands are unknown. Courtesy and self-control are shown by the DISCIPLINE. 105 a \ % teacher, and the pupils catch his spirit and follow his example. G ood order_ , is an essential characteristic of good discip- line. Without it good teaching is impossible, progress is not to be expected, and the school is defective in the for- mation of good habits. An orderly school is marked by the thorough and systematic manner in which the lessons are taken up, by the taste exhibited in the arrangement of books, furniture, apparatus, etc., and by the promptness and regularity that attend the performance of duty by the pupils. Ince ntives to right action and penalties j orw^^g- doing are_4udiciou8ly emplojod. There is jio elaborate -f- code ofrules. Where order prevails, children are led to control themselves by their intelligence and corscience. The careless and irregular are readily brought to attention. The teacher is orderly himself, and never goes on with work until disorder, if it arises, ceases. In an orderly ti^ school attention is not secured by blustering, striking the desk, stamping the foot, threatening the idle or scolding the dull. Haste, fickleness, whispering and idleness are absent. Conditions of Discipline. — 1. Pr oper envirom if not absolutely indispensable, tend at lease to facilitate and promote discipline. Children are more easily managed in a building that is spacious, beautiful, well-planned and well furnished. It is difficult to preserve order when physical comfort is not secured. A badly heated, poorly lighted, and ill-ventilated room imposes additional strain on the teacher's governing power. Attractive surround- ings help to make children love school, and lessen the task of securing attention. 2. Auihoritfu is essential to good government. The* rights, pcw8F5 and duties of the teacher should be defined 106 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. by the lavs of the State (See Appendix). If each munici* pality or district enjoys complete freedom in school legisla- '^ tion, the authority of the teacher is liable to be unduly restricted or hastily modified. An efficient system of education demnnds a fair measure of centralization. It follows that the teacher ?n a private school has not the aid to discipline that is necessary to good government. On this account character is more easily formed in institutions subject to public control. 3, Easy control needs the su pport of truste es. In the faithful discharge of their difficult duties teachers are entitled to all the assistance that School Boards can give. There should be no interference in those matters of organi- zation and management which, by law, pertain to the teacher or the inspector. Meddlesome trustees are an injury to discipline. Harshness, doubtless, should not be allowed in controlling pupils, but the trustee who is ever ready to have the complaints of any busybody publicly investigated is no friend of teachers, pupils,, or parents. Every good teacher should be anxious to take necessary counsel from his trustees and his inspector. The best dis- cipline is not found where the support of the Board is wanting. .•;■■.., ■-■v,' .^,v.;^- -• ':...:?^> 4. The cooperation of the principal is essential to efficient control. If the head-teacher is weak in manage- ment and discipline, the difficulty of each assistant is increased. The successful chief supports his subordinates without destroying their individuality. The spirit of order, precision and governing power which the principal exhibits should be such as may be followed by the entire staff. An inexperienced teacher should feel that in the headmaster he has one competent to give advice, ready to sustain his authority, and one who is a rampart to check disobedience or rebellion. When an assistant blunders, ) I.I DISCIPLINE. 107 ' , ) care should be tal^en to have matters righted without lessening his influence. The principal will often find troubles arising that never would have occurred had good judgment on the part of some assistant been exercised. Too much, should not, however, be expected of beginners. The one who has the main qualifications of a successful teacher may eventually become an acquisition to the school. One who is sure to fail may be quietly requested to resign. A weak disciplinarian makes it harder for the other teachers to govern. 5. Harmony^ amov^ thi^-Mt^ff must be preserved in a school Having two or more teachers. A divided house cannot stand. Good discipline requires unity of action. The will of the principal should be law in all matters pertaining to management. Though vested with power somewhat autocratic in its nature, every wise headmaster constantly consults the members of his staff. An assistant who goes out of his way to weaken the influence of the principal, deserves to be dismissed. The best managed schools are those where appointments on the staff are made by the Boards on the recommendation of the prin- cipal or inspector. An efficient executive officer will preserve harmony, receive the cheerful support of his assistants, give good counsel to trustees, and prevent by his tact any serious troubles from making headway. 6. TJie confidence of 'pw renU is necessary in order that the government may be effective. Fitness and merit are unfortunately not always duly considered in making appointments. The candidate who has " influence " is often selected in preference to one of higher qualifications. False economy has more than once placed an inferior teacher in charge of a school. It frequently happens that some persons in a section are annoyed because their relative or favorite did not receive the appointment. Greater L '^.^¥^- r 108 SCHOOL MANAQfiMENt. care is needed in selecting teachers. It should be recol- lected, however, that not only fairness to the candidate chosen, but the important interests of their children as well, should prompt parents to aid the teacher in his arduous duties. To discredit a teacher in advance is neithe? wise nor honest Easy control is out of the question when parents are so forgetful of the welfare of their children as to make before them disparaging remarks of the teacho«''8 scholarship or professional attainments. Devices of Discipline. — There are many devices of the school-room which, though not calling for high govern- ing powers, may be employed to render control easy. Methods of this nature serve, like the conditions of discipline already described, to aid the weak disciplinarian and to lessen the btrain that is inseparable from the work of even the best teachers. Their chief advantages are the removal of temptations to misconduct, and the prevention ' of disorder by surrounding children with what will induce them to do right. If utilized they greatly help the teacher ; if disregarded, good government is impossible. Some of the most important devices are the following : 1. T1\A school-house and the school ground should be improved in every way that may add to their attractive ness. Doubtless these are matters for the trustees, but in the matter of aesthetics much may be done by the teacher who enlists the aid of the pupils. Some teachers have cultivated in their pupils a taste for what is refining and ennobling. Order is more easily preserved, and attention to duty more readily secured, when beauty and cleanliness are recognized as valuable aids to discipline. 2. Physical comfort is inseparable from good order. It is impossible to secure attention if no relief is given to children suffering from a close atmosphere, bad temperatuiv DISCIPLINE. 109 ' :t or glaring light. To see that the fires are well looked after, and that the room is flushed with pure air at suitable times, is as important as imparting knowledge. 3. The seating of the pupils has much to do with' discipline. Provision should be made for periods of sitting and standing. Frequent intermissions are necessary for young children (Chapter XII.). Pupils should be so arranged that the eye of the teacher may be upon them. In an ungraded school the elementary classes should be so placed that hints and short lessons may be given them if necessary, while the older pupils are taught writing, arithmetic, composition and other subjects. It is not always best to put the junior pupils by them- selves. A suitable place for classes to sit or stand during recitations should also be provided. It is important to seat pupils in such a way that those who are weak in one another's presence may be separated. A troublesome boy may be managed if placed near those who are industrious. It is not well to give pupils their permanent seats till they are fairly well known. After seats have be^n assigned for the term, it is best to make as few changes as possible. 4. A good classification aids discipline. It is difficult to maintain interest when the pupils of a class differ widely in their attainments. In graded schools a common hin- drance to good order is the excessively large size of classes. The only remedy is additional teachers. To expect any one — and especially a beginner — to manage sixty or seventy pupils is cruel to teacher and pupils. In a rural school, where the classes are small, an inexperienced teacher, who would fail in a city schl, will often do good work. In ungraded schools, and in some High Schools, the multi- plicity of classes ia a constant obstacle to easy control. \ 110 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. When pupils are left a great part of the time to them- selves, the difEioulty of government is increased. Feweiv classes, or a doubling up of classes in some subjects, may give partial relief (Chapter XI.). Skill is needed to adopt proper devices of this kind. ^ > 5. A good lesson programme is a great advantage in preserving order. A well constructed time-table (Chapter ■ XII.) is necessary to easy control. Short, lively recitations, followed by short recesses, are needed for young pupils. Order is out of the question when pupils are exhausted. To assign certain difficult subjects as the work for the last hour of the day is to hinder good government. In an ungraded school the junior classes should not be left for the last. In High Schools, where the work is divided among the teachers by departments, many devices in arranging the time-table will require consideration. So far as practicable the subjects that exhaust the nervous energy and those that do not call for close reasoning should alternate. A change from one subject to another, if wisely arranged, increases the interest and helps discipline. 6. Good stvdy arrangements are an important feature of the time-table for rural schools. Even in a graded school, it is an absurd practice to have all study done at home. Pupils do not need to be "talked to" for five hours a day. In an ungraded school, if proper arrange- ments are not made for study, pupils, when not engaged in a recitation, will get into mischief. Every class should be employed. While one class is taught algebra or history another class may prepare grammar or study geometry. Writing or drawing may occupy the attention of some pupils, while .others are instructed in arithmetic or physiology. ^ keep the entire "machinery" in motion demands judgment and experience. Idleness is productive DISOIPLIinL m of disorder. Pupils must be kept busy. Their emplpy- ment must be profitable. 7. A system of signals, constituting what may be termed school tactics, may be used with much advantage in elemen- ary classes. Mechanical movements secured in this way may save time, impart vigor, give a military appearance to the class, lessen the teacher's requests, promote order and train to habits of obedience. School tactics should be uniform and should cause no confusion. Signals should be few and readily understood. By means of a little bell, or by the notes of a piano, children may be called to attention, assem- bled in their places, trained to stand or sit, or to be dismissed from their classes with regularity, promptitude, and decorum. For advanced classes fewer tactics are necessary, but order is indispensable. More self-control is to be expected of older pupils. The discipline is defective when "hustling" or "hazing" cannot be checked. 8. Pupils should be trained to assist the teacher in pre- serving order. System is needed in the care, distribution and collection of books, slates, pens, pencils, etc., used in the elementary classes. In matters of this kind children may be assigned little duties which will please them and aid the teacher. Maps and apparatus may be arranged, the blackboard cleaned, and works of reference consulted, in the case of advanced classes, by some of the pupils. A boy will feel some pride if he is required, under the teacher^s directions, to see that the room is kept at the proper temperature, the ventilation looked after, or the appliances for physical culture kept in their place. Mis- chief may often be checked, and better relationships formed between pupils and teacher, when such functions and responsibilities as have been mentioned aro ^tssigned to different members of the oIms, ^ ^ \ 112 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 9. Physical exercises (Chapter II.) promote good discip- line. Much of the restlessness of children is due to the need of bodily activity. Pupils who take an interest in games, drill, gymnastics or calisthenics, learn more readily to become orderly and obedient. Children who are con- stantly on the move should be given a chance to develop their physical powers. Recess, with its fun and frolic, has its place in every well-constructed time-table. 10. Jiules of condtust for pupils should be few. Page, that pioneer as a writer in the art of discipline, recognizes a philosophic truth when he regards "Do Kight" as a rule sufficiently comprehensive to secure good government. A . code of laws has its place in the preservation of order in the State, but not in the school-room. The usages of the school are best Reamed by practice. The constant exhibi- tion of good conduct is more potent in influencing the effort of individual scholars than the multiplication of rules. Whatever rules are adopted, should not refer, so much to matters relating to work and behavior as to matters of attendance, promotions, courses of study, etc. Rules often awaken a desire to do what is forbidden, and give the impression that what is not prohibited may be transgressed with impunity. There should be few rules relating to crimes for which penalties are prescribed. There should be no rules that cannot be enforced. Com- mands should be given in a firm but quiet tone, in few words, and should not be repeated. Orders should be explained, if necessary, and should not be associated with a warning or threat. The unwritten law of duty and the power of conscience will hold prominence in every well- governed school. REFERENCES. Poffe, WMUt Cowhamt Wickeraham, London, BeUdtoin, KeOog, CHAPTER IX. SCHOOL INCENTIVES. ^ The Need of Incentives. — Human nature is im- perfect. The government of nations cannot be secured by depending solely on the highest motives of each individual. _.Rewards_and^j)uni8hments are insepacable from obedience to law. The sense of right and the power of conscience are imperfectly developed in children. Before the intelligence and the will are trained, a child is controlled by his feelings. Almost from earliest infancy he recognizes that certain actions lead to pleasurable or painful results. The hope of reward, or the expec- tation of pleasure, must be stimulated so that the right course may be taken. The impulse of the moment may be strong for years, but if the right influence is brought to bear, there will arise a growing tendency to prefer a future and a greater good to an immediate pleasure. The incentives required will var y with tha ajorfl^ disposition and circumsta nces of the pup il. -They will also be determined by the end to be sought in the formation of- character. Choice of Incentives. — In influencing children to right action, the highest motives that will secure the end in view should be used. Lower incentives have no permanent place in good discipline. All children cannot be treated alike. The same child requires different treatment at different times, and under different circum- stances. An incentive which is not of the highest kind \ lU SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. "f cannot be defended, unleeus it j|[ra4ual|j.j«FingB_ihQ..pjipil under the dominion of higher self-acting influenoes. The incentive muat ^ f>Hiir»n.Hv«^ jn itfl rf»'?n]tT The physioian must understand the condition of the patient> and the nature of the disease before he can prescribe the medicine. In like manner, ability to diagnose the intellectual and moral state of the pupil is an essential element of the teacher's qualification. « What is the disease 1 " " What is its cause 1 " " What remedies may be used 1" " Which one will have the best e£fect on character 1 " These are questions which daily confront the teacher. Two Kinds of Incentives.—!. Natural in centiveB are the pleasures or discomforts that ordinarily, .jurise- - from actions. If a pupil attends school regularly with the desire of standing well in his class, if he studies hard in order to gain knowledge for the pleasure it gives, or if he works with energy to pass an examination so that he may gain a position of trust in society, he is in each case influenced by k natural incentive. There is a cl^r^jcou— nection between the end to be secured and the activity callecTinto play. 2. When an incentive is of a character that shows no consequential relation between the desired object and the effort put forth, it is called ar tifici al. For instance, a boy may be promised a pair of skates if he goes regularly to school, he may be indaced to prepare his lesson if a holiday is offered as a reward, or he may strive to pass an examination with the hope of gaining a prize. In each case an artificial incentive is used as a motive to secure a desirable object. It is evident that the best results are not attainable by means of artificial incentives. In the hands of a poor teacher they may be productive of bad results, A good SCHOOL INOENTIVES. 116 teaoher has little need of them. At best they are merely temporary expedients. Many of them have, like some bad teadbing methods, oome down by tradition. If subjected to the light of pedagogical research, they will be found as un- sound as the rote system of teaching history, or the rule method of solving arithmetical problems. The vital ques- tion to be settled is, whether or not an incentive is defens- ible on account of its consequent moral results. It will be found, in many instances, that an artificial incentive is of doubtful value as regards the pupil to be influenced, and that it has an injurious effect on other members of the class. Prizes. — Prizes are the incentives of an]artificial nature that are most frequently ujsed in school. In the prize system proper there is competition among several, but only a few win. It is not to be confounded with a system of rewards where each person who reaches a certain standard receives something valuable as a mark of distinction. In High Schools and Colleges, as well as in the more advanced classes of elementary schools, the test in the competition is generally a written examination. In the junior classes the estimate made by the teacher decider. In the prize system e mulation stinnulates exertion . Emulation is, in itself, a valuable incentive to huma n act ivity. Its influence is felt through all communities, irrespective of rank, age or occupation. It is not confined to those of eminent gifts or attainments. It is a powerful ^g'£!yiJ,EA''j^S!!J9: J^^<^^"i6ftt' ^^t i^ requirfiR propeiLdJEac- tion^ There are few natures so indolent as never to have felt its warm influence. In most schools there is less need of exciting emulation than of directing it aright. The frequent use of it may do much hai^. To whet the love of distinction by stimulating w($rds and the flitter of :5 116 HOOL MANAGEMENT. artificial rewards, has a powerful efTect on obedient and ina^ .ifriouB pupils. To make the school a little battle-field, on which the rival combatants strive to vindicate their superiority, f ' to load pupils to ooiioentrate their efforts against their rivals, and perhaps to cherish towards them malevolent feelings. Those who by nature are unfitted to take part in the " trial of speed " often become the victims ' of injustice. ? ^ Emulation m ay, when directed by an enlightened teacher, b ecome a p owe r capable of achi ev ing g r^at resul ta^ but there is no need that its application should be limited to a system of rewards granted to those who show superior excellence in intellectual attainments. In the infant stage, where the desir^ is to draw out the amiable sentiments, the use of emulation should be checked. With young children a written examination is impossible, and if prizes are to be granted the teachers must assume a responsibility that may endanger their relations with unreasr>xiable parents and with children of immature judgment. With older pupils, if the prize system does not foster envy, jealousy, deception, heartburning or dishonesty, it has at all events kept in the back-ground the higher motives of good government. If its evils are not perceptible, the explanation is that the school hau been controlled by a teacher who knows how to employ the natural incentives of good discipline. ^I.e prize system is a prop to effici ent instruction that is bec^nv ing less and less employed by teachers in Public SoL jois. It is evident only a few pupils — pupils who .d o not need ^ suoh incentives — ai:e.fiQffipetitors in the struggle. It is safe to say that nc> <-ood teacher who has tested the value of natiiral incex'tivf;.. v.ould ciacrifice their advantages by the introduction of tii/:^ p.;i?.e system. In High Sclkook Jie evils ci the system are more easily II SCirOPT, INCENTTVEa 117 checked. It is, nevoi f ^icletw, u levelopment which han only a traditional value, in the languagf^ of Fitch, the system is a spe cies of ** bribery. " The Science of l'e All may strive, but only one, or a very small number, can possibly win. A reward, on the other hand, is something which, however many are oonoerned, all may attain who reach a certain required degree of exc« Hence. The fact that one obtains the reward does not preclude others from obtaining it. If the standard of excel- lence is not placed too high, not above the possible attainment of any faithful, earnest and industrious student, many of the objec- tions which are justly urged against prizes cannot be urged against rewards.** — Putnam. ^riviUffes granted to pupils who win in a contest are open to similar objections. They also tend to induce a teacher to ignore the higher incentives. It is possible, if wisely directed, that the privilege of gaining a position of 118 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. lionor or trust may furnish a harmless rivalry. It should be known, however, that any motive is defective in prin- ciple that tends to have the backward pupils overlooked. If the weak are handicapped for the sake of the more gifted, the discipline is wrong. i ; ":; . r Sspemptjo ns are artificial incentives which would appear to convey the thought that the ferformanoe of duty is not' a pleasure. A few examples will show what is meant : The boy who comes out first in composition is freed from writing the weekly essay, ^he one who does well during the term is not subjected to the final examinations. Pupils who conduct themselves well are allowed to leave school half an hour before the rest of the class. If the principle introduced ce^ be defended, it implies that preparing lessons is unpleasant^ that writing at examinations has no educative value, and that attending school is a hardship. In this connection it may be said that the custom of granting a holiday on account of a visit from some distinguished personage, is a pedagogical error handed down by tradition. If a holiday is a benefit, why wait for the Inspector's visit ? Ri ght Motive s. — No discipline can be defended that does not employ high motives in gaining its ends. No obedi ence to autho rity, no temporary interest in study, no ' d esire to win distinctio n, can compensate for the habitual subjection, of the will to the dominancy of the lower motives. A school may be brought to a high pitch of interest and effort by the enthusiastic use of rewards, such as prizes, promises of holidays, or the release from certain duties ; but artificial incentives of this nature do not stand the d ecisive teat of character buildin g. They tend to bring the will into subjection to what is presen t and selfish, an d leave the sense of righJL-amLduty, weak. Bisbipline is defective if the natural results of effort are not made U SCHOOL INCENTIVES. 119 m. attractive. T he most efficient training of the will inyolvea an appeal to the sense of duty.^ The rel igious mot ives have been the most powerful in the formation of national life and indiividual character. As has been stated (Chapter lY.), the religious motives should not be used except with di screti on. Although the sense of duty ranks highest ok an incentive, it should not be continually used in school discipline. Long before a child can be taught to act from any sense of honor, right, or duty, his nature may be employed to strengthen his will and to direct his course of action. The motives that may be used by the teacher will now receive consideration : 1. AJ}|^su*e for Good Standing;. — As Baub remarks, "This, as an incentive, appeali^ directly to the self-respect of the pupiL _ Eve^ one feels it an honor to stand high in his school, and among the best in his class.'' Progress - implies a knowledge of one's present and past attainments, and therefore the desire for a higher standing is a necessary and natural incentive of school discipline. A consciousness of improvement is a valuable spur to increased effort. The pupil who is influenced to-day to do better than yesterday, is sure to improve. The motive is serviceable in childhood and all through life. With junior pupils relative standing should be used sparingly. There is danger in childhood that a high rank may unduly elate, or a low standing injuriously depress. It is not results so much as fidelity that should be rewarded in the case of young children. There is danger also of fostering selfish- ness at the expense of judgment and self-oontroL It is a mistake to hold, as some persons contend, that all methods of comparing the standing of children are bad. This theory ignores the fact that there can be no meagure of progress without comparisons. It fails to admit the 120 SCHOOL MAKAOEMfiNT. force of example on human effort. In a school where each student is kept in ignorance of the standing of the other members of his class, there is little to stimulate effort. Doubtless the motive must be used with caution. The age, disposition and attainments of the pupils must be considered. ; •;, Pupils who reach a certain standing may be rewarded. If those who attain a certain rank receive a prize, the objections mentioned against the prize system do not apply. There is no competition. No pupil has any grounds for cherishing the hope that the others in his class may fail. A prize, unless in the shape of a certificate, is, however unnecessary. It seems ridiculous to grant a prize worth four or five dollars to a student who has been awarded a certificate thsit is worth as many hundreds of dollars. 2. Approbation. — "A teacher," says Wickersham, " should commend when he can, and find fault only when he must." It is astonishing the trouble a child will undergo to stand well with his fellows, to be thought courageous, generous, skilful, or to gain influence with them. A pupil must be very low down when he cares nothing about the good-will of his teacher. Children need encouragement. It is a rare thing to find a pupil who has not some traits deserving of approval. A slight effort to improve should be recognized. It is a serious blunder to give a boy to understand that nothing good is expected of him. Many a bad boy is deserving of credit for the efforts Is makes to resist temptation. The pupil is discouraged who finds that his utmost exertions fail to extort a woi'd of acknowledgment fro"n his unsympathetic teacher. The uold and breathless stimulus of fear seems the only power some teachers can use to arouse ptrpils to activity. .,-;.. Injudicious praise may make a pupil blind to his SCHOOL INCENTIVES. 121 defects. Prudence in distributing rewards is needed. It only deprsves the character of children to implant in their minds exaggerated opinions of what they have done and of what they can do. Flattery is bad. Praise, as a stimulus, should be administered steadily. Approbation, when fairly earned, should not be withheld. An oversight may cause a child of gentle disposition to spend an hour in tears. Good conduct, as well as good answering, should be approved. It is not desirable to give children to under- stand that they merit praise merely for doing their duty. It makes approbation too cheap if it is to be bestowed for regularity, truthfulness, or honesty. As a rule praise should not be given in a formal or ostentatious manner. Unless an act shows some special mental or moral victory, no good will come by dwelling on its merits before the class. If the teacher is loved by his pupils, a quiet word of commendation, incidentally expressed, will be sufficient. A kind remark in private may also serve the purpose more effectively than public laudation. 3. The Desire for Knowledge.— The pupil who craves for knowledge for its own sake will find a prize in every truth learned. He does not need the spur of emulation or approbation to prompt him to exertion. The fear of punishment is not required to excite his mental activities. The highest scholarship has not been achieved by those whose sole ambition was to gain position, riches or public applause, but by those whose devotion to study sprang from a love of truth for its own sake. The true philosopher is a lover of wisdoDOi, not for its practical uses, but for its intrinsic worth. The desire for knowledge nay be cultivated. To impart information, the mind of the pupil must be prepared for its reception. As Thring remarks, by way of illustration, \ 122 SCHOOL MAKAQEMENT. " It is impossible to pour water into a tea-kettle that has the lid on." The teacher may do much to remove the " lid," or to arouse that curiosity which will create a desire for study. To cause his pupils to be anxious to see, to hear, and to reason, is the first aim of the teacher during the recitation. Unless the desire for knowledge is formed, the appropriate activity cannot arise. When curiosity is aroused, the teacher should be able to meet the expecta- tions of his pupils. The attention must be held by instructing and not by amusing. Time must not be wasted in irrelevant stories, in solving puzzles, or in answering conundrums. Teaching should be made inter- eisting; but it should be understood that hard study is the royal roa^ to manhood and success. *'The mind is endowed with a spontaneous craving or desire for knowledge, and this desire is specially keen and active in childhood. This natural craving of the mind for knowledge is more than curiosity— more than a desire for novelty. It is a principle of the mind, which has for its final cause or purpose the development of the mnatal powers and the improvement of the individual and the race. It is nature's means for securing these beneficent ends. " — White. ** Gradually the mere instinctive impulse of the child becomes, in the more advanced pupil, the love of knowledge. At bottom there is still the spontaneous element, the natural craving of the soul for that which supports its life and ministers to its growth and development. The native impulse is now reinforced and strengthened by rational considerations. The ;^apil desires to know because knowledge will be of service to him in the conduct of life, will help him *to get a living,' will give him social position, personal influence, political power and preferment." — Putnam. 4. Love of Activity. — Children like change, and are happiest when active To them a condition is miserable that is marked by aimlessness and stagnation. Self- activity is the basis of their growth, physically, intel- ' ■v-,->lt SCHOOL INCENTIVES. 123 aire in i is ' 1 '■'i^< Bl- leotually and morally. Unceasing spontaneity is the natural characteristic of the ordinary young pupil. Idle- ness is a result of defective training. If the innate love of activity is properly developed, the child becomes conscious of increased power and skill. His aspirations bound up, and work becomes his very life and happiness. The knowledge of power gained, and of discoveries made by his exertions, intensifies his zeal and promotes further progress. : > . - : - The love of activity should be used as an incentive, with due regard to the age and strength of the child. It is possible to overstrain, as well as to misdirect. The interest in study should not be abused. To exhaust the force of a motive will produce prostration. The evil is as serious as to neglect its use. By a judicious use of this incentive, pupils may be prevented from idleness and mischief. Fear is not demanded when children are kept busy. They should be trained to regard themselves not mere listeners or spectators, but participators in the work of the school. When pupils are trained to love work, little further induce- ment to duty is needed. ''Besides the craving for bodily exercise, there is a desire for employment, and a tendency to seek occupation, of a more purely mental or emotional character, often termed Love of Activity. To this feeling, not a little enhanced by the corporeal condition, is due in groat measure the development both of body and mind. The mastery of the limbs, the control of the organs, the knowledge derived through the senses, the growth of intelligence, are all more or less the result of that craving for employment, which is so marked a feature of human nature." — QUI. 6. The Love of Self-Control— Too often, in the training of children, the mistake of giving license is followed by the equally fatal mistake of governing with- out securing tiieir co-operation. To relax authority \ 124 SCHOOL MANAQEMENT. should not be felt as any infringement of the teacher's prerogative. Pupils brought under the influence of self- government feel the consciousness of power. Self-approval becomes to them a reward, and an incentive to master their feelings. An ideal teacher inspires pupils with such a love of self-control, that the spirit of co-operation makes the school appear to run itself. Mastery over self is a leading feature of the school. Each pupil feels that he is making conquests. Self-control is a matter of growth. The teacher who neglects its development in his pupils is under the disagreeable necessity of putting his authority unduly in the foreground. The task of govern- ment becomes greater, instead of less, as they grow older, and they enter upon the active duties of life imperfectly prepared to cope with its difficulties, or to win in its contests. '* The power of self-government is strengthened only by its free exercise, and, to this end, the discipline of the school must call into play self-restraint and self-direction. This is never done by hedg- ing the pupil's conduct with prohibitions bristling with penalties ; but the pupil must be made, as fully as possible, a law unto him- self, and then be led to a cheerful and happy conformity thereta" — White. 6. The Hope of Success in Life.— The teacher will often be met with, the statements that there are too many educated persons, too many scholars that are not practical men, and too many graduates of High Schools who are failures in life. He must be prepared to convince persons who argue in this way that there cannot be too many educated men, if their education is of the right kind; that there is no more fear of too much intelligence than of too much goodness; and that a man who is not practical is not educated. A single flaw in character may bring to ruin the most brilliant graduate of a uoiYdrsity SCHOOL INCENTIVES. 125 Men fail in life because of the want of habits of industry, truthfulness, honesty and self-control. It is the province of the school to cultivate such habits. The teacher who is successful in character building (Chapter VI.) gives a practical education. The man who is not ''practical" is the one who is not well balanced. The man who succeeds as a farmer, a mechanic, a merchant, or a teacher, is the one who is thoughtful. To train pupils to think aright is the function of the school. Pupils have no true conception of the responsibilities of life, unless they are filled with the desire to make the best use of their opportunities. This is an age of freedom and not one of caste. ' . "The example of men who have succeeded in business or who have risen to distinction may safely be held before pupils as an incentive to study. The teacher should show that even an ordinary laborer or a mechanic succeeds better when educated to some extent, and that educated business men of all kinds are those who are most successful, unless some weakness of character be present to prevent success. Educated men are the ones who are called upon to fill all important positions under the government. They are the men who take charge of our manufactories and railways, edit our newspapers, write our books, make our laws, preside over our courts, teach our schools, preach our sermons, and, in general, to do the important work of the world." — Ravb. 7. The Sense of Honor. — A well-conducted school is marked by a high sense of honor. The pupils recognize the rights of one another, and the duties they owe to those older than themselves. The boys of an ordinary school have a greater regard for honor than is generally supposed. They love fair play and despise meanness. They are ready to assist those in difficulties, to act generously to their playmates, and to maintain the reputation of the school. Many a wayward boy has been led to reform by an appeal to his sense of honor. II! I |ii iiMi iipmtavTa i«' ■!* /- 126 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. Manliness should be approved. Oredit should be given in a proper way to the pupil who has sufficient honor to resist temptations, and to make up his mind neither to falsify nor to act dishonestly. A good public spirit should be cultivated. The moral tone of a school is bad if the misdeeds of pupils are not condemned by the other members of their class. " If the teacher does not find a healthy public opinion existing in his school — and he will not find it unless it has been expressly cultivated — he should set about creating it ; with which view his course is plain. He is the centre of the little community ; it is around his opinion that the public opinion must be formed. He should seek to unite the pupils in their regard for what is good, by drawing them all towards himself in feelings of personal regard ; this will make them glad to look up to him as the source of opinion. When he shows himself earnest in this, the good pupils in the school will immediately respond to him ; the others, if they resist at first, will soon come to acknowledge the new power, if not by acquiescence, at least by silence, and their number will gradually decrease." — Currie. y ^ 8. The Sense of Ri£:ht. — The sense of right is a principle that is largely the result of training. The sin and crime of the world are due to the fact that other motives generally control the actions of people. The child is endowed with the power to perceive right and wron^, and though the impulse to act properly may be weak, it exists as an innate motive, and it may be strengthened by exercise. While the love of approbation, the desire for usefulness, and the other incentives already mentioned, may be used, the conscience is to be steadily but carefully addressed. For instance, if a pupil is induced to learn difficult lessons, he should gradually be led to appreciate more highly thf> approbation of his own conscience than the satisfaction arising from knowledge, efficiency or honor. I SCHOOL INCENTIVES. 127 In dealing with the question of right or wrong, it is important to distinguish between acts that oleaiiy are morally wrong and those which, though they may not be wrong in themselves, may be contrary to the interests of the school. Many things may be lawful which are not expedient. For instance, theft and whispering must not be treated alike ; and truthfulness and industry will require different uses of the sense of right as an incentive. While the conscience needs to be trained, it is a mistake to depend on mere precepts or moral lessons. To induce moral dispositions and principles is more important than to give formal instruction in ethics. When pupils are ready to make sacrifices for what i ; right, much has been gained. After moral and intellectual strength has been acquired, the sense of right, rather than that of honor or the love of knowledge, may come to be the court of appeal in deciding matters pertaining to discipline. 9. The Sense of Duty. — The highest school incen- tive is the sense of duty, and the other motives should be used to ' promote its growth. Moral perfection is not approached until actions are uniformly performed with the highest object. The highest happiness is that which flows from the consciousness of having done our duty. In the training of children the sense of duty must be cultivated, but it is a mistake to rely on it from the begin- ning. It is a blunder to appeal constantly to any high incentive before the child has acquired that knowledge and judgment which are necessary to give self-direction to his actions. The sense of duty is too abstract a term to be grasped by young pupils. The obligation arising from the will of the teacher must be very gradually transferred to law, so that they may recognize its binding nature irre- epective of authority. A pupil cannot, without instruction. m^mim 128 SCHOOL MANAOEMENT. be trained to act fr >m a sense of duty. Explanations and illustrations from life are needed. As the feeling of duty is developed, it may be appealed to as a motive in dis- cipline. It should not be forgotten, however, that even the best persons are not always influenced by the highest considerations, and therefore reliance should not be placed on the sense of duty beyond its proved strength. The child should be taught to feel that he owes a duty to himself. He should be led to believe that character is worth more than position, wealth or reputation, and that conduct, which Matthew Arnold says " is three-fourths of life," is determined by the motives that induce action^.. Every pupil should be filled with the desire to make the best of life, and with this object to make the best use of his opportunities. ■-' "The sense of duty implies not only the perception but the feeling of an obligation to pay what is due or owed. It is the most imperative of all the motives. What a nutn ov w^t to do — whether to himself, to others, to society, or to God— that he is bound to do ; and there is no escape from the obligation. Coleridge truly calls the imperative oughi ' the last word in the vocabulary ofduty.'"— JTAi^e. V REFERENCES. White. — School Management, pages 130-189. Wickerefutm. — School Economy, Chapter IV. Currie. — Common School Education, Part II., Chapter II. Page. — Theory and Practice of Teaching, Chapter VIII. Sidgvnck. — Stimulus in SchooL Baldioin. — School Management, Part III. Morgan. — Studies in Pedagogy, Chapters VI. and VTIL Parker. — Talks on Pedagogics, Chapter XIV. Landon. — School Management, Part III., Chapter lY. Putnam. — Pedagogics, Chapter X. •;. :^..»!<»»«^^/r S ' ^ •>■*»*,.,.. CHAPTER X. PUNISHMENTS. >:< Need of Punishments. — Law is useless unless it is observed. 01><^'^ienoe to authority is essential to good go vernme nt. Lawlessness would prevail were every indi- vidual allowed, without restraint, to exercise his own self-will. Discipline in school requires that pupils should be brought under control, so far as possible, by means of such incentives as have been rnentioned (Chapter IX.). When these fail, appeal must be made to the sense of fear, through the apprehension of mental or physical pain. Whatever moral 8uc>sion may accomplish in the home, it is insufficient alone in the government of the State or in the discipline of the school. Children hardened by neglect, evil surroundings, and parental mismanagement, will be little influenced by the higher motives. Something more than precept and example will be found necessary to quicken the conscience in the case of children in whose breasts the desire to do right has been imperfectly im- planted. The teacher has not always the time, even had he the gift^ to restrain refractory pupils by expostulation. Instances will arise when warnings and reproofs will remain unheeded, unless pupils know, if regulations are set at defiance, there may follow punishment — "short, sharp, and decisive." Some children would, moreover, feel them- selves bored if a moral lecture were inflicted on them whenever they did wrong. Less and less should punish- 9 \ 130 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT ment be needed as the teacher gains more experience. At length oonsoienoe should assert its supremacy, punishment should become rare in discipline, and the constant per- formance of duty should result in the habit of doing right. Basis of Punishment— The^ b asis of punishment , as an expedient in school control, is thefeeling of bodily or mental discomfort which accompanies its inflictio n. Pupils are led to take a ceriain course in order to avoid pain. When certain lines of conduct — as for exairole, inactivity, carelessness, untruthfulness or dishonesty — tw ? seen to be followed by reproval and by punishment, if repeated, the child tends to act so as to avoid the pain and discomfort resulting from such conduct. Punishments come, there- fore, under the same form of stimulus to activity as rewards. jTher^ is this difference : Rewards are a recog- nition of merit and success; punishments are penalties for neglect and failure. Rewards, if of a proper kind, associate both teacher and pupil in a bright and hopeful regard. Punishments tend to weaken that bond of good feeling which should be strengthened, as well as formed, between the teacher and the taught. P unishments should b e tempora ry. Rewards should be lasting. In a well- disciplined school approval, sympathy, regard and happi- ness will be at a premium; while punishments, regrets, sorrows and tears will be at a discount. Love, and not fear, will be the active force. The Ends of Punishments —1. The main o bject of punishment is jgjyg^ ym ths wrong-doer. The State deals with adults, and hence punishment by the civil authority in its relations to the criminal is retributive and not necessarily corrective. It is possible more intelligent and humane views on criminology may cause nations to amend their penal laws with the object of making punishments PUNISHMENTS. 191 as -V. 1 more reformatory than at present The aohool dealt with children, and therefore s chool pu niwhmftptw. whUe they raay be .noidentally retributive, a houlc^ be mainly reform - ator^h The main question with the teacher before inflicting deserved punishment should be, " What good will it do 1 " If he were sure the guilty pupil would never again willingly or carelessly do the wrong, the best way would be to forgive. Once the necessity of punishment is establisu^d, the specific kind, the amount, the time, and the mode of punishment, demand careful consideration. It should be remembered that punishment alone can never effect what is required. The wish to do better must be an outcome of the pain felt, or else the punishment fails in its object. The use of incentives must follow the infliction of punish- ments, or the desire to do right will be weak. 2. Punis hment should serve as a wciming to others. This is the primary object of the State when adults are punished. The protection of society is that which is held mainly in view. The obligations of the school do not rest with the wrong-doer. It must have in view the interests of all the pupils, and therefore punishments should deter others from becoming offenders. By punishments other pupils are restrained or warned. As a consequence wrong- doing is lessened and law respected, before inflicting punishment it becomes important for the teachv>r to ask, "What will be the effect on the school ? " If tho punish- ment is deserved, but the warning not needed, there may be no necessity for its use, as the wrong-doer may be reformed in some other way. 3. Punishment should serve to elevate the moral tone gfth^ sc hool^ The moral tone of society is low when statutes are not passed to prevent prevalent crimes, or when crimes go unpunished. Public sentiment is embodied in \ 132 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. legislative enactments. The nature of the criminal laws of a countiy shows the moral judgment of the people. It is an evidence of progress when efiEbrts are made by law to check an evil. Those who claim that " people cannot be made good by Act of Parliament " forget that statutes may be wisely passed to quicken the public conscience. When the violators of law receive punishment^ what was once permis- sible, and perhaps respectable, becomes disgraceful and criminal. A law to prevent intemperance is a case in point. Unless the teacher possesses such powers of discipline as will enable him to use the higher incentives,, he will find it necessary to adopt some kinds of punishment to quicken the consciences of the pupils. There is danger, however, in giving much prominence to this, the third end, of punish- ment, lest the end may be made an excuse for its frequent use. As an instrument to educate the conscience, its. use should, at best, be only temporary. The lawless and disobedient may need severe lessons to make them realize the culpability of their conduct, but the morale of an ordinary school should not need such educational processes. Misconceptions Considered.— 1. Pt mishments shotdd not he vind ictive. They should not be regarded as an expiation of guilt. It is too often assumed that the object of the penalty is the vindication of violated law. This assumption has given rise to the misconception that each transgression should be followed by its appropriate penalty. It is wrong to assume that a penalty, though deserved, should be inflicted. A pupU should never feel that the punishment he buffers has cleared off all scores for his crime. It should be understood that the pain inflicted is the means, but not the end, of punishment. To avenge the past, or to "settle an account,*' should have no place in discipline. It should not be forgotten PUNISHMENTS. 183 )am >uld \-t-^r-. that the function of a teacher as a judge, or an adminis- trator, though important, is subordinate to his higher function aa a reformer. In the capacity of a legislator, a judge, and an executive officer, the higher purposes of the missionary, the physician, and the leader, must be kept in view. His duty is not to avenge, but to cure ; not simply to reward or punish, b ut to form characte r. He must have heart as well as head. He must be just, considerate and sympathetic, as well as strict, firm and determined. (2) P unishmenta should not be arbitrary. Formerly it was no uncommon thing for children to be whipped for whispering, making a mistake in a recitation, coming late to school, neglecting to write a composition, or breaking by accident a pane of glass. Threats, scoldings, blows, personal indignities, and bodily tortures of various kinds^ were used as punishments without discrimination and with- out any regard to the principle involved. One pupil does not know his lesson, and his ears are boxed ; another tears his book, and his hands are strapped ; another talks too loudly, and he is required to put on the dunce's cap ; still another is impertinent^ and he is compelled to write out several pages from a book ! Children punished in this way fail to see any logical connection between the offence and the punishment. Their feelings of justice are outraged, and all sense of moral dis- tinctions bedomes obliterated from their minds. It is evi- dent motives, the magnitude of the offence, and the object to be sought^ should be considered. The pupil who inter- rupts the class, the one who destroys property, and the one who is untruthful, require different kinds of discipline. Dishonesty, truancy, quarrelsomeness, rebellion, and idle- ness, call for different modes of correction. \ 134 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. (3) Punishments shoiUd not b e the same for pttpUs q/ diffe rent a^es^ di^erent dispo sitjo nsy or different attainmen ts. The physical, intellectual and moral development of the child must be coi^idered in determining the degree and nature of the penalty. In the infant stages authority and love must hold pre-eminence. The punishments should, therefore, be prompt, and as a matter of course they should be very light. When the power of reflection and reason enable the pupil to anticipate the full consequences of his actions, the nature of punishments, like that of rewards, must change with his intellectual growth. With older pupils time for deliberation may be essential, and the pur- pose sought should not only be to reform the offender, but also to warn other pupils. " Those therefore that intend ever to govern children, should begin it whilst they are very little ; and look that they perfectly comply with the will of their parents. Would you have your son obedient to you when past a child ? Be sure then to f> ment has no virtue, only as a means of producing in the mind of the offender that train of thought which works the required reform. Page, Horace Mann, as well as most modem educators, hold that corporal punishment in school cannot be entirely dispensed with until we have ideal dis- ciplinarians and an ideal state of society. *' This kmd of punishment, provided always that it is not too often administered, or with undue severity, is the proper way of dealing with wilful defiance, with obstinate carelessness, or with a really perverted will, so long or so often as the higher perception is closed against appeaL" — Boaenkranz. 2. The objections to the use of corporal punishment are numerous. It degrades the sufferer and diminishes the self-respect which is so powerful an agent in all moral reformatiop. If used much it is certain to be abused. It creates a feeling of estrangement, stirs up malign thoughts, depresses timid natures, and hardens pupils that are wilfully disobouient. It leads to the neglect of proper school incentives, and has a degrading influence on the teacher. That it is objectionable is shown by the fact that good teachers seldom resort to it. A teacher who uses it for years is lowered in his own estimation. He feels mean, and his finer feelings are blunted. 3. Only for serious offences should corporal punishment be used. Wilful disobedience or rebellion may necessitate this means of correction. The obstinacy of 'some children may be constitutional, and may be partly physical and partly mental, and such obstinancy may be made worse by strong measures. The evils of such a disposition may often be mitigated by a continued course of mild treatment. In the case of most children obstinacy is the result of bad treat- ment. A child should never be struck for inadvertences, for {a\^lts of forgetfulness, for irritability and ps^relessness, or PUNISHMENTS. 149 for petty irregularities. Whispering, inattention, errors in answering, neglect of home lessons, or indifference to study very seldom become so grave as to warrant the use of the rod. Corporal punishment is a coarse remedy, and has no place in school, except for the coarse sini"^ of a pupil's animal nature. Conduct that is grossly immoral or debasing, such as the use of profane * obscene language, should be met by prompt punish men\> : but if the pupils are old enough to attend a High School, suspension may be the most effective remedy. 4. It is unfortunate when trustees lay down rules to restrict the teachers in the use of corporal punishment. Any limitation necessary should come from the principal. Weak health, in any of its forms, should be sacred from * >: touch of the rod. Rashness and indiscretion in its 4.oe may injure children of vigorous health. Indiscriminate beating may lead to bodily and mental injury, and expose the teacher himself, beyond hope of satisfactory defence, to public reprobation, if not to legal penalty. Too often a teacher, who is determined " to conquer " a disobedient pupil, is insensibly drawn into a contest, in which he sacrifices every consideration of dignity, and fails to subdue, except by brute force. 5. A pupil should rarely be punished on the spur of the moment, or when the teacher is angry. The punish- ment should seldom be administered in the presence of the other children. Except in extreme cases, { ssistants would show wisdom by not punishing a pupil until the principal is consulted. Whenever corporal punishment is used in school, a record should be kept of the circumstances. The nature of the crime, the name of the offender, and the date of the punishment should be stated, so that if the teacher's judgment is called in question, a reference to the \ 150 SCHOOL MANAOISMENT. fftote will l)e available. If thflse pre<}atition8 lire tftkdti, there will be fewer appeals to thia means of upholding authoritj. A small rod or a light strap is all that is needed. A pupil who deserves the application of a heavier instrument should be suspended) and not flogged. In no instance should ue head be struck. It is a degradation to a teacher to expect him to whip a large pupil. In the case of a small one, a few slaps on the hands should suffice. Dnlibtration should precede punishment. In no case should the teacher allow his temper to determine the time and amount of the punishment. 6. The teacher stands in loco parsntii, and therefore has a legal right to resort to such methods of discipline as would be used by a kind, firm and judicious parent. Teachers are Sometimes brought rather hastily before a magistrate^ for punishing a child too severely, and too often magistrates have shown little consideration for the teachers' difficulties. In view of such possibilities, every teacher who finds it necessary to have recourse to this kind of punishment should use every precaution to prevent himeelf from being found guilty of severity, or even indiS' oretion. Canadism law is substantially the same on the question of corporal punishment as English law, and the latter is thus defined by Chief Justice Cookburn : *' By the law of England a parent or a schoolmaster, who, fo!* his pui^pojse, represents the parent, and has parental authority dele- gated to him, may, for the purpose of correcting what is evil in the child, inflict moderate and reasonable punishment ; always, ,. however, with this condition, that it is moderate and reasonable. If it be administered for the gratification of passion or of rage, or if it be immoderate and excessive in its nature and degree, or if it be protracted beyond the child's power of endurance, or inflicted witii an instrument unfitted for the purpose and caloulated to produce daagec to life and limb, iu all such cases the pnnishmeat is excessive, the violence is unlawfuL" '.;>; -i PUNISHMENTa 151 7. Corporal punishment is not essential to good govern- ment, but the power to appeal to its use should not be taken away from the teacher. If wisely trained from infancy, a child will scarcely be able to call to mind any time when he was whipped. The child who is pro- perly controlled by parental firmness, parental affection, and parental wisdom will not, when old enough to go to school, disobey father, mother, or teacher. To get along without using corporal punishment should be the aim of every teacher who has a Mgh ideal of his calling. Many, who at first used this mode of controlling children, have trained themselves to dispense with it entirely. Some of the best teachers of graded Public Schools find it unneces- sary for the more advanced classes. An appeal to it in the discipline of many High Schools is almost unknown. In the best of these institutions the experience anu high qualifications of the principals are sufficient to secure easy control, by means of the judicious punishments already mentioned if the best kind of incentives to right action should fail. V ' REFERENCES. Wkktrsham.—School Eoonomy, Chapter IV. JPttcA.— Lectures on Teaching, Chapter IV. White. — School Management, pages 190-217. Page. — Theoiy and Practice of Teaching, Chapter IX. Landon. — School Management, Part II. Landon. — Teaching and Class Management, Chapter VII. BcUdwin. — School Management, Pcurt III. Currie. — Common School Education, Part IL, Chapter II. Spencer. — Education, Chapter m. Bain. — Education as a Science, Chapter IIL ,.,"y '. ■•- 1. '. \ '-'•':,/f •H':' CHAPTER XI. SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. .'. .'." ■%:■. . Nature of Org^anization.— School organization is a system of arrangements that is designed to secure constant employment, efficient instruction, and good discipline. Its object is to enable teachers and pupils to do the most effective work with the least friction and in the shortest possible time. It is the purpose of organization to put children in their proper classes, to secure to each subject the time duetto its importance, and to place each teacher where his work will be best performed. In the organization of a school the ^interests of the sc holars must be the first consi dera tion. These interests will require a wise course of stud y to be prescribed, s uit- able acc ommod ations and appUances to be provided, and such a distribution of the teacher's time to be made as will enable each pupil to be profitably employed. If the work is systematized and all the machinery of the school arranged to do the work of teaching efficiently, the control of the pupils will be more satisfactorily secured, and the training will become more effective. Advantages of Classification.— Classification enables the teacher to es timate t he progress of his pupils, to ec onomize hia t.im fl and labor, to evoke theintelligehce and acti^Jiy of ea ch sd iolar, and to make special preparation for the work of each day. It supplies the means of increasing the efficiency of instruction, of finding con|||Euit SOfiOOL 0BGANI2AT10K. 158 And 8aita]ilsi.em|kloyment for each pupil, of establishing easy contr ol, and of preserving_j>rder and decorum. Classification stimulates pupils, as the competition of those in the same division is an incentive to exertion. It culti- vates greater attention among pupils, and where the class is large enough, a good teacher receives inspiration and arouses enthusiasm. In a school where the pupils are well classified they aid the teacher by assisting one another during the recitation. It is well-known by educators that the presentation of new matter, first by the teacher, then by the apt scholar, and finally by the less successful pupil, is a repetition that does not weary, but becomes a direct gain to the permanence of the knowledge imparted. When the slower pupils are called upon to answer questions, their ability to do so avoids the necessity of further tests. When the more deficient members of the group are looked after, the apt and more industrious pupils will take care of themselves. If the classification is bad, or if individual instruction is depended upon, there is a lack of enthusiasm, much time is wasted, and the government is defective. Difficulties of Classification. — A perfect classifica- tion of the pupils of a school is impossible. It cannot be attained so long as pupils diflfer in natural abi lity, phys i c a l strength, ho me advant ages, and p urposes in life. The limi ted period of sch ool life, irreg ularit y of attendance, the admission of pupils after thete rm has be gun, the existence*of opt ional course sjofstudyT and the lack of a sufficient number of teachers, are difficulties in the .. tty of an ideal classification. Obstacles are also presented by the great number of subjects to be taken up in small schools, by differences in the progress made by many pupils in different branches, and by the necessity of giving seme recognition to the age and size of children. 154 SOHOOL MANAGSMENT. Grades of SchoolS.--Sohools are organiied with reference to the periodi of deyelopment in human life. In a national syetem of education, whioh recognizee no olasa distinctions, there is little overlapping of courses of study. Each grade or period has well-defined character- istics. The kinds of schools, the nature of the discipline, and the qualifications of the teachers, are determined by the wonts of the different stages of physical and mental growth. (See Appendix, Courses of Study.) From the t hird or fourth year t o the sixth or seven th the child is trained in such a way at the kindergarten as to develop healthy, vigorous physical growth. Here happy childhood is realized, right habits are cherished, helpful emotions are tenderly fostered, and hurtful feelings are gently repressed. When admitted to the elementary classes of the Public School his restless activities must be rooted in right habits), his knowledge of nature must be extended, and a love for learning must be cultivated. He learns to read^ to write and to have some idea of num- ber. His physical well-being is promoted, his intellect is sharpened, and gentle manners and good morals become a part of his nature. As he passes to more advanced classes AQ enters upon a larger and even happier life. The \ionder-worlds of science, history and literature begin to open to his mind, his language faculty is constantly developed, and his reasoning powers have made consider- able progress. By the time he reaches his thirteenth or fourteenth year he is ready to enter the High School. A broader curriculum is now taken up. Self-control develops rapidly under a system of good government. Instead of a single tf;acher, he is instructed by several, who are, per- .^o, specialists in their own departments. At the age of ■eveateen we eighteen he enters upon hie oollege or uni- SCHOOL ORQANIZATION. 155 m- versity oourse. Here he is left more than ever before to hU own efforts. He reaches the highest steps of the educational ladder vrith, it is presumed, extensive know- ledge, much intellectual power, and habits well formed. He has also, perhaps, acquired a special acquaintance with some department of study, and his attainments and inclinations may have weight in pointing out his calling in life. ' , . ; , It is well that care should be tftlcen to guard the transi- tion periods of an educational course from their peculiar dangers. The teacher who receives the children from the kindergarten should have some knowlege of kindergarten methods. Pupils in the first form of the High School should have few teachers, and these teachers would be benefited by having had experience in teaching before entering upon High School duties. On similar grounds, the university professor will be more successful in control- ling young college students, if he has taught a few years in a High School. St&te Control. — In the interests of education there should be a jiirli/^[ftii s division of authority and respons i- bility between the State and the section or municipality. The selection of teachers and the expenditure to be incurred are matters for the loo alitj concerned. The Stote should prescribe the c ourse of stud y, de cide what tex t-book s are to be used, fix the qualifications of teachers and inspectors, and determine the duties of all school officers. I£ the schools are to be well organized and the pupils efficiently trained, the recognized features of good management must be guaranteed by law. Those prin- ciples of school organisation hat have been accepted as sound by the leading educationists of the country should be embodied in the itatutes and r^dlaticsss, and iuooid \ 156 SCHOOL MANAQBMENt. govern all school authorities. The removal of pupils from one locality to another, and the frequent changes of teachers, render it important that uniformity in the organ^ ization of the schools should be a marked feature of the educational system. This uniformity does not call for sameness in methods of teaching and discipline. It assumes, however, that there is a period where the High School work should begin, and another where it should end; it assumes also that th<^ qualifications of teachers will be better, and the cost of text-books less to the people, when these matters are not left to each district to deter- mine for itself. Basis of Classification. — The general test o f classi- fication is, no doubt, the attainments oi^ the pup ils. These may be ^own from their record, or by means of a prelim- inary examination. The kn owle dge which a pupil has of the subjects taught, his inte llectua l power, hi s age^ and his health, should receive consideration. When a pupil is backward in some subjects, though well up in others, it becomes necessary to balance contending claims. If there is any doubt regarding the class in which the pupil should be placed, it is better to put him too low than too high. To promote, if necessary, is an agreeable duty ; to degrade is a hard and unpleasant task. A new teacher will do well to adopt the classification of his predecessor as a tem- porary arrangement. In this way he learns the ability of each pupil before a permanent organization is made, and saves himself from hastily making any changes that may turn out to be imprudent. The final classification should be so judicious that few readjustments have to be made. Any modifications should come only from promotions — it is notdesi rable to put pu pils back .except in clear cases of in- attention to duty. It is evident that the organization of a y SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 157 ^ school or the olassifioation of the pupils, is a comparatively simple matter in a country where the system of educa- tion is marked by uniformity. When there is variety in the courses and standards followed in different schools much time is lost, and much trouble arises whenever a change of teachers takes place. Ungraded Schools. — Rural schools suffer much from frequent changes of teachers and from the employment of those who have little experience. There is a lack of w holesome competition among pupils of the high er classesj^ and the gr eat number of lesson s to be t augh t by each teacher is a serious drawback to effective work. These difficulties would not be so great if trustees realized the importance of securing teachers competent to look after a number of classes at the same time, and to inspire pupils with a love for work. It requires experience to learn how to keep several other classes profitably engaged while a class is taught a lesson. A new teacher should, if possible, get a knowledge of the school before he enters upon his duties. The number of classes, the ex tent of the co urse taken up, the discipline and modes of teaching of previ ous teach_e rs, the names of the pupils, and the views of the community, are matters that may be ascertaineowith advantage. Before he enters the school his plans should be ready. Nothing impresses children more favorably than to meet a new teacher who is ready for his duties. The first day is of great import- ance. A few cheering words of welcome to the pupils, and a request that they attend to certain work while he temporarily arranges the clas^ies, will be received with favor. There must be no disposition shown to speak disparagingly of his predecessor's work. "How do you like your ae^ t-eacher V' is a question likely to be ask^d 158 SCHOOL MANAOIiaDIT. pupils when they reaoh komet. Th« teacher whr makes a good impreaaion the first day has gained much. \ No teacher can foresee all the difficulties with which he will have to contend. He cannot anticipate them hy any perfect scheme of organisation. His temporary arrange- rLtjnts should be carefully examined. He should make a thorough study of his pupils individually and collectively. He should find out their attainments in the different branches. Generally, reading and arithmetic will furnish a safe guide in estimating the ability of each pupil. It may be better not to take up every subject on the pro- ^amme until the permanent organisation i3 secured. Pupils should feel from the beginning that they have plenty to do. A teacher who has to take several days to settle down t6 work does not know the essential elements of school management^ In less than a week he should understand fairly well what modifications are desirable in the classification. In matters of organization, hints from the inspector are always valuable to the beginner. Graded Schools. — Gr aded schools are possible only in cities, towns and villages. Besides being more economical than ungraded schools, they have several advantages in the matter of efficiency. They are a aavin gj^f labo r. The teacher in a rural school has from twenty to thirty separate classes in different subjects to look after, and perhaps only five or ten minutes to devote to many a recitation. He finds himself largely limited to the hearing of lessons. Individual instruction is often almost out of the question in an ungraded school, on account of tiie number of lessons to be taken each day. Individual instruction is too much neglected in graded schools, but this may be the fault of the teacher. It is a fact, how vet, that children learn more by class than by individnal ■:-l 8CE00L ORGANIZATION. 169 instniotion. Pupils tkW sometimM kept back in » graded ■obool, and are foroed to " mark time " until the dull ones are ready to advance. This ii a result of bad dauifloa- tion, and not a fault of the system. In a well-gradod school the d ivision of labo? amon^ t he teachers increases their skill. The teaching is superi or. The teacher can prepare himself better for his work. There is m ore ambition among the pu pils, and hence a greater desire to excel and secure promotion. Among children in a graded school there is m ore t oUvity to think and observe for themselves. Better >ganiBP'ion secures better dTscipline. There result greater regii I lity of at tendan ce, more pu nctufJi ty, better order and more indus^. The s uperio rity of ihe mo ral ti n, ng given in a graded school is clear as compared with what could be given in ungraded city schools. it should not be forgotten that the pupils of country schools are freed from many of the evil influences of those attending city schools. The country boy, in spite of the disadvantages of his school, often surpasses the city boy. This fact is an argument in favor of rural life, but not in favor of ungraded schools. It too often happens that too much assistanc' is given to pupils in graded schools. In rural^ school;. )>a pils a re obliged to depend much on their own effg^ts, and those who succeed generally acquire the valuable habit of self-reliance. Here, again, dofective teaching in the graded school, and not the organization, is at fault. It is evident that in all mattera pertaining to good teaching, good discipline and good training, the graded school is superior to the ungraded one. The objections to be guarded against are : T oo litU e individual instruction, too much explanation to pupils, too X. J li.-r , g^^ ^^^ great a tendency to saorince 160 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 17 < t the interests of backward children. All the assumed advantages of ungraded schools may be maintained in graded schools, and the noticeable defects of the latter are not necessarily associated with the system. On grounds of efficiency, as well as of economy, the superiority of graded over ungraded schools is admitted by educationists. In the Eastern States graded schools have been adopted by many rural districts. Children are con- veyed at the expense of the district to some central school in a village or town, where they have the advantages of an improved classification. In the evening they are conveyed back to their homes, where they retain the benefit of parental oversight and of country life. Number of Grades. — The number of classes in a school will ^depend upon the number of pupils and the course to be taken up. An eight years' cours e may fairly represent the requirements for admission to a High School, and therefore a Public School with less than eight teachers will exhibit defects in the matter of classification. With ten or twelve grades in a school the opportunities are better for meeting the conditions arising from the differences in the ability of pupils. Subdivisions of the mo re element- ary grades are desirablejn. SQine subjecte, and it may be necessary to make promotions in the junior classes every half-year. A year at least under the same teacher is, as a rule, essential to the best discipline. In an ungraded school the curriculum may be the same as that of graded schools, but, for obvious reasons, the number of classes should be less.^ It follows that a Public School which is so large as to render necessary a duplication of classes, is not free from objections. A school, for instance, that has two senior fo^i^ book classes, doing exactly the saa^e work, presei^tg SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 161 no advantage in the matter of organization, as compared with one where there is a single class taking up the same part of the curriculam. The latter has superior advant- ages on grounds of discipline. Except as regards economy, two graded schools vrith ten teachers each are preferable to one with the same number of pupils and twenty teachers. A High School with about three hundred pupils, under eight or ten teachers, is sufficiently large for good work. No Principal of a High School should have a greater number of pupils than he can become acquainted with. To get well acquainted with his pupils he must teach every form or division some subject. Size of Classes. — The size of classes will depend upon the ages of the pupils, the subject to be taught, the mode of conducting the recitation, and the skill of the teacher. Young cbil<^rftT|, arft hfig^ taiiprht in sm all classe s, but with ad vancg d— pupils l arger group s are essential to effective instruction. A class should never be so large as to make it difficult to retain the attention of the pupils, or to gauge the progress of each. Beading, Latin, etc., are best taught in groups of ten or a dozen. A much larger class is desirable in such subjects as history, geography, grammar, etc. If indi- vidual teaching is needed little can be accomplished in large classes. On the other hand, emulation and enthusiam are wanting in small classes of advanced pupils. If explanations and illustrations constitute the plan of instruction, there is a loss of power and time in teaching a few. If the question method is adopted, pupils will be overlooked if the class is too large. ; % If the work is to be well done, only a ve ry skilful teach er will be found compe tent to m anage a class of more than forty pupils. In some subjecte t^e number should be less. 162 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. \ I. When a class is too large there is much waste of energy. Much time is lost in keeping order. Careless pupils count the chances of escaping detection, and only some of the class receive the benefits of the teacher's instruction. A teacher of only average ability, who would fail with a class of forty, may do good work with a class of twenty. High Schools. — In the organization of High Schools some of the difficulties to be met in the case of elementary schools do not arise. Other difficulties have, however, to be considered. These are such as result from a more ad- vanced curriculum, an increased number of subjects, and the introduction of optional courses of study (See Course of Study). The division of the work among the members of the staff must be made on a different basis, and the special scholarship ;of each teacher has to be considered. The classification of the pupils should depend mainly on their knowledge of the obligatory subjects. So far as possible each optional subject pursued by a pupil should be b^gun where it is prescribed in the course. As this is not always practicable, pupils will often be obliged to toi^e the optional subjects in a higher or in a lower form than the one in which they are classified. In small High Schools care must be taken to prevent a multiplicity of classes. When the staff is large valuable improvements in the classification may be made. There may be three or four divisions of the pupils in each of the lower forms, each teacher mav be limited in his duties to fewer subjects, and the optional subjects may present less difficulty in classification. The problem of organizing a High School is often a complicated one, and its solution demands much executive ability. Mixed Classes. — Boys and girls are generally taught together until they reach the High School stage. In secondary schools co-education prevails in Canada and in ■■.■^' SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 163 the United States, and gains ground in England. In Ger* many, and especially in France, it has not met with favor. Economical advantages had doubtless most weight at first in placing boys and girls in the same class. Experience has justified this departure from the former rule. The o bjpctions raised against mixed schoo ls are well known. It is said a uniform discipline cannot be administered ; that girls cannot stand the same strain as bgy s j that the cou rses of study «|hffl?^^ ^ '^'ffiPirfint- J and tha t fipr ls, if taught with boys, become.JfipauLrd and self-asseitive, and lose that in nate modesty and delioacy^of both feeljug and action which shoul^characterize the female sex. In opposition to this, it is held that di scipline is better in mixed clas;:>ds ; that neither boys nor girls should be pressed with^W5rk beyond their physical strength, and that the principle of options meets this objection. It is, moreover, contended that the rudeness of boys is checked and the nervous timidity of girls is lessened by means of co-educa- tion ; that the character of boys is refined and that of girls strengthened by the system ; that the manners of both are improved ; and that the traits to be desired in either sex cannot be cultivated except by the proper association of the one with the other. It is after all a question of judicious management. Under a skilful teacher either system will exhibit good results. A man who is lacking in character and in powers of discipline will do more harm in mixed classes. One who has the qualifications of a scholarly and Christian gentleman will have greater opportunities for good in an institution where co-education is established. A High School, which has some lady teachers of high attainments, and such accommodations as guard the interests of dis- cipline, and provide foi a choice of options, will promote 164 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. most effectively the intellectual and moral training of both boys and girls, if the system of co-education is carried out in most of the classes. The relative merits of male and female teachers have been much discussed. Objection has been made to the custom of giving gentlemen higher salaries th.i.ii ladies for similar positions. It should be understood that "filling similar positions " does not prove that there is no difference between the training given by a man and that given by a woman. The question has its economical aspects, and supply and demand, rather than sentiment, must largely govern. The real object of the teacher's work is often lost sight of in the discussion. To impart knowledge, or to prepare pupils for examinations, is not the highest aim of the educatidnist, but to form character. In some positions a lady's influence is superior fdk* this purpose to that of a gentleman. For young children a fftmnlfl ^^^ptiAr ia assuredly preferablg*. In the case of gr own-up boys, an d ev en'Sfg rls, somevaluable characteristics of training cannot be secured without those features of discipline which are exhibited by the best male teachers, It should also b« remembered that eyen^ oys — and ce rtainly girl s — are im- pro ved by havi ng in the^Ijif^ School o n e or m o Fe-femalc teachers. A great mistake is made in supposing a gir!\ should go to an institution where she will receive instruc- 1 tion only from ladies. No better kind of mental and ] moral development can be secured by a young woman ( than that which she may gain in the ordinary High School. Manifold Classification. — When each subject taught in a school forms an independent basis of organization, the classification is termed manifold. It has the advantage of exac^ess and simplicity. There is a better chance for pn^lirew) in the branpLes adapted tQ thQ individual tastos. \ ■ SCflOOti OtlGANlZAtiOil. 165 ^B are be im Od the other hand, it presents enfeebled motives to exer- tion in those subjects where a pupil is weak. It leads to " l opsidedn ess." It renders necessary a rearrangement of the classes after every lesson, and in a graded school this would cause much trouble and disorder. In buildings arranged and schools organized on the Prussian or class- room plan, the manifold (synchronous) system of classifica- tion has some advantages. The benefits do not, however, make up for the inconveniences that arise. Much time is wasted, and the readjustments cause confusion in the vork of teachers and pupils. There is great difficulty in constructing time-tables to suit the complex system of organization that is produced, and there is no satisfactory means of fixing responsibility as regards discipline. In rural schools the principle of manifold classification is seldom applied, except in the " doubling-up " of classes. It may also happen that large pupils, who attend only a while in the winter, are behind in grammar for instance, though fairly well on in arithmetic. Such pupils nay be fit for the fourth or fifth class in the latter sul 3ct, but require to be taught with the third class in the former sub- ject. In ordinary graded schools such readjustments are out of the question. In High Schools the arguments are against the manifold classification, excep- 'n so far as con- cerns the optional branches. For example, a pupil of the third form may take physics in the second forin and Latin and botany in the first form. Single ClaSSific&t:iOn. — The formation of character, and not the development of indiviuaal tastes, is the - ^ .'k of the teacher. The different branches have their respec- tive educational values. For young children specializ a- ti on has its danger s. To prevent tke undue cultivation of some faculties a premium should not be given to high 366 SCHOOL MANAa£M£NT. ! 5* rank i » .ly one department. A verage attainments sh ould be the main teat^f jgrpmotion. No subje ct on tho ooui's:«» should be nej^lectod, arid therefore a minimum !it!;aa>i 5r8 io. a .school the work of teaching may be divided on tb','> ba^is of subjects, or on that of forms. Until pupils reach the High School the latter of these methixls should be folio ?7ed. With a class under his constant control the teacher iias better means to study the disposition and ability of each pupil than He could have if his attention weie divided among several classes. In the case of young children the development of character would suffer if the responsibility of discipline were divided. In elementary olasse;i it does not follow that proficiency in teaching needs specialization. The range of the work for junior pupils is not extensive, and the teacher who, for instance, manages science well may be equally successful with arithmetic or literature. In graded schools there is some tendency towards narrowing the teacher. If the sole business of a teacher were to give instruction in oi..e sub- ject, as arithmetic or grammar, this narrownes oiuld be intensified. The p^-owth of a child does rot ^ ^end ex- clusively upon pre oncy in the branches ci ; ady. The '^.^ SCHOOL OKGANI2AtlOK. 167 rith most potent factor in the true development of the child is the p eraonality of the teache r. InteUect^aL-And— moral grow th is retarded i^in the case of a young pupil, a new pe rsonality meets him in every recitati on. "They would recommend that the Bpeoialization of teachet« work should not he attempted before the seventh or eighth year of the elementary school, and in not more than one or two studies then. In the secondary school it is expected that a teacher will teach one, or at most, two branches. In the elementary school, for at least six years, it ia better on the whole to have each teacher instruct his pupils in all the branches that they study, for the reason that only in this way can he hold an even pressure on the requirements of work, correlating it in such a manner that no one study absorbs undue attention. In this way the pupils prepare all their lessons under the direct supervision of the same teacher, and by their recitations show what defects of methods of study there have been in the preparation." — Report qf the Committee o/Ftfteen. In the lower forms of a High School pupils should receive their instruction from only a few teachers. To divide the subjects taken up among four or five teachers is too sudden a change of method from that previously pursued. When pupils have been a ^ear o r two in a High School, discipline itself will justify modifications of organization. Th ey get more breadth of view from cont act with different minds. The best teachers must be specialists "r^KSr respective departments. No one person can suc- cessfully instruct pupils in all the advanced work of secondary schools. In the case of university students it is well known that a high standard can be attained only by means of a large number of professors, each of whom h:fl made a specialty of his own department. Promoticrs. — Promotions should be made at regular peri odic, and generally tS the same time for all the forms of a school. Except for the lowest classes, once a year is often enough to make regular transfers from one class to <^i i 168 BOaooL MAKAOEMlEKt. another. Promotions at irregular periods dis arrange the work , lead to confus ion, and show^jeea kneas o f org aniza- tiQ]|. A teacher should, however, advance pupils*~any time during the term, if their attainments warrant such promotion. In a well-classified school it will be a rare occurrence to find a scholar who will suffer by remaining till the proper time for promotion. Attainments and appli< ation should decide whether or not a pupil is fit to enter a higher class. It may be well in some cases to make conditional promotions. The teacher is in a better position than any other person to judge what promotions should be made. His knowledge of the class should be so definite that, apart from the records he has kept, he should be able to say who are ready to enter the next form. 'The oral tests which good teaching renders necessary, and the written examinations (Chapter XYI.) which are inseparable from the best instruction, will furnish him with more reliable data for deciding upon the respective standing of pupils than can be secured in any other way. Circumstances render it essential in some schools that the results of a final exanlination should, form an important factor in determining promotion^. It is better for the teacher that he should not bear the full responsibility of making promotions in the higher classes. At the same time, any system of examinations which hampers the teacher in the organization of his school is unsound in principle and troublesome in practice. REFERENCES. JJarm.— Report for 1891-2, pages 601-636. Lamdon. — ^Teaching and CSass Management, Chapter Vll*. Fitd^ — Lectures on Teaching, Chapter XL IF«tt».— Graded Schools. •^ „r. CHAPTER XII. , SCHOOL PROGRAMMES. h V, Prescribed Courses. — In a well-organized school a pr escribed course of study is pursued by the pupils of each class. Classification would be impossible if each pupil were permitted to select his own branches of instruction. Educationists are fairly well agreed regarding those sub- jects which, in the hands of the teacher, constitute the principal instruments for training the faculties of scholars. There are certain branches of knowledge that should receive sole attention before pupils are admitted ; o a High School, and certain other branches that shou1«^ r'^^ be taken up until the University is reached. The curri^. . um prescribed should be one that has received the approval of those who are competent to determine the relative value of different subjects in the process of mental development. To leave the course of study to each teacher, or to each Board of Trustees, is to ignore the conclusions that have been reached by those who have made a study of the science of education. A definite and well > ' iered s cheme of study is a great help to trustees, teachers and inspecters. It promotes systematic work, furnishes oppor- tunities for comparing results, prevents the introduction of " fads " or injudicious programmes, and secures better skill in teaching. (See Course of Study in Appendix.) 'iMUCational Values. — At one time it was supposed thaw reading, writing and arithmetic formed a course of 170 BOfiOOL MANAOEMEKT. study sufficiently comprehensive for all who did no 6 H'pire to a secondary education. It was also held that only classics and math cm ".tics had much value as instru- ments of higher < u,: "(. iJcientists have for some time proclaimed th«.i th^ir department is of equal worth in mental development, and that the utilitarian side of education has not received due attention. French and German have, of late years, gain^'H " prominent place in courses oi study. English is now generally acknowledged to be inferior to no subject on the programme in its importance to all classes of students. The advocates of the various departments have not yet settled their diffcre-ices of opinion. The conclusions reached in their report by the " Committee of Ten," that all subjects have equal educational value, have not met with general accept- ance. The minority view meets with greater favor among those who have read that valuable document. The n< em- ber who constituted the minority says : , , » "I cannot endorse expressiona Uiat appear to sanction that the ohoioe of subjects in secondary schools may be a matter of compara- tive indifference AH such sta<^ >ments are based upon the theory that, for the purpose of geneiu.i education, one subject is as good as another — a theory which appears to me to ignore philosophy, psychology, and science of education." :-v , It is useless to d ^'vite tLe relai o value of mathematics and science, science and language, or language and history. No one of the great .departments of stu ly should be slighted in deciding upon a curriculum. What subjects a student should take up will depen'^' largely upon the kind of training he most needs to f^ 'elop his higher manhood.' This will, in all cases, call fo» r Ith of study and con- centration o f purpo se. Those oranches are most service- aT^« to the student that reflect in his "co^ciduiaeiir the widest realm of thought ahdlise^Inesak ""^ . ~~~ " ' i,,,'" 1 Be tOOL PROGRAMMES. 171 C o-ordination of Studies . — Mentttl development requires that each subject of the curriculum should be taken up in its proper order. There is no proper intel- lectual growth that does not secure harmonious develop- 'ment. Co -ordination of studies is the process of grouping f!1l!?1ft^tffl tihft^- * r» closely related. It recognizes that each branch of knowled^^e has its special value when viewed in connection with all other branches. Co-ordination assumes that human culture cannot be fully promoted if each department, or sub-department, is not commenced and carried on in accordance with its educational value. r^rr^mjl^n n f StudicS . — Unity should have its place in the course of study prescribed. Every department of knowledge has its relations to all other departments. ^ To reco gnize the proper relations of different branches is an important educational problem, ine vaiue oi acquired knowledge is greatly increased when the necessary bear- ings it sustains to other fields of experience are clearly understood. Each study is fragmentary by itself, and should be properly blended with every other study. Not only each lesson and the course in each subject, but the entire curriculum, must be marked by unity. If subjects are properly taught, the correlation of studies is a necessity. Arithmetic cannot be fully understood if algebra is ignored. Chemistry calls for certain knowledge of phy- sics. History is inseparably connected with geography and literature. Neither language nor science can be thoroughly mastered without some training in mathema- tics. Correl ation, therefore, assigns each subject such a place in the cu rriculum aa will help to briiig.^ tQ vi^yr itq ufitversal relations. It is a popular theory that too many subjects are taken up in schools. The impression may be, in some respects, well-founded; but too often it shows 172 SCHOOL MANAOEMICNT. ignorance of thft science of education. Thoroughness is desirable, but limitation to a narrow curriculum does not guarantee thoroughness. To require a child to give undi- vided attention to two or three subjects is impossible. Before a pupil reaches the High School his intellectual* appetite will not be satisfied with any n&rrow range of knowledge. To master one subject at a time is a peda- gogical absurdity. 1 ' ^ ** Correlation and Co-ordination. — The doctrine of co-ordination proposes to arrange the various studies of the school courses along two or three pretty distinct lines, making as frequent connections as possible between the separate lines, and keeping the work of each line in close touch \^ith that of the other lines, so that the rate of progress shall be uniform in all departments of instruction. The lines of study are to be so firmly united that the final outcome shall be a consistent whole of thoroughly assimilated knowledge in the mind of the pupil. "One line of studies will consist of history, literature, and kindred subjects. This line is conce) icd with the works and thoughts of man, and may be called humanistic. " Another line will consist of scientific studies, both physical and biological, and will include geography and kindred subjects. " A third line, in some respects subordinate to the other two, but in the main co-ordinate, will be made up of mathematics and closely-related subjects. '* The formal studies, reading, spelling, writing, drawing, and so on, will be readily united with the first and second lines without making a distinct group. The ethical aspect or purpose of educa- tion will be provided for in the humanistic lines of studies, and the practical, business aspect will receive all necessary attention in connection with the scientific and mathematical lines." — Putnam. "The good teacher seeks to give each class of faculty a fair chance of development. He knows that it is impossible to deter- mine with certainty, ed facts and forces connected with intellectual and moral development increase in number. In the curriculum of secondary schools, and in that of elementary schools to a greater extent, a few subjects QhQulol form the course of instruction. Any 174 SCHOOL IfANAOEMENT. II related subjects that are prescribed should have their yalue, mainly on account of the aid they furnish in giving instruction in the principal subjects of the course. Fixed Courses. — ^There are some branches of know- ledge that every person should know something about. Beading, wri ting and arith meti c have long held pre-emin- ence as the foundation subjects of an elementary education. If the acquisition of knowledge is essential to mental development, it follows that an extensive field is accessible to the pupil who has gained an acquaintance with the three " B's." The elements of natural science necessarily come within the grasp of every observing mind, and history, geography, literature, composition, grammar, drawing, bookkeeping, etc., demand recognition as obli- gatory subjects of instruction. (See Public School Course of Study.) It is evident that up to the requirements for admission to the High School, only a few subjects should be pre- scribed. Every branch of the fixed course should b& intro- duced at that period in the life of the pupil which is warranted by the laws of intellectual growth. So long as the aim is to secure g eneral culture, o blig^atory subject s m ust be assigned. It may be that a choice of subjects along £he same lines should be permitted in secondary schools, but the leading features of an approved, fixed course should be adhered to until admission is gained to the university ; and even then specialization should not allow any neglect of those departments with which the general scholar should be familiar. There is danger of narroyrness if special courses are permitted to be taken up at too early a stage. What the country needs is not so much a large number of specialists, as an increased number of persons with broad scholarship and capacities for usefulness. ,: It SCHOOL PROaKAMMES. 176 -:/ Optional Subjects. — ^The requirements for admission to a High School should embrace no optional dubjects. The special conditions of the community may perhaps justify some provision for instruction in the elements of agricul- ture, navigation, or the mechanical pursuits. The Public School is not however designed to fit pupils for particular callings, and therefore the best instruments of culture should constitute the programme to be taken up. In the lower forms of the High School a few options may be intro- duced to meet the demands of pupils who aim for a more advanced course. For entrance to a University a fixed course, with some choice of options, should be prescribed. (See Courses for Matriculation.) In the last years of his University career, and especially in a post-graduate course, a student should be allowed a wide range of options. Bifurcation. — T his is a term used to indicate thft div i- sion olthe school into two or more branct^e s, according to the special bent or probable destiny of the scholars. In this country, where the educational system recognizes no class distinctions, those who ma,y occupy very diflferent positions are trained side by side. The requirements for admission to the High School should be determined, not so much to meet the interests of pupils who desire to obtain a secondary education, as to give proper direction to the studies of that larger class of pupils who never enter a High School. In like manner, the curriculum for matricu- lation must have in view the effect on the course of High School pupils generally, rather than the wants of the small number who enter the University. No curriculum can be defended that does not (1) inspire students with a desire to reach the highest rung in the educational ladder, (2) furnish them with sound intellectual and moral train- ing, should the^ fq.il to reach the object of their ambition, [' t~ c ■■^^^ 176 SCHOOL MANAQEMENT. and (3) render it reasonably probable that the education received will be practical no matter what course is followed in life. The system of fixed and optional courses (See Courses of Study) in the High School programme meets fairly well the aims and possibilities of all classes of students. Bifur- cation makes provision in the same school for pupils who desire to pursue a classical, a scioDtific, or a commercial course. On economical grounds, such an arrangement evidently has great advantages. In the formation of character, the boy who intends to enter a University will be benefited by coming in contact with those who are to become mechanics or merchants. Grammar, algebra, his- tory and every other subject should be taught in the same way to all (students, no matter what calling they are to follow or how far they are to continue the course. " The Committee of Ten unanimously agree with the Conferences (as to question 7 submitted.) Ninety-eight teachers, intimately concerned either with the actual work of American secondary schools, or with the results of that work as they appear in students who come to college, unanimously declare that every subject which is taught at all in a secondary school should be taught in the same way and to the same extent to every pupil, so long as he pursues it, no matter what the probable destination of the pupil may be, or at what point his education is to cease. Thus, for all pupils who study Latin, or history, or algebra, for example, the allotment of time and the method of instruction in a given school should be the same year by year. Not that all the pupils should pursue every subject for the same number of years ; but so long as they do pursue it, they should all be treated alike." — Report of the Gommittee of Ten. The Daily Programme. — System is necessary in the arrangement of the duties of each day. A good teacher always has a carefully prepared programme, in which the time? and sabjeotB.of recitaUon and study are w^ll defined. SCHOOL PROORAMMES. 177 nces >tely ary nts ioh rae it, at ho of the |ery do tee Ihe ier he Regular habits are not cultivated if the work of each day IS taken up in some hap-hazard or desultory way. A good time-table, carefully followed, makes the teacher syst ematic in his work, and pr events friction and irregu- larity. It makes the pupils also systematic in the per- formance of their duties, and induces them to prepare their lessons the better for each day. When a good programme is observed there is no time lost, the development is har- monious, and all jarring or discord of conflicting classes is avoided. It is evident no one programme will be suited for all schools of the same kind or grade, but there are certain general principles that should be recognized in the construction of time-tables. A,definite time sh ould be fixed for each class recitation, for every intermission, for short periods of relaxation, and for study. The time to be occupied with a lesson will depend upon the aubject and ti*e age of the pupils. Young children will not require lessons more than ten or fifteen minutes at a time. Half-hour recitations will answer tho more advanced classes. Three-quarters of an hour will gener- ally meet the conditions of High School pupils. All studies should have thei r pr ogortionate share of attention7 and the claims of no pupils should be overlooked. There should be, as far as possible, a due alternation of study hours and recitations. The alternationoF subjects shoiildf secu?B'1!ll6 restlul eflfort which a change in study affords. A lesson in arithmetic, for instance, might be followed by one in reading, and that again by one in chemistry. The morning subjects should be those of acquisition, and such as require concentration of mind and a fresh and bright intellect. The afternoon subjects might be exercises of reproduction, or those requiring manual dexterity or affording relaxation. The order of subjects should be, a^ 12 /-^s . 1 />. 178 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. I i- ' nearly as possible, the same for each day, and for young pupils the lessons in each subject should be taken up with greater frequency than for older ones. Provision should be made so that any remarks the teacher has to make to the school or any reproof that has to be administered may not disturb the recitations. Som e flexibility in the ti nog: table is often valuable, and when the pupils are taught by only one teacher this is readily secured. In a High School, where the work is divided among the staff on the basis of departments, flexibility is not easily obtained, except in so far as will be practicable by Im'o or more of a teacher's subjects for the same class being taken in succession. In providing a daily programme a temporary time-table is often desirable. The programme of the previous teftn may answer this purpose. Frequent changes are objection- able. A permanent time-table, affording some elasticity, should be devised without much delay. In a well-organized school, unless the curriculum has been altered, the ms\iA features of the daily programme should show little modifi- cation from year to year. Time-tables for Ungraded Schools. — In a rural school with only one teacher, and with pupils who vary in their attainments from first to fifth book classes, the construction of a good time-table is no simple problem. Besides five or six classes in reading, there may be three in arithmetic, three in geography, three in grammar and composition, three in writing, two in drawing, two in history, two in literature, one in algebra, one in gaometry, one in physiologj, one m bookkeeping, etc. Short recitations become a. necessity, even for the ad- vanced classes, and uniess wise provision is made for seat work, comparatively' little can be accomplished. SCHOOL PROORAlfMEa 179 he m. be ■lar lat " Until recently the teaoher gave little attention to this pnint ; thinking that teaching is hearing the recitation, he left pupiis to shift for themselves wh'ie out of it. But now we understand that the teaoher shows at least as much skill, and serves the pupil as efficiently, in providing employment as in hearing the lesson. 80 that what the pupils are to accomplish during study time must be as definitely put in the programme as the topic of recitation." — Tompkins. The time-table must show not only how^iejgftefeer. is emploj;ed, but how t he pupils of e achudaga should be occupied during each period of the s chool day. For instance, if some of the junior classes receive reading lessons after the opening exercises, the more advanced pupils may be expected, at the same time, to solve problems in arithmetic. A class in grammar may study the lesson for five or ten minutes before being taught, while pupils in the second book are instructed in elementary geography. The fifth book literature may be taken up while the pupils of the fourth book are preparing their work for the next lesson period. It is possible to take a junior class for five minutes in arithmetic during an interval in a recitation that arises when the pupils are solving a problem. It may happen that the teacher secures a few minutes for another class while he waits to have a short- exercise written by the class in history or grammar. Such expedi- ents are well known to teachers of rural schools. jCalceep all pupils profitably engaged, so as to neglect no class, ;/ill ta3f -thr s^nr^r«R©young teacher. Mexibflity in the daily programme becomes essential. The order of the> exer- cises will be more easily followed than the exact tima If a class should have to be omitted at the regular time, it may be taken up during some interval that can be spared from some other lesson. Pupils should never have the impression that a lesson may probably b« omitted. Tha 180 SCHOOL MANAQEMENT. J- tendei.cy sometimes observed to slight the lower classes, so as to have more time for the higher classes, should be guarded against. If there should be only two or three pupils in the highest class, it would be wrong to give them one-fifth of the time when there are forty other pupils in the school. The interests of the great majority should form a more important consideration than the interests of a small minority. The advanced pupils should be able to do much for themselves, with short lessons and occasional hints from the teacher during the day. Time-tables for Graded Schools.— It is a com- paratively easy matter to arrange a time-table for an ordinary division of a well-graded school. If the pupils 'vre taught as one class, or in one class for most of the subjects, the questions to be settled are the order of the recitations and the time to be devoted to each. There is the additional advantage that any day a subject may be omitted, or the time of the recitation shortened, if this is felt desirable. The programme should be arranged under the direction of the principal, and in a city with several graded schools there should be u niformity i n the ch aracter of .the_.time-tables. It was a common practice years ago in graded schools to give no time for the pupils to study during the day. The lessons assigned were intended to be prepared at home, and the full time in school was taken up in " hearing " lessons. Better views on teaching have condemned such methods, and the preparation of work in school is now regarded as important a duty of the pupils as is that of engaging in the recitation. The preparation of each lesson, under the teacher's careful direction, should just precede the instruction that is given in the same lesson. The successful teacher shows his skill fully as much in getting his pupils to study wisely as he does in his methods gi iuatructioft. SCHOOL PROGRAMMES. 181 1 > Time-tables for High Schools.— The division of the work among the teachers of a High School, on the basis of departments, renders it impossible to have each subject for every class taken up during the time of the day that would be most suitable. Mathematics would, for reasons already stated, be assigned to the early part of the day, and reading, drawing and botany to the afternoon. It is evident what is desirable cannot be fully carried out. The great number of classes gives too little time to most subjects in a. three or four masters' school. The expedients mentioned in the case of an ungraded school are available only to a slight extent. Every experienced High School principal knows, however, that it is often necessary to " slip in " the work of a small class here and there. Short recitations are a necessity in a small school that has not a sufficient number of teachers, and study periods become a regular part of the daily programme. The latter feature is not always an unmixed evil. The students are in this way forced to do more for themselves, and the teacher is compelled to do less "talking," but more effective teaching. The "workers" will get along under good teachers in either a small or a large High School. In any secondary school, where the pupils of a class are not trained to depend largely on themselves the teaching is defective. It is a lamentable condition when the skill of the teachers, and not the ability and application of the students, is supposed to win honors and gain certificates at examinations. Recesses. — Times for recreation are as necessary as times for labor. For young children, two short recesses of ten minutes each should be taken each half-day. If this cannot be carried out, one in the forf loon and one in the afternoon, of fifteen minutes, shoula be substituted. The teacher, as well as the pupils, should take the recesses. He r 182 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. should associate with them during the time of inteimission In a rural school the younger pupils, if the weather permits, might have more periods of intermission than the larger ones. In graded schools discipline will require the recesses to be taken at the same time for aU the classes. In High Schools a break in the work is also needed, or the time for changing classes may afford an opportunity for short intermissions. If classes are sent out for drill or , other physical exercises, the relaxation may serve, though imperfectly, the purpose of recess. The restlessness of pupils is sometimes well met by giving the school a few minutes recreatiorj. Occasionally stopping the regulai exercises in elementary classes and engaging in a cheerful song or in some calisthenic drill, will restore perfect con- trol and bring order out of confusion. Records. — Records and reports have their place in the management of a school, but the time of the teacher should not be taken up with what does not conduce to the welfare of the pupils. No records for mere show should be kept, and valuable time should not be consumed in calculating percentages or in striking averages. Statistics of school age, attendance and classification of the pupils should be preserved, and any necessary records that will enable the teacher to know at any time the attainments and progress of each pupil. The registers should be neatly and accurately kept. The records of the progress of the pupils will enable the teacher to systematize his work and to supply a wholesome stimulus for the pupils. School records will furnish, when necessary, a means of supplying parents with the standing and attendance of their children, and will enable new teachers to know something about the attainments of the pupils they are to teach. Any system of records that requires marks to be assigned during a 'M ^ SCHOOL PROGRAMMES. 183 recitation, or that necessitates a special clerk or secretary to be employed by the Board, is to be condemned. If I j records a. ■. oroperly kept they should aid in School Manage- ment, and should cause no large amount of clerical work to become a part of the duties of teachers, trustees, or inspectors. The form of the daily, general or class registers will vary with the kind of school, the system of instruc- tion and classification, and the statistics demanded by the municipality atid the State. (See Subsection 6 of Duties of Teachers). REFERENCES. Eliot (Chairman). — " Report of th3 Committee of Ten." Harris (GhairmauJ. — " Report oi the Committee of Fifteen.'" Prince. — Courses and Methods. Tompkins. — The Philosophy of Teaching, pages 246-275. McMurry. — General Method, Chapter IV. Payne. — Contributions to the Science of Education, Chapter \\\. Bain. — Education as a Science, Chapter Y. Landon. — School Management, Part II. Putnam. — Pedagogics, Chap'..'' XIII. Fitch. — lectures on Teaching Chapter XV. Parker.- -Talk", on Pedagogics, Chapter II. Frocebel. — Edu' ition of Man. Pickard. — School Supervision. Cttrrie. — Common School Education, Part II., Chapter I. jyorm.— Reports for 1892-3, Parts II. and IIL De Qraff. — School -room Guide. OiU. — Systems of Education. Arnold. — Waymarks for Teachenu \ ' ' / 't . > , •.,,'•! », m ■>■ ■»» ■'■(•■ ( '. . '"', I \» CHAPTER XIII. METHODS OF CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 184 The Recitation.^ — Ability to conduct recitations is the best test of a t<%acher's professional skill. Fail are in imparting instruction is entire failure. Success in giving lessons usually crowns the teacher with success in his call- ing. In conducting recitations nearly every element of a teacher's qualifications is brought into play. About the lesson centre all the activities of school life. Here are dis- played the personal influence of the teacher, the extent of his knowledge and skill, and that magnetic power which _ inspires to earnest, loving effort. In the recitation are concentrated the dev otion , the thought, the energy and the life of iAi& teacher, as well as the work, the~purpose, the zeal, and the skill of the pupil. The purposes of the recitation are far reaching. It secures the mental discipline of the pujoil, and enables the teacher to place himself in active sympathy with those he guides and instructs. It encpurages right methods of study, and awakens interest in the subjects of the curricu- lum. It helps the pupils to express themsleves clearly and accurately, and gives them confidence in expressing their views. It makes them atte ntive a nd inq uisiti ve; ■ and, as a consequence, affords the teacher an opportunity * The term " Recitation," though the popular one in this country and in the United States, is objectionable. A better expression would be •' Lesson" or " Teaching Period." ^ -M.' '. I A .1 -y: ':^ adapted to their r pa which become useful for f When recitations ai are trained to think i>>et METHODS OF CONDUCJTINa .lECITATIONS. 185 to direct their thoughts and to inspire their ambition. The recitation enables the teacher to ascertain what the pupils know, to test their skill and powers, and to measure their daily progress. Errors into which they may have fallen are oorreci<^d, work is assigned which is anJ suggestions are made lessons. te< vith definiteness, pupils ^illy as well as to express their thoughts in clear, pn> i.^e, logical and forcible lan- guage. An opportunity is given the teacher to explain and illustrate- iihe- work assigned, to elucidate dark por- tions, to multiply facts and arguments, to describe addi- tional phenomena, to suggest new trains of thought, and to keep before the minds of the pupils proper incentives to study, laudable objects of ambition and motives that tend to moral development. Preparation by the Teacher.— The teacher must make special preparation for each lesson. To warm and inspire a class, fresh conceptions of the subject are needed. Unprepared lessons are apt to be wanting in definiteness, loose in arrangement, shallow in treatment, and lacking in brightness and impressiveness. The teacher who trusts to evolve what is needed out of the " depths of his inner con- sciousness" will produce work that is only random, unequal, and disjointed. Unless he makes himself thoroughly familiar with the lessons, his explanations may be faulty, and though he talks in book phraseology his language may have the semblance of knowledge, but will lack teaching power. To the young teacher, especially, the plan to be followed, the illustrations to be used, the analogies to be noticed, the information not given in the text-book to be supplied, the relations of the subject to previous recitations ^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I laiM 12.5 ^ U& 12.0 u WKU MSiHI ||||l.25 |U 1^ 4 6" ^ Jy ^ri^A (j^//A. HiD«c)gFaphic Scmces Corporatioii 23 WtST MAIN STRUT WIBSTIR,N.Y. 14SM (716)172-4303 '^ 186 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. to be shown, and the varied con<'ations to be met, demand an equipment, which, in justice to the students, cannot be left to the spur of the moment. The teacher must be familiar with the details, relationships, and proportions of the subject. The difficulties of the pupils must be antici- pated. The time of the class is too valuable to be taken up with the unskilful explanations a.'id unnecessary digres- sions which are common when no preparation is made. The notes prepared by the teacher should present a draft of the lesson with all the important points marked as regards matter and method. The notes should not show excessive detail, and should not be so slavishly followed as to destroy spontaneity. The teach *>!r must not only prepare his own plan, but he must also, as occasion may require, rise superior to the outline he has framed. The highest art is to conceal art, and the true teacher will nevei appear to be more anxious to follow his notes than to meet skil- fully every feature that may present itself in giving the lesson. It follows, ia&t in selecting matter for a recitation the end in view should be fully recognized. The m ental ca pacity of the p upils, their pre vious knowledge o| the sub- ject, the tim e at the teacher's disposal, and the be st methods to be used) will require careful consideration. This may be a great tax on the teacher's time, but it will pay him who wishes to give faithful service and to win success. If system is followed from the first, the labor will be found pleasant and eventually light. " Such a preparation of the individual lesson is the only sure means of growth in professional knowledge and skill. It is easy and customary to read bookiin|^ [ ^ decic^y d. but not obtrusive, should mark the teacher in the presence of his class. The manner of the teacher should be such as will encourage the timid, but repress the impertinent. Little time of the recitation should be taken up in reprimanding pupils. A simple glance of his eye or shake of his head on the part of a good teacher, is more effective than a half- hour's scolding. The proper management of the voice in teaching a lesson has an important bearing on the conduct of the pupils and on the effectiveness of the instruction. Some teachers speak so softly and so indistinctly that they cannot be heard by all the class. More frequently teachers speak in a tone that is so high as to be unnatural. Children are only too ready to imitate the example of a teacher who is so demonstrative as to shout his words. ClQ^nessand f orce of spe ech are essential. Instruction should be communicated distinctly and impressively. Emphasis and impressiveness need, however, to be employed in varying degrees according to the nature of the matter dealt with. Children are apt to be troublesome if taught in a timid, awkw4r4 as^d hesitating way. They should not be spoken 190 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. to in a haughty or domineering mannel:, but it is absurd to beg of them to give attention, or to use a beseeching tone in cultivating a love for the subject. The explanations or illustrations must not be after the style of a person " sajring his piece." It serves no good purpose to refer to things in a cursory manner. Each step in the lesson should be emphatically dwelt upon and wrought out to a definite conclusion. I ndirect repeti^^ n is an essential feature of good instruction. It involves a higher and a different degree of mental activity. Impres- siveness also demands recapitulation at the end of the lesson. In this way the memory is aided, not merely by a mechanical, but by a logical process. Pupils are led to dinrpminntn what is of primary importance from what is secondary, and conclusions from arguments. For similar reasons it becomes necessary to recaj^ulate the substance of a!..j£a'ie8jof lessons. In teaching l^sons the importance of time must not be overlooked. Accumulations of illus- trations, extravagant repetitions, useless digressions, and delays on unessential points, are to be avoided. Value of Method. — In imparting instruction the teacher must recognize the pupil's natural method^of learn- ing^ If pupils are brought to iHmk in the right way the mode of conducting the lesson must be a good one. The importance of method in all kinds of skilled work is now fully recognized. The best teaching comes from cjg^rlx_ defined methods which are based upon laws and principles. Bad methods of instruction wiU develop i dlenew , def ective ob serva tion, unrel iable ju dgment and reasoning, and moral to^^tjide. The end ol eaucation most b€^ept in view by tSeteaoher in the selection of the expedients of the class- room. All prominent educators hold that the best method, and, METHODS OF CONDUOTINO RECITATIONS. 191 a- le re 1 In faot^ the school itself, is the personality of the teacher. It would be wrong, however, to Bupposeron~^tEr8 account, that every teacher should be left free to inver » his own methods. The wisdom of preceding generations of teachers cannot be neglected, and therefore the methods devised and practised by them should be made a faithful study. The teacher who wishes to profit by the experience >f others must appropriate to his use the most approved methodsemployed bj^ the beat teftf ^her a. He must do this in such a way as to reproduce them according to his own individuality, and to adapt them to the peculiar wants of his own pupils and to the conditions of the Icbson. Method is valuable, not when the teacher becomes a skilful imitator, but when his mpthod is a natural outgrowth of his own personality. To condemn method, and to say that energy guided by inspiration will suffice, is to set aside the science of education and the results of experience. A good method of teaching econon^zea time, saves labor, lessens worry, prevents weariness, promotes thoroughness, bani shes spasmodic effort, inspires jthejbeacher with confi- denoe^nd leaves his mind free to make the best use of any opportunity that may arise in the course of the recitation. MetEodls valuable to the beginner and to the experienced teacher. Method is essential to the highest genius, and the want of it causes many failures. Hard work alone will not guarantee success. The mental activity and intellectual effort necessary for skilled teaching will not be secured without rational and thoughtful work. Teaching is not merely a matter of drill. Such a system of instruction only tends to make the minds of pupils storehouses for dead lumber. It makes children listless and worn, and leads to over-pressure. It also causes teachers to look upon their calling as a wearisome and monotonous business. 192 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. It should be understood that a method is at best only an orderly procedure . To adhere rigidly to some set course of action is to drift into dead formalism and r ender teach ing meohani^cal. The good teacher must not only know all the best methods of instruction, but he must know what plans are best suited to the circumstances of 'the time. The mode of conducting a recitation will vary with the subject and the conditions of the class. The plans of the teacher must be elastic and allow proper freedom of action. Cir- cumstances must often determine the " tools " to be used. The trained teacher may have such a knowledge of the various devices employed in class recitations as will enable him to command readily the use of that method which is best adapted to the particular occasion. In con- sidering the principal methods of giving instruction it should be understood that each of them is not separated from the others by clearly defined characteristics. Empirical Methods. — It is sometimes urged that any plan of teaching, which has been tested bv experience and found successful should be employed, without any effort being made to ascertain why it succeeds, or what are the limits of its application. Such views lead to the adoption of methods that are empirical, and, as a conse- quence, untrustworthy. They introduce mechanical teach- ing, and as their underlying principles are not understood, they are often used in unsuitable cases. It is doubtless true that various methods may be used with success by different teachers. It is true, nevertheless, that dn every part of the lesson certain methods or devices may be adopted which are superior to all others for the special occasion, and the process of trying plan after plan, till one is found to succeed, and then following it blindly, has no justificatiot^ i^ th98e days, when the importance of school HFTHODS OF CONDUOTINO RECITATIONS. 193 life forbids any waste of time or nusdirection of mental activities. Empirical methods are, however, deserving of investiga- tion. The science of education cannot yet a£ford to ignore any method of instruction which the untrained yet expe- rienced teacher has found to be useful in the school-room. An examinaion of empirical methods will often enable the scientific searcher after truth to solve educational problems, and to bring to notice valuable pedagogical principles. *< The mere fact that there are so many methods current, and constantly pressed upon the teacher as the acme of the educational experience of the past, or as the latest and best discovery in peda- gogy, makes an absolute demand for some standard by which they may be tested. Only knowledge of the principles upon which all methods are based can free the teacher from dependence upon the educational nostrums which are recommended like patent medicines as panaceas for all educational ills. If a teacher is one fairly initi- ated into the real workings of the mind, if he realizes its normal aims and methods, false devices and schemes can have no attraction for him ; he will not swallow them ' as silly people swallow empirics' pills'; he will rejec^ in as if by instinct. All new suggestions, new methods he will submit to the infallible test of science, and those which will further his work b can adopt and rationally apply, seeing clearly their place and be^i :ngs, and the conditions under which they can be most effectively employed. The difference between being overpowered and used by machinery, and being able to use the machinery, is precisely the difference between methods externally inculcated and methods freely adopted, because of insight into the psychological principles from which they spring." — McLdlan and Dewey. t ' The Peveloping Method.— Opposed to merely em- pirical processes is the developing method, of which the essential feature is the direct exercise of the child's facul- ties. It assumes that the e fforts of the teach er are fn""^**^ on ps ychological princip les, and that the nature and powers of the pupil are taken into account at ^very stage. The 194 SCHOOL MANAQEMENT. teaoher bases his instruction on recognized principles of intellectual development, (Chapter III.) and leads his p upils to dis cover fa ct s for them selves, and to f orm conclusions that are the outcome of the knowledge acquired, ^e developing method is at variance with all artificial teach- ing, and is adopted wherever pedagogy has attained its place in systems of education. It assumes that the forma- tion of character is the real work of the teacher. Book Knowledges. — No wise teacher undervalues the study of books by his pupils. He who has guided a class to profitable reading has accomplished m\ich. Some of the best work of the school is the cultivation in the pupils of a love for reading. ;, ,, ,:^ " Book wojrk for leBsons has obvious advantages. It is definit e ^ it puts into concise and rememberable form ; it focusses, so to speak, much of whaTuitriBaied discursively in oral lessons; it can b«_ revised again and again, as often as is necessary, until it is under- stood. Just as oral teaching is the main instrument for awakening intelligence, so book work is the chief safeguard for accuEAfiy^ clearness of impression, and permanence. We cannot do without either. It is, however, the beat teachers who are most in danger of undervaluing set lessons from books. It is the worst, or at least the commonplace, the indolent, the uninspired teacberS) who have a constant tendency to over- value them." — Fitch, Oral Instruction. — Oral instruction has its place in connection with every subject taught in the school. It may be given by the teacher, either to supplement the text-book, or by way of genera 1 explanation. The teacher takes the place of the book, or gives such information as cannot be supplied from text-books. He directs children before they learn to read, and when they are able to study from books he increases their powers of acquiring know- ledge, and prevents them from making blunders. METHODS OF OONDUOTINQ RBCITATIONS. 195 I in It he er as en |dy w- " It U ohiefly by means of the living voice that ■oholan oan be really inspired ; it is only when the eyes meet, and expression and gestures are seen, and tones are heard, that there arises that subtle and indefinable sympathy between teacher and taught, which is so essential to the intellectual life of the scholar. Then only oan there be that adaptation of the matter to his wants, the light glancing over unimportant details, the rest and repetition over the more significant facta, the pause after what is exceptionally difficult, the happy illustration, the argumentum ad hominetnt the brisk and pointed question by which the teacher assures himself that he is being followed and understood." — Fitch. The Lecture Method. —The lecture system of giving instruction consists in the teacher's presenti ng an d dis- cussin fiL a subject, while the pupi^ « "*^ «^"^ lifl^^" '^"^ attempt to fiac in their minds the leading features of his address^ Thepupils may take notes, or the teacher may give an outline of the subject, and suggest the best method of study and the proper books to be consulted. It is only in colleges and universities, or in technical, scientific and professional schools, where the students are supposed to have considerable maturity of mind, that the lecture method is much used. The chief advantage of this method lies in the fact that the lecturer can reach a large audience at the same time, and thus present his knowledge without increased efifbrt. There are strong objections to the frequent use of the lecture system in schools, on account of its serious dangers. The signs of collective animation are often mistaken by the teacher for individual progress. It often leads pupils to reproduce in his own words whatever they have been taught. The desire to be interesting and fluent may cause the teacher to indulge in generalizations, picturesque statements, pretentious knowledge, and mere talk. It 196 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. occasionally fostei;^ vanity in a teacher who imagines that to speak continuously upon a subject for some time shows cleverness. In some cases he comes to have a liking to hear himself talk, and harangues his class in the style of an orator. It is needless to add that such lecturing is not teaching. A good teacher is not necessarily a good public speaker. ^. The lecture method has its place. To some extent it is necessary in every lesson. With skill and judgment it becomes very serviceable in giving illustrations and explan- ations. The extent to which it is employed should depend on the age, power and advancement of the pupils. With little children it should rarely be employed in any con- tinuous form. For advanced classes the lecture plan may be adopted with much greater chance of success, though per- haps in no lesson should it be used alone. Even in uni- versities the professor who teaches a subject well relies on other methods. When the lecture method is used it should be controlled by definite purpose, and should be kept within clearly defined limits. The lecture should be suggestive as well as definite. The facts should be stated in language readily comprehended, and in a simple and direct way. The ideas should be connected, the expressions persuasive, vivid and interesting, and the manner bright, earnest and sympa- thetic. Pupils must be kept interested, and with this object the points must be presented with varying delibera- tion and emphasis. " Whenever the teacher does not first excite enquiry, first pre- pare the mind by loakirig it up to a, desire to know, and if possible to find out by itself, but proceeds to think for the child, and to give him the remits before they are desired, or before they have been sought for — ^he makes the mind of the child a two-gallon jug, il^to wl^ich l^e may |>ottr jtwt two ^llonq bat i|o ii|ore."— Po^e. IdctfioDs Of coMDt7C7irii^o ttkciTAttoNa 19? jra- pre- sible id to have jug. The Conversational Method.— It is often the most effective means of imparting instruction to allow the teaching to assume the form of conversation. The teacher plays the part of a sympathetic friend, and, with the absence of formality or apparent desire to instruct, a pleasant chat about the subject causes the children to forget that they are taught, and induces them to learn with- out feeling that school work is a drudgery. The pupils are encouraged to talk and ask questions of the teacher, who in turn puts questions to them, and guides the conversation with a settled purpose. When conducted with spontanea ousness and simplicity, and without any conventiouaiity, this method is well adapted to the wants of young children. Even with older pupils, it forms a very agreeable change from the lecture or the ordinary question method. A genial and scholarly teach^.. may, in this way, add much to the information obtained from text-books. The method has its dangers. Skill and judgment are needed to secure brightness, freedom and naturalness, and at the same time to avoid what is artificial, indefinite, dull, or ludicrous. If wisely used it generates a love of learning, and trains the child to communicate with e^ase, confidence and accuracy. Caution is required to prevent random talk, rashness of statement, frequent digression, oversight of some pupils, and forwardness of manner in others. The teacher needs to have full knowledge of his subject and good control of his class. The Discussion Method. — Occasionally the recita- tion may take the form of a discussion. The subject for consideration may be announced, and pupils may be aslced to maintain certain positions, to present arguments, or to offer or meet objections. The teacher directs the discussion and prevents any tendencies to disorder or to the use ids 80HOOL MAKAGMMeMT. of desultory talk. Yigorous thought and independent expression of opinion may be fostered in this way, and r^ pupils may learn to have regard to the views and feelings j^ of others. Sharp retorts or personal allusions should not be allowed, and liberality of opinion, courtesy and fair play should be placed at a premium. In High Schools the discussion method, in the shape of a debate, mity now and then form a feature of the programme. A good teacher will find it a great aid in interesting pupils in his- tory, literature and otLer subjects, and in giving them confidence for speaking in public. The Question Method. — ^The question method is by far the most valuable means of conducting a recitation. Its importance 4emands special consideration. (Chapter XV.). The Socratic Method.— This is a mode of putting questions in such a judicious way that the pupil is led to discover truth for himself. It was named from the Grecian philosopher Socrates, and is used extensively by the disciples of Pestalozzi, and by all modern educators. The teacher acts constantly as a guide, and puts his questions in such a way that the pupils gain knowledge by their own efSort. The pupil is led to think, to reason, to gain information, and to discover his own errors. He overcomes obstacles, surmounts difficulties, and wins victories. He becomes a worker, gains courage and strength, and forms habits of self-reliance. Jn the hands of a poor teacher it has little use. Teachers who are familiar with the science of education, and who understand the principles of psychology, will find the Socratic method a powerful instrument in giving original instruction. It would be unwise for a teacher to regard the Socratic method as one to be generally followed. Training questions and Socratic questions are not in all respects identical. The developing ■■-;■/)■- METHODS OP CONOUCTlNa ftfiClTATIONS. m V f' method will ordinarily give rise to the question method, but other kinds of questioning (Chapter XV.) will be used. *' Socrates had not the spirit of a teacher of little children, and judging from his practice as we know it, he would certainly in that capacity have been a failure. He usually drove his hearers to the conclusion he wanted. It is the business of the teacher of children to guide and lead, and they require much more help and direct explanation, interspersed with the questions, than the ordinary Socratio dialogue would give." — Landon. The Topic Method. — When this method is used it is understood that some subject is proposed for consideration. Each pupil may be required to tell all he knows about the topic assigned. Pupils in this way may be trained to give a connected statement of their opinions, and to answer questions dealing with the subject. Like other methods it has its dangers. The time of the class may be wasted in hearing recitations, and there may be little opportunity for real teaching. Thoroughness and attention may be neglected. In primary teaching the topic method should be used sparingly, and in any case it shotQd be supple- mented by other modes of instruction. The Comparative Method. — The distinguishing feature of this method is the use of comparison or contrast. One fact, or a series of facts, having been placed alongside another, there is an examination of the two in close connection. An examination of this kind increases the knowledge which the pupil has of each and strengthens the impressions made. The method c ultivate s the power of o ^ervation and discrjiaai nation^ and in the case of young children it becomes very valuable. It excites their curio- sity, intensifies their interest, and leads them to discover pointe of difference and similarity in matters brought to their notice. In teaching geography, history, science and rture, the comparative method has an important use. litcia m SCJEIOOL MAl^AG^MlBlNt. lUustratiye Methods. — Illustrative methods render vivid what is abstract^ technical and scientific. ' They excite interest and curiosity and stimulate investigation. In this way attention is aroused, the memory strengthened, and force, picturesqueness and impressiveness are added to the teaching. There are two kinds of illustrations. (a) The first of these may be termed objective, as they bring into action the use of the senses. Objective illustra- tions are of various kinds : (1) Objects. These should be a well-arranged series of articles suitable to give systematic illustrations for the subject to be taught. (2) Pictures and diagrams. These should be provided, if possible, by the trustees, but the teacher should be expert in putting on the blackboard what may not be available. (3) Maps and models. Much apparatus may be provided without much expense. (4) Experiments. Mere book knowledge is now at a discount in mastering chemistry, physics, biology, etc. (6) The second class of illustrations may be termed oral. There are two kinds of oral illustrations. (1) The parti- cuUvr may be used to explain the general. For instance, the nature of an adverbial clause may be made clear by furnishing examples. (2) One thing may be understood by mentioning another of an analogous nature. A river may be explained by saying it resembles a stream which the pupils may have seen. Analytic and Synthetic Methods— The student gains knowledge by a twofold process. He observes indi- vidual cases and forms them into groups on account of certain points of resemblance. The method is called the synthetic. On the other hand, he may, from certain recog- nized principles, make an arrangement of individual cases. In this way he employs the analytic method. By the METHODS OF CONDUOTINO RECITATIONS. 201 analytic process knowledge is taught by beginning witb the whole and proceeding to its elements or constituents. By the synthetic process the procedure is from the elements or constituents to the whole. If, for instance, in gramma** the pupils are taught the general charaotcrir>tics of the different parts of speech and then enabled to understand the function of the sentence, the synthetic method is used. If, on the other hand, the function of each part of speech is taught after that of the sentence is made clear, the analytic method is employed. Each method has its advan- tages. Generally speaking — especially with young pupils — the analytic method will be found preferable. Inductive and Deductive Methods,— The mode of giving instruction may also be inductive or deductive. By the former general truths are reached through particular ones. By the latter particulars are reached througJi generals. With deductive teaching the definition comes first. With inductive teaching it conies last. Inductive methods enable pupils to discover principles and laws. Deductive methods enable them to test the truth of enunci- ated principles. It is evident that, like analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction have their respective advantages. All deductive teaching is by it:; nature analytic, and all inductive processes are synthetic. The converse propositions are not, however, true. A pupil may be taught the facts of some historical event, or those of some geographical division, synthetically, but these facts would not be grouped by induction. The constituent parts of a sentence or of a country may, on the other hand, be taught analytically, but not by induction. For young chil- dren the inductive method is preferable, but it is a mistake to infer that even with them it should be used to the exclusion of deductive processes. 202 SCHOOL MANAOBMENT. Auxiliary Methods. — In addition to the proper use of the methods mentioned, various expedients are utilized by the skilful teacher. The use of written exercises and practice in written examinations (Chapter XVI.) will be found very valuable in teacliing most subjects. Reviews and outlines of a series of lessons are common inHigff Schools. Pupils may bo assigned the duty of reporting tjie substance of a lecture, or that of putting in writin g a list of their difficulties in mastering a lesson. DiiTere nt topics may bo assigned to different groups of pupils, with 'the object of increasing the application of certain members of the chiss and fixing responsibility. It sometimes saves time and awakens enthusiasm by adopting for a few minutes the "concert" method of conducting a i-ecitation. To overcome tilnidity the pupils in one row of seats may be required to answer together. A change in the method of conducting a recitation may often prove necessary before the time of the lesson has expired. It not unfrequently becomes essential for the teacher to bring to his aid some temporary expedient in order to create interest and check idleness. To measure every moment the effect of his teach- ing on the class, is a duty that devolves upon him who successfully conducts a recitation. Objectionable Methods. — ^Almost any method of conducting a recitation is objectionable that is not adapted to-the JLature of thejesson, or to the age, attainments, or mental condition of the pupils. Many antiquated methods have not yet disappeared from some schools. The constant marking of the record of each pupil during the lesson is a relic of the past. In a few places children are still "turned down " for making a mistake. It is still no uncommon thing to hear of young children deprived of sleep on account of the heavy lessons they have to prepare for the next day. METHODS OP CONDUCIING RECITATIONa 203 of The parrot method aod the cra mming p rocess linger in some localities. Some teachers have no system in teaching. They drift from one plan to another, and only " keep " school. They have no fixed purpose, no mastery of the subject, no regard for the previous knowledge of the class, and no definiteness in the questions put to the pupils. Many teachers attempt too much in a recitation. The lesson is too wide in scope. Introductions are too long. The important facts are not emphasized. With others, there is too much drill and too little educative work, or the language is "above the heads" of the pupils, and unreasonable digressions are frequent. Children are often bewildered by the discursive way in which their teachers give instruction. The presentation is clumsy. The lesson is not stimulating. Mere talk — wordiness — amusement — is not teaching. REFERENCES. McLellan. — Applied Psychology, Chapters VIII., IX. and X. De Oarmo. — Essentials of Method, Fart I. McMurry. — General Method, Chapter VI. ^ Com/pay ri. — Lectures on Teaching, Part I., Chapter IV. Poutker. — Talks on Teaching. Gregory . — The Seven Laws of Teaching. HowUmd. — Practical Hints for Teachers, Chapter VIII. Ravb. — ^Methods of Teaching. White. — Elements of Pedagogy. Putnam. — Pedagogics, Chapter IX. Rein. — Outlines of Pedagogics, Part 11. Hcurria (Chairman). — " Report of the Committee of Fifteen." Eliol (Chairman). — " Report of the Committee of Ten." 7Vbmpver is eacher nation nt of ip help should be given which is required. Self-effort is checked when too much is suggested. To direct the thought of the child, to encourage him, and to prepare him for the central point of difficulty, will be constantly required of the teacher. It is a common blunder on the part of teachers well acquainted with their subject to introduce matters which, while interesting in themselves, are not necessary for developing self -activity. *' When a thing is clear, let the teacher never try to make it clearer ; when a thing is understood, not a word more of explana- tion should be added. To mark precisely the moment when the pupil understands what is said, the moment when he is master of the necessary ideas, is perhaps the most difficult thing in the art of teaching. " — Edgtworth. Study. — Teaching should stimulate study. Everyone should be a student. The person who loves study, and who knows what to study, how to study, and when to study, has a good education. A pupil should be trained to get clear ideas of his lessons, to read carefully and systematically, to master the leading features of the sub- ject taken up, to understand principles, definitions and facts, and to analyze, to generalize, to deduce and to illus- trate. It is the duty of the teaclier to train his pupils to consult dictionaries, reference books and maps, and to induce them by habits of observation and reflection to find out facts not set forth in what they read. Hard study is beneficial. Children that are " spoon-fed " remain children. For one pupil who is injured by hard study, one hundred would be benefited by increased mental activity. Hard study develops manhood and forms the royal road to success. Pupils should be wisely directed in their studies. What- ever is necessary or useful as a preparation for life, anoj 2^0 SCHOOL MANAOEMKNT. whatever will best serve afl a foundation for future work, should receive first attention. The vagueness and unocr- tuinty of the smal terer should be avoided. Hurried study is faulty. Organic growth follows the proper acquisition of knuw ledge. The mode of study must be suited to the sub- ject. To master the subject rather than to master the book should be the o})ject. The relative importance of facts should be understood, and what is first in value should receive most attention. The correlation of facts, the relatipn of cause and effect, and the logical sequence of ideas should be carefully observed. Pupils should be trained to work systematically, and to have set times for study at home. Desultory reading in matters requiring study, or spasmodic efforts, should be avoided. It is important that pupils should cultivate the power of con- centrating their attention on what they take up. Interest in a subject may be created and fostered. A love of good books is an impelling force tc .-, student. Ability to select the best reading matter comes only by careful application. To know where to look for knowledge is constantly in demand. Recreative reading, and reading which supplies general information, should not be ignored. Qeneral read- ing or recreative reading need not be aimless. Life is too short and too serious to allow any time to be wasted. Thoroughness. — Every subject should be taught thoroughly. This does not mean that all the J^jtn iia of a lesson should be mastered. Junior classes- cai \ ' be expected to have a complete grasp of the suKyjeck. Pupils should not, however, learn what they may have afterwards to imlnam. It becomes a source of bewilderment, rather than •. ' help, to require at first more than the broad prin«">)t^ MTid 4;dneral outline of any particular subject. To overlcck fundamental facts and spend time on details, >,v PBIN'^IPLES OF TEACHINO. 811 read- is too lught o£ a be 'upils fwards rather I broad mjeot. letailg, if the reyerM of tlu* roughness. The mind is limited in its capacity, and any attempt to master cti^oondary matters is very apt to crowd out more important ones. "Perfect knowledge is only a relative term, for, absolutely considered, we can never know anything perfectly ; however, we i\iay aim at perfection, although we may not hope to re»ch it. By 1 "ching a subject thoroughly, therefore, we simply mean that Ine information which we communicate to our pupils should be complete and exact as far as it extends, and that we should not rest satisfied until it is fixed in their minds ; at the same time, we should not attempt to push our instruction beyond their capa- bilities, nor deceive ourselves with the idesk that we have taught anything thoroughly which has been merely learnt b} rote. The most imperfect and fruitless kind of teaching is that whei^ the master attempts to convey a perfect knowledgb of all the parts of a subject before the faculties of the pupils are prepared fo grasping such an amount of knowledge. A little knowledge, ful.y under- stood and thoroughly digested, creates intellectual power. The amount of knowledge fixed in the mind is not of so much account as the ideas which are evolved by the intellectual process of elaboration." — Tate. Stimulus. — The power of stimulating pupils is natural to some teachers. Sympathy, quickness of resource, a lively and attractive manner, insight into character, and personal interest in students, are powerful aids in arousing a spirit of activity. Many points of detail and metliod are capable of being acquired by care and effort. Fow ;r to arrest attention, to create interest, to inspire ambition, and to develop energy, may be cultivated by every faithful teacher. The lesson should be made entertaining as well ae profitable. A change in the method of instruction, or a variation in the routine, may often wake up a dull class. If pupils are inattentive, it is probable the teaching is dull. Nagging, or using satire, is a false method of 212 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. ^ i creating interest. Ilnthusiasm for the subject on the part of the teacher will do much to stimulate the pupils. Pupils are very imitative, and they are led to care for what interests the teacher. A teacher who is not a student fails to interest. The best methods of conducting recita- tions should be made a study. Each subject calls for special methods of treatment. Clearness is a stimulus to mental growth, but there is a danger of explaining too much and too soon. . The pupils should be encouraged to share in original research. In science, history, and other subjects, there is great opportunity for using this stimulus. The various school incentives (Chapter IX.) may be (effec- tively used by the judicious teacher to stimulate pupils in their wprk. Instruction. — To give information is an important object in teaching a class. Knowledge should be given in an intelligent manner, and the elements of training should not be forgotten. How children learn is often of more importance than what they learn. Information should be made real, and what pupils learn should have value in afterlife. (Chapter III.). \ Instruction may be direct, when the truths communicated by the teacher are clearly and readily grasped by the learner. It may be indirect, when the learner is skilfully brought to discover truth for himself. Very frequently the instruction given is of an objective nature. This is the case when by presenting objects to the mind of the pupils their curiosity is excited, their observation and thought guided, and their attention fixed. Objective and indirect teaching have the highest value as methods of training, but direct teaching is not to be set aside, not- withstanding the frequency with which it is abused. ** Teach pupils to And out for themselves" is a s«vfe majcim. PBINClPLfiS OF T£ACHlNa. Zlh e part Pupils what budent recita- ais for ilus to ng too iged to d other imulus. )e efifec- 5 pupils iportant given in y should of more ould be alue in inicated by the LkilfuUy ^quently This is of the Ion and live and lods of ie, not- I abused. Ima^im. Drill. — To fix a series of facts in the mind of a child requires much reiteration. The truth which a pupil reaches under the guidance of a teacher he should be taught to reach again with greater readiness and certainty. Increased power and facility are cultivated by repeating the same acts. A large amount of practice in the shape of drill exercises is essential in elementary classes. Some time of nearly every lesson may be devoted to this process. A word of caution is needed to prevent drill from taking the place of intelligent teaching. To keep "pegging away," without giving proper attention to mental activity, leads to wearisome, unnecessary and mechanical labor. Bright pupils in graded schools are often neglected by the use of too much drill. Reproduction. — In order that we may learn clearly what pupils know they must express themselves in words. Knowledge which cannot be put in language is indefinite •and uncertain. To test the attainments of the pupils becomes necessary in order to give right instruction. In all teaching the acquired mental power of the pupils should be constantly tested. The ability of the child to observe, to reason, and to use language, is measured when he is called upon to state what he has acquired. Power to recall, to imagine, to compare, to analyze, to generalize and to discriminate, may be cultivated by practice in reproducing what has been taught. When pupils are required to mention what they have gained from the study of a lesson, or from observation, the accuracy of their knowledge and the soundness of their views are tested. Practice in this process of teaching may, as in the case of drill, be carried too far. It should be recollected that tests of the attain- ments of pupils are only a means to an end. Oral and written examinations are an essential feature of every 214 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. f well-devised system of teaching, (Chapter XVI.). Too many examinations should, however, be avoided. Reviews. — Lessons of a recapitulatory or examinatory nature are essential to good teaching. These should be given at certain times to review and sum up the teaching of a previous series of lessons. Skilfully employed, such recitations are of great value in keeping information fresh and ready for use, in giving a wider grasp of a topic, and in enabling the pupils to observe relationships and to apply general principles. With judiciously arranged review Wessons the memory is strengthened, a broader view of the entire subject is possible, and there is prevented that '^ramp- ing and narrowing effect which results when the details of each recitation are considered apart from the other lessons. In a sense every lesson should include, if necessary, review questions. To " finish " the course in two-thirds of the academic year, with the object of spending the rest of the time in reviews, shows a misconception of good teach- ing. If a subject is taught properly, reviews each day, week or month, have recognition in the regular work. For junior classes a review each Friday has its advantages. The better plan — especially for advanced pupils — ^is to review the subject when a chapter or topic has been finished by the class. Review questions, or review lessons, should show the same definiteness of purpose and logical arrange- ment that mark every other well-conducted recitation. Progression. — The learner must proceed step by step. The teacher guides, but the pupils ascend, round by round, by their own efforts. The learner's present attainments should be made the basis of the teacher's work. If there is unity in the aim of the teacher, and if the proper end is kept in view, a rule of selection and adaptation must be followed. The progress of the pupil should be a growth J PBINCIPLES OF TEACHING. 215 in th6 mind with eaoh part rising naturally out q{ the preceding, and forming itself into the mind. A number of well-known maxims have value in the various methods of instruction. Some of them should be received with caution. They include, in some cases, half-truths, or sound principles that may be misapplied. ♦ ' t , ^^ 1. Nai/wr^a Method. It is a popular statement to say that education should follow Nature. The teacher does not really develop the minds of the pupils, nor does he deter- mine the order of their development. He must look to Nature as his guide. He only assists Nature. By observa- tion and study he becomes acquainted with Nature's laws and learns how mental growth takes place. In this way he is guided in choosing objects of knowledge, and in pre- senting facts to his pupils. If the teacher adopts methods that run counter to mental processes, he is not following Nature's method. It should be understood, however, that there is no force called Nature which wUl carry on educa- tion. Mental and moral growth, as well as physical growth, demands intelligent guidance. 2. From, the Known to the Unknown. The first thing in teaching is to find out what the pupil knows that is most nearly allied to what is to be presented. There must be a starting point ; there must be something upon which to build. The irksomeness felt in the early stages of some subjects is due to the want of a foundation. To stimulate the activity of the pupil, and to secure a ready reception for new material, it is necessary to take hold of something already in the mind. It is evident no fiixed plan will suit all cases, atid the skill of the teacher is exhibited in the tact with which he makes himself acquainted with the existing conditions. In almost all cases the pupil has some previous knowledge of the subject acquired in some 216 SCHOOL MANAGSMfiNl*. way, and his attainments will determine the mode of procedure. The most elementary facts may at first require attention. The teacher must make the most of the pupil's knowledge. Every lesson should be connected with former lessons. Progress should be in the right direction. The steps should be proportioned to the age and power of the pupil. Each additional fact, reason, proof, and inference should be adapted to the end in view. New truths should be made familiar before further steps are attempted. It is a great mistake to take up a series of lessons without neces- sary recapitulations and reviews. Pupils should be taught to make discoveries for themselves, and thus "proceed from the known to the unknown." -^f-:. 3. Simple to Complex. The young child has difficulty in discerning relations. , What is complex may have to be broken up into its elements so that it may be presented in small portions. It may be necessary to lead the pupil along the steps of a subject consecutively, and not by great strides over several intermediate ones at once. If what is simple is presented first, what is complex may be subse- quently grasped. "Although this principle of education is generally known and acknowledged, yet comparatively few teachers understand it rightly, or practise it completely. It is by no means uncommon to find teachers practising a dogmatic and technical system of instruction ; while, at the same time, they believe that they are teaching from the simple to the complex ; our dogmatic modes of instruction are simple enough as regards the work of the master, whilst they ara anything but simple when considered in relation to the mental efforts required of the pupil. As this species of self-delusion is so fatal in its consequences, it is important that we should exactly understand what is meact by teaching from the simple to the complex. We teach from the simple to the complex when we ex- plain the various particular forms of a general or abstract principle. PRINCII^LES OF TEACHING. 217 before we attempt to explain the general principle itself ; or when we explain the simpler elements or parts of a subject, before we attempt to teach the subject as a whole." — TcUe. 4. Concrete to Abstract. Early impresuions come by means of the senses. Accordingly it may be necessary to make a child's conception of a subject clearer by an appeal to the senses. Hence object lessons have an important place in the mode of instruction used with young children. The objects themselves may make ideas clear which can- not be explained by verbal description. Diagrams, maps, apparatus, pictorial illustrations, etc., have their well known value in teaching. It is a mistake to suppose that what is concrete is necessarily clear. This maxim may bo misunderstood. " Taken literally it is impossible, for there is no concrete know- ledge with which to begin. Nor is it true as implying that definite knowledge is easier to get than general knowledge. It is just as difficult, requires as much preparation, as much mental energy, and as much maturity of mind, to make a clear distinction as to make broad generalization. Both processes, in fact, occur together as different aspects of comparison. To transform knowledge from hazy into definite, and from isolated into connected forms, are both ends of instruction, and the educator cannot safely assume that either process has been already accomplished before his work begins. Undoubtedly many who use the precept have a correct meaning back of it, but this meaning would be better expressed : Develop representations Jrom presentations.^* — McLellan. ' 5. Wholes^ then Parts. The whole of an object must be grasped in some way before its parts are understood. All complex objects of study are, in the first place, per- ceived in a vague and indefinite manner. A child has an idea of a house, a horse, a man, etc., before he has any conception of the parts of any one of them. The more prominent parts are then recognized by very elementary \ 218 SCHOOL MANAQEMENT. powers of analysis. The unit must be the basis of instnici- tion, but a part of an object may be the unit as well as the object itself. This maxim is almost similar to the preceding ones, and, like them, it may be misapplied. It may be generally recognized that the child shotild begin to learn what is nearest to him. He should advance to the remote and the ideal from the actual and the practical. 6. Knowing afid Doing. Knowing and doihg should proceed together. Curiosity and activity are liaturcU characteristics of childhood. The formei* fosters a spirit of investigation, and the Idtter fastens knoiwledge. The self-activity of the child must be appealed to in all kinds of instruction^ but this self-activity must be guided by in- telligence. If the acts performed by pupils become merely mechanical) there is no growth in knowledge. In early youth valuable habits may doubtless be formed without explanations for conduct being given. As children grow older, methods of instruction demand knowledge as the basis of the activities put forth. Pupils should be led to discover things for themselves. The suggestive method of instruction promotes the principle of self-development. In order that this spirit of self-development may be main- •tained, pupils should not be required to do what is beyond their capacity. They should not, as a rul,e, receive infor- mation which they can find out without the teacher's assistance. Voluntary efforts are most valuable. Too often there is a tendency to check the growth of the inventive faculties, by filling the mind with knowledge instead of cultivating original power. REFERENCES. McLtUan, T(Ue, Landon, Bavb, Fitcht Bdn, Dt Oarmo. I ■ ,■ '1^.-=' CHAPTER XV. THE ART OF QUESTIONING. Importance df this Art — Thie mbst valuable methcid df conducting a recitation is the question method. The teacher who knows how to question his class has fairly mastered the pedagogic art. The p rime object of teaching is to get pupils to think rightly^ Judicious questioning is tfae~ best means of arousing mental activity. To sebui^ intellectual growth the atten tion of the child must be arrested, his interest in the subject created or intensified, defimteness of tHbught promoted, stu dious habit s cultiva.ted, and energy and enthusiasm aroused. In no way has thb teacher greater power to secure good results than by the use of the question method of teaching. It affords pupils a valuable training in readiness of thought and speech. It promotes mental development, and secures good discipline. "Effectively used it should spur the indolent, stimulate the sluggish, challenge the inattentive, restrain the forward, control the rash, expose the careless, encourage the timid, and help the dull ; and, at the same time, it should fully employ the more intelligent members of the class in such a way as to make available the know ledge of individuals for the benefit of all." — Landon. Objects of Questioning.— It is the obafifiL-of-ipes- tioning to give proper directio }^ i^g t.ViA thnnghtn of Mni learner, to ascertain w hat he knows of the subject^ to detect^and correct any errors into which he tpajr h^^^ \ 220 SCHOOL MANAQfiMENT. fallen, to brinja[ o ut the im portant de tails of the subj ect, to unfold Jhe jprinciples involveci, to foster seif-e£fort ip the discovery of truth, and to traintohahitflLfif reflection. Before adding to the information of a pupil, the extent of his knowledge should be ascertained. Unless this course is taken, the instruction given may not be adapted to his mental requirements, and the teaching may become too easy or too difficult, and perhaps wearisome by its monotohy and lack of power to stimulate. With suitable questions the attention may be directed to facts already known, and in this way k nowledge may be fixed in the mind . Self- activity calls into play the processes of analysis and synthesis, those of induction and deduction, and the exercise of the reasoning powers. The thoroughness of the knowledge will determine the amount of drill that may be desirable before additional instruction is imparted. Vague ideas should be made definite, and mistakes corrected before new ground is entered upon. This may require numerous questions, careful explanations, and clear expositions. At the same time, the power of correct expression is cultivated, and the cl ear connection bet ween worq^ and ideas becomes a settled feature of mental development. . w - When the knowledge of the pupil is tested another pur- pose of questioning is presented. To train the child is more important than to measure the extent of his know- ledge. Training is impossible unless interest (Chapter XIV.) is aroused. Suitable questions e xcite curiosity , re move obscurit y, and produce self-act ivity. Discoveries inspire zeal, create confidence, and lead to habits of self- education. A question will often secure the attention of pupils when they would otherwise remain listless. Habits of inattention among pupils are generally the outcome of THE ART OF QUESTIONING. 221 LOW- )ter defective questioning. No mode of putting questions to a class and no style of questions can be defended, that will not arouse in the pupils a spirit of enquiry and habits of self-questioning. " Clearly, the intellectual habit can be formed b/ logical question- ing and by this alone. The pouring out processes, whether by text- books, that copiously explain the easy and are silent on the difficult, or by teachers who, with a fatal flow of words, explain everything, works against independent investigation and the growth of power. The wordy teacher has been referred to; the wordy annotator deserves a passing notice He is more to be dreaded than the wordy teacher. The young learner will sometimes venture to question the scientific or literary accuracy of the oral instructor ; but he receives with unquestioning reverence he printed statements of the annotator." — McLellan. Abuse of Questioning^. — The best methods of instruc- tion may be abused. Questioning is the best means, but not the only good means, of conducting a recitation. The lecture or the conversational method may be occasionally employed. The use of illustration cannot be ignored. The results of the teacher's efforts will often point out the course to adopt. It may be well to tell pupils the facts at times. Excessive questioning confuses and bewilders. " Many teachers use questioning as though it were an end in itself, and fail to see that it is easy to over-question to such an extent as to retard the teaching, and smother up the point to be learned in a cloud of answers. This purposeless questioning has done much to bring the device into disrepute. Directly the object is gained, the teacher should pass on. Anything beyond what is necessary for clear understanding and firm grasp only bewilders the children, and darkens what it should illuminate. Not unf requently, too, in teaching, a large amount of time is wasted in endeavoring to question from children ordinary matters of fact, which they can only learn by being told directly. To question again and again in the hope that the point may be gained, or arrived at by a process of exhaustion, is to misunderstand completely the use of question- ing, and is not only stuuid but blameworthy." — Itandqi^, 222 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. ■'/ The Teacher's Prerequisites.— The questioner re- quires to have the qualifications of the teacher (Chapter VII.) in an eminent degree. A knowledge of the subjec t of instruction is essential. His attainments should embrace not only an extensive acquaintance with the subject itself, but a k nowledf;e of k indred branches. The primary teacher has great need of wide culture, in view of the great skill required to question young pupils. The pre- paration of the lesson is essential (Chapter XIII. ). Bad preparation leads to feeble teaching and to indifference on the part of pupils. The teacher needs a thorough t raining of the analyii o faculty. Dull teaching is the product of an untrained mind. A logical method of thinking is essential as a factor in producing a right order in the arrangement of questions. To know how to train children, a kn owledg e of child natur e is indispensable. The teacher who success- fully uses the question method must observe liie workings of the mind. No amount of scholarship will make up for ignorance of the laws that govern mental action. Unless the teacher has a full appreciation of the pupil's condition of mind, both as to capacity and degree of attainments, the instruction will lack proper direction. The special laws of suggestion and association must be understood. An intelligent grasp of the conditions and peculiarities of the learners is essential. The teacher must be able to frame his own questions. The exact question to put to a class must often be determined at the moment. The personality of the teache r is the most powerful element in his qualifications as a questioner. Heart-power as well as head-power is requisite. Scholarship will not supply the defects that come from the lack of such elements as energy, sympathy, enthusiasm, decision of character, and THE ART or QUESTIONING.. 228 less rful ^wer not mts land that insight into human nature which marks the man of keen judgment. To arouse the dull is a constant duty of the successful teacher. To help the weak, to develop the intjBlligence of the indolent, and to implant habits of right thinking in all members of the class will demand teachers who are sto ut-hea rted and stron g-bra ined. Excellence can be attained only by intelligent practice. The beginner will make mistakes, but if he knows his errors there is * hope of improvement and possibly of ultimate success. The most eminent teachers are those who recognized their failures and made repeated efforts to triumph over diffi- culties. The Subject-Matter of Questions.— A good ques- tion is d^fiiutft, and, as far as possible, it should admit of nnly ^p ^ ^ pawer. Obscurity in the language of a question may lep4 to incorrect answers. Questions should be pep - > tinept. Irrelevant questioning is often due to want of proper preparation. Questions should sometimes be asked that cannot be answered from the text-book, but they should have a bearing on the lesson. Questions should be accompanied with no useless verbi- ~ age in the way of introductory phrases. The language should embrace no more VnrHi^ ^hM\ ftFfi nnrP'i'riry A clumsy or slipshod way of stating a question is unfair to children. It should not be necessary, as a rule, to repeat a question, or to change the form in which it is expressed. A change may, however, be essential if the question has not been clearly stated, or if the ability of the students has been over-estimated. Sev eral short questions are bett er fillip qj^tj lf)i^g nnft. Questions should be pr operly graded . They should be sufficiently difficult to necessitate effort. Inattention, oarelessness, habits of guessing, and superficiality, result 224 SCHOOL MANAOEMENT. from the use of questions that may be answered without mental effort. Ttie capacity of different pupils must be recognized. It will not do to discourage either the dull or the bright pupils. It is no uncommon thing to find teachers giving questions that demand answers of greater length or hardness than the attainments of the pupils warrant. Such teaching bewilders children, and causes them to become discouraged and to relax intellect- ual effort. A series of easy questions may be what is needed to secure the end desired. I t is a mistake to ask young pupils questi ons t hat demand a long pr o cess of reason ing. EaSyquestions and also more difficult ones may be necessary ) where pupils in a class differ much in their attainments. Teaching that does not stimulate is worthles s. Verbal repetition or constant drill on what is well known is useless and pernicious. Questions that are notsuggestive^ fail to promote mental development. Occasionally ques- * tions may be put beyond the power of tho majority of the class. They give interest to the bright pupils, and prevent them from growing discouraged or listless. A few hard questions for the class to think over are serviceable. So far as possible, the questions on the lesson should be " exhaustive. If confined to a part of the lesson, the value of due proportion is overlooked. Form of Questions. — Questions should be put in c oncise form . If expressed in long sentences the pupils losetheiaea. To gather the exact meaning the language must be precig e. Ambiguous questions fail to train in habits of definite thought. Questions should be v aried in form and in degr ee of difficulty. Monotony wearies. Undue simplicity does^noT* tram. Questions, if too hard, discourage. A lack of variety in framing questions leads to li^e defects in THE ART OF QUESTIONINQ. 225 kut in Ipupils ]guage ^n in ree of Ts nor 3k of Its ip answering. The wording of questions should depend upon how far the pupils understand the subject. With young children it may be necessary to ask the same information on different days in a changed form. The mental exercise involved in giving the answer will determine the degree of difficulty which the question should assume. The ability of the child to express his thoughts fluently, his acquaint- ance with the subject, and his physical condition, must not be overlooked. Categorical questions, or such as call for direct and pofeitive answers, create life and interest young pupils. In reviews the topical method is very valuable. Problems to be solved, translations to be made, and exercises to be written, are highly important forms of questions for advanced classes. Questions should be gut in grammatical form. A state- ment or an ellipsis changed into a question is objectionable. The choice of words in asking questions is important. It is a common error with teachers to have no clear idea of what they mean until the question is partly framed. The wording is often altered before the question is finished. Defects of this kind give pupils bad models in oral composition. Questions should be put in a n engaging way as well as in ftn fttitiiiiiilii M flit III A cheerful, appreciative, lively and sympathetic manner on the part of the teacher h,\s great influence in securing ready responses to his qu()stions. Vivacity and pleasantness, an animated and conversational style of questioning, and the absence of formalism will induce pupils to do their best, will banish drowsiness and indisposition to effort, and will prevent them from flagging or becoming wearied of the lesson. The t eacher must be natu ral in his manap r. 15 226 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. iiv "Some teachers make the mistake of being fussy and bustling, which is tiresome and disconcerting; others of being stilted and magisterial, which is chilling and depressing ; a few of being too exacting, and correcting mistakes in a harsh, snappish way, which renders the children afraid to answer, and eventually silences them." — Landon. , • r;' ■.• . Order of Questions. — Questions should follow one another in s vstematjfi <;>rHer . Ea ch Hl]9 tt, |fl flfifltn to ( {r^w out of the answer which preceded it. A loose, discon- nected, random set of enquiries, which have little logical relation, is very objectionable. Rambling questions prevent continuous thinking, lead to confusion, and discourage pupils. Examination questions may, however, be occa- sionally discursive. To be effective, all that the questions embrace should be j;oherent and connected . Lawyers study the art of questioning, as is shown by the connected, straightforward story they are able to get from a timid but honest witness. Any irrelevant or needless matter that is introduced does not turn the barrister aside from the purpose he has in view. The sum of the replies given to the questioner, as reported in the press, reads like a consistent narrative. Short digressions may be unavoidable and essential. Hard words and incidental statements may need explana- tion. New trains of thought may call for consideration. There may be good reasons for bringing in illustrations, and even an occasional anecdote. Logical consistency does not require the teacher to be the slave of mechanical routine. The concentration of studies is sound in prin- ciple, but the correlation of studies should also be recog- nized It is possible that a question in grammar, or even in arithmetic, would not be pedagogically out of place in giving a lesson in history. Still, it will not do to lose sight of the main purpose of the recitation. All needless c THE ART OF QUESTIONING. 227 itlingt (1 and ag too which ilences ir one liscon- logical . revent ^ ourage ' ) occa- estions awyers neoted, I timid matter [e from given like a digression should be carefully avoided. Incidental diffi- culties and matters that pertain to other recitations should not beguile a teacher into a neglect of the truths which primarily belong to the lesson. Objectionable Questions. — The method of instruc- tion by means of answers to set questions from a book is antiquated. There are but few subjects that can be pro- perly taught in this way. Questions should be in th e te acher's ow n words. The ca techism form of instructio n is at variance with sound prin ciples of teach ing. The liiang voice and the^pontaneous effort are essential. In training the intellectual faculties, the sequence of facts, thoughts, or ideas is more important than any clear appre- hension or expression that comes disconnectedly. Whatever value, by way of suggestion, questions at the end of a chapter may be to teacher or pupil, the plan of depending solely on them is to be condemned. If the teaching is confined to them, the logical arrangement of facts is slighted and the pupils get only a partial knowledge of the truth. The catechetical method of question and answer has disappeared wherever improved systems of teaching are adopted. Questions that simply require a yea or no answer should be used only occasionally. They may at times save time and arouse a class to activity. The same objection holds tiO any questions that encourage guessing. Those of alter- nate forms, where either of two answers is right, are bad. Elliptical questions, where the pupil is expected to com- plete a Sentence of which the teacher has given a part, have seldom much educative value. For young pupils such questions, if given occasionally, may help to keep up the continuity of the lesson. For advanced classes a method that habituates them to give direct and independent answers is required. Ail questions that include or suggest 228 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. the answer give little benefit. There should be nothing in the voice of the teacher, in any gesture he makes, or in any expression of his face, that will give a clue to the required reply. Questions that from the extent of information required, or from their vague, pointless, or ambiguous form, simply perplex, serve no good purpose. The interests of the pupils are too important to have any part of the recitation occupied in merely " killing time." All haphazard, silly, pert, or pedantic questions are out of place. The design of good questioning is to train pupils to clear and earnest thinking. Inattention, thoughtlessness and indifference are fostered by objectionable methods of questioning. Kinds olf Questions. — ^%f^**i' Q^"*'*^^^" T hgse are u sed to determine the Qriiantity__a ^ quality of the know- ledge, skill and power which pupils have acquire4w They may be merely preliminary, tentative, or exp 3rimental. They enable the instructor to feel his way, to sound the depths of the previous knowledge of the pupils, and to prepare them for the reception of what is to be taught. They may also be used for purposes of examination. What the teacher has to communicate must be joined on to what the pupils already know. Besides clearing the way for the lesson, tentative questions promote effort, create interest, whet the mental appetite, and prepare the pupils for their intellectual meal. Such questions are required at the opening of the recitation to arrange the ground-work of the lesson, to turn the thoughts of the pupils into the right . groove, to arouse the curiosity, and to foster the desire for knowledge. Throughout the lesson such questions enable the teacher to preserve attention, to discover how far he has been understood, to see in what direction caution is needed, to kuow what weak poiiits must be strengthened, ttifi Afet Ofr QtJtStlONlKCI. m igin I, or ) the lired, inply ; the ation silly, ign of imest srence ise are barest, their ^.t the )rk of ght for Enable he ri: Lre Ear lion IS xe: ned, to ascertain what misconceptions must be corrected, and to determine what difficulties must be removed. At the end of a division of the lesson or at the close of the recitation, testing questions are also valuable. They fix in the minds of the pupils the facts that have been taught, point out necessary relations, emphasize leading truths, supply de- ficiencies and correct errors. Training Question s. T hese are used to develop fresh i deas out of what is known. They are ins truclji ve. because new information is acquired; illu strat ive, because they throw light on what is known; and e4ttsaliive, because they bring into active exercise the powers of the pupils. Their main purpose is to get the pupils to discover new facts for themselves, by guiding them through easy pro- cesses of thought or reasoning. At first training questions do little more than give such direction to the thoughts as may make relationships clear. They simply appeal, in the early stages of the child's mental growth, to the powers of observation and to the exercise of the memory. Subse- quently they present easy steps in the processes of analysis and induction, and encourage children by giving them a knowledge of what they can accomplish by themselves. It is assumed that what pupils find out is more valuable to them than what they are told. Training questions direct attention forward to the unknown, and cultivate con- nected thinking, rapidity of apprehension, and ready expres- sion. It should be understood that no amount of question- ing will furnish pupils all the information they require. A great deal must be gained from books or from the teacher's explanations. Unfortunately too little is frequently left to the pupil to discover. It is too often the custom to look for text-books that havo everything presented in a " cut-and-dried form," and to expect the teacher to make 230 SOROOt MANAOBMEKT. his instruction so luoid that students will be saved the "hardship" of exercising their brains. The evil here referred to will grow less if examiners set questions to test intellectual power and skill, rather than to test knowledge (Chapter XVI.). The two classes already mentioned show the essential features of the various kinds of questions. It is customary to apply names to different groups of questions, according to their more specific duties. The Socratic method of questioning has already been described (Chapter XIII.). The terms preliminary, tentative, experimental, recapitu- latory, categorical, illustrative, examinatory, instructive, educative, etc., sufficiently explain what is meant. In each case the real object is to test the knowledge of the pupil, or to train his intellectual powers. It should also be observed that the purposes of some questions may be both testing and training, and that the specific functions of a question may be of two or more kinds. Class Questioning^. — A person may know how to instruct an individual pupil, and yet fail to give questions that answer the purposes of class instruction. The whole class, and not one pupil, has to be considered in giving questions. The difficulties to be met arise from the varied attainments of the pupils, the large number in the class, the different points of view from which the subject matter is considered, and the necessity of keeping all interested in their work. It becomes essential to preserve the interest of the other members of the class when one pupil is questioned, and to study the utmost economy of time that is consistent with efficient instruction. In some subjects, like reading, individual tests cannot be dispensed with. In all subjects the methods of class questioning should never ignore individual instruction. The interests of all the pupils, and ! »♦ - Tttfi: ART Of Qt^ESTiO^lKd. m ilent ling, ecto lore and I especially the needs of the most backward, must be kept in mind. Showers of questions and answers in rapid succes- sion do not indicate effective teaching. Generally such methods are not conducive to right thinking. There are some characteristic modes of putting questions to a class that should be noticed: — . The Simultaneiyus M ethod. In this method the questions are put to the whole class, and the pupils answer in concert. If insight and caution are exercised it gives life to the recitation. It saves time, stimulates a dull class, and encourages timid children. It has serious defects — makes a show of work, deludes the teacher and pupils regarding results, smothers indi- vidual effort, and fosters the habit of relying on others. It lessens individual responsibility, develops a noisy manner in children, leads to superficial knowledge, affords poor mental discipline, and supplies no reliable means of testing information. If used at all it should be used with constant vigilance. Children are too ready to chime in with a few leaders in the class, and unless the teacher is watchful he may be deceived regarding the value of some answers. Occasionally all. the pupils may be expected, when a signal is given, to answer simultaneously, and where a training in smartness is needed, a recourse to this method has some advantages. The^ Consecutive Method. In the case of this method questions &F6 ^dressed in succession to several pupils individually. The questions are put to them one after another in some definite order. There is a saving of time by this plan since each member of the class recites in turn, and it is not necessary to name the pupils. The certainty of being asked causes each to be on the alert when his turn comes. The tee^jher gives the questions a&d ^^i SCHOOL MANAQEMENI^. ' /:X ' t receives the answers without being obliged to call upon the pupils to answer. All the pupils have an opportunity of answering, and none are overlooked. When there are few in a class this method may be found satisfactory. In a large class the method to be valuable requires the teacher habitually to direct questions out of the order followed. The consecutive method has also its defects. It fails to secure close and universal attention. When a pupil gets his question he is inclined to let his mind wander till his turn comes again. There is danger that pupils will pre- pare only what they expect to be called upon to answer. The custom with pupils in former times of calculating what verse or word would come to them was a result of this method. The consecutive method prevents a thorough testing of the attainments of the class. There is no cer- tainty that each pupil will receive the question best suited for himself and for the entire class. The careless pupil is virtually abandoned. T he Promiscuous Method . Generally the best way of asking a question is to address the whole class. Each pupil should understand that he may be expected to reply. In stating the question no sign should be shown ,that would indicate who is to answer. It may be necessary to ask some one to repeat the question. The main thing is to secure that every pupil is on the alert. Each question should be given to that pupil who, with due regard to the interests of the class, stands in most need of receiving it. Directly a child begins to gaze about he may receive the question. This method has the great advantage of enabling the teacher to apply a proper distribution of tests. The idle pupil may be asked to recite, the inatten- tive one called to order, the clever one required to explain for the benefit of the backward, and the questions dis- tributed in such a way as will do most good. . . I Iftiri ARt Of QUESTioi^Il^O. ^33 ly of !ach jply. ,that ry to igis }tion the |ving keive re of of bten- ilain dis- Though the promiscuous method is better than the simultaneous or the consecutive plan, yet it has some defects and certain limitations. It is slow, and in a larg e cl ass some pupils ma y, b e overloo ked. There is the danger that the bright^pupjlB. may^rect ive too many question s, or that the dull ones may be unduly called upon by a severe teacher. '''-' ''■■'" .,■"■■■-■■; :r;^v .;•:- • Comhir^ff . A/»../i^//a. The skilful teacher makes a wise combination of different methods. While mainly adopt- ing the promiscuous method, he makes use, to some extent, of the consecutive plan, so that no pupil may be overlooked. Now and then animation is secured by requiring all the pupils to answer simultaneously. If he goes from one pupil to another in a certain order he holds each one in the class responsible, and frequently gives a suitable ques- tion to a pupil out of the order. One member of the class may be called upon to give a translation or to solve a problem, and the attention of the rest may be kept up by calling promiscuously for short answers to simple questions on the topic under consideration. At times all who think they can answer may be required to stand ; or better still, those unable to answer the question may be asked to rise. The stereotyped method of getting pupils to raise their hands if prepared to answer, and calling upon one of them, is objectionable. It should not be assumed that only some members of the class are prepared to recite. If the classifi- cation is satisfactory every pupil should be expected to have mastered the subject. Children should be encour- aged to ask questions of the teacher. This plan will serve to banish the idea of drudgery from the minds of the pupils, and will furnish the teacher further opportunities for putting suitable questions to them. Sometimes it is a relief from routine work to allow children to question one 234 80BOOL MAKAOEHEKT. another. An exeroise conducted in this way often affords a pleasing relaxation and a useful training in self-confi- dence and readiness of reply. Sometimes written answers, instead of oral ones, should be pven to questions. The written exercises may be considered or compared at the time, or may be examined and discuHaed the next day the subject is taken up. In short, the needs of a class require the teacher to adopt such devices in class ques- tioning as are best calculated to secure the right kind of thinking from each pupil. Answers to Questions. — The teacher should give pupils sufficient time to think before calling for the answer. Hurry is a hindrance to learning. Unnecessary delays should, not be allowed. Except in small classes, pupils should stand when answering questions. A becom- ing attitude must be insisted upon. A slovenly or conceited manner should not be allowed. Pupils should not be permitted to shout out their answers, to give them in a monotonous drawl, or to put them in such an indis- tinct and mumbling way that only a few words can be heard. A natural tone of voice should be required. Promptness should be encouraged, and also aptness in putting ideas in the best form of words. Exactness of expressi on is an important quality of good answering. The answers should be to the point, and should not include superfluous information. They should be clear, concise, comprehensive, and free from haziness of con ceptio n and vagiiflngaH o f langu^ gft. In definitenoss ahnul d be discoura ged. The form of answers will vary with the subject and the ago of the pupils. Complete answers are desirable, but partial ones must often be accepted. It is not necessary that all oral answers should TBS ART OP QUBSttONlKG. 235 in ;ood land >ald of ^ete be >uld be inoomplete senteiioes. No doubt pupils may be helped in aoouracy of language, by being required to express their thoughts at times in this way. To insist always upon this mode of answering would make the recitation slow, formal, tedious, and even ridiculous. Simplicity of wording, well- considered replies, originality of thought, and brightness of manner should be aimed at. Pupils should be trained to answer questions in their own language. Written replies may be needed. Oral answers will not always do. Written examinations (Chapter XVI.) are an indis- pensable element in training. The reproduction of a subject is the only sure test that the subject has been mastered. Guessing is a common fault in answering questions. A little wholesome ridicule will stop the practice. Some pupils have a reckless way of giving answers. There is no excuse for allowing a child to jump at a conclusion or to blurt out whatever first comes in his head. Vague answers are often the result of vague questions. In oral answers, and even in written answers, there are often shown much indefiniteness and the introduction of matter that has little to do with the subject. Pupils should be trained to keep to the point, to avoid any unnecessary display of knowledge, and to indulge in no speculative answers or foolish forms of expression. Criticism of Answers. — Correct answers should be accepted and commended. It is not necessary that a teacher should use some stereotyped phrase to express his approval. A pleasant, appreciative way of receiving the answer will generally be enough. Answers that are wholly wrong should be rejected. Sharp and uncalled for criticism is out of place. A snappish, sarcastic or contemptuous 2d6 BdtiOOt MA^AOteMfeKt. style of condemning wrong answers does no good, but much harm. Criticism should be discriminative. Honest mis- takes are better than the absence of e£fort. Bad cnswers are not always an evidence of thoughtlessness. When an answer contains a mixture of truth and error, care must be taken to get at the bottom of the difficulty, and to help the pupil to find his own blunders. If answers are slow and full of errors, it should cause the teacher before criti- cising, to consider, that perhaps his method of .teaching is defective. Care should be taken that timid pupils are not discouraged by harsh or unwise criticism. Any criticisip offered should be such as will benefit the pupils. Faulty answers may be turned to good account by a skilful teacher. The correction of errors should never lead to unnecessary digressions or lectures on industry, or on any other feature of good conduct. Good answers should not be refused because they are not in the particular forni expected by the teacher. Except in rare cases the teacher should not answer his own questions. He should not prompt any pupil to answer, and he should allow no prompt- ing by any member of the class. The habit which some teachers have of repeating mechanically the answer is objectionable. No time should be wasted over answers, and any " splitting of hairs " is foolish. A pupil's self- activity is repressed, rather than promoted, by requiring perfect answers, or by insisting on those that conform to some particular model. If an answer is partly wrong and partly right, it may be that thought has been exercised and that judicious help may guide the pupil into clearer light. Credit, if due, should be given. REFERENCES. FUchf Baldtoin, Wickeraham, Landon, McLeUan, Cftirrie. ./: .f' ' ■'■ ' ' ' '■■ I - CHAPTER XVI. ' ', ■ •' .^^ ■'■ '- "■ '-.. ■■ ' WRITTEN EXAMINATIONS. Objects of Written Examinations.— The imme- diate object of written examinations is to ascertain the knowledge and ability of students. Except in the case of very elementary classes, oral tests, though valuable, are not sufficient. Reproduction in writing of what a pupil has \cquired is generally the best test of what he knows and of what he can do. Written examinations furnish data that may be service- able to the teacher, the student and the public. The question papers may be set by the teacher, the principal or inspector, or by outside examiners, according to the purposes for which the tests are to be employed. The examinations may be a regular part of the work of the school. They may be used to settle what pupils are to be promoted to higher classes. Very T^equently written examinations are made a means of testing the fitness of candidates for certain positions. Training, promotion, and qualifying examinations, thus mentioned, have'Secome a recogmzed* feature of every efficient system of education. It has been found difficult in practice to separate any one of ti\ese kinds of examinations from either of the others, and the objections often raised against such written tests are largely due to the results that have followed a combi- nation of the three aims. The attacks on examinations 238 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. I are mainly directed against tests made by outside exam- iners for purposes of promotion, or for the purpose of determining to whom certificates that have a commercial or qualifying value should be awarded. Eraminations are sometimes competitive, the object being to award prizes, scholarships, or positions to the candidate who is deemed most deserving of such distinctions. These examinations are not an essential feature of the functions of school or college. The objections that may be made to them are valid, and have done much to bring unjust discredit upon the entii a system of written examinations. Advantag^es. — To the student written examinations give information regarding his attainments, showing how far his knowledge is thorough or inaccurate, how far his mode of learning a subject has been right or wrong, and what plans he must adopt for future progress. Written examinations are often revelations to the student of his ability, as well as of his weaknesses and defects. The thorough scholar has no fear of them, but the smatterer dreads them. The certainty that his work will be exam- ined is a powerful, but legitimate, stimulus to efifort. Written examinations call for the prompt exercise of intellectual energy which must be self-evolved. They improve the memory, the judgment, and the language of the student. They demand concentrg:tion of thought, sustain ed mental ^eflfbrt, and a ready use of availabl e resources. They serve as an incentive to study and induoe attention, interest and industry. They encourage thoroughness and promptituiie, cultivate method and self- reliance, strengthen the will, discourage stagnation and forgetfulness, and afford the student a means of estimating his knowledge, his powers and his progress. They give to his school work a measure of dignity, increase his self- V ■•V WRITTEN EXAMINATIONS. 289 V to respeot, develop a sturdy, honest, independent manhood, / and furnish a preparation for the more important confliota ' and struggles that are inevitable when school life is over. To the teacher written examinations reveal the resul ts of h is labo r, the failure or suc cess of his me thods, the sound- ness or weakness of bis pedagogical principles, and show to what extent he may find it necessary to examine his theories and modify his work. They tell how far his efforts to awaken permanent intellectual activity and to impart real know- ledge have been successful. They show how much his pupils know, how readily they can apply their knowledge, how far the information they have gained may answer the purpose in view, and how well facts can be retained. A searching written examination often becomes a virtual eye-opener to an inexperienced teacher, who wanders in his instruction, talks to little purpose, explains very much, but seldom makes a halt to test results. They indicate the trend of thought of the pupil, his grasp of mind, hf^ habits of study, and hi^ ^ i ogress in mental development. They often serve an li review of the work of the month or term, showing how far the pupils can make a logical arrange- ment of the knowledge acquired, and hoT7 well they can generalize or discuss in a topical manner what has been taken up in a series of lessons. They enable the teacher to add to his personal knowledge valuable data, that will assist in the classification of the pupils and in the organization of the school. They relieve him, to some extent, of possible charges of favoritism that arise when the promotions are based exclusively upon his own judg- ment. When there are several teachers in the school, occasional written examinations directed by the principal are necessary, to enable him to gauge the woxlc of each member of his staff, and thus keep himself informed 240 SCHOOL MANAOEMENT. regarding matters of organization and discipline, tot which he is responsible to the trustees. Right lines of teaching may, in this way, be suggested to those less experienced ; defects may be pointed out, and unity of aim and the use of good methods may become a general feature of the school. The examination papers, set by some central Board, may serve to prevent teachers from falling into ruts, and may afford a means of having their work compared with what is done in other places. T o the y?tt6Zic . written examinations furnish, if fairly held, an estimate of the teacher's ability and the efficiency of the school. To judge a teacher's success wholly by examinations is a great educational blunder, but to ignore them is a greaier blunder. The test they supply is a valu- able one, but whenever it is used due consideration should be given to all the factors which produce results. "Written examinations will often expose defective scholarship on the part of the teacher, bad methods of instruction, and objection- able features of school organization. A lack of power to inspire pupils with a love for their work, an indifference to their progress, and an ignorance of what constitutes a train- ing for the duties of life, are sometimes shown by means of a written examination to be faults of the teacher. Generally good work is done in a school where pupils, year after year, pass good examinations. It should be r'^coUected, however, that good results depend more on the ability of the pupils than on the efficiency of the school. The success of a pupil is largely determined by his natural capacity, his early training, his attainments at the beginning of the term, his home associations, and the interest he takes in his work. It would be unfair to hold the principal responsible for the failure of the school to gain a good record, when the trust'ees have not furnished satisfactory accommodation, 7 WRITTEN EXAMINATIOira. 241 of a early M, hia Iwork. ile for in the [ation, Auffioient apparatus, and works of reference for the library ; and especially when they have refused or neglected to employ a sufficient number of properly qualified assistants. Written examinations, if wisely held, give parents and the interested public an excellent test of the progress and attainments of children. Parents should not be left in the dark regarding the application to study their children are making at school. The course in life of pupils is often determined by what a written examination rereals. It is in the public interest that the career of each individual should be well chosen. Written examinations materially assist in determining the q atural or acquired ability of pupils. An examination furnishes the best available method of preventing persons from entering callings for which they are fitted neither by natural endowments nor by acquired attainments. Doubtless success at examina- tions does not guarantee success in after life. There are elements besides scholarship that persons must possess in order to get on in the world. It is true, nevertheless, that few intelligent persons would propose to open the doors to the profep-^ions of law, medicine, teaching, divinity, etc., by removing the tests of fitness which are furnished by written examinations. Training Examinations. — Examinations have an educative value. Those conducted by the teacher are especially used for this purpose. The good teacher is con- stantly making use of oral and written tests, so as to give proper direction to his instruction. For young children oral questions and answers must be the rule. As pupils advance in their studies written work increases. The principles which.guide the teacher in the art of questioning will, to a considerable extent, guide him in the matter of written examinations. The exercises should, as i& th§ 242 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. case of oral questions, f oster right though t. They should furnish a training that will pr qa^ote insight , intellectual posi^er, facilit y in ac quiring knowledge, and power to express ideas m good language. * Written examinations given by the teacher are the necessary complement of good instruction. If wisely arranged they need occasion no injurious mental strain, no danger to health, and no over-pressure. The examinations held during the term should follow the development of the subject taught, and should prepare the pupils for what, to them, should be the less difficult papers set at the promo- tion or qualifying examinations. Whenever the teacher is satisfied that it will do good, he should hold a written examination. (Written examinations for training purposes are not intended to disturb the regular work of the school. They should not supersede oral tests. The growth of the system of examinations has too often caused a decline in the frequency and thoroughness of oral test exercises in elementary schools as well as in High Schools. No plan of testing or recording results can be defended that would be a perversion of the true function of the school. Generally speaking, the teacher's examinations should not be periodical. Oral and written test exercises should be used whenever required for good teaching, and at no other time. Not necessarily every week or month, but rather when a chapter has been completed, a class of problems finished, or a piece of literature mastered, should the written examination, if necessary, take place. It is obvious that the hours for true teaching tests, whether incidental or formal, cannot be made to conform to the demands of a time-table or to any other mechanical device. A conformity of this nature would be like testing the sanitary condition of a city at fixed periods, instead of WRITTEN EXAMINATION& 243 promptly attending to the health of the citizens whenever sickness exists. The time for the proper diagnosis is the appearance of diseased symptoms, and these cannot be regulated by the most skilfully devised progF««mme. Proper training examinations demand that the teacher shall not only prepare or prescri'>^ che questions, but read the answer papers of his pupils. A report from outside examiners, giving the " percentages " taken, is of but little value. When all the examinations given to the pupils are left to a committee of examiners, from which the teachers are excluded, the high office of the educator sinks to that of a trade. With proper safeguards, no pupil should be adv?.nced to a higher class or allowed to write at a qualify- ing lination who has not been cecommended by the tea^L^i. of the school. In this way industry, obedience, honesty, courtesy, and other moral qualities may receive some recognition. ^ / ^i '•■■■■ ^^ 7 '; Promotion Examinations.— The careful estimate of the teacher should practically determine what pupils of his class are prepared for promotion. All his oral and written tests should enable him to determine better than any outside examiners the relative attainments of the pupils recommended for a higher class. His estimate should be based, not so much upon what his pupils have done, as upon what he believes them competent to do. The plan of allowing promotions to depend solely upon a final examination has long since been abandoned in the best schools. The evils of such a system have done much to discredit the work of the teacher, and to raise an unreasonable cry against all written examinations. Such a method is irrational, if the teacher conducts the examina- tions ; and even cruel, if the tests are applied by an out- side Board of Examiners. 244 SCHOOL SIANAQEMENT. I[ In some places it is decided to have no promotion examinations. This is allowing the pendulum to switag to the oppor^fte extreme. Teachers have sometimes little experience ;tvnd need guidance in their work from the principal or the inspector. The questions set for these examinations serve to maintain a proper standard of effici- ency. It is also desirable to have promotion examinations so as to relieve the teacher from any unjust charges of partiality, and to protect children from any injustice that might arise if their attainments are not fairly valued. Teachers, it should be remembered, are only human, and, therefore, liable to err. The question papers for promotion examinations should not be too difficult, and they need not be set in evei^ subject. No pupil should be relieved from taking them except in the case of sickness, or some other legitimate cause. No proper written examination should be regarded as a necessary evil, but as a positive good. To look upon any examination of the school as a hardship is to admit that the test is both disadvantageous and unnecessary. If any pupils are to be excluded from the promotion examinations they should be those that are not recommended by the teacher. It is much better, however, to have the examinations regarded as a part of the work of the term. Qualifying: Examinations.— To gain a certificate that will admit the holder to an honorable position is the aim of many a diligent student. The ambition is a worthy one. If the test calls for desirable mental and moral attainments, there cannot be too many young men and women in the community striving to gain the marks of distinction which the certificates indicate. The selection of candidates who are to receive certificates cannot be left to the teachers, though their judgment may, in some respects, Wtudn^ii kkAltiNAtloNs. S4g lificate IS the irorthy moral and rks of eotion ■t>e left pects, hav6 weight in daoiding results. An independent Boai'd of Examiners is necessary for this object. The appointment of a competent body for this purpose involves great responsibility, when many students are affected. The examination concerns not only those who become candidates, but the other students who are taught in the same class. The members of the Board of Exam- iners should be persons of broad and deep scholarship, large experience as teachers, and sound jud^ent. No examiner should be appointed who is behind the times in educational methods, or more anxious to propagate his pet theories than to measure good attainments and to direct scientific teaching. The membership of the Boaixl should be changed, to some extent, from year to ye^r, so as to prevent any possibility of getting into grooves. Every examiner of High School or University students should bo an expert, but not a " crank " in his special department. Qualifying examinations cannot be dispensed with. Certain callings demand, in the public interest, that the persons following them should have qualifications of a special character. It is important that those who enter the professions should have a good High School or Univer- sity training as an evidence of preliminary fitness. That fitness cannot be determined without some teat. No better one has yet been devised than a written ez&mination. To prepare students for these examinations Loust form part of the teacher's work. It would be practically impossible and on principle undesirable to train pup;]R who are to pass qualifying examinations in separate classes from those who may never enter a High School or a University. A» a consequence the entire work of the teacher is neces- sarily influenced by the character of the papers set at M dOtiOOL MA^AG^Mi^Nt. :| qualifying examinations. The style of the questions given in his own written tests to the pupils, the manner he conducts che daily recitations, the knowledge he imparts, and the intellectual power he fosters, are necessarily determined by the kind of questions which it is assumed may be given by the Board. It is evident that the entire educational system of the country may be bene- ficially or injuriously affected by the character of the questions given at the qualifying examinations. The High School Entrance, and the University Matriculation examinations really determine what subjects engage the attention of all the pupils of the schools, and how those subjects are taught by the teachers. The questions should be such as will not only test knowledge, intellectual skill and mental power, but they should be such as will place a premium on the best methods of teaching, and on the right kind of thought. It is useless to say that teachers should teach well regardless of examinations. It may be answered that one .ray to teach badly is to ignore exam- inations. If the examination questions are of the proper kind, the teacher who prepares his pupils to pass qualifying' examinations will render service of higher educational value than the one who has the vain impression that he has acquired superior talents for inspiring a love of learning for its own sake. .? ,^ Examination Questions. — Examination questions should be unmistakable in their meaning. Any obscurity or ambiguity is unfair. The course of study should be carefully followed. The questions should be judiciously arranged, and should be such as will draw out the know- ledge of the pupils, rather than detect their ignorance. Plain, straightforward questions, which can be answered in the time assigned if pupils have prepared their work, are WRITTEN EXAMINATIONS. 247 tlaO kind to be given. Difficult questions, which can he undertaken only by the genius, are out of place. The examination should call for the a pplication of pijpciples rather than an enumeration of memorized facts. Questions that show pretentious knowledge on the part of the examiner should be condemned. Questions should exhibit reasonable variety. Those that puzzle or afiford no play for mental grasp are alike objectionable. Scope should be given to diversity of talent. Problems in mat^^^^matics, ''unseen passages" in literature, and practical work in science, are valuable features to be recognized in setting good examination papers (See Appendix.) It is important to test how knowledge has been acquired, and to defeat the efforts of students and teachers who work for results by unsound methods. One of the most disheartening things is to find a school, in which first-class work is done, come to grief through the blunder of a bad examiner. It is also necessary that the answer paperc of candidates should be fairly valued. Good judgment is needed in estimating the marks that should be given for imperfect answers. The values to be assigned to the different ques- tions will require care. Where questions admit of variety of answers, credit should be given for any answer that is correct. In some subjects, if a mastery of certain principles is shown, it may entitle the answer to almost full value. In such departments as literature and history there is room for much difference of opinion as to what proportion of the marks should be assigned for knowledge, and what propor- tion for style. The standard for excellence should not be fixed too high for elementary work. It is often desirable to read several papers before deciding upon the scale of marks. Marks should be deducted for certain kinds of mistakes, and for some subjects additional marks may be 248 SCHOOL MAt^AOEMfiKT. added for general merit. Papers which give a choice of questions are recommended by many educators. Their value is held by many others to be over-estimated. Unless for advanced students they confuse, and experience is against putting any questions before candidates which they may not undertake. Easy questions and the exaction of a high percentage are preferable to difficult ones with a low ' percentage. A fair minimum on each paper and a good percentage on the total will furnish additional means of preserving a high standard. Various methods have been suggested for enabling the teacher's estimate to count at qualifying examinations. Universities allow, to some extent, the sessional work to be considered witn the final results. In case of sickness, the industry of the student during the term comes to his relief. For professional examinations, the work during the session is deservedly made a factor in awarding cer- tificates. In High Schools, an estimate of the attainments of each student, in which relative rank is shown, is found of much service to the Board of Examiners. As regards the High School Entrance examination the recommenda- tion of the teacher may properly have weight, as in the case of other promotion examinations. Objections Considered. — Cramming. The most populf objection raised against written examinations is that they encourage cramming. The nature and evils of this process have already been discussed (Chapter III.). The term itself is used with considerable vagueness, and the charge against examinations, if sustained, decides ' tlrug unless it is clear what cramming means. If it is ii^dant that written examinations lead to hasty, crude, or dishonest preparation of work, they deserve to be con- demned. If they call for a statement of information that IfVtllTtfiK b^AMlKAtlOl^d. 249 is only memorized ; for badly digested knowledge ; for the repetition of an author's words ; or for the reproduction of the teacher's language, they have no claim for recog- nition in any rational system of education. On the other hand, if they tend to develop the intellectual and moral powers of thef student; if the questions call for the application of knowledge acquired, rather than a display of what the memory has retained ; if they place at a discount information that is not assimilated; if they detect the superficial and give a high value to what is broad and thorough in the formation of character ; and if they become reliable tests of sound teaching ability, they serve a uf^eful purpose, and furnish in themselves exercises of high educational value. There are some subjects of study to which the term " cram " is seldom applied. A student is not ordinarily supposed to be capable, without due preparation, to pass an examination in such subjects as reading, writing, mathematics, or the translation of English passages into another language. It is sometimes assumed that in such departments as literature, history, or chemistry, a student may get ready for the examination without }>roper pre- paration. It should be recollected, however, that a good examiner is able to defeat the efforts of teachers or students who use the " cramming " method for any sub- ject. Literature or natural science, if properly taught, discourage cramming. If the papers set for. a written eramination are of Uie right character, the student whose facility in cramming enables him to gain a certificate, deserves credit, while the one whose inability or reluct- ance to "cram" brings failure, deserves defeat. These assertions are true, whether the preparation involved a rapid review of a subject already studied, or a rapid study of a subject entireiy new. 250 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. It should be remembered that the power of getting ready quickly for a week's contest — of promptly summon- ing one's resources for some great mental effort — is an admirable and necessary preparation for life. The lawyer is obliged to " cram " from statutes and judicial decisions for the trial of a case in court ; the statesman crams his mind with facts and figures to support his resolutions, or to refute the arguments of an o])ponent; the clergyman crams for the preparation of his sermon ; the merchant, if he wishes to understand the commercial outlook ; the professor or teacher, if he hopes to present fresh illustra- tions to his class. In fact, no person succeeds in life who is not at times obliged to put forth unusual energy, to use at short notice all his available knowledge and over- sight, and to concentrate his thoughts for the accomplish- ment of some definite object of importance to himself and to others. It is clear that any attempt to secure an education by ignoring the process of legitimate cramming, such as an examination properly conducted may demand, leaves out of view one of the essential aids for attaining its object. *- The Mental Strain Injurious. Written examinations, if worth much, demand hard mental work. Intellectual exertion is beneficial, but, like physical exercise, if too severe it may defeat its object. Mental exertion should not, as has been stated, be too severe or be constantly required (Chapter II.). Children with a highly-wrought nervous temperament should be f reec^ from any excessive strain. When pupils are promoted to a class beyond their age or attain nents, when the work of a year is crowded into a few months, and when they are expected to keep pace with classmates of superior ability, it is no wonder that even the anxiety of an examination does harm. It is WRITTEN EXAMINATIONS. 251 \ not, however, the examination that is at fault, but the undue desire to get on, and the bad classification adopted. Less haste for promotion, and a better organization of the school, would have diminished the over-pressure and would have saved the pupils from an unnecessary expenditure of mental force, from much nervous anxiety, harassing worry, and possible bodily collapse. It is no valid argument against written examinations that some pupils have, under the strain, endangered their health and even their lives. The battles of life are every day presenting examples of shattered minds and bodies, but human existence is too serious in its objects to abandon on that account the con- tests which, in the great majority of cases, improve, rather than injure, the physical, intellectual, and moral strength of those who engage in such conflicts. It must be conceded, at all events, that the examples of excessive mental strain, which are brought to notice in connection with the work of students, call upon teachers and other educationists for such adjustments of school methods as will remove any of the real sources of well-founded complaints. Independent Teaching Lessened. The charge is made' against qualifjring examinations that they destroy inde- pe ndence in teac binfr-— Whatever truth there is in the* complaint depends on the nature of the questions. If the person who sets the paper is not guided by sound principles of teaching, originality is discouraged and the idiosyncra- sies of the examiner are studied. If his questions dis- count mechanical teaching, the work of the mere imitator is discredited. If the examiner is not a true teacher, his questions may mislead, and do harm to the school. Satis- factory papers will, on the other hand, broaden the horizon of a teacher whose views are narrow on account of inex- perience, and they will give greater opportunity to the 252 ftCtlOot MAKAQl:Ml&t4¥. teacher of breadth and originality for the displa; of his genius. To say that a teacher should confine his pupils to his own questions, is to say that he should receive no direction from those more skilful than himself, or that he shou' 1 evolve his own pedagogical principles without gaining any benefit from standard works on the science of education or the art of teaching. As well might it be claimed that inspectors, and teachers of County Model . Schools, Normal Schools and Normal Colleges destroy originality of effort. Some Qtudities not Tested. It may be admitted that . written examinations sometimes fail to give a just estimate of a student's attainments. It does not follow that those who succeed at ^examinations will do well in after life. It is fortunately true that many who strive hard to pass examinations and who fail, htlve, nevertheless, bright careers in after life. The effort to win was a help. In spite of all that has been said against mere scholarship, those who are successful in life generally manifested at school those qualities which have weight at examinations. Ability to pass an examination helped many persons to get on in the world. A want of the same ability never assisted any one to win fame or to gain wealth. To , say that many distinguished men never passed a brilliant examination, proves no more than to say that many persons gained fame who never attended a High School. It is true that many qualities of mind and heart are not revealed by written examinations. It is true that good inteL.!:ions receive no recognition when the answer papers are examined. The percentages awarded depend on what has been done. Moral qualities are not shown in the class lists. There is no minimum fixed by regulation in writte::! examination& 268 ■ympathy, oourtesy, reverence, or industry. It Bhould be reoolleoted, however, that the moral element in pupils ii cultivated by every teacher who wisely prepares pupils for examinations. The highest intellectual training cannot ignore the moral element (Chapter V.). To win at ^zam< inations demands applipaj jion, se lf-denial and a laudable amlntion. Pupils who strive to gain certificates are on the average better behaved than those who have no wish to secure them. • . "It should always be reoolleoted that there are two vays in whioh the miniature struggle in examinations is preparat ry to thr real encounter of life. It is not only because it leads men to la , ap weapons in the way of acquirements, or to strengthen the si&iv/ 1 of the brain by exercise, but also because it calls out *he moral qualities needful for success in life— it requires tec jhn.* ileness, concentration, and above all, the power of 'enduring hardness,' of working when one would rather not work, and setting oneself to master thoroughly what may be distasteful. I believe myself that one great ^ort, in the way of a heavy examination, is a very valuable piece of mental discipline ; it calls out the courage and the resources that there are in a man, and merely to have made this effort conscientiously, and have done his best, gives a moral elevation to the character, even if he fail in winning any very marked suooess." — Latham. Competitive Examinations.—'^e consideration of the prize system as a school incentiv ' ^Chapter IX.) has rendered it unnecessary to discuss at length the evils of competitive examinations. If it irj unwise in practice and unsound in principle to grant such rewards as prizes to successful competitors in the Public Schools, scholarships awarded to High School or University students on the results of a competitive examination cannot be well defended. Fortunately, public opinion in this coui:.cry having generally condemned any expenditure of public 254 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. money for purposes of this kind, private generosity has no^ grown so much as to make the evil of competitive examina- tions very noticeable. An English writer, in referring to the evils of competi- tive examinations, remarks : "But the effect on schooli is much greater and more serious. For the winning of these scholarships has become the great object of many, if not most, schools. Boys go up and try at one college after another under the advice of judicious men, who know the probable standard at each college. Scholarship classes are formed at school, examination papers are studied, regular education is laid aside for special preparation, the boy is cleverly steered, and the cleverest boy and cleverest jockey, jointly, win the prize and divide the applause ; the honor iii duly paraded at the speech-day by the smiling headmaster to smiling boys, applause follows, which lasts for several moments, and care is taken to have the success announced in all the papers. *' I do not hesitate to say, after a good many years' experience, that the effect of these scholarships on schools is almost unre- deemedly bad. Thoy are not necessary as a stimulus ; they are totally inadequate and misleading as a means of comparing school with school, and they do a good deal in some cases to degrade the work of masters and boys alike." If it were possible to grant every student who gains a certain percentage a scholarship, no serious objection might be raised, if the test should be the ordinary qualifying examinations. To make a written examination a mere struggle for position among rival claimants is to introduce a method of measuring relative attainments that does not, as Latham well shows (see "On the Action of Examinations"), always select the most deserving candidate. Fitness for responsible positions should, doubtless, demand certain minimum attainments of an intellectual nature. Any additional qualifications deemed requisite should be those not determined by a written examination. The strusrsrle \\ ■■ I- <> .,. I. WBITTEN EXAMINATIONS. 255 between rival schools has its evils. As regards qualifying examinations, the rivalry among schools is to some extent unavoidable. It is in the interests of education to pre- vent all unwholesome competition! The prize and scholar- ship system is at variance with modem views of motives to right action, and the recognized objections to the system have done much to discredit the use of qvxJifying examina- tions. It should be recollected, however, that the latter tests differ very much in their purposes and results iroa competitive examinations. '■'■■ REFERENCES. -' -' (VOB EXAMINATIONS AND methods). LcUham. — On the Action of Examinations. i^ttoA.— Lectures on Teaching, Chapters VI. -XIV. Bourne. — Psychology, Part 11., Chapter IL CowJiam. — Oral Teaching. Bcun. — Education as a Science, Chapters VIII. -XI. . v White. — Elements of Pedagogy. J* Landon. — Teaching and Class Management, Chapters V.-IX. Laurie. — Lectures on Linguistic Studies. , MeLellan and Dewey. — The Psychology of Number. ' Howe. — Systematic Science Teaching. - Hinsdaie. — How to Study and Teach History. Pariter.— How to Study Geography. Oouin. — The Art of Teaching and Studying Languages. Bain. — On Teaching English. Heath. — Methods of Teaching Modem Languages. Hall, O. S.—II0W to Teach History. Colbeck. — The Teaching of Modem Languages. ' ;; 'v Harper and Burgees. — Inductive Latin Lessons. * See also *' Report of the Committee of Ten," " Report of the Com- mittee of Fifteen," and several papers read before sections of the Ontario Educational Association; also the valuable suggestions givMi in several well-known books prepared for the use of students by aome of the High School Masters of Ontaria !^V' u .\;. >^. \ APPENDIX. " THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS ACT. AS AMENDED IN 1896. [Sections of the Statute that home special reference to teachers. High Schqpl teachers are subject to provisions ivhi<^ are praeti- caUy the same.] RELIOIOUS INSTRUCTION. • y ''' ' 7* — (1) No pcftrson shall require any pupil in any Public School to read or study in or from any religious book, or to join in any exercise of devotion or religion, objected to by his or her parents or guardians. (2) Pupils shall be allowed to receive such religious instructions as their guardians or parents desire, according to axi/ regulations provided for the organization, government and discipliue of Public Schools. 54 v. c. 55, ss. 10, 11. »' - - ' 'i CONTINUATION CLASSES. 9, — (1) Subject to the regulations of the Education Department the school corporation of any municipality or section in which there is no High School shall have power to establish a continuation class for pupils who have completed the course of study prescribed for Public Schools, anc who have passed the Public School leaving examination, and also to provide for such class suitable accom- modation, and to impose such fees for tuition, upon the pupils in attendance who have passed the said leaving examinations, whether residents or non-residents of the municipality, as they may deem expedient. (2) The school corporation may admit to such continuation class pupils who have passed the entrance examination to a High School, but all such pupils who are residei^ts Qf the municipality or section APPENDIX. 267 'mm t.' '-'..'J , ' . * ■ "". ! ,' shall be exempted from tuitioii fees. Where non-residents are admitted, such fees may be charged as the trustees may deeni expedient. (3) The course of study for continuation classes shall be the course prescribed for the Primary examination of the Education Department. Teachers of continuation classes shall possess at least the qualifications of an assistant in a High School, subject to the regulations of the Education Department in that behalf. (4) The Minister of Education may apportion to any school conducting continuation classes, out of any money appropriated by the Legislature for that purpose, a sum equal to the average amount per pupil paid by the Legislature towards the maintenance of High School pupils. The Municipal Council of any county may pay for the maintenance of such classes a sum equal to the legislative grant appropriated by the Minister of Education for such class or such further sums as may seem expsdient. DUTIES OF TBAOHEBS. 76«— (1) It shall be the duty of every teacher of a Public School, to teach diligently and faithfully all the subjects in the Public School courLd of study ; to maintain proper order and discipline in his school ; to encourage his pupils in the pursuit of learning ; to inculcate, by precept and example, respect for religion and the principles of Christian morality, and the highest regard for truth, justice, love of country, humanity, benevolence, sobriety, industry, frugality, purity, temperance, and all other virtues. (2) To use the English language in the instruction of his school and in all communications with his pupils in regard to discipline and the mana&rement of the school, except where impracticable, by reason of the pupil not understanding English. Recitations requiring the use of a text-book may be conducted in the language of the text-book ; (3) To see that the schoolhouse is ready for the reception of pupils at least fifteen minutes before the time of opening in the morning and five minutes before the time of opening in the afternoon ; to call the roll every day according to the register prescribed by the Education Department ; to enter in the visitors' book visits made to the school ; to give the inspector, trustees and visitors access, at all times, to t. e register awd visitors' book ; and 258 APPSNDIX. i\:JI ^ w to deliy«r the register, the sohoolhonae key and otiier eohoel property in his poaseasion to the corporation employing him on demand, or when hia agreement with such corporation has expired ; (4) To classify the puplb strictly according to the course of study prescribed by the Education Department; to conduct the school according to a time-table, accessible to pupils and risitors ; to prevent the use by pupUs of unauthorized text-books ; to attend regularly the teachers' institutes in the inspectoral division; to :aotify the trustees and inspector of absence from school, through illness or other unavoidable cause ; and to make at the end of each school term, and subject to revision by the inspector, su.!i promotions from one class or form to another as he may deem expedient ; (6) To hold during each half year a public examination of the school, and to give due notice thereof to Whe trustees, to any scho >1 visitors who reside in the school section, and through the pupils, to their parents or guardians, and to hold such other examinations as may be required by the inspector for the promotion of pupils, or for any other purpose as the inspector may direct ; (6) To furnish the Minister of Education, or the school inspector with any information which it may be in his power to give respect- ing the condition of the school premises, the discipline of the school, the progress of the pupils or any other matter affecting the interests of the school, and to prepare such reports of the corporation employ- ing him SLB are required by the Education Department ; (7) To give assiduous attention to the health and comfort of the pupils, to the cleanliness, temperature and ventilation of the school- rooms, to the care of all maps, apparatus and other school property, to the preservation of shade trees and the orderly arrangement of the playgrounds, and to report promptly to the trustees and muni- cipal health officer the appearance of any infectious or contagious disease in the school, or the unsanitary condition of outhouses and surroundings ; <8) To refuse admission to the school of any pupil affected with, or exposed to small-pox, scarlatina, diphtheria, whooping-cough, measles, mumps, or other contagious disease until furnished with a certificate of a physician or of a health officer to the effect that all danger from exposure to contact with such pupil has passed away ;•■-■•■, .. (• APPENDIX. 269 \ and (9) To Btupend any ptipil gniliy of penigfeent trnuMsy, Tiol^iit opposition to authority, habitual neglect of duty, the um of profane o? improper language or conduct injurious to the moral tone of the school, and to notify the parent or guardian of the pupil, and the Trustees, of sucu suspension. The parent or guardian of any pupil suspended may appeal against the action of the teacher to the trustees, who shall have power to consider such appeal acd remove or confirm such suspension. AOKEBMBNIS. ,V /;■; , ' ^i ' ' ' - ■■ ■,.. .-'ft =:■■'■•.. ': ' '•'"W 77* — (1) All agreements between trustees and teachers shall be in writing, signed by the parties thereto, and shall be sealed with the seal of the corporation ; (2) Any teacher who wilfully neglects or refuses to carry out his agreement, shall, on the complaint of the trustees, be liable to the suspension of his certificate by the inspector under whose juris- diction he may be for the time being ; (3) No person engaged to teach a public school shall be deemed a qualified teacher who does not at the time of entering into an agree- \ ment with the trustees, and during the whole period of such agree- \ ment hold a legal certificate of qualification ; (4) Any teacher who enters into an agreement with a Board of Trustees for one year, and who serves under such agreement ^or three months or over, shall be entitled to be paid his salary in the proportion which the number of days during which he has taught bears to the whole number of teaching days in the year ; (5) Every teacher shall be entitled to his salary dtrring sickness, certified by a physician, for a period not exceeding : ur weeks for the entire year ; this period may be increased at the pleasure of the trustees. (6) If at the expiration of a teacher's agreement with a Board of Trustees Lis S8,lary has not bee; paid in full, such salary shall con- tinue to run at the rate mentioned in such fu^reement until paid, provided always that an action shall be conunenced within thre montii*! after the salary is due and payable by the trustees. 54 V. o. 65, ss. 132-137. ^ ^ (7) All matters of difference between trustees and teachers, in regard to salary or other remuneration under a valid agreement, shall, whatever may be the amount in qnesticn, be brought in the i8« than eighteen years of age, of go«^ moral char(>cter and who passes the examinations prescribed by th3 Educatloix Department, mt^j be awarded a first, second or third-claHS cert^fioite according to tho staTidaids required by such examination ; (2) Subject to any regulations of the Education Department with regaiii ij experience iu actual teaching, certificates o? tlia f\rat and stjccad cIewjs ahttU be valid during good conduct ; certificyjvSea of ihe third cImb shaU 'e valvl for a period of three years. Every third-, class certificiata snail hm.> who signature of at least one Public School inspector. (3) The insf-wctjOfR of the teritorial districts, or any County Board of t xaminci ti. may issue certificates valid only within the district of such inspect«:fr, or tho jurisdiction of the County Board, for a term not exceeding one year, subject to the regulations of the Education Department. (4) Certificates granted before the fifteenth day of February, in the yeai' 1871, shall remain in force on the terms of the Act under which they were grantod ; (5) First-class certificates hsued under any Act of this Province beforft the fifteenth day of February, 1871, and valid on the 24th day of March, 1874, shall be valid in the Province during tho good conduct (A the holder thereof ; (6) Second-class certificates issued and valid as aforesaid, shall, when the holders thereof, have taught for ten years in Ontario, be valid during good conduct within the territory in which granted. (V) The inspector may suspend the certificate of any teacher under his jurisdiction for ine€5iciency, misconduct, or a violation of vhis Act or of the regulations of the Education Department. In evrery case of suspension, he shall notify in writing the trustees concerned, and the teacher, of the reasons for such suspe^:*^ :v, -, (8) The inspector shall forthwith call a meeting of ' : ounty Board of his inspector?^ division for the consif'erat' ^i ■:l such, suspansion, of which d iotice shall be given U eacherso suspended, and the deuiitiun of the Board shall b' v :ti^\, 04 V, o. . '^^i V ,■' > ",.:'fl- APPENDIX. 261 », V '.. ? '..' .1.-- . ^^*: . HOB be ith . ;3<1 t/he * ';.. ool * •'''" ard : . ■ bof ':(./ arm ''^ "•;,.. '■"■: tion '-'.^ -{;'^ . » "* .'./'■'- ■ 1 ' - ■' ider ■■jr-j'vv •,i- mce ■ , H !4th ■.''," ood -■-* laU, .be ' . ', >'■ .« ;her nof ^ ■■•••""; In tees inty mch sr so T, 9. r- ■*'".' ^■'' ".^ HOUDATS. " 89«— (1) The Public School teaching year shall consist of two terms: in rural schools the first term shall begin on the third Monday of August, and end on the 22nd day of December ; the second term shall begin on the 3rd day of January, and end on the 30th day of June ; (2) In urban municipalities the first term shall begin on the first day of September, and end on the 2iaid day of December; the second term shall begin on the 3rd day of January, and end on the 30th day of June ; (3) Every Saturday, every public holiday, the week following Easter Sunday, and every day proclaimed a holiday by the authori- ties of the municipality in which the teacher is engaged, shall be a holiday in Public Schools. 54 V. c. 55, s. 173 (1-3). (4) In the territorial districts the trustees of any rural school may allot the time herein allowed for holidays at Easter and midsummer to suit the convenienft^ of pupils and teachers, provided always that the same number of holidays be allowed and in periods of the same duration as herein set forth. , ' AUTHORIZED BOOKS. 90* — (1) Any authorized text-book in actual use in any Public or Model School may be changed by the teacher of such school for any other authorized text-book in the same subject on the written approval of the trustees and the inspector, provided always such change is made at the beginning of a school term, and at least six nioatV'j after such approval has been given ; (2) In case any teacher shall negligently or wilfully permit any unauthorized text-book to be used by the pupils of his school, he shall for each such ofience, on conviction thereof before a Police Magistrate or Justice of the Peace, be liable to a penalty payable to the municipality for Public School purposes, not exceeding $10, togeti> : vv'ith co^tF, as the Police Magistrate or Justice may think f5t. 54 V. c. 66, as. 174-176. S0HOO.> VISITOES. 9^« — (1) Judges, members of the Legislature, members of County Coimcil'^ and aldermen shall be school visitors in the municipalities 26f APPENDIX. where they respectively reside. All clergymen shall be school visitors in the municipalities where they have pastoral chai::ge. ' (2) School vitttors may visit Public Schools as in this Act pro- vided. They may also attend the examination of schools, and at the time of any such visit, may examine the progress of the pupils, and the state and management of the school, and give such advice to the teacher and pupils, and any others present, as they deem expedient. 54 Y. o. 66, ss. 184-186. PSNALTIKS AMD PBOHIBITIONS. 9tt« No Public School Trustee shall be eligible to appointment as Public School inspector or teacher, within the section of which he is a trustee ; nor shall the teacher of any Public, High, or Separate school hold the office of Public School Trustee, nor shall an inspector be a teacher or trustee of any Public, High or Separate school while he holds the office lof inspector. 64 Y. o. 65, s. 189. 190* Any person who wilfully disturbs, interrupts, or disquiets the proceedings of any school meeting authorized to be held by this Act, or anyone who wilfully interrupts or disquiets any public school established and conducted imder its authority, or other, school, by rude or indecent behavior, or by making a noise either within the place or where such school is kept or held, or so near thereto as to disturb the order of exercises of the school, shall, for each offence, on conviction thereof before a Justice of the Peace, on the oath of one credible witness, forfeit and pay for PubHo School purposes to the school section, city, town, or village wiciiin which the offence- was committed, a sum not exceeding $20 together with the costs of the conviction, as the said Justice may think fit. '/ 64 Y. c.65, 8. 193. Ill, — (1) If any trustee of a Public School knowingly signs a false report, or if any teacher of a Public School keeps a false school register, or makes a false return, with the view of obtaining a larger sum than the just proportion of school moneys coming to such school, or for any other improper purpose, the trustee or teacher , shall, for every offence, forfeit to the Public School fVind of the municipality the sum of $20 for which any person whatever may prosecute him before a Justice of the Peace, and the trustee or teacher may be convicted on the oath of one credible witness other than iUm prosecutor ; ';^V >,": APPENDIX. 203 (2) If upon conviction, the penalty ii not forthwith paid, the same shall, under the warrant of the Justice, be levied with ogeta by distress and sale of the goods and chattels of the o£Eender, and shall be paid by the Justice to Public School Bowd. 64 V. o. 66, s. 208, (1-2). OBNBRAL PROHIBITIONS. 113« — (1) No teacher, trustee, inspector, or other person officially connected with the Education Department, the Normal, Model, Public, or High schools or Collegiate institutes, shall become or act as agent for any person or persons to sell, or in any way to promote the sale for such person or persons, of any school, library, prize or text-book, map, chart, school apparatus, furniture or stationery, or shall receive compensation or other remuneration or equivalent for such sale, or for the promotion of sale in any way whatsoever ; (2) Any teacher who refuses to give up possession of any visitors' book, school register, schoolhouse key or any other school property in his possession shall not be deemed a qualified teacher until restitution is made, and shall also forfeit any claim which he may have against the said trustees. 54 V. c. 55, s. 210 (1-2). REGULATIONS.* PUBLIC SCHOOLS. ' 8ITBS AND SCHOOL HOUSBS. !• The site of every Public School shall admit of easy drainage and shall be accessible by the best highways in the Seel: :8 area shall be not less than half an acre, and if the School population of the section exceeds seventy-five, the area shall be not less than one acre. The grounds shall be levelled and drained, enclosed by a neat and substantial fence and planted with shade trees. The *An> u** i,ngM in the Regulations affecting the examinations for Public or High l>< '00 s including the selections in literature and the langua(,es, are an* nounoed A>m year to year, and may be ascertained from the Inispeotor. 264 APPENDIX. if II I ( Bohool \ou8e shall be placed at least thirty feet from the public highway. ^ fd« There shall bp a well r bhr*r jMns for proouring water, so placed and guarded s" \^ t c <«e x. > against pollution from surface drainage, or in any other way. Every rural school shall be provided with a woodshed. 3> The closets for the sexes shall be under differen^i roofs. They shall be separated by a high, close board fnn-^'^ their entrances screened from observation, and lockeu ^t^r school Loors. They shall be properly cleansed and disinfected when necessary, and approached by proper walks from the school house, so as to be accessible \» Mi comfort at all seasons of the year. 4. Where the average attendance of any Section for throe years exceeds Ifty pupils, a school house with two rooms shall be pro- vided. An additional room and teacher shall be required for each additional fifty pilpils in average attendance. Every school house shall afford soparat'^. entrances with covered porches and suitable cloak rooms for boys and girls. 5* Every school room shall contain a superficial area of at lea<;'' twelve square feet, and a cubic content of at least 250 feet for each pupil in average ationdance. A uniform temperature throughout the room of at least sixty-seven degrees shall be maintained and provision made for a complete change of atr* jsphere three times every hour. The windows — both sashes — anall be adjusted by weights and pulleys and provid;d Muth suitable blinds. Light, where possible, shall be admitted from the left of the pupil. ■ '■■ y::' :• ' ' . ■ '■ ' ^■ -■'.■ •-: ^- \^- ' - - " . FURNITUKK AND KQUIPMKNT.* '.'■;■ , '. ' -^ ,...'.., ^/ .■ 6* Every schocl house shall ^e seated with either double or single desks — si iigle desks being preferred. The desks shall be fastened to the floor in rows facing the teacher's platform, with suitable aisles between the rows and with pass?>'^es .> least three feet vide between the outside rows and the waf ^f th o school room. Desks according to the following scale shalj ct isidered as meeting all legal requirements : ^ *See pages 21-24. APPENDIX. 266 ■ \ . i ■ */ Aoi or Pupils. Five to e^ght yoan Eight to ten yean Ten to thirteen yean . . . . Thirteen to sixteen yean Sbatb. Height 11 in. 12 " 18 *' 14 " lOiin. Hi •• 14J " 2 in. 2 •• 2J " 8 " DWKI. ■tf Length. I 86 in. 86 '• 86 " 40 " 18 in. 18 " 20 •' 22 " i 12 in. 12 " 18 " 18 " ; in. 28 " 24 ' 26 " 7r There shall be one b lokboard at least four feet wide, extend- ing across the whole room in rear of the teacher's desk, with its lower edge not more than two and a half feet above the floor or plat- form ; and, when possible, there should be an additional black- board on ea^^h side of the room. At the lower edge of each black- board there should be a trough five inches wide for holding crayons and brushes. ,' , yo^ -The following directions for making a blackboard may be found use- ful:— (a) kVhere a brick wall is built solid, and also in case of frame buildings, the part to be used for a blackboard should be lined with boards, and the laths for holding tiie plaster nailed firmly on the boards. (b) The plaster for the blackboard should be composed largely of plaster of Paris. (c) I fore and after having received the first coat of color it should be thoroughly poiished with fine sand paper. (d) The coloring matter should be laid on with a wide, flat varnish brush. (e) The liquid coloring should be made as follows : — Dissolve gum shcllao in alcohol, four ounces to the quart; the alcoho. should be ninety -five per cent, strofig: the dissolving process will require at least twelve ho<;-^'. Fine emery flour with enough chrome green or lampblack to give color, shcald then be added until the mixture has the consistenov of thin paint. It may then be applied, in long, even strokes, up and down, the liquid being kept constantly atirred. 8* Every school shall liave at least one globe not less than nine inches in diameter, properly moi.nted ; a map of Canada ; a map of Ontario ; a map of the World and of the Continents ; one or more sets of Tablet lessons of Part I. of the First Reader ; a standard Dictionary ; a Gazetteer ; a numeral frame ; a suitable supply of crayons and blackboard brushes ; an eight-day clock ; shelving for baskets ; hooks for caps and cloaks ; and two chairs in addition to the teacher's chair. 266 APPENDIX. 9* The Trusteei shall appoint one of thoir number or some suit- able person to keep the school house and premises and all fences, ouihouses, walks, windows, desks, maps, blackboards and stoves in proper repair. They shall also provide for whitewashing walls and ceilings if finished in plaster (or for washing if finished in wood), every year daring the summer holidays, and shall employ a care- taker whose duty it shall be to sweep the floors daily, and wash them at least quarterly, and to make fires one hour before the open- ing of school, from the first 4 November until the first of May in eaoh year. 10* No public school house or school grounds, unless otherwise provided for in the conveyance to the trustees, shall be used for any other than Public School purposes, without the consent of the trus- t«es, and no advertisements shall be posted in any school room or distributed to the pupils unless approved of in the same way. 11. The first Friday in May eaoh year shall in rural school seo- tioiM and in incorporated villages be devoted to the planting of shade trees, the making of flower beds and otherwise beautifying and improving the school gronnds. Songs and recitations designed to cultivate greater interest in trees and flowers and in the study of nature shall form part of the exercises of the day. DUTIKS OF PUPILS.' N IS. Every pupil registered in a Public School shall attend punc- tually and regularly every day of the School year in which his name is so registered. He shall be neat and cleanly in his ])erson and habits, diligent in his studies, kind and courteous to his fellow- pupils, obedient and respectful to his teacher, and shall submit to gnch discipline as would be exercised by a kind, firm and judicious parent. IS* Every pupil on returning to school after absence from any cause, shall give orally or in writing to the teacher, a proper reason tw his absence. A pupil may retire from school at any hour during the day at the request, either oral or written, of his parent or guardian. A pupil may be suspended who foils or neglects to pro- - vide himself with the text-books or other supplies required in the course of study, or to pay the fees imposed for such purpose by the Trustees. *For Duties ot Teaohen, lee page 267. APPENDIX. 267 14* Every pupil Bhall be rosponRible to iho teacher for bis oon- duet on the school premises or on the way to or from school, except when accompanied by his parents or guardians or by some person appointed by them on their behalf. Any pupil who injures or destroys school property or furniture may be suspended until the property or furniture destroyed or injured is made good by the parent or guardian of such pupiL ' ly )n }S >r SCHOOL TERMS AMD OROAMIZATIOll.* IS* Unless otherwise directed by the Trustees, the pupils attend- ing every Public School shall assemble for study at nine o'clock in the forenoon, and shall be dismissed not later than four o'clock in the afternoon. One hour at least shall be allowed for recreation at mid-day, and ten minutes during the forenoon and afternoon terms, but in no case shall the hours of study be less than five hours per day, including the recess in the forenoon and afternoon, provided always the Trustees may reduce the hours of study for pupils in the First and Second Fcnrms. t9» Pupils not registered in a Day School may attend a Night School from the 1st of October until the 3Ist of March. The hours of study in the Night School shall not exceed two and one-half hours per Session. Pupils shall not be admitted to a Night School who are under fourteen years of age, or who attend school during the day. Night Schools shall be subject to the same regulations as Public Schools with respect to the discipline of pupils, the duties and qualifications of teachers and the use of text-books. 17* The course of study for Public Schools shall be taken up in five forms as hereinafter set forth, and pupils shall be classified by the teacher with respect to their attainments in all the subjects of the form to which they are assigned or from which they are to be promoted. Pupils who have passed the High School Entrance exam- ination and such other pupils as are considered qualified by the teacher and Inspector shall be entitled in both mral and urban schools to receive instruction in the subjects of the Fifth Form, provided that, in a municipality having a High School if resident pupils of the First Form are not charged fees it will not be deemed obligatory for the Public School Board to have a Fifth class. The *For Principles of OrganisaUon, consult Ohaptsr XL 268 APPENDIX. ^ I amount of time to be given to any class is to be determined by the teacher, who shall be guided in this matter by the Inspector. Subjects of the course of study marked with an asterisk are optional. 18* An optional subject shall be taken only with the consent of the Trustees and the Inspector, and where the teacher is the holder of a First or Second class Certificate and has passed an examination in the option which he undertakes to teach. The Trustees of any rural school may, by resolution passed at a regular meeting of the Board, require Agriculture to be taught in the Fourth and Fifth Forms of the school, and in such case^ the Inspector shall report to the Trustees at least annually, the extent of the course taken by the pupils and their standing. Not more than three periods of thirty minutes each shall be given per week to the study of all the optional subjects. In urban schools such instruction may be given in domestic economy as the Trustees deem expedient. 19* In school sections where the French or German language prevails, the Trustees may, in addition to the course of study pre- scribed for Public Schools, require instruction to be given ia Read- ing, Grammar and Composition to such pupils as are directed by their parents or guardians to study either of these languages, and in all such cases the authorized text-books ic French or German shall be used. But nothing herein contained shall be construed to mean that any of the text-books prescribed for Public Schools shall be set aside because of the use of the authorized text-books in French and German. CONTINUATION CLASSES. ' fSO* In schools where instruction for the Primary examinations has been given under former regulations similar to what may be given by the estqtblishment of a Continuation Class in connection with any Public School under the provisions of section 8* of the Public Schools Act, ' 1896, the Principal of the school shall be deemed qualified so long as he remains Principal of such school. In the case of any subsequent appointment as Principal, the quali- fications shall be a First Class Certificate for schools in class (a) hereinafter mentioned. fSl* Any grant made by the Legislature for Public School * See Daire 25$: APPENDIX. 269 Leaving examinations and Continuation GUusee shall be distributed by the Minister of Education among the schools of the three grades hereafttT mentioned, viz. : — (a) Schools in which the Prin- cipal holds a First Class certificate (unless occupying the position in 1896), and gives regular instruction only to pupils who have passed the High School Entrance examination (one or more of whom have also passed the Public School Leaving examination) and who are taking the full course required for Primary standing. (6) Schools in which there are two or more teachers and a class in regular attendance of at least ten pupils who have passed the High School Entrance examination (one or more of whom have also passed the Public School Leaving examination) and who are taking the full work required for Primary standing, (c) Schools in which there is a class in regular attendance of at least five pupils who have passed the High School Entrance examination (one or more of whom have also passed the Public School Leaving examination) and who are taking the full course prescribed for Primary stand- ing. Any person holding a Second Class Certificate shall be deemed qualified to conduct the classes in schools under divisions (h) and (c). Before a grant is paid to any school for a Continuation Class the Inspector shall certify to its efficiency, and to the com- petency of the teachers employed to give the instruction required by the Regulations of the Education Department. Any school receiving a grant under this regulation shall not receive any additional allowance on account of pupils who may pass the Public School Leaving examination. PUBLIC SCHOOL COURSB OF STUDY. *49» Subject to any instructions issued by the Minister of Edu- cation from time to time, the limitations and examination require- ments of each Form in the Public School shall be as set forth in Schedule A — Public School Courses of Study. I HIQH SCHOOL BNTBANCB BXAMINATIONS. 93* At every High School and Collegiate Institute and such other places as may be recommended by the County Council, examinations to be known as High School Entrance examinations to be conducted on the subjects prescribed for the Fourth Form of Public Schools, shall be held tuinually. The County Council may 270 APPENDIX -«■*-■ impose a fee not ezoeeding one dollar upon each ooiinty pnpil writing at the Entrance examination. Boards of Trustees niay impose similar fees upon resident and non-resident pupils writing for the Entrance examination at High Schools and Collegiate Institutes. S4. Any person intending to write at this examination shall notify the Inspector in whose district he proposes to write, on or before the 1st day of May. Where more examinations than one, are held in the same inspectoral division, he shall notify the Inspector of the place at which he desires to be examined. The answer papers of the candidates shall be read by the Board of Examiners constituted under section 38 of the High Schools Act, 95* The answers of candidates at the Entrance examination shall be appraised according to the following scale, viz ; In Reading, Spelling, Drawing, Writing, 50 each ; in Physiology and Temper- ance, Compositibn, History, Geography, 100 each ; in Grammar and Literature, 150 each ; in Arithmetic, 200. Two marks shall be deducted for each misspelled word on the dictation paper, and one mark for every misspelled word in any other paper. Reasonable deductions may also be made for want of neatness. 26* Any candidate who obtains one-third of the marks in each subject and one-half of the aggregate marks shall be considered as having nassed the examination. The examiners may also av.ard pass standing to candidates who have not made a bad failure in any subject but who have made a high aggregate above the half required, or whose case on account of age or other circumstances demands special consideration. The decision of the Board of Examiners shall be final with regard to the admission or rejection of any can- didate, but the Inspector may submit to the Board for reconsidera- tion the complaint of any candidate or any other person with re- gard to the examination. ^T* In the interval between the annual examinations, pupils may be admitted to a High School by the Minister of Education on the joint report of the Principal of a High School and the Public School Inspector showing the attainments of such pupil, his age, and the reasons for his non-attendance at the Entrance examina- tion prescribed by the Department. No pupil shall be admitted until his case is disposed of by the Minister. The names of such > X/r; APPENDIX. 271 pupils shell be included in the report of the Board of Examiners at ], the next annual ei^amination. ' , ■ ^ " PUBLIC SOnOOL LBAVINO KXAMINATIOMS. 9S, Public School Leaving examinations will be held annually at every High School and Collegiate Institute, and at such other places as may be recommended by the Inspector. A person who Mrishes to write at the Public School Leaving examination must, be- fore the 24th of May, give the necessary notice to the Inspector on a form to be obtained from him. The answer papers will be examined at the Education Department immediately after the examination is held, and a report of the results will be forwarded to the Inspector, or to the High School Principal, if the examination was held at a High School centre. The Board of Trustees where such examina. tion is held shall pay all the cost of the examination, but will receive from the Inspector half the fees paid by candidates. ^9* Candidates at the Public School Leaving examination shall take the following subjects, to be valued vs herein mentioned^ viz.: Reading, 50 ; Drawing, Writing with Book-keeping and Commercial Transactions, English Composition, English Literature, History, Geography, Algebra, Geometry, Botany,* each 100 ; English Gram- mar and Rhetoric, Arithmetic and Mensuration, each 150. Any candidate who obtains one-third of the mark, in eacb subject and one-half (67 per cent, for honors), of the aggregate marks shall be considered as having passed the Public School Leaving examination ; provided, also, that a candidate who fails on one or more subjects may, if he makes cousiderably more than Mty percent, on thetot.rks on each Entrance examination subject. "Instead of Botany, Physiolo^py and Temperance will be required in WM. 272 APPENDIX. HIGH SCHOOLS AND COLLEGIATE INSTITUTES. AOOOMMODATIOMS AND EQUIPMENT. SO* The plans of every High School hereafter erected, and the plans and site of every High School hereafter established, shall be subject to the approval of the Minister of Education. In all High Schools established since July, 1891, or to be hereafter established, there shall be a principal and at least two assistants. No new High School shall be entitled to receive any grant that does not provide at least the amount fixed by the instructions of the Minister of '"lucation with regard to accommodation and the equipment re- quL'ed as the maximum in distributing the Legislative grant to schools with two masters. 31* Any High School may be raised to the status of a Collegiate Institute when it is shown to the satisfaction of the Education De- partment that ^he trustees have provided : (a) adequate school buildings ; (6) equipment of the value and character required as the maximum in the case of High Schools with three or more masters ; (c) four specialists, viz., one in Classics, one in Mathematics, one in Science^ one in Modern Languages including English (one of whom or some other member of the staff being also a commercial special- ist) ; and (d) such other Assistants as will secure thorough in- struction in all the subjects of the High School course as far as Senior Matriculation into the University of Toronto. A Collegiate Institute may be reduced to the rank of a High School on the joint report of the Hifr\ School Inspectors, approved by the Education Department. 3^. Every High School that complies with the Regulations of the Education Department shall be entitled to the following grants : (a) a fixed grant of $375 ; (h) in respect of school accomntodation, a maximum of $100 in the case of High Schools with two masters and of $160 in the case of High Schools with three or more masters ; (c) in respect of equipment, ten per jent. of the <-ocal approved ex- penditure but so as not to exceed $110 in the «}ase of High Schools with two masters or $220 L the case of High Schools with three or more masters ; (d) in respect of salaries ten per cent, of the expen- diture over $1,500 but so as not to exceed $600 in any case ;(e) such amount pr9 rata in respect oi average attendance as may remain unexpended of the grant. I ( APPENDIX. 273 33* Every CoUegiata Institute that complies with the Regula- tions of the Education Department shall be entitled : (a) to a fixed grant of $375 ; (b) to a grant in lespect of equipment of f276 ; (c) to a grant in respect of school accommodation of $200 ; (d) to 10 per cent, of the expenditure on salaries over $1,600, but so as not to exceed $600 ; and (e) to a grant on the basis of average attendance out of any unexpended balance of the Legislative grant. 34* In appropriating the Legislative grant on equipment, the maximum recognized in the case of High Schools with two masters shall be as follows : Library, $300 ; Physical and Chemical Appara- tus, $300 ; Maps and Globes, $50, and models for Drawing, $50 ; Gymnasium, not including equipment, $400. In tixe case of Colle- giate Institutes and High Schools with three masters the maximum recognized shall be : Library, $600 ; Physical and Chemical Appara- tus, $600 ; Maps and Globes, $100, and models for Drawing, $100 ; Gymnasium, not including equipment, $800. 35* When the value of the Library has reached the maximum herein recognized, ten per cent, of the annual expenditure by the High School Board on supplemental reading in English Literature v/ill be allowed. The catalogue of the equipment shall be kept by the Principal of the School, and shall be acce!?sible to any officer of the Education Department. The instructions of the Minister of Education in the matter of grading shall be followed in appropriat- ing the grant for buildings and premises. On the report of a High School Inspector, such reductions may be made in the grants pay- able upon the salaries of the staff, and the character and equipment of the school buildings and their appendages, as the Minister of Education may deem expedient. HIGH SCHOOL OROANIZATION. 36*- In every High School or Collegiate Institute the head teacher shall be called the Principal, and the other teachers Assist- ants. The authority of the Principal of the High School shall be supreme as to all matters of discipline on the school premises, where the Public and High School occupy the same building. The pro- visions of the Public Schools Act, 1896, Section 76,* and the regula- tions of the Education Department with respect to the duties of 4 t^ who has not passed the exan Kindergartens ; and no person bi ai tor teaching tinder a Director who he. prescribed for Directors or assistant teachers. No person shall be admitted to the course of training prescribed for assistants who is not seventeen years of age and who has not Primary standing, or who has not spent at least three years in a High School. Any per- son who has not taken the equivalent of such a course at some other educational institution may, on the recommendation of the Inspector, be admitted to training with the consent of the Minister of Education. No person shall be admitted to the course prescribed for a Director unless such person has obtained an Assistant's certificate. 55* Any person who attends a Kindergarten for one year and passes the examinations prescribed by the Education Department shall be entitled to an Assistant's certificate. The holder of an Assistant's certificate, or the holder of a second-class Provincial certificate shall, on attending a Provincial Kindergarten one year and on passing the prescribed examinations, be entitled to a Director's certificate. 56* The examination for Directors shall include Psychology and the General Principles of Froebel's System ; History of Education ; Theory and Practice of the Gifts and Occupations ; Mutter and Kose-Lieder ; Botany and Natural History ; Miscellaneous Topics, including discipline and methods of morning talks, each 100 ; Prac- tical Teaching, 600 ; Book- work, 400. There shall also be a sessional examination in Music, Drawing and Physical Culture to be reported by the Principal to the Examiners at the final examination. The examination for Assistants shall include the Theory and Practice of the Gifts (two papers) ; Theory and Practice of the Occupations (one paper) ; Miscellaneous Topics, including the General Prindples of Froebel's System and their application to songs and games, ele* if.- IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) K//^^-"^^ A 4^ ^ 1.0 1.1 11.25 I U£ |2-0 Riotagiaphic Scisices Corporalion ri>^ \ ;V s> v 4^ ^\ 23 WIST MAIN STHIT WnSTIR,N.Y. U5M (716)S72-4503 o^ 280 APPENDIX. mentary Mienoe, mcrning talks and discipline (one pliper) eacL paper, 100 ; Book- work, 400. Any Director sending up candidates to the examination for Assistants' certificates shall certify that the FdtMW-work and Modelling have been satisfactorily completed. COUNTY AND CITY MODEL SCHOOLS. 5T* The Board of Examiners for every County shall, and the trustees of any city may, with the approval of the Minister of Education, set apart at least one Public School for the professional training of third-class teachers. The Principal of such school shall be the holder of a first-class certificato from the Education Depart- ment and shall have at least three years' experience as a Public School teacher. Jn every Model School there shall be at least three assistants on the staff who shall be the holders of first or second- class certificates. The County Board of Examiners shall distribute the teachers in training among the County Model Schools as may be deemed expt^dient. , , 58* The Model 3chool term shall bef^in on the second of Sep- tember and shall close on the fifteenth day of December. During the term the Principal of the Public School to which the Model School > attached shall be relieved of all Public School duties excoT/C the management and supervision of the Public School. The assi itants shall give such instruction to the teachers in training as may be reo^uired by the Principal or by the regulations of the Edu- cation Department. There shall be a room for the exclusive use of the teachers in training either in the Public School buildings or elsewhere equally convenient. 59. Application for admission to a Model School shall be made to the Lispector not later than the twenty-fifth of August. Any person who has Primary or a higher standing, or who is considered eligible by the Board of Examiners for a District certificate and who will be eighteen years of age bdfore the close of the term may be admitted as a teacher in training. The teachers in training shall be subject to the discipline of the Principal with an appeal in case of diE,pute to the Chairman of the County Board ;>! Examiners. Boards of Trustees may impose a tuition fee, not exceeding |6, on each teacher in training. 60* The course of study in Model Schools shall consist of instruc- tion in School Management, to be valued for examination purposes APPENDIX. 281 at 100 ; instruotion in the Soienoe of Education, 100 ; instraotion in the best methods of teaching all the subjects on the Public School Course of Study (two papers), 100 each ; instruction in the School Law and Regulations so far as they relate to the duties of teachers and pupils, '^ instruction in P?hool Hygiene, Music and Physical Culture, 60 each ; and such practice in teaching as will cultivate correct methods of presenting subjects to a class and develop the art of school government. The final examination of the Education Department will be limited to School Management, the Sdence of Education, Methods, School Hygiene, and the School Iaw and Regulations. 61* The Principal of the School shall submit to the Board of Examiners a report with respect to the standing of every teacher in training, having regard to his conduct during the Session, his apti- tude as a teacher, his powers of discipline and government in the school room and such other qualities as in the opinion of the Principal are necessary to a successful teacher. The Principal shall also report the standing of each teacher in training in the lubjects of Hygiene, Music and Physical Culture as determined by at least one Sessional examination. These reports shall be consid- ered by the Board of Examiners at the final examination in estimat- ing the standing of the candidates for a certificate in all oases of doubt. 6!S« During the last week of the Session the County Board ot Examiners shall require each teacher in training to teach in the presence of such members of the Bos.rd as may be appointed for that purpose, two lessons of tweuty minutes each^ one of which shall be assigned by the presiding examiner one day before, and the other forty minutes before it is to be taught. Each lesson shall be valued at 100, shall be appraised by different examiners and shall not be taught in the same form nor on the same subject. The Board of Examiners shall also submit the candidates to a practical test of their ability to place upon the blackboard with neatness and despatch any exercise for pupils they may deem expedient. The time allowed for such a test shall not exceed ten minutes and the valuation 60. 63> Any teacher in training having Primary standing who *8«e pages 267 and SflC, 282 APPENDIX. obtoins forty per oent. of the marki aiBigned to esoh subleot (inolttdiiig tirftctioal teaohing), and tixty per oent. of the aggregate* ahall be awarded a third-olaia oertiflcate valid for three years. At the request of thto Oounty Board and with the permission of the Minister of Bdueation, a eertifioate for a shorter period and ralid only within the jurisdiotion of the Gounty Board, to be known as a IMstrict certificate, may be awarded to teachers in training who obtain a lower percentage or to such other persons whose nan>prO'' fessional standing wotdd entitle them only to District certificates. The Bojurd may reject any candidate whose scholarship appears to be defective. The decision of the Board with respect to the exam* ination shall be finaL DISTRICT MODEL SCHOOLS. 64. The Minister of Education may set apart two Public Schools in the Bistricts of Thunder Bay, Algoma, Parry Sound and Nipissing as Model Schools for candidates for District certificates. No school shall rank as a District Model School unless the teaching staff consists of at least three teachers, viz. : a Principal holding a first-class certificate and at least one of his assistants holding a seoond'Olass certificate. Teachers in training at District Schools shall take the course of study and it final examinations pre- scribed for Public School Leaving er ations. Candidates for teachers' certificates at the District liKtGiel School Examinations shall be at least eighteen years of age, and shall take such a course of professional training in the subjects prescribed for County Model Schools as the Inspector of the District may direct. 65* In cities and counties where the French or Oerman language prevails, the Board of Examiners, with the approval of the Education Department, may establish a Model School for the training of teachers of French or German origin ; such schools shall hold one term each year, viz. : From the first of September to the first of July. The course of study shall be the non-pro- fessional course required for a Public School Leaving certificate and the professional course required for a County Model School. The examination in English shall be conducted on the papers pre- scribed for the Public School Leaving certificate. The examina- tion in French or German shall be limited to Beading, Grammar, and Composition, and may be both oral and written. The papers APPINDIX in French Mid German shall be prepared hj the Board of Exani' ineti. The Board may submit the teachers in training to suoh all examination on the professional course as it dtems expedient. < ; PROVINGIAL NORMAL AND MODEL SCHOOLS. WL There shall be two Sessions of the Normal School each year ; the first Session shall open on the third Tuesday in January and the second Session on the third Tuesday in August. The Sessions shall close in June and December at such dates as may be determined by the Minister of Education. Any teacher who has at least Junior Leaving standing, and who has taught a Publio School successfully for one year, or who, after passing the County Model School examination, has taught under the supervision of the Inspector of a city having a city Model school, six months there* after, may be admitted as a Normal School student. 67* Before being registered, every student admitted to a Nor- mal School shall be examined, in writing or orally, by the Normal School masters upon the books prescribed for the calendar year as the reading course for teachers. Any teacher may be refused idgistration whoae examination does not show a thorough acquaint- ance with such reading course. The course of study after admis* sion shall be limited and valued for examination purposes as fol- lows !— 'Psychology and Science of Education, 200 ; History of Education and School Management, each 160 ; Methods of Teach- ing (four papers), each paper 100 ; Practice Teaching in the Model School, 400. 68* The Principal of the Normal School shall be responsible for tiie discipline and management of the teachers in training. He shall prescribe the duties of the staff subject to the approval of the Minister of Education ; he shall cause Sessional examina- tions to be held in Temperance, Agriculture, Reading, Writing, Drawing, Music and Physical Culture, each valued at 50 marks, and shall keep a record of the same. The staff shall carry cut the instructions of the Principal with regard to discipline, mauiage* ment, methods of study and all matters affecting the efficiency of the Normal School and the progress of the teachers in training. Teachers in training shall attend regulu'ly and punctually tiiroi^hout the Session, and shall submit to suoh discipline and direction as may be prescribed by the Principal They thtJl lodge 284 APPENDIX. il- and board at suoh houses only as are approved by the Principal. Ladies and gentlemen shall not board at the same house, and shall have no oommunioation with one another except by permission of the Principal or one of the masters. Y0« Teaohras in training shall take a written examination towards the end of each Session, to be conducted by the staff, cover- ing every subject on the course of study. The standing of candidates at this examination shall be added to the marks prescribed for the final examination. At the close of each Session candidates shall submit to a written examination conducted by the Education De- partment. The examiners shall have povrer to reject any candidate who shows deficiency of scholarship. 71, An examination in practical teaching, to be conducted accord- ing to the instructions of the Minister of Education, shall be required of every teacher in training. This examination shall be valued at 200 marks. Any candidate who obtains 34 per cent, of the marks in each subject of the written examinations (the Sessional and final written examination being taken jointly), and 34 per cent, of the marks in teaching (the report of the staff and the report of the spe- cial examiners being taken jointly), and 60 per cent, of the aggre- gate marks shall be entitled to pass standing. Candidates making 75 per cent, of the aggregate marks shall be awarded honors. tit* The terms of the Provincial Model School shall correspond with the Public School terms in cities. The hours of study shtdl be from 9.30 a.m. to 12 a.m., and 1.30 p.m. to 3.30 p.m. The regula- tions of the Education Department with regard to pupils and teach- ers in Public Schools shall apply to the teaching staff and to pupils of the Model School, subject to any modifications that may be made by the Minister of Education from time to time. 73* The Head Master and Head Mistress of each Model School and the Director of the Provincial Kindergarten shall act under the direction of the Principal of the Normal School to which their respective departments are attached, and shall be responsible to him for the order, discipline and progress of the pupils, and for the accuracy and usefulness of the lessons conducted by the teachers in training. All members of the teaching staff shall report themselves Ua duty to the Principal of the Normal School not later than one day before the reopening of the school after the Easter, Midsnm- merand Christmas vacations. v. ., . ; .^ i^^ 7' APPENDIX. ' . . ONTARIO NORMAL GOLLEOB. 285 II 74* The Ontario Normal College shall open each year on the lat of October and dose on the 31st of May. Any person who has Senior Leaving standing, or who is a graduate in Arts of any iini> versity in the British Dominions, and who will be eighteen yean of age before the close of the College year may be admitted as a teacher in training on application to the Minister of Education on or before the Ifith of September. 75. The Course of Study shall consist of lectures on Psychology, the History of Educational Systems, the Science of Education, the best methods of teaching each subject on the High School course of study, School Management; instruction in Beading, School Hy- giene, Writing, Drawing, Stenography, Physical Culture ; practice teaching, and such other subjects as may be preeoribed by the Minister of Education. The marks allowed for examination pur- poses shall be as follows : Psychology and Science of Education, each 200 ; History of Education, School Management, Methods in English, in Mathematics, in Science, in Classics, and in French and (German, each 150. Y6« Teachers in training shall lodge in such houses only as are approved by the Principal ; ladies and gentlemen shall not board in the same house, nor shall they mingle together in the class-rooms or in the halls of the Normal College. They shall attend regularly and punctually upon lectures, and shall submit to the rules of the College with regard to discipline, or any other matter required by the Principal, and shall undertake such practice teaching as may be prescribed by the Minister of Education. It. The Principal shall be responsible for the organization and management of the College and for the discipline of the teachers in training. He shall prescribe the duties of his staff, and shall firom time to time be present at their instruction and at the practice teaching of the teachers in training. He shall report the sessional examinations to the Education Department on the forms prescribed by the Minister of Education, and shall make in addition such observations with respect to the conduct of each teacher in training and his aptitude as a teacher as he may deem expedient. 78* Each Lecturer shall explain and illustrate the beet method of dealing with each branch oi his department as it should be taught 286 AFFBNDIX. in the different Fonns of a High or Public School, and shall, aa far as possible, explain and justify his methods on scientific principles, giving model lessons for classes in different stages of advancement. He shall keep a record of the practice teaching of each teacher in training, and shall report to the Principal from time to time any breach of discipline or any irregularity on the part of the teachers in training or any other matter that comes to his notice which may affect the yroxk of the C!ollege. ' /^ 79* Teachers in training shall take two written examinations during the Session, vis., one in December and the other in March, and such oral examinations as may be considered necessary for test* ing their knowledge of methods and thoir teaching ability. These examinations shall be conducted by the staff of the College ; the number of papers at the sessional examinations and the value of the marks in each subject shall be the same as are prescribed for the final written examination. Ko teacher in training shall be recom- mended to pass by the Examiners who has made less than 34 per cent, of the marks at the sessional examinations (fifty marks being the maximum for each) in Reading, Writing, Drawing, or Physical Culture. Any candidate who obtains 34 per cent, of the marks in each subject of the examinations (the sessional and final written examinations being taken jointly), and 50 per cent, of the aggregate marks, shall be entitled to pass standing. Candidates making seventy-five per cent, of the aggregate marks shall be awarded honors. 80* At the end of May in each year the teachers in training shall submit to an examination conducted by the Education Department. Any candidate who obtains the required star ding in Psychology, the Science of Education, the History of Education, School Management, Methods in Mathematics, Method&i in English, Methods in Latin, Methods in Elementary Science (the Primary course in Botany and Physics) and Methods in one of the following groups, viz. : (a) Greek, or (b) French and German, or (c) Chemistry, Physics and Biology, shall be entitled to a Normal College Interim certificate. The holder of a Specialist's non-professional oertifloate in any of the courses recognized by the Education Department, who passes the final .examination (including methods in the subjects of his non-professional certificate) shall be entitled to a Normal College Interim Specialist's certificate in the subjects of bia non* professional Specialist's course. ^ i-: ▲PPBNDIZ. TEACHERS' OBRTIFICATB& 287 9S« The MiniBter of Education may iiurae oertifioatea on the report of the Educational Council or the Edncation Department, as follows, vis. , any penon who attendi a Public Kindergarten for -^ iPPBNDIX. 289 pnpUi. He ihdl report to the Miniiter of Ednoation ukj violaUon of the Sohooli Act or the ReguUtions of the Ednoation Depertment in referenoe to the oUm of sohooli for which he ia Inepeotor. the the and the the the TEAOHBBS' INSTITUTES. 91* Every Teachers' Institute shall have one meeting each year on a Friday and Saturday to be named by the Management Com* mittee. The County Council may allow Thursday to be taken also if considered expedient. The Institute shall hold two sittings per day, of three hours each, for at least two days, and one evening sit- ting. All questions and discussions, foreign to the teachers' work, shall be avoided. The officers of the Institute shall be a President, Vice-President and Secretary-Treasurer. There shall be a Manage- ment Committee of five persons, to be appointed by the members of the Institute. The officers and the Management Committee shall be elected annually. 99» The Inspector shall furnish the Secretary of the Institute with a list of the teachers in his County or inspectoral division. Every Public School teacher shall attend continuously all the sessions of the Institute of his County or inspectoral division, and shall answer to the calling of the roll at the opening and doaing of each session. A report of the sessions attended by each teacher shall be sent by the Secretary to the Board of Trustees employing such teacher. TEACHERS' BEADING COURSE. 03o The Minister of Education may prescribe a Course of Read- ing for the teachers of Public Schools. The Course shall extend over three years and certificates for reading mcnre than three books in one year shall not be granted by the Inspector. For the pur- poses of the Course the year shall correspond with the calendar year. A teacher may enter on the Course by taking any of the books prescribed for the year. The list of books for each year will be announced by the Education Department. 94* Any teacher who desires a certificate of having taken the Public School Teachers' Reading Course shall make a synopsis of not less than ten or more than fifteen pages of each book read, and shall transmit the same to the Inspector of his district on at before the 90th of June in each year. Such synopsis shall be accompanied 19 190 APPENDIX. bj a Im of twenty-five oente and • deolention that the books prai coribed for the year were read and that the eynopeie rabmitted wae prepared without auiatanoe by the person signing the same. 9S. The Management Committee of eaoh Teaohers' Institute shall appoint two persons, who with the Inspector shall form a Gommittee for determining whether the synopsis made by the teaoher desiring a oertifioate indicates that the books have be«n read intelligently. The Inspector shall issue a certificate for eaoh book so read, on the form prescribed by the Minister of Education to every teacher whose synopsis has been found satisfactory. If a teaoher is unable to read all the books prescribed for the year or if his synopsis of any book has been rejected, he may subsUtute the books of the next year for those omitted or rejected. 96* Any teacher who submits to the Education Department certificates showing that he has satisfactorily read nine of the books prescribed, shall be entitled to receive from the Minister of Education a Diploma certifying to the completion of one full read- ing course covering three years. Additional Diplomas shall be awarded to teaohers who complete additional courses of three years. , , RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION.* 07. Every Public and High School shall be opened with the Lord's Prayer and closed with the reading of the Scriptures and the Lord's Prayer, or the prayer authorized by the Department of Education. When a teacher claims to have conscientious scruples in regard to opening or closing the school as herein prescribed, he shall notify the Trustees to that eflfect in writing ; and it shall be the duty of the Trustees to make such provision in the premises as they may deem expedient. 98* The Scriptures shall be read daily and systematically, with' out comment or explanation ; the portions used may be taken from the book of selections adopted by the Department for that purpose, or from the Bible, as the Trustees, by resolution, may direct. Trustees may also order the reading of the Bible or the anthori^ed Sciripture Selectians by both pupils and teachers at the opening and dosing of the school, and the repeating of the Ten Commandments at least once a week. * Consult Chapter lY. APPENDIX. m M. No papll ihaU be raquirtd to toko port in oaj rtUgkraa oxeroiie objeoted to by hii porentu or gnoitUoiM, ond in ordor to the obiemnoo of this rogulotion, tho tooohor, befoso oommoneing a religioua exeroise, ii to allow a short interval to elapse, during whioh the ohildren of Roman Oatholios, and of others who have signified their objection, may retire. If in virtue of the right to be abssot from the religious exercises, any pupil does not enter the school-room till the close of the time allowed for religious instruo- tion« suoh absence shall not be treated as an offsnoe against the rules of the schooL 100. The clergy of any denomination, or their authorised repre- senUtives, shall have the right to give religious instruotlon to the pupils of their own church, in each school'houso, at least coco a week, after the hour of closing the school in the afternoon ; and if the clergy of more than one denomination apply to give religious instruction in the same school-house, the Board of Trustees shall deoido on what day of the week the snhool-honse shall be at the disposal of the clergymen of eaoh denomination, at the time above SMted. But it shall be lawful for the Board of Tmsteea to allow a clergyman of any denomination, or Us authorised representative, to give religious instruction to the pupils of his own ohnroh provid- ing it be not during the regular hours of the sohooL Emblems of a denominational character shall not be exhibited in a Public School during regular school hours. SOHBDULB A.^PUBLIO SCHOOL 00UR8ES OF STUD7. Form L ■ .. -,..;.. ^. -' i^eodin^— The use of the Tablets and Parts L and U. of the First Reader. ,c * > Spelling. — Spelling from dictation and orally. fFr»<«nijr. ^Writing &om bhu)kboard copies. C'flograpAy.— Conversations respecting the OKtb ; its divisions of land and water ; its plants and animals ; explanation of any refer- ^ice to places in the reading lessons. Bngli$h Language— OraX exercises in language ; oorreotion of mit* takes in oonvorsatiun. 'U • -iriV ;)'. 292 APPENDIX. ilrMmetie.— Notation and Numerafcion to 1,000; addition and ittbteaotaon; mental arithmetia Drawing. — ^The exercises in First Reader and blackboard ezer* oiaes. ^ Murie. — Bote singing. FoBM n. Reading. — ^The Second Reader; easy questions on the literature of every lesson. /Spelling.— Oni. spelling, and dictation on slates and paper; black- board exercises. Wntiiig^—Copj Books Noa. 1 and 2. Qeography. — Local geography and elementary definitions; map of the world; map geography of all places referred to in reading lessons. English Loftguage. — Oral and written exercises in language and composition; correction of mistakes in conversation. ilrt 512, musical, A » 870 ; intervals ; harmonic scale ; diatonic scale ; equally tempered scale ; vibration of air in open and dosed tubes, with wave-lengths; rescmators; nodes and loops; vibration of strings and wir^; reflection of sound ; manometrio flames. Light.— Rectilinear pro> pagation ; image through a pin-holo ; beam ; pencil ; photometry ; shadow and grease-spot photometers ; reflection and scattering of light ; laws of reflection ; images in 'giain mirrors ; multiple images in inclined mirrors; concave and convex mirrors; drawing images ; refraction ; laws and index of refraction ; total reflexion ; path through a prism ; lenses ; drawing image produced by a lens ; simple microsQppe ; dispersion and color ; spectrum ; reoomposition of white Ught. Botany. — The practical study of representatives of the flowering plants of the locality and representatives of the chief subdivisions of cryptogams, snch^as a fern, a lycopod, a horse-tail, a liverwort, a moss, a lichen, a mushroom and a chara. The drawing and description of parts of plants and classification. Comparison of diffiorent organs, morphology of root, stem, leaves and hair, parts of the flower, reproduction oi flowering plants, pollination, fertiliza- tion, and the nature of fruit and seeds. At the examination two plants to be selected by the presiding examiner will be submitted, BOSTATi08.~Fluid pressure at a point ; pressure on a horiaontal plane; pressure on an inclined plane; resultant vertical pressure, and resultant horiaontal pressure, when fluid is Under air pressure and when not ; transmission of pressure ; Bramah's press ; equilibrium of liquids of unequal density in a bent tube : the barometer ; air pump ; water pump, common and force ; siphon. ELECfFBioiTY. — Voltaic cells, common kinds; ohemical action in the cell ; magnetic effects of the current voltameter ; astatic and tangent galvanometon ; simple notions of potential ; Ohm's law, with units, best arrangement of cells ; electric light, arc and incandescent ; magnetism ; inclination and declination of compass ; ouirent induction ; induction coil ; dynamo and motor ; electric bell ; telegraph ; telephone ; electro-plating. Sound. >-Gaused by vibratimia; illustration of vibrations, pendulums, rods, strings, membranes, plates, columns of air; propagated by waves; its velocity ; determination of velocity ; pitch ; standard forks, aoousti fi^ Cmins. m win^i . A«fl7Q # int«rv&!s ; harmonic le ; diatonic m> A^ENDIX. floale ; equally tempered scale ; vibration of air in open and <4oMd tubes, with wave lengths ; resonators ; nodes and loops ; vibration of strings and wires ; refleotion of sound ; manometric flames. — Light. — Rectilinear propagation : image through a pin-hole ; beam ; pencil ; photometry ; shadow and groase-spot photometers ; refleo* tioQ and scattering of light ; laws of refleotion ; images in plain mirrors ; multiple images in inclined mirrors ; concave and convex mirrors ; drawing images ; refraction ; laws and index of refraction ; total reflection ; path through a prism ; lenses ; drawing image produced by a lens ; simple microscope ; dispersion and oolor ; spectrum ; recompouition of white light. Chemistry. — Chemical theory. The practical study oi the follow- ing elements, with their most characteristic compounds, in illustra- tion of Mendelejeff's classification of the elements. Hydrogen ; Sc 'ium ; Potassium ; Magnesium, Zinc ; Calcium ; Strontium ; Barium ; Boroto, Aluminum ; Carbon, Silicon, Tin, Lead ; Nitrogen ; Phosphorus ; Arsenic ; Antimony, Bismuth ; Oxygen, Sulphur ; Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine ; Manganese, Iron. Elemen- tary Qualitative Analysis. At the examination in Practical Chemistry for Form lY . the material for determination shall be sent from the Education Department, and shall consist of one pure simple salt. In the qualitative analysis of this salt the candidates shall not be allowed the use of text-books, analytical, tables, notes, or charts. Places shall be allotted to the candidates so that each one shall be at least ten feet away from any other candidate. Each candidate shall have exclusive use of one set of reagents, apparatus and lamp, while at work. If the number of candidates should ex- ceed the accommodations of the laboratory, the candidates shall be examined in sections. Biology. — ^Eubhbntsof Zoologt.— Thorough examination of the external form, the gills and the viscera of some common fish. Study the prepar^ skeleton of the same. Demonstration of the arrangement of the muscular and nervous systems and the sense organs, as far as these can be studied without the aid of a micro- scope. Comparison of the structure of the frug with that of the fish. The skeleton of the pectoral and pelvic girdles, and of the ap- pendages of the frog, and the observation of the chief facts in the development of its spawn, till the adult form is attained. Ex- amination - APPENDIX. 801 of tht itrnotnre of » pigeon or » fowl Study of the ikeletoii and alio of the teeth and visoera of a oat or dog. Study of the orayflsh aa a type of the Arthropods. Comparison of the crayfish with an insect (grasshopper, cricket or cockroach), also with a millipede and a spider. Examination of an earthworm and a leech. Study of a fresh-water mussel and a pond snaiL The principles oi zoological nomenclature as illustrated by some of the common fresh-water fish, such as the sucker and herring, bass and perch. Study of an amoeba or paramoeoium as a type of a unicellular animal. The modifications of the form of the body in vertebrates in connection with di£Ferent methods of locomotion. Elbmbnts or BoTANT.— The practical study of representatives of the flowering plants of the locality in which the school is situated, and repre- sentatives of the chief subdivisions of cryptogams, such as a fern, a lycopod, a horsetail, a liverwort, a moss, a lichen, a mushroom and a phara. An elementary knowledge of the microscopic structure of the Bean and Maize. The drawing and description of parts of plants and classification. Comparison of different organs, mor- phology of root, stem, leaves %nd hair, parts of the flower, repro- duction of flowering plants, pollination, fertilization and the nature of fruit and seeds. The material for examination will consist of two plants, a microscopic section and an animal. The plant de- signated "A" is to be identified by means of the flora. Twenty minutes shall be allowed for this operation. The text-books shall then be taken from the candidates and the paper with the plant designated " B," the animal and the microscope section distributed. Each candidate is to be allowed the use of a compound microscope during the second period. The material for this examination will be sent from the Education Department. OOHMKBOIAL DIPLOMA OOUBSI. The course shall consist of book-keeping, business forms an^ usages and stenography. Book-keeping shaU be taken in six sets aa follows : Set. I. shall show transactions extending over a period of two months ; the transactions of the first month being done by Single Entry, and of the second by Double Entry, and showing the change from Single to Double Entry. Books to be used : Day Book (1st I'v aos ▲PPINOnL moBtb), JooRwl Day Book (2acl month), Gash Book, Bill Book, and Ltdftr. Sti Jl. Tho trftOMctlooi ilwU be the same m for Set L } ihoM of the first month being done by Doable Entry, end of the Mcood month by Single Bntry, and showing the ohange from Double Entry to Single Bntry. Booke to be uaed t Four Column Journal with ipeoial oolumna for Mdae. Purchaaea and Salea (lit month), Day Book (2nd month), Caah Book, Bill Book, and Ledger. Sit. III. A Double Entry set with two partners. Books to be uaed t Journal Day Book with a speoial oolumn for Mdse. Salea, Cuh Book, Invoice Book, Bill Book and Ledger, the first three aa books of original entry. 8tt IV. A Double Bntry set ; a continuation of Set. III., the posting being done in the same Ledger. A third partner shall be admitted, and the transactions shall include shipments and oonsigik* ments. Books to be used ! Journal Day Book, Oash Book, Invoice Book, Sales Book, Bill Book and Ledger, the first four as books of original entry. Sit V. A Double Entry Set } a continu.:.iOn of Set IV., the post- ing being done in a new ledger. A fourth partner shall be admitted, and the transactions shall include wholesale merchandising, ship- ment oompsoies, and merchandise companies. Books to be used : the lame as for Set IV. Sit VI. A set in Manufacturing. Books to be used: Journal Day Book, witi a speoial oolumn for Mdse. Sales, Cash Book, Time Book, and Ledger. The Gash Book shall be a book of original entry in all of the liouble Entry sets, various speoial columns being used in the different sets. A monthly Trial Balance shall be made in connec- tion with Sets in., rV., and V., and Statements of Resources and Liabilities, and of Losses and Gains for all of the, Sets. The trans- actions in the different sets shall be different from year to year. The sets may reour triennially, and shall consist of not less than 20 pages of foolscap. The book-keeping sets of pupils who write at the examination for a Commercial Certificate shall be sent, pre-paid, to the Education Department, with the examination papers ai^d shall be certified by the teacher to be the work of the candidate. fimnm Fonm and 27«aiJfM.>r Negotiable papers promiiimnr APPBNDIX. 808 notes ; tpeoial notes ; bills of exchange ; Moeptanoe ; negoti*tion of bills, notes; cheques; collection of accounts, discharge and dishonor ; special forms of due bills and orders ; accounts, inroioes and statements ; interest ; partnerships ; receipts and re l eases ; banking ; and commercial correspondence. SUiKogrt^hy,— At the examination in dictation in stenography, the candidate shall be required to have attained the rate of fifty words per minute. He shall also be required to transcribe his work into longhand at the rate of twelve words per minute. The dictated matter shall consist of business letters and le|^ documents. ■*?»■ • ./■■ 5- ;• rt' ,■/,■•' * ,i . »;»hi.' •'!- • ■i . r t K ■( ff INDEX. f Abttimot, Concrete to, 217. AbuM— Of corporal puniihment, 148, 149. Of questioning, 221. Accuracy, 72, 78, 87, 104. iiitlo " ^tv,; Adler, 64. By. Acquisition of knowledge, 32. Activity, 36, 81, 83, trledge, ), 122. aesthetics, 20, 86, 108. Agreements of teachers, 260. Air, pure, 22. Aim. 0, 88, 186, 226. Aim of discipline, 103. Altruism, 67, 80. Ambition, commendable, 244. Analytic methods, 200. Anger, 136, 137. 149, 160. Answers to quostions, 284, 236, 247. Approbation, 120. Approval of self, 124. Arbitrary punishments, 133. Arbor Day, 20, 266. Aristotle, 16. Arithmetic, 73. Arnold, Dr., 63, 87, 93. Arrangement, 82, 86, 206, 266. Artifioal incentives, 114. Assimilation, 33, 248. Assistants, 106, 107, 264. 274 Assistance from pupils, 111. Athletics, 27, 29. Attendance, regularity of, 81. Attention, 36, 204, 210. Authorized books, 261. Authority, 86, 106, 139. Auxiliary meliiods, 202. Bible, 46, 47. 63, 66, 67, 61, 70, 72. Bifun^tr/i'ion, 176. Biogrt>phy. 72. Bookkeepinff, 278. 294, 302. Book knowledge, 194. 204, 302. "Breaking the wUl," 91. Building, school, 21, 264, ^^72. . Browne, Oriohton, 139. Business success, 124. Calisthenics, 30, T Oatechism, instruction in, 46. Catechetical methods, 227. • Categorical questions, 226. Censure, 141. Central schools, district, 160. Certain, punishments to be, 136. Certificates, 260, 276, 287. Character building. 76-01. Character of tea(£er, 62, 75, 90, 101, 260. Charges against the school, 69. Charges against examinations, 248. Cheating, 88. Cheerfumess, 96, 102, 189, 222, 225. Child, the knowledge of, 94, 222. Choice of incentives, 113. Church and State, 46, 48, 69. Church, duty of, 55. Church schools, 46, 61. Churlishness, 89. City Model Schools, 280. n'vicv, 67. CJ'C^^i IB, -juixed, 162. Cltf^ 'fliber of A. * ' Jlv ^, uize of, 161, 162, 275. Classification; 109, 162, 163, 154, 166, 267. 274. Classics, 276. Class questioning, 230. aeanliness, 24, 45, 86, 264, 266. aosets, 24, 264. Coeducatior., 162. Collegiate Institutes, 272. ComUned methods, 233. Commands. 86. 112. IKDIZ. ao6 266. Oomri oroial diplouiA, 274, 278, 801. 1 Oommon-Mruie, 98. | Comparative method, 199. Comparative Bianding, 119. Compayr^ 102. Committee of fifteen, 71, 95, 167. Committee of ten, 170, 170. Competitive examinations, 253. Composition, 41, 276. Concentration, 76, 177, 204, 210, 288. Conception, 36. Concert method, 231. Concrete to abatraot, 217. Conditions of discipline, 105. Conduct, 128. Conscience, 57, 126, 127, 130. Consecutive method, 231. Consequences, discipline of. 137. Contrast method, 109. Continuation classes, 256, 268. Control, 106, 106, 107. Control of self, 90, 105. Conversational method, 197. Go-operation of principal, 106. Co-operation of trustees, 106. Co-operation of parents, 107. Co-ordination, 171, 172. Ciopying, 89, 99. Corporu punishment, 147-161. Correction of en*ors, 234, 247. Correct views needed, 9. Correlation, 171, 172. Country Schools, 167, 158, 166, 178. County Model Schools, 280. Courage, 97, 101. Courses of study, 169, 174, 291, 293. Courtesy, 89. Cowham, 142. Cramming, 26, 33, 248. Criticism of answers, 235. Criticism of Public Schools, 59, 60 ; of examinations, 248. Cruel punishments, 144. Curiosity, 122. Currie, 55, 126, 207. Daily pro|pramme, 176. Ddoorum, 24, 84, 86, 97, 223, 226. Deductive methods, 201. 20 Definiterisss, 186, 206, 210, 224, 235, 246. Deliberate punishments, 134, Demerit marks, 147. Denomiuationai schools. '^ Desires as incentive, 11^ i'Z Detention, 146. Developing methfid, 193. Devices of discipline, ION. Devotional exeroiaeH, 56, '90. IHgresHions, 208, 209, 2v;6. Discipline — Aim ot, 103. Chara teristics of, 104. Conditions of, 106. Devices of, 108. Discipline of consequences, 137- Discussion of methods, 197. Diaobedieuce, 86, 148. DiKhonesty, 88. Disorder, 97, 98, 99, 232. Diet riot Model Schools, 282. Disti ict certificates, 282. DiviHion of work, 166. Draughts, danger of, 22, 23. Drawing, 274. Drill, 30, 213, 274. Duties of teachers, 257. Duties it pupils, 266. Duty, sense of, 127. Edgeworth, 209. Education, 12. Science of, 11. Kinds of, 13. Means >f, 14. Scope o' school, 16. Ends of 76. Educational values, 169. Effective, punishments to be, 136L Elliptical questions, 227. Empirical methods, 192. Emulation, 116. Encouragement, 100, 120, 236. , Energy, 97. Enthusiasm needs good health, 92. Environment, 14, 20, 66, 70, lOti, Envy, 116. Epithets, 144. E^rs in answers, 236, 247. JBaprU de OorpSt 90. 806 INDEX. I i Estimate of teaobers at examina- tions, 248. Ethics, 44, 68-60. 70. Ethical value of studies, 72. EucUd, 41, 73. Examinations- Written, objects of, 237. Advantages of, 238. Training, 241. Promotion, 843. Qualifying. 244. Questions of, 246. Objections to, 248. Competitive. 263. For High Schools, 269, 276. Time of, 242. Effect on teaching, 246. Examination requirements, 276. Standards, 270, 277. Example of teacher, 62, 63, 84. 90. Executive ability, 96. Exemptions, 118. Exerciser, 25, 26, 34. 68, 208. Experience, 96. Expulsion, 144, 269. Fatigue, 25, 250. Fault finding, 99, 102, 146. Fear, 87. First day at school, 167, 168. Fitch, 117, 146, 173, 194, 196. Fixed courses, 174, 274. Flattery, 121. Flexibility of programmes, 174, 175, 178. Forgetfulness, 39. Formal Ethical teaching, 70, 87- Form examinations. 276. Form of questions, 224, Freedom of teacher, 136, 192. French and German. 268, 282. Function of the school, 9, 66. Furniture, 21, 264. Future good, desire of, 126. Games, 29, 276. Gems. 72. Gill, 123. Gilman, 64, 70. Geography, 73. Geometry^41, 73. " liolden Kuie,** 89. Good standing, desire of, 119. Governing power, 60. Grades, 164, 166, 160, 267, 274. Graded schools, 168, 180. Guessing, 223, 236. Gymnastics, 20, 276. Habits, 66, 68, 80, 81. Hall, G. S., 27. Harmony among the staff, 107. Harris, 13, 28, 71. Health, 18. Healthfulness of school site, 20, 263. Heart power, 100. Heating, 22, 264. Heredity, 16, 76, 76, 78, 80. High Schools, 162, 181, 272. High School course of study, 276, 293. History, 72. . Holidays, 261. ' Home work, 25, 180, 187. Honesty, 88. Honor, sense of, 126. ^ Honor, loss of, 140. Huxley, 46, 138. Huntington, 64. Hurry, 33. Hygiene, 19, 281. Ideas and words, 36. Illustrative methods. 200. Imagination, 37. Incentives. 113-128. Incidental moral instruction, 69, 71. IndividuaUty, 16, 76, 209, 261. Individual instruction, 168. Inductive methods, 201. Industry, 83. Injudicious punishments, 144. Inspectors, 288. Intelleotuai development, 32. Instruction, 34, 212. Interest, 205. Interim certifloates, 287. Judicious punishments, 144-147. Just, punishments to be, 136. Junior leaving, 277. INDEX 807 Keeping in, 146. Kindergarten, 154, 160, 279. Kindness, 96, 100, 102. Knowing and doing, 218. Knowledge — Acquisition of, 32. Desire of, 121. Love of, 37. Systematized, 70. Language training, 40, 72. Law, 160, 266-263. Landon, 199, 206, 219, 221, 226. Latham, 263. Lecture method, 196. Lesson programme, 110. Lighting, 23, 264. Literature — Ethical value of, 72. Questions in, 296. Selections in, 283. Limitations of the functions of the school, 16. Locke, 134. Love, 100. Magnetism, 95. Management, school, 9. Manirold classification, 164 Manner of the teacher, 188, 225. Manual training, 81. Mathematics, 73. Matriculation, 246, 272. Marking, 147. •• Marking-time," 159. Maxims, 215-218. Mechanical devices, HI. Mechanical teaching, 11. Memory, 38. Memorizing, 40. Methods of conducting recitations, 185-203. Military drill. 30, 275. Milton, 13. Mixed classes, 162. Misconceptions regarding punish- ments, 132. Monotony, 224. Morale of the school, 90, 126, 132. Moral training, 51, 68, 257. Moral instruotion, 69. Moral oharaoter of teacher, 62, 101. Moral tone to be developed, 132. Moral lecture, abuse of, 129. Motives, 118. McLellan. 88, 217, 221. McLellan and Dewey, 95, 193. Nagging, 146. National Schools, 48, 61, 62. Nature's method, 215. Natural incentives, 114. Natural punishments, 134. Natural science, ethioal value of, 74. Neatness, 85, 263. Normal Ck>llege, 286. Normal Schoools, 288. Notes on lessons, 186. Nob'-rums, 61. Oath, civil, 49. Obedience, 85. Olnectionable methods, 202. Questions, 227. Object lessons, 86. Objections to examinations, 248. Observation, 35. Obstinacy, 91. Opening exercises, 66. Optional courses, 176, 267. Oral illustrations, 200. Oral teaching, 194. Oral tests, 168. Order, 86, 105. Organization, school, 162, 267f 273. OriginaUty, 16, 76, 212, 261. Outbuildings, 24, 264. Outlines of lessons, 185, 186. Over pressure, 25, 28, 33, 248, 250. Questioning, 211, 221. Teaching, 188, 191,209, 229. Page, 148, 196. .r Pa&i, 130. Parables, 72. Parker, F. W., 52. Parochial Schooki, 47. Patriotism, 73. Penalties, 262. Perception, 97. 308 l^DEJL Periods of development, 76. Periods of education, 14, 154. Personality, 62, 222. Personal magnetism, 05. Pestalozzi, 100. Physical attainments, 92. Physical culture, 18-31. Comfort, 108. Exercises, 26, 112. Physiology, 18. 19, 270. Plans, lesson. 185, 186, 187, 192, 208. Plants, house, 23. Plato, 12. Flay, 26-29. Pla^ ground, 20, 263. Politeness, 00. Pow9r, 77, 100. Practical education, 125. Praise, 120. Prayer, 56, 290. Preparation — By teacher, 185. By pupils, 187. Prerequisites of teacher, 222. Prescnbed courses of study, 169, 291, 293. Primary standing, 276. Principles of teaching, 204-218. Prizes, 115, 253. Privilege, loss of, 142. I^vileges, 117. Problems, 225, 247. Problem, the reli^ous, 43. Professional qualifications, 94. Programmes of studies, 169, 176, 291, 293. Progression, 214. Prohibitions, 262, 263. Promotions, 160, 167, 243, 258. Promiscuous methods, 232. Public Schools Act, 256. Public School — Course of study, 291. Continuation classes, 256, 268. Leaving examinations, 271. Punctuality, 82. Punishments — Need of, 129. Basis of, 130. finds of, lOU. Punishments — Continued. ' Misconceptions about. 132. Characteristics of, 134. Judicious, 140. Injudicious, 144. Corporal, 147. ' Putnam, 117, 122, 172. Qualifications, the teacher's, 92. Qualifying examinations, 244. Qualities not tested by examina* tions, 252. Question method, 198. Questioning, the art of, 219-236. Quietness, 84. Raub, 119, 125. Readini;, 209, 210, 274. Reasonmg, 41. Rebellion, 98, 148. Rebuke, 98, 141. Recapitulation, 214. Recesses, 28, 181, 267. Recitations, 184. Records, 182. Recreation, 25, 26. Reformatory punishment, 131. Regularity, 81. Reugion, place of, in school, 43-57. Religious instruction, 53, 64, 66, 256,290. Motives, 64, 119. Sanctions, 53, 64. Teaushing, 63. Reporting, 88. Reproduction, 39, 213. Reproof, 140, 141. Rest, 26, 26. Retributive punishments, 130. Reviews, 214. Rewards, 120. Riohter, 28. Ridicule, 141, 144. Right motives, 118. Right, sense of, 126. Rosenkranz, 38, 148. Rules, 86, 112. Rural schools, 157, 165, 178. Salaries of teachers, 164, 269. Sanitary requirements, 2Q-24, 264. tiXDtlX. m Sarcasm, 144. Scholarship of the teacher, 93. School — Fnnotion of, 9. Organization, 162. Programmes, 169. Law, 256. Visitors, 261. Schools — Grades of, 164. Ungraded, 167. Graded, 168. High, 162, 272. Programmes of, 176. Time tables of, 178, 180, 181. Courses of studies of, 291. 293. Denominational, 46. Secular, 44. National, 48, 61, 62. School management, 9. Science of e<" ^ ( ! (U-jLhii^ y((^ \/V\A^. 4^1^ i^'-U^'H'-^-^ ^-^"^ % i Vty^ .-,s-->^ / / ^ 0/ L^^i-C-t'CP-^A'''^ ^ / ^^^^C.'Cxt^fe-'-^-^^^ I ■ •L.6--