IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I '"' IIIIM - iillM m f ■< c IIIIM \\= IM 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 ^ 6" ► v: <9 /}. '^A e. c-l v> a (Pi e- -'*. O A^/ A Vf /A Photograpliic Sciences Corporation ■12 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY 14580 716; 872-4503 CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHIVI/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut canadien de microreproductions historiques Technical and Bibliographic Notes/Notes techniques et bibliographiques The Institute has attempted to obtain the best original copy available for filming. Features of this copy which may be bibliographically unique, which may alter any of the images in the reproduction, or which may significantly change the usual method of filming, are checked below. L'Institut a microfilm^ le meilleur exemplaire qu'il lui a 6t6 possible de se procurer. Les details de cet exemplaire qui sont peut-dtre uniques du point de vue bibliographique, qui peuvent modifier une image reproduite, ou qui peuvent exiger une modification dans la mdthode normale de filmage sont indiquds ci-dessoufi. D Coloured covers/ Couverture de couleur □ Coloured pages/ Pages de couleur □ Covers damaged/ Couverture endommagee D Pages damaged/ Pages endommag6es □ Covers restored and/or laminated/ Couverture restaurde ct/ou pellicul^e □ Pages restored and/or laminated/ Pages restaur^es et/ou pelliculdes D Cover title missing/ Le titre de couverture manque Pages discoloured', stained or foxed/ Pages d6colorees, tachet^es ou piqu^es n Coloured maps/ Cartes g^ographiques en couleur Coloured ink (i.e. other than blue or black)/ Encre de couleur (i.e. autre que bleue ou noire) □Pages detached/ Pages detachees Showthrough/ Transparence ^ D Coloured plates and/or illustrations/ Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur □ Quality of print varies/ Qualite in^gale de I'impression n Bound with other material/ Relie avec d'autres documents □ Includes supplementary material/ Comprend du materiel supplementaire D D Tight binding may cause shadows or distortion along interior margin/ La reliure serree peut causer de I'ombre ou de la distortion le long de la marge int^rieure Blank leaves added during restoration may appear within the text. Whenever possible, these have been omitted from filming/ II se peut que certaines pages blanches ajout^es lors dune restauration apparaissent dans le texte, mais, lorsque cela 6tait possible, ces pages n'ont pas et^ film^es. n Only edition available/ Seule Edition disponible Pages wholly or partially obscured by errata slips, tissues, etc., have been refilmed to ensure the best possible image/ Les pages totalement ou partiellement obscurcies par un feuillet d'errata, une pelure, etc., ont 6t6 film^es it nouveau de facon d obtenir la meilleure image possible. n Additional comments:/ Commentaires suppl^mentaires; This item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document est filrn^ au taux de reduction indiqu6 ci-dessous. 10X 14X 18X 22X 26X 30X J 12X 16X 20X 24k 28X 32X sils du difier jne )age The copy filmed here has been reproduced thanks to the generosity of: National Library of Canada The images appearing here are the best quality possible considering the condition and legibility of the original copy and in keeping with the filming contract specifications. Original copies in printed paper covers are fiimed beginning with the front cover and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, or the back cover when appropriate. All other original copies are filmed beginning on the first page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impression. L'exemplaire filmd fut reproduit grSce d la g6n6rosit6 de: Bibiioth^que Rationale du Canada Las images suivantes ont 6x6 reproduites avec le plus grand soin, compte tenu de la condition et de la nettet6 de l'exemplaire film6, et en conformity avec les conditions du contrat de filmage. Les exemplaires originaux dont la couverture en papier est imprim6e sont filmds en commenpant par le premier plat et en terminant soit par la dernidre page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration, soit par le second plat, selon le cas. Tous les autres exemplaires originaux sont filmds en commenqant par la premidre page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration et en terminant par la dernidre page qui comporte une telle empreinte. The last recorded frame on each microfiche shall contain the symbol — ♦- (meaning "CON- TINUED "), or the symbol V (meaning "END"), whichever applies. Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method; Un des symboles suivants apparaitra sur la dernidre image de chaque microfiche, seiun le cas: le symbole — ♦- signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbole V signifie "FIN". Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent etre film^s d des taux de reduction diffdrents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour etre reproduit en un seul clich6, il est film6 d partir de Tangle sup6rieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. rata o >elure, 1 2 3 32X 1 2 3 4 5 6 LABRADOR A SKETCH OF ITS PEOPLES, ITS INDUSTRIES AND ITS NATURAL HISTORY, 13 Y WINFRID ALDEN STEARNS. liOSTON : ^^EE AND SIIEl.AKD, 47 FKANKLIN STREET NKW YORK. CIIARLK8 T. DILLIXGIIAM. 1884. rs39s U ST^fifi!^£ bO.fi. 2,95526 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883, BY W. A. STEARNS, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. J Printed at Office of Salem Press, Salem, Mass. PREFACE. 83. ngton. In presenting to the public the following journal sketches of the country of which they treat, the thought that I am writing of a region so new and so little known, though so near to us, together with the pleasure which I have experienced both in my travels and in the preparation of this account of them, will furnish a sufficient excuse for the undertaking. Although so little has been known or written about Labrador, yet it is a region not a thousand miles away from us, and one which bears a most important relation to the fishing interests of this continent. The knowledge of this region, which is within reach of the pub- lic, is to be found only in the pages of an old-fashioned document, of two volumes, now out of print, and almost unknown save to large libraries, entitled "Cartwright's Journal ;" in Hind's "Labrador Peninsula," 2 vols., and in occasional articles in some magazine or newspaper If I have added some new and interesting matter to our present knowledge of this subject, my labors will not have been in vain. My first trip to Labrador was during the summer of 1875, when I collected largely in all the branches of Natural History, and es- pecially in Botany, finding, with the assistance of the Rev. Mr. Butler, the then missionary to this region, many new and rare plants. This number has since liccn enlarged and a catalogue of them, as of collections in several other branches of Natural History, published in the sixth volume of the Report of the National Museum, at Washington. In September, 1 880, I again visited the (iii) iv rREKACE. coast and remained studying the region and collecting until Sep- tember, 1 88 1. During this time I had abundant opportunity for investigation. In the summer of 1882 I made my third trip, starting from lioston with a company of about a dozen fellow- voyagers, and i)roceeded nearly to Harrison Inlet. I would tender most cordial thanks to several of the officers in charge of various posts of the Hudson's Bay Company where I visited, who gave me much help in my investigations : as also the courteous Magistrate at Bonne Esperance, Mr. \Vm. H. Whitcley, with whom I spent a great part of my time while on the coast. Hoping that there may be found enough of value and interest to counterbalance the many too obvious defects, I submit these pages to those who may be interested in such researches. Respectfully, WiNFRiD A. Stearns. Amherst, July 14, 1884. CON T K N T S . Preface Introduction ..'''-■ CHAPTER I. physk:al geography of kegign Surve, or U,..K. - .,_„,r, pH,.cs - .H,.e. ,eo,.p,, CHAPTER H. T, . , , , STARTING ON THE JOURNEY. Trip o Labrador - Arrival at Montreal - Arrival ., n„ , description of the city . 'vrrivui at Quel,cc and CHAPTER HI. •-^'■^^B'^-C TO GREEN ISLAND. Ourstay.n Quebec -Starting for Berthier-Berthier Offr r , rador - Bunking in _ Island of Orlean tT "i ' ^'''■ -^-Sunday-OtHer islands J^S:-::;^-^^^^^^ CHAPTER IV, GREEN ISLAND To TONNH KSPEKANCE <1» .logs - Searching f,„ .,Hf, J,, '"*"'' ' ""■'■'^ ^ '-'-- IA(,E iii 1-7 9-26 27-38 39-51 CHAPTER V. 52-66 nONNE ESPERANCE. '^'I'nancc — hs, uniiaux r ver andish.1,1 r i En.ori„„ «.,„„e Esporancc Harho ^ V J,*:;'; ,"; '^';'-' " 67- 75 VI CONTENTS. I'AGE CHAPTER VI. NATURAL HISTORY : TOPOGRAPHY OF COUNTRY. Raspberries — Weather — liudsonian chickadee and other bir TO LAHRADOR. Third voyage : summer of '82 - Puffin-shooting - Dredging - had weather -Main boom breaks -Chateau and Temple bays - Places of interest - Mines and minerals - Aurora and phospho- rescence - Icebergs - F<;x harbor - Battle island - Indians and Esquimaux - Indian voc- ' .ary - Square island - Dead island - A water garden - Triangle harbor - Homeward bound -Notes on Dutch aiul Es.juimaux settlements. - 280-295 I AGE etc. lOUS 3 — s "*" :oci St. liU, ish- ton INTRODUCTION. 254-272 rm lor nir )sti - 273-279 ad io- ns ad rd 280-295 LAI'.R.\DOR : ITS DISCOVERY AND ITS LOCATION. The coast of Lal)raclor is well known to you all, as it figures on your maps and on your charts. There are probably ^-cry few who do not recollect this little oblong plateau as it appears thus jutdng eastsvard into the Straits of Uellc Isle fron. .n ahnost desolate, and on your maps plainly colored, portion of inhabitable northern North America. If there should be those t whom this ^.cation is as J yet unfamiliar, let them refer to their geogranhy, .nd then, follow- J mn Che river St. Lawrence as it fiows to the Oulf, and the Ciulf as f It flows through the Straits of Belle Islo, tliey will readily find, just before entering the narrowest part of the Stroiis, the coast of New- foundland on the right and that of Labrador on the left of this Dor- tion of the Gulf. ■• A section, and that the most easterly, of the Canat'ian Province of Quebec, is usually included with Labrador proper in the term generally applied, of " Labrador." As a part of this Province it has Its mails, though irregular at best ; while its seat of government is HI Quebec. Of Labrador a certain writer has said, perhaps as tnily as the times (by which 1 mean the explorations of science and survey) will permit, that -it is an immense peninsula extending over an area of four hundred and fifty thousand superficial miles, and bounded by the Atlantic, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and Hudson's Bay. Of this part of the coast there is a considerable division of opinion, as in fact of other neighboring parts, as to the people who hrst discovered it, as well as c/ the origin of the name. (1) INTRODUCTION. It is not the place here to enter into a discussion of this qties- tion nor yet to call up all the points in the arguments in favor of or against any particular hypothesis. The fact that as yet we know little enough of these interesting puints of inquiry, which, while they answer for inJividual effort and research, will hardly be necessary in such a place as this, will therefore limit us to what we do know. We do know of the contention among both French and English as to the discovery of Lal^rador by Sebastian Cabot in 1496, and its exi)loration soon after by the Portuguese Corterell, who is said to have named it. We do know that Mr. Samuel Robertson, who has given this matter his most careful attention and who has per- haps .searched more thoroughly than any other man in the country for the real facts bearing upon this subject, in his excellent article read before the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, dated January 16, 1841, gives us the summing up of what are the results of his labors. From them we learn that "the universal tradition of the coast," and which his in(iuiries seem to verify and establish, is "that one Labrador, a Basque whaler, from the kingdom of Navarre in Spain, did penetrate through the Straits of Belle Isle, as far as Labrador Bay, sometime about the middle of the fifteenth century ; and, eventually, the whole coast took the name from that bay and harbor." There is very little doubt, as far as circumstantial evidence goes, that the coast here, as in the neighboring places, was visited by the Norsemen in the tenth century ; but they left no signs of coloniza- tion by which we can prove it. There were some remains of buildings, also instruments discov- ered, that were supposed to be of later and Esquimaux origin, but these, Mr. Robertson thinks, can be proven of Basque origin. In all probability, therefore, Labrador was discovered by Basque fisher- men and whalers before the discovery of Cabot, and before Chris- topher Columbus discovered America. We know that the French carried on fisheries along the coast of Newfoundland earlier even than the year 1500. In 1532 Jacques Cartier, 7vith Bretons for pilots, visited this coast, and as early as 1506 a chart of the Gulf INTRODUCTION. ues- )r of :now they ssary :now. iglish I, and s said I, who ,s per- auntry article dated results adition tablish, iom of Isle, as fteenth m that fe goes, by the )loniza- had been published. Besides all this the Welsh and Irish, as also the Icelanders, put in the claims of being early visitors. Thus the difficulties of origin increase rather than diminish. The first established colony in Labrador was at "Brest," now Bradore. It was founded about 1508, was a trading post, con- tained the residence of the Governor and other officers, and, it is said, contained "200 houses and 1000 inhabitants in winter, which latter were trebled in the summer." Thus you will see that very early this was an important trading post, though it gradually lost its importance, and soon dwindled to a few houses whose inhabitants were settlers, who took what they could find as they found it, and were without law and government, as one might truly say. You will understand that this settlement at Bradore was not a permanent one, that is, dependent upon other settlements on the coast ; but was one, so to speak, complete in itself for the purpose of carrying on fisheries at that place, while the greater portion of the coast had neither been much setded nor much explored ; conse- quently, at the time called the Conquest, when the Es(]uimaux were nearly exterminated from these districts, and when the owning foreign monarch began to cut up this almost thriving colony into special grants to his favorites, its prosperity began to decline . Though at first the fish, whale, and fowl were everywhere abundant, a slow but per- ceptible decrease of these productions tended also to dishearten the colony ; and a natural unfavorableness of the coast, being then, as it now is, a mass of granite rock, as also the severity of the cli- mate, combined with a dread of extermination, to scatter them completely. You will now also understand why, if Labrador was once in a way to become a popular fishing station, it broke up rather than increased in its settlements and thus possible fu- ture growth. Having thus broken up, you will see why it has re- mained waiting for the energy and determination of Americans to combine with the sturdy hold on of the English, who have now gained i)ossession of the coast and added it to their already im- portant Canadian and Newfoundland Colonies, to open it again to INTRODUCTION. III the world as a fishing post, when centuries shall have restocked its waters. As Labrador looks upon the charts, one would easily imagine that it was a vast expanse of lowland, and one almost plain penin- sula extending into the sea as a continuation and part of the Brit- ish Provinces, and auxiliary, perhaps, to the territory of the Hud- son's Bay Company. In point of fact this latter case is partly true and partly false. It is indeed a part of the British possessions, and it is also a part of the Hudson's Bay Company's territory ; at least there are several trading posts of that Company placed occasion- ally along its shores, and the Company own considerable land lo- cated about and around each such post ; yet it forms but a small part of that Company's productive ground, which is much farther north, and extends a considerable way into the interior of the country, thus approaching the great bay which bears the name of that hardy, early pioneer and explorer who discovered it, as also the river of that same name which here takes its rise. At one time Labrador was a small part of these the best fur regions of the world. Then many trading posts were established, of which the most important, perhaps, at least of that portion of the coast of which I shall speak more at length presently, was at St. Augustine, near the St. Augustine river, and only a few miles — so to speak — from the principal settlements in this section about Esquimaux river, and Bonne Esperance the seat of local government. It was only at a late day that this post was abandoned as a trading station, and, unless recently resupplied it is no more a permanent authorized station of the Company. Though the post here has been formed but a few years, new ones are being so constantly made — or rather aban- doned ones resupplied — and old ones broken up, that it is impos- sible to keep an exact and satisfactory account of them all. The portions of Labrador which I visited are contained within the easternmost extremity of the Province of Quebec, and the westernmost part of Labrador proper, comprising an included distance of about five hundred miles, in which extent of coastline I have visited nearly every harbor of importance. In describing INTRODUCTION. >cked lagine )enin- Brit- Hud- iy true s, and .t least ;asion- nd lo- . small farther of the ime of as also [le time of the ich the ;oast of istine, leak — luimaux It was station, [horized ed but :r aban- impos- within bid the icluded loastline scribing S two or three of these locations a sort of idea may be obtained of what is to be seen elsewhere along the coast, as the simple inhabitants differ litde in customs and manners. The line which divides these two portions of territory is estab- lished in a direct northern route from the settlement of Blanc Sa- blon, which is only about twenty miles from Bonne Esperance, the residence of Mr. William H. Whiteley, the magistrate for this part of the coast. Of course the trading post of St. Augustine was not the only one on the coast. It was simply the only one which the peo- ple within a radius of fifty miles recognized as available for uses of immediate trade, while yet a licensed station. From St. Augustine almost to the head of the St. Lawrence River, many places such as Tadousac, Port Neuf, Goodbout, Seven Islands, and Mingan ; Natashquan, Musquarro, Romaine, and perhaps others, were regular posts of the Hudson's Bay Company, and, together, formed a chain of the most important localities along the coast, all of which be- longed to the Eastern division of what is known as the Montreal Department, which, with the Northern, the Southern, and the Col- umbian Departments, form the four portions into which that great Company is divided. As the southwesternmost of these posts is not far from Quebec, a sort of central station for most of the trad- ing of this region, one can see quite easily that the settlers along the coast are not so far from communication with civilizaHon, especially in summer, as one would at first imagine ; though in the long winter months when the bays and harbors are frozen over so that no ves- sels can approach, and no boats can sail from post to post, to the stranger at such a time on these ice-bound shores the prospect seems dreary enough. In the winter, travelling is mostly on foot, shod with the racket as it is called, a sort of padded or rather wicker snowpad ; or on komatiks or sledges drawn by dogs which can go tDver the high hills, lining the very coast, with safety and often with great speed. Yet Labrador in as low a latitude as it is, compared to what is beyond, and as near civilization as it is compared to what is beyond, though pleasant for a short time in summer, is suffi- ii!l 6 INTRODUCTION. ciently dreary in winter. No wonder that at such a time a stranger feels that he has reached the Hmits of civihzed warmth, so to speak, arising from his own country, home ; while he is surrounded by the icy arms of the far north stretching continually downwards and out- wards ! We have seen now that Labrador was discovered — no matter by whom — at a time very nearly contemporary with the discovery of Columbus, if we exclude the probable claims of the Norse- men ; that it was once an important fishing station whose develop- ment was in every way hindered rather than helped ; that its relation to the Hudson's Bay Company's trading territory was a very near though not absolutely necessary one, as far as that company was concerned — since the agents of that Company always ran more or less opposition to the Quebec and Halifax traders ; that its re- lation to the Province of Quebec was that of a perfectly natural northeastern dependency or addition ; and that Blanc Sablon, sit- uated as it is at the entrance of the Straits of Belle Isle, was so evi- dent and natural a division between this and the Newfoundland dependency of Labrador proper, that it ought not to be difficult to understand where the one ended and the other began. In Anspach's "History of the Island of Newfoundland," 1827, p. 323, the reason for annexing Labrador to Newfoundland is given as follows : — " The coast of Labrador, although discovered by Cabot, was very little known until the latter part of the last century, when the progressive increase of the Newfoundland fisheries induced the British Government to extend them to this coast, by annexing it to the government of that island, in the year 1763. The native in- habitants of those parts were included in the regulations which were, at the same time, forwarded to the Governor of the colonies, to prevent the different tribes of Indians from being in anywise molested or disturbed in the possession of such territories as, not having been ceded to or purchased by the Crown of England, were reserved to them as their hunting grounds. All settlements, formed either wilfully or inadvertently upon such lands, were to t b INTRODUCTION. AX latural n, sit- .0 evi- 1 1 idland ■f .fficult 1827, given i :, was fl :n the 41 d the 9 ; it to fl ^e in- '^ ,vhich ;! anies, n ywise i, not ■'5 [land, 'I lents, '1 re to M be immediately given up ; nor were any such lands for the future to be purchased from the said Indians, but in the name of His Ikittannic Majesty, at some public meeting or assembly, of said Indians, to be held for that purpose by the Governor or Comman- der-in-chief of such colony within or near which they should lie. The trade with the said Indians was declared free and open to all British subjects who should take out proper licenses for that purpose. This union of the coast of Labrador with Newfoundland, by placing the former under a jurisdiction which could, from local circumstances, more effectually than any other, provide for the maintenance of order and the due administration of justice in those parts, tended materially to increase its importance as a fishery without any injury to the fur trade, both being perfectly compat- ible. When this arrangement was altered in 1774, and the juris- diction of the Governor of Newfoundland was reduced to its former limits, a superintendent of trade, appointed by the Governor-Gen- eral of the Four British Provinces, and responsible to him, used to reside at Labrador. This measure, which appeared to have had for its principal object to encourage the fur trade, must have ])roved very prejudicial to the fishery, and the source of much disorder and irregularity. The re-annexation of the coast of Labrador and adjacent islands to the government of Newfoundland, in the year 1809, was consequently a measure extremely favorable to the interests of the trade and fisheries." With a proper understanding, then, of the region visited, I will proceed with the narrative of the expedition, trusting that a greater part of it may be of general interest to the reader. SS"^ ii i SURVEY OF LABRADOR. CHAPTER I. I, Survey of Labrador — Elementary Physics — Physical Geography. The most complete, in fact the only real, survey of Labrador ever made, was in 1832 and 1834, by Capt. H. W. Bayfield, R. N., F. A. S. He was assisted by other parties, though perhaps none of them were -so thorough as was that of Capt. Bayfield — at least he is quoted as authority to this day — and I found that our vessel, by following the directions of his admirable chart, entered and left many an opening of but sufficient size to admit the passage of our vessel, with perfect safety ; showing that the soundings were for the most part taken correctly, and that comparative quiet had remained in regard to subsidence of waters or elevation of land during the lapse of a period of nearly forty years. Though the change of level of the water itself, or the variation in depth, would have been but slight in so short a time, yet the fact that so many of the soundings remained unchanged gave us additional proof against the rising or sinking of the land at that place. Comparing Capt. Bayfield's chart, therefore, with our own soundings, we obtained very favorable and often im- portant results. Previous to a short account of some of the physical phenomena of this region, let us rehearse a few of the elementary princi}>lcs of physical geography necessary for their clear understanding. For the purposes of science and convenience, the earth is trav- ersed by imaginary lines running in all directions about and around it. The equator is a great circle passing around the earth from Ill 10 ELEMENTARY PHYSICS. :ir cast to west and is equidistant from each of the poles. The merid- ians are great circles passing around the globe from north to south, crossing the equator at right angles and meeting at the poles. Tho parallels (of latitude) are smaller circles parallel to the equator. The tropics, marking the highest latitude receiving the vertical rays of the sun, are situated twenty-three and one-half degrees both north and south of the equator. The polar circles are situated (to correspond with the tropics) twenty-three and one-half degrees, the one north of the south pole, and the other south of the north pole, and are the limits of light when the sun is verti- cal at the tropics. The ecliptic marks the apparent path of the sun from tropic to tropic, and as it continues around the earth re- quiring three hundred and sixty-five days for the sun to pass to its end it divides the seasons and days, hence the weeks and months of the year. Latitude is the distance from the equator to the pole, measured in either direction ; thus there are ninety degrees of north latitude and a corresponding number of degrees of south latitude ; the length of a degree of latitude is sixty-nine and one-half miles. Longitude is the distance east or west from any given meridian measured on the equator ; the length of a degree of longitude is also sixty-nine and one-half miles. The relative difference in lon- gitude between two places marks, also, the difference in time between those places ; for since there are 360° degrees around the earth traversed in twenty-four hours, one hour of time must correspond to fifteen degrees, or four minutes to one degree. Wheu, therefore, a place is so many degrees from any given locality, it is easy to see what will be the difference in time between these places ; if east the time is slower, if west faster than the given time at the given place. Applying other simple laws we find that the nautical mile is equal to one and one-sixth English miles : or there are sixty of them to a degree of latitude ; it is therefore natural to compute distances in nautical miles by applying the latitude as a measure of distance. Though these remarks may not now seem in place, their sugges- tion will become evident at once in measurini^ distances without the ^ WAVES. 11 ; merid- 3 south, ; poles, to the eceiving one -half r circles ree and ler south I is verti- :h of the earth re- ass to its I months the pole, s of north latitude ; alf miles, meridian igitude is :e in lon- in time s around [me must degree. locality, :en these liven time is equal them to [distances [distance. |r sugges- thout the use of a regular scale of miles, the degrees and minutes of latitude answering every purpose. Waves have been defined as the " alternate rise and fall of suc- cessive ridges of water." They are formed by the action of the wind, or the disturbance of the balance of equilibrium in the sur- face of the water itself. Waves vary in their rapidity of progress, their extent, and their height and breadth, according to the area of water in which they occur, its depth, and the force and direction of the wind ; being smallest in small bodies and largest in large bodies of water. The wave movement primarily is that of simple oscillation, or of repeated risings and fallings without apparent fonvard or backward motion of any kind ; thus a chip thrown ui)on a surface of water affected by such motion retains its position while rising and falling as the w^ater of that area rises and falls. Such is the case if the surface of the water is at apparent rest and there be no wind. Let the wind arise, or the sea be aflectetl by currents, or both, and there arises a con.j)lexity of wave phenomena at once interesting as it is difficult to study with any degree of satisfaction. The other kind of wave motion is called the wave of translation. It is a long, solitary line of crests, such as would be formed by the pushing forward of a mass of water over and above the level of the surrounding water ; it progresses slow or fast according as the depth about is great or small. The typical wave of translation is the tide wave. The phenomena of the rise and fall of the tide are too well known to have escaped the attention of the ordinary individual. They are produced by the action of the sun and moon, primarily of the moon alone, upon the surface of the earth. They occur with regularity in all great bodies of water, and consist of the rising and falling of that body of water effected as a whole, at j^eriods of nearly six hours apart, with a few moments of calm at the end of each period. The period of rising water is called flood tide, and the highest elevation of flood tide high water ; while the period of falling water is called ebb tide, and the lowest ebb tide low water. 'I'he i)eriod of time between the highest or lowest tide to the next tide of the same kind, or between one high tide and the next high, n I 12 TIDES. or one low and the next low tide is twelve hours and twenty-six minutes. Hence, as there are two such ])eriods in a day, and only tweiiLy-four hours in that period, high tide occurs fifty-two minutes later each successive day. In a month's time this very nearly co- incides with the period of a lunar month, and in fact we find that the highest tides occur at such a time as answers to the new and full moon, and the lowest at the change of first and third quarter. In a table of tides, therefore, the tide, if marked for new moon at a certain place, will answer for every new moon at that place through- out the year and following seasons. Thus in a book of sailing di- rections, a table of high and low water, or rather of spring and neap tides, gives the height of water or time of occurrence of the high- est spring tide (when the moon is exactly at new and full) at any time of any year ; and also the height of water and occurrence of any neap tide (when the moon is at exact first or third (quarter) at any time of any year. The interval between is easily determined by taking the time of highest or lowest water, and for each day subtracting fifty-two min- utes from said time. Thus by means of these tables navigators can always tell high or low water at any day or any time of the day for any year, at any place mentioned in these tables ; or they can by marking the spring and neap tides make a table of their own, that, if their reckoning is correct, will answer equally well for other par- ties as for themselves. But a few words of explanation as to the reason of high and low water. I have said that both sun and moon have their influence in the tide of our larger bodies of water throughout the globe. The influence of the moon is about three times that of the sun. The moon attracts both land and water ; one can easily see that the movable particles of the latter will respond to this mag- netic force much more noticeably than the almost immovable particles of the former. The rising of the crest of water, directly under the centre of influence of the moon at full or new, causes of course a depression at the sides, being greatest at the centre of this non-magnetic attraction ; thus the centre of attraction will be distant from the centre of depression by 90°. To restore the equihb- CURRENTS. IS 2nty-six nd only minutes arly co- ncl that lew and quarter, noon at through- dling di- ind neap he high- 1) at any rrence of larter) at ; time of two min- ators can e day for y can by wn, that, ther par- le reason 3on have roughout ;s that of easily see :his mag- movable directly , causes entre of 11 will be equilib- rium the water must fall to a crest on the opposite side of the earth c(iual to that of attraction beneath the moon. The same law will hold good with regard to the sun. Therefore when the moon and sun are in a line with the earth and each other, the greatest elevation will occur, as it does at new and full moon ; and when the moon is farthest from the sun, the attraction of the sun will be exerted on the line of depression 90° from the line of greatest elevation, which is always beneath the moon, and attract that portion to the corresponding depression of the other portion, so that the moon exerts its least influence upon the water beneath it and the tides are the lowest ; these occur at the i st and 3rd (juar- ter. The action of tides may be thus briefly described ; we then come to local variations in height of tide. Thus if the sea beach of any given surrounding is low, and the tide has free access to all parts at once, one can easily see that the tides of that place will be moderate in height and depth and least liable to change, while if the surroundings are narrow and confined and the sea is obliged to force itself against high cliffs and into narrow passages the accu- mulated waters must form an abiding place by raising the level of the water to that of the nearest open basin, which often causes the tides to rise to the extraordinary height of forty, fifty, and even sixty feet above ordinary level. In that narrow arm and clifted channel of the sea, the Bay of Fundy, this remarkable phenomenon actually occurs. At the head of the bay the tides are eighteen to twenty feet high ; here the highest springtides occasionally reach seventy feet. Marine currents are so influenced by local irritation that it would be difficult to describe them, but let us notice a few of the most important ones : — It is pretty generally conceded that a constant current sets out of the Gulf between Newfoundland and Cape Breton, in a southeasterly direction. This is changed more to the southward by a current en- tering the Gulf from the Straits of Belle Isle. There are other minor currents due to prevailing winds at the time that affect the waters, but, unfortunately, they have not been studied with sufficient care to define them. There is, however, no doubt about the northern !'" i 14 CUUKKN'rS. current, and the huge masses of ice often transported throiigh the Straits would ah^ne prove its existence, coining us tliey do willi their large area of surface directed against a strong opposing south- west wind and even thus reaching the eastern point of Anticosti before finally disappearing. The current bearing these masses is, however, very irregular, being weak at times and very swift at others. In following this most important current I must give the words of the original survey, as simpler than any I can invent, and more truthful than any non-discoverer can give. " After entering the (lulf the current runij along the north orLalirador coast at the dis- tance of two or three miles from the outer islands, leaving a narrow space in-shore in which the streams of the tide, when uninfluenced by winds, are tolerably regular. Passing outside of Mistanorpie, the islands of Great Meccatina and Southmaker's Ledge, it pursues a direction given to it by the trending of the coast till it is turned gradually to the southward by the weak current which is often found coming from the westward between Anticosti and the north coast, during westerly winds, and which is set off to the southward from Natash(iuan point. The united streams continue their south- ern course at a rate diminishing as they become more widely spread, and which seldom exceeds half a knot, and, finally, joining the main downward current out of the St. Lawrence, of which an account will be given immediately, they all pursue a southeast direction to- wards the main entrance of the Gulf, between Cape Ray and the island of St. Paul. It is this current from the northward which is felt by vessels crossing from off the Bird rocks towards Andcosti : and which, together with neglecting to allow for the local attractions of the compass, has been the princijial cause of masters of ves- sels so often finding themselves, unexpectedly, on the south coast. Many shipwrecks have arisen from this cause near Cape Rosier, Gaspe, Mai bay, etc." The same authority adds, further on, as an explanation of the irregularities of current near the north coast of the Gulf, that " both these currents, viz., that from the northward, and the main downward current of the St. Lawrence, are modified by the tides, but in a way directly contrary ; for the ■•f^. NAVIGATION IN THE ST. LAWRKNCK. 15 ongh the do with ng soiith- Anticosti iiasscs is, at others, words of 111 (I more tering the It the dis- 5 a narrow nfluenced lofjue, the pursues a is turned h is often the north southward leir south- :ly spread, I the main m account :ection to- y and the which is nticosti : ittractions s of ves- Ihe south |ear Cape s, further Ithe north from the Lawrence, for the northern current, in through the Straits of Belle Isle, is accelerated by the flood and ( hecketl by the ehl), while the other is accelera- ted by the ebb, ."ad chec:ked by the flood tide. These modifying causes, viz., the tides and winds, give rise to various combinations and conseciuent irregularities, in the direction and strength of these streams which it is extremely difificult at all times to estimate." The idea, then, that in so narrow an area as that occupied by the Straits, and the (iulf and River St. Lawrence, the main currents are constantly diverted by countt '• currents and inconstantly influ- enced by wind and tide, shows the truth of my words when I say that navigation in these waters, especially when imi)eded by adverse winds and weather, and enveloped in the thick fog so char- acteristic of these regions, is anything but easy, even to the experi- rience.-^ seaman ; many are the tales of horror, at which the heart sickens, known only too well to be true, that might be told of An- ticosti, as well as other prominent places along the south shore es- pecially of the St. Lawrence. Among the causes influencing the current, especially in the river are the spring freshets, annually descending the small streams, and pouring their bodies of water into the St. Lawrence. Here, of course, the accumulation of win- ter's snow and ice, thawing, descends in the shape of an accumula- ted mass of fresh water and makes its influence felt far into the river. Then, too, the tide of the sea reaches far up the river and is also often mistaken for a current in the river itself. All these agents, acting in more or less harmony, often produce a current of three and even four knots an hour, decreasing in v^elocity as it approaches the Gulf. There are also great differences in strength and direction of flood and ebb tides, that frequently produce strong ripples on various parts of the coast, and differing according to locality, so that unless a seaman has studied local phenomena carefully, he will be entirely deceived as to the proper course to pursue to keep his vessel from running aground upon the numerous sandbars here present. It is safe to say that the river St. Lawrence, from Quebec to the Gulf, is one of the most difficult of our large American rivers to navigate ^n all seasons, with continually varying wind and weather. The ^^ I M 16 WINDS. Gulf is sufificiently difficult for large vessels, while the river is per- ha])s still more so for medium sized crafts. Next to the currents the winds are perhaps the most varying cause of assistance or hindrance to the navigator in these same portions of the water. During the greater part of the season " the pre- vailing winds," says our best authority upon this subject, " are either directly up or directly down the estuary, following the course of the chains of high lands on either side of the great valley of the St. Lawrence." This appears to be in the main true, though the same author tells us that " westerly winds do not appear to be so n^uch guided in direction by the high lands, excepting along the south coast." AVinds varying from west-northwest to north-northwest frequently blow for days in succession, accompanied by weather in every way fine and beautiful ; then the wind will often turn and blow from corresponding easterly points as long again, bringing cold, wet, foggy weather, and more or less rain. The easterly winds prevail in spring ; the southwest — especially in the Gulf and at the opening of the Straits — in the summer, and the westerly in the autumn. The north and south winds occur only occasionally, in the winter months the northwest and northerly winds prevailing. Strong gales of wind are of frequent occurrence especially in the Gulf, in autumn ; generally speaking, however, all winds subside more or less at dusk, to be followed by light off-shore breezes dur- ing the night. It will be seen, therefore, that the winds are perhaps more regular than might be expected from the nature of the local- ity ; a good navigator will soon learn to depend upon the weather, and even in a measure foretell it with accuracy. Let him be in whatever part he may of the gulf and river St. Lawrence, a care- ful study of the sailing directions will lead him, except in unusual weather, to pretty safe and sure conclusions as to what the morrow will be, and plans laid upon these conclusions seldom fail of real- ization. Besides and next in importance to the currents, and the winds, the marine barometer is indispensable in determining the weather, and guiding one's course both by day and night, here as in other THE BAROMETER. 17 : river is per- great bodies of water. A few moments only will serve to give a proper idea of this most important instrument. A barometer is an instrument used for ascertaining and measur- ing the weight of the air or more strictly speaking of our atmos- phere. It was invented in 1643, when Torricelli was making his examinations as to the reason why water ascended in pumps to the height of thirty-two feet, and there remained. Taking a glass tube some four feet in length and closed above, he filled it with mercury and reversed the open end in a basin of that same substance. The column sank to a level of 27.5 inches and there remained. Com- paring the column of water with that of mercury he found them to be to each other in height in an inverse ratio of the specific gravi- ties of these two substances; that is, a column of mercury 27.5 inches high would balance a column of water 32 feet; and both would remain the same, while the pressure of atmosphere from outside upon the open basins of mercury and water in which the cciumns were inverted remained the same. In 1646, at Rouen, one Pascal repeated this experiment, and fiirther proved that while one column of mercury remaining at the bottom of a mountain underwent no change, a similar column taken to the top of the same mountain was reduced in height by several inches by the diminution of pres- sure, while it regained that same height, and corresponded with the one left at the bottom of the mountain when brought down. By this means he proved the possibility of measuring heights by the variations of the barometer, for thus the tube of mercury was named. Boyle, in 1666, discovered that the atmosphere was elas- tic and compressible, and Mariotte that the density of the atmos- phere was in proportion to the weight with which it was com- pressed. The layer of air nearest the earth was heaviest and sustained the weight of all the rest of the atmosphere above it and each succeeding stratum was lighter and lighter. Aqueous vapor is the amount of water evaporated and held in suspension in the at- mosphere. As evaporation is promoted by dry air, wind, a diminu- tion of pressure, and heat, the quantity thus held in suspension depends upon the temperature. Since " heat expands the gaseous 2 t m i ■ ! 1 1 1 1 ^ 1 Mtl 18 CHANGES OF TEMPERATURE. portion of the atmosphere, the spaces between its particles are en- larged and their capacities for containing moisture augmented. Still further we know that "aqueous vapor is highly elastic ; its elasticity, which increases with an increase of temperature, has been determined by Dalton, and its force measured by the height of the mercurial column it is capable of supporting. Acjueous va- por, raised to 32° Fahrenheit, exerts a pressure on the mercury equal to 0.2 of an inch, at 80° to 1.03 of an inch, at 180° to 15.0 inches, and at 212° to 30.0 inches, — a pressure equal to the pressure of the whole atmosphere at the level of the sea." The amount of vapor existing at any time in the air is determined by an instrument called the hygrometer. By means of this instrument we obtain the (feia- point. When the readings of both thermometer and the hygrometer are alike, the temperature of the dew-point is the same as that of the air ; the air is then saturated or full of moisture. Quoting further from our generally accepted theory, we say that " it is chiefly in the nights and early mornings of the winter months, that the atmos- l)here is saturated with vapor, or that vapor is at its maxiininn of elasticity for the temperature. In our climate, vapor never attains its greatest elasticity at a high temperature ; for if in the summer months the atmosphere becomes saturated it is caused by a decli- nation of the heat, which, contracting the spaces between the par- ticles of the air, squeezes the vapor contained in them closer, and thus brings its elasticity to a maximum for the temperature to which the air has fallen. It was upon the changes of temperature in the at- mosphere that Dr. James Hutton founded his theory of rain. He considered rain to be formed by the mixture of two strata of the at- mosphere of different temperatures, and each stratum saturated with moisture. The mean quantity of the vapor contained by the two strata before the mixture being more than the mean heat of the two (after the combination), the excess is precipitated." The princi- pal causes of variance in the weight of the atmosphere are moisture and heat ; the variation is greater in polar than in tropical countries, and in mountainous than in more level regions. We can now un- derstand the importance of the use of the barometer in determin- BAROMETRICAL RULES. 19 :les are en- lugmented. elastic ; its rature, has ■ the height ujueous va- ;rcury equal [5.0 inches, ssurc of the nt of vapor ment called in the dew- hygrometer s that of the )ting further is chiefly in t the atmos- naximum of lever attains he summer by a decU- :en the par- closer, and re to which re in the at- rain. He a of the at- urated with by the two of the two The princi" Ire moisture ,1 countries, n now un- determin- ing the weather, especially in such a country as is found along the coast of Labrador. Barometers are of two varieties : the common mercurial, where the air acts directly upon a basin of mercury in which the inverted column of that same substance is placed ; and the aneroid, where the atmosphere acts upon a metallic box, from which the air has been exhausted, and by its pressure communicated by a system of levers acts upon the needle to register the amount of variance ; this is possible, since the column of mercury is counterbalanced by the weight of the atmosphere. For a barom- eter to be of the greatest use it must be read in connection with the direction of the wind, and the temperature of the air, as shown by the thermometer. The hours in the day when it stands highest are at 9 a. m., and 9 p. m. ; and it is usually lowest at 3 a. m., and 3 p. M. These hours, therefore, are the best for making observa- tions and are generally used by scientific men generally the world over. The following table of rules will be found to apply in nine chances out of ten, for the correct use or reading of the barometric needle. Rising barometer with south wind, — fine weather. Sudden rise, wind N. or N. N. W., in broken cold weather, — rain or snow and sometimes nightly thaws. Rapid rise after S. W. gale and rain, — clear sky and sharp white frost. Steady high pressure, wind strong W., — high temperature and very little rain. Steady high pressure, wind strong E., — lower temperature and sharp frost. Trailing barometer, with N. wind, — cold rain and storms in summer, deep snow and severe frost in winter. Falling barometer, wind S., — more or less rain. Falling barometer, wind N. W., — cold rain in summer, severe frost in winter. Falling barometer, high S. W. wind, — increasing storm. Steady and large fall, wind E., — wind S. or heavy snow or rain. Sudden and large fall, wind W.,— violent storm N. W., or N. !! I I! I 20 BAROMETRICAL RULES. Great fall during frosty weather, — thaw continued with S. or S. E. wind, and returning frost if S. W. wind. Lowest depressions, wind S. or S. E., — much rain and severe gale. In general : a rapid rise gives a violent wind ; continued fall, continued wind. Great depression in sumn.