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Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mAthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 IMiinVHPi VI ttooa Scotia Scbool Series. Outlines OF I British History Prescribed by the Council of Public Instruction FOR Use in the Public Schools OF Nova Scotia. A. AND W. MACKINLAY. T. NELSON & SONS. LONDON. EDINBURGH. & NEW YORK. 1885. Entered for Copyright in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture, according to Act of Parliament of Canada, by A. and W. Mackinlay, 1884. PEEFACE. -♦♦- These Outlines of British History aim at furnishing within a moderate compass a clear and impartial account of the prog- ress of the British Nation. The risk of crowding the canvas has been ctvoided by delineating on it only the most striking events, and the most important actors in them. An effort has been made to connect every great result with the causes which led to it, and to appreciate generously the varied characters of the Sovereigns and the Statesmen of England. , It I I ■ % i fl OONTEjSTTS. -M- I. iNTRODUCTORy, .. .. .. ., ..11 II. Roman Britain, .. ., .. ,.12 ni. Conquest and Settiement of Britain, .. .. ..15 IV. Christianization op the Invaders and Consolidation of THEIR Kingdoms, . . . . . . . . . . 18 v. From the Union of the Kingdoms to the End op the Reiqn of Alfred the Great, . . . . . . 19 VI. Early English Kings, prom Alfred to the Danish Con- Quest, .. .. .. ,. .. .. 21 V II. The Danish Kings, .. .. ., .. ..23 VIII. Restoration of the English Line.— The Norman Con- quest. •• .. .. .. .. .. 24 IX. Early English Institutions and Customs, . . . . 28 X. The Norman Line.— William I., .. .. ..30 XI. The Norman Line.— William II., . . . . 34 XIL The Norman Line,— Henry L, .. .. ..35 XIII. The Norman Line.— Stephen, . . . . . . , . 37 XIV. Government and Society under the Norman Kings, . . 40 XV, Plantagenet Line: House of Anjou.— Henry II., ,. 42 XVI. Plantagenet Line: House of Anjou.— Richard I., 47 XVII. Plantagenet Line ; House of Anjou.— John, , , 49 VJll CONTENTS. XVIII XIX, XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII XXIX. XXX XXXI XXXII. XXXIII. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVII. XXXVIII. XXXIX. XL. XLI XLII, XLIII. XLIV. XLV. XLVI. XL VII. XLVIIL Plantauenet Link: House or Anjou. -Henry III , . Plantaoe.nkt Line: House or Anjou.-Edwakd T.,' . Plantaobnet Line: House or Anjou. -Edward II., . Plantagenet Line: House op Anjou. -Edward III., Plantauenet Link: House of Anjou.-Richakd II,,' Plantaoenet Line: Hou.se of Lancahter.-Henry IV., Plantaoenet Line: House of Lanca8ter.-Uenry V,' Plantagenex Line: House of Lancahter.-Henry VI., Plantaoenet Line: Hou.se of York.-Edward IV., Plantaoknet Line: House of York.-Edward V., ' Plantaoenet Line: House of Yobk.-Richard III., Political, Social, and Literary Progress during the Plantaoenet Period, . House of Tudor.— Henry VIL, . House of Tudor,— Henry VIII. House of T^dor.-Edward VI. ** * * • • > • House of Tudor.— Mary I • ■ • •• •• . . House OF Tudor. -Elizabeth, Political and Social State of England under the TUDOR.S, ., • • • • House of Stuart.— James I House of Stuart. -Charles L, The CoMMONWEALTH.-l. The Council of State, The C0MMONWEALTH.-2. The Protectorate, . House of Stuart: The Restoration. -Charles IL, House of Stuart.- James IL, House of Stuart. -William and Mary. William III", 15^ House op Stuart.— Anne, Political and Social Progress under the Stuart Sovereigns, House of Hanover. -George L. House of Hanover.— George IL House of Hanover.-George III House of Hanover.— George IV., B2 54 68 GO (ii 68 70 73 78 80 81 84 85 89 98 101 106 116 118 125 136 139 142 150 165 168 171 177 198 CONTENTS. IX XLIX. House or Hanover.— William IV , L. House of Hanoveu.— Victoria, ,. LI. The British Constitution, LII. Principal Authors of the Hanoverian Period, List of Dates, . . Accented List of Proper Names. I • • • • Index, aoi 201 219 225 228 245 247 'ft 1 OUTLINES OF THE HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. -♦♦- lorlhfolk EAST N G L I A Edmundsburjj u'hfolk re u ry • N T ^m ENT, SUSSEX, leparated into Noftiiurabria. :r 'vere at any West tVales;, Earliest references. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. 1. Tho British Islands, lying almost in the centre of the land hemisphere, form the nucleus of the British Empire, whose \vaxA» include the great colonies of Canada, Australia, India, the Cape, and nuiAorous other dependencies in every ^Qpi, quarter of the globe. It is the object of the present work to trace from ti >0 earliest period of which we have any knowledge the events which have led to the union imder one sovereign of so many scattered lands 2. Britain is firft referred to in history by Herodotus, a Greek historian who wrote about four hundred and fifty years before Christ. He speaks of the Cassiterides, or "tin- islands," in allusion to the supplies of tin brought from the Scilly Isles by the Phoenicians, the great commercial race of antiquity. Our islands are first mentioned by name by the celebrated Greek philosopher, Aristotle, about 350 B.C. He refers to two large islands m the far west, "called Brittannic, Albion and lerne." 3. The meaning of the word Britain is uncertain. The name was lengthened by the Romans into Britannia. Albion, or "white land," is explained by the chalk cliffs of southern England. Ireland was known to the Greeks as Icrne, to the Romans as Hibernia, and to its own people as Erin, Scotland derives its name from the Scoti, a Celtic tribe which came over from Ireland early in the Christian era. The Romans called it Caledonia, imitating the southern Britona, who termed the northern tribes Caoill daoin, "people of the woods." The Welsh have always called themselves Cymry, whence the Roman name for Wales, Cambria. The German tribes that invaded Britain called them WeUh, or "foreig. .rs." Ancient names. 12 i ROMAN BRITAIN. 4. The earliest known inhabitants of Britain were Celts TK Celtic race. T"^ ^ P'^^P^^ '^^^^ ^n the remote ZT hln • ^^'1 from Asia into Europe and Z^hlV^ ' )?. ^"^^8^^*6(1 found occupying the western part of the InH """ T- ^^^^^^^ ^^re descendants still occupy Brittanv wli *^'',. ^^"5.^ contment. Their and most of Ireland. ^ ^ "^''^' ^^^"'' *^« Highlands of Scotland, 5. The witingi of Caesar and Tacitus Pn«,„« u- . • Description .^ ^t;; ^-^^^^^-rrnln^Sain:^^^^^^^^^^ of ancient abounded m marsh and forest. Skilled hushlHT^ Britain. "nknown. The coasts nearest Gaul «h ^"'T ^ "^^^ there patches of rudelv tnipT ^^"\«^"^ed here and com was not cultivated at all the * v ""^' ^"* ^" *'»« ^"^^"or In the far north, roots and hemes as Z ^""^ '", '""^ ""^ «««»'• were the chief means of subsistence ^'^^'yf^'' ^^ in the woods, of skins, the limbs being left ^aTa^d ItaLTd IT ''f '''''' '^^^'^'^^ juice of a plant called 'Ld The Britot '\^^"' ^^"^"^ ^^^^ ^^^ displayed considerable skUl in waf Thirf'' ^T ""^ *^"^^y' ^"^ back, and in chariots with scythe armpJ^T ^""^,V,«" f««t. on horse- many tribes, they always cEe a s^3«, h ' i^^*^""^^ ^^^^^^^ into their common country , ^^^ ^'^^'^ ^^«» danger threatened the recesses of dark oakforesnTie ''^fT"^''' P^^^^™^^ in much veneration. The DnUds ' sse.^d T'"^^ ^^' ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^h to their priestly offices thevw^rrrl^f* P^^"^ ' for in addition judges of the ^opie 'Thev recol ^ ''^'' '^' '''^^'''' ^^^ the taughtthedoctlLftranXarn'ofsr^^^^^^^ -^^^^^ -<^ mcluded human sacrifices. The victim! "hn ''^'^^"' '^^^^^"^ or captives, were burned in huge ^* S la^^^^^^^^ of immense stones which are fnL/- '^^^^^^^- The circular rows posed by some to Tthe remains of n"" T". ''^''' "^ ^"^^^^^ ^^e sup- of these monumenta rXs n^a ^.^"^^^^^^^^ Themostfamo^ reacs is that at Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain. CHAPTER II. ROMAN BRITAIN.-66 B.C. to 410 A.D. 1. In the last week of Autrusfc 5^> r r. T„r r^ P«^ ^"feust oo B.C., Julius Caesar, the sreatp^f «f Casar's ^^^^ general,, crossed the Strait of Doverlt^ent LJ invasion. ;^- - f---with a fleet of eighty Zs. 'Jj^^T. ^^u.t Of (^i:t;r ilJ-!;, ^ ^^^ i- eompletedfS to his desire to punish "' '^ • Britons for having lent aid 'to the Ga^ui Is in ROMAN BRITAIN. 13 their resistance to his arms. The landing of the Roman troops was fiercely opposed by the natives, who, in immense swarms, ran down to the water's edge, and for a time disputed every inch of ground with the advancing legions. Resistance, however, proved vain, and Csesar, his troops having been safely disembarked, prepared to take ix)8session of the country. A violent storm which raged along the coast a few days after the landing, and seriously injured a number of his ships, deranged his plans. He determined to recross the Channel, and defer the conquest of Britain till the ensuing summer. The following year (54 B.C.) he returned with an army of five legions, or over thirty thou- sand men. The Britons, in anticipation of his return, had united " their tribal armies under Cassivelaunus, a brave chieftain, whose own territory lay north of the Thames. By cautious tactics, the Briton was able for a time seriously to embarrass the Romans, but their dis- ciplined energy soon prevailed over his opposition. Caesar forced his way across the Thames, captured the stronghold of Cassivelaunus, a sort of fortified forest, and compelled him to sue for peace. TTie Britons were obliged to give hostages for the payment of a yearly tribute. Caesar then returned to Gaul. In his well-known Com- mentaries he gives us a clear account of his campaign in Britain, as well as an interesting description of the country and the people. 2. Britain now remained undisturbed by the Romans for nearly one hundred years. At length, in 43 A.ix, the Emperor Claudius resolved to bring the island into complete sub- Britain jection. The task of conquest was assigned to Plautius s^^J^K^ted. and Vespasian, both distinguished generals, the latter of whom after- wards became Emperor. The south-eastern part of the island was soon subdued and formed into the nucleus of a Roman province ; but the more central districts maintained a successful resistance for nearly nine years, under the leadership of an heroic chieftain named Caradoc, or Caractacus. When finally defeated and captured, Carac- tacus was sent with other captives to Rome, where his manly bear- ing so impressed the Emperor as to secure for himself and his family the gift of their lives. Ostorius Scapula, the Roman general who conquered Caractacus, was succeeded by Sergius Paulinus, who at once proceeded to attack the island of Mona, or Anglesey, where the Druids had collected the last remnants of British power. The strong- hold, though defended with passionate energy, was soon taken. The sacred groves of oak were cut down, and many of the unfortunate Druids were burned in the wicker cages which had been intended for their victims. ^. For a time the subjugation of Briti*in seemed complete, iluw- ever, in 62 a.d., during a temporary absence of Paulinus, a formidable revolt occurred. Boadicea, Queen of the B°*<**cea. Iceni, a native tribe holding the territory now known as Norfolk and 1 ' : I • i ' 14 UOMAN BRITAIN. 6oman walls. Suffolk, took {],o. command, sitoar in Imnrl m a in Britain ,,;'• ,',''•"• Agnwla was fathor-iri-lnw of Tiicitu» Rom.„lz,d. »"*''-" " «"•»" l"-f>ri,.„. He taught tl,„ „J2 ,scottaT;v.:r:;;trrur;^^^^^^^^^^^^ bmlding „ chain of fort, fro,,. th„ Firth o l"w w^:';^'; i.^^-^;'-^^^^ 4. In 120 A ,> the J..,n|«ror Had,-ian ca„.ed a rtone wall and an :r^''«" S -' ."' '» ™«W fro,„ the Tyne to tZ S,T way 1. ntt, romam, of which are still vi.ible. Twenty 5. Many beneficial effects followed the permanent establLsJunent of Effects of J^r^;; rr^' "^ Britain. The arts of civilisation ' '• """'^ t\^':ZrT'Z' °''™"»i"' "P^^ into Britain, Introduc- iv, '*' f'Z !""''» "f «»> «">l'i™- The circmstancea of tlon ;r'"""!^'i';"?"."«n"t™'-y clearly recorded. In 304 a n of ChPls- ""=««' -.nnsUan „,artyr of Britain, Albinns, perished tianlty. »' Vemlam,,,,,,, „,„, gt. Albans. After the tin e of Con stant„,e, there was a regularly organized British Church ■0.: Roman occupation. CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT OP BRITAIN, 15 Britain abandoned. rei)reHented by its own bwhopH in the great eccleHiastical council*. The profeHHion of ChriHtianity soems to have become universal, Druid- ism having gradually died out. 7. During the third century, the coastH of Britain began to be in- fested by pirates from across tiie German Ocean. Home- what later, the Caledonian marauders from the north Roman reappeared as the " Picts and Hcots," advancing in 3(!8 Power A.I), even to London, whence they were driven back with ^®°''*®"®**' extreme difficulty. Meanwhile Rome was >)ecoming less and less able to succor her cohmies when in distress. Her internal strength had decayed, and hordes of fierce barbarians were thundering at her gates. 8. At length, in 410 a.d., the Roman Emperor H(moriu8 formally renounced possession of Britain, and recalled the legions. For a time a fonn of government bearing some resem- blance to that of the Romans seems to have been main- tained. In 418 A.n., a small Roman force reappeared in the island, and assisted the people in repelling an attack of the Picts and Scots. In 44G A.I)., in presence of still greater dangers, the hapless Britons be- sought the Emperor Aiitius to send troops to their relief. The refusal of this ar)peal closes the chapter of Roman connection with Britain. 9. Remains of the Roman walls may still be seen at York, Chester, and other places. Roman jjottery and pavements are often dug up by workmen excavating for cellars and the Traces of foundations of buildings. Such names as Lmcastcr, Roman GlovLcestei', and Manchester betray a Roman origin, the ^^'^"P*^*^"' endings being all corrtiptions of the Latin castra, a camp. The fa- miliar word "street" is simply strata, "paved;" and coin, in such a word as Lincoln, marks the centre of a Roman colonia, or " colony." 10. It seems probable that during the Roman i)eriod in Britain the tribes of Picts inhabiting the lowlands of Scotland were at least partially Christianized. It is certain that the Christian religion was firmly established in Ireland, where its truths were first proclaimed by St. Patrick, a most eloquent, zealous, and apostolic missionary. Scotland and Ireland. CHAPTER IIL CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT OF BRITAIN. 449 to (about) 600 AD. 1. ^The withdrawal of the Roman,s left Southern Brit||g in a state of S great -weakness and exjxtsure. \ m Picts and ScoUF easily broke through the now unguarded walle, and with ^^^^^^ °^ impunity ravaged far and wide. Pirates from the Dan- with" ish and German coasts, no longer held in check by Roman drawal 2 u; OONQt^RST A\D SKTTF.KMKNT OK HIHTArN. !; I 2. Wo hrtvo HMNV to do«orih.» M,o Hottloinniit iti Hrifcaiii of ,x racn German '*'"'^'"*''' ^o itiipn>HH a lastinK chaiivi-tor on hor I(M)kii/w», Invadoi's. ''^"'"' ""'* l»'«t'»»y. AoooitJiuff to tlio nioHt romiiiou tia ilition, tho niitiHh. liaviiijf appoalo.l in vain for hi>I|) to . tho KomanK who won^ then otiRaK'^d in a lifo-or-doath ntniKKl" with tlu> tornhlo Att.la, Hongot frotn ono ,.f thoir onon.i.^N pn.t.M-tion .wwnHt tho othor. \ ortifTorn. a Hritinh prinoo ,.r duko, ovorwhohu.Ml l,v tho I irt« and Soots, in.plomi tho aid of a ha.id of ( Jonnans, wh.., coniinii hrst ivs ,»//,r.-., dotornunod to rotnain as om,,un'ovs. Unumt and Horm t^rxs gjvon .-is natno.H ,>f tho loado.H of tho forcoH invitod.n'or by Vorti- gem. Somo hiHtorians, rojoctinR altog^^thev tho Htory (.f a" Hritinh tnv.tntton. oonsidm- that tho triln^H which ocmquonuJ Hiitain wor.i in vadors. and .lothtiiR Iohh, from tho bogiuninK. What in cortain in that Ix^tNmm tho nud,llo of tho Hfth and tho boginnitig of tho novonth ron- tury, tho groator part ..f what is now oaUo,J Knglan.l was c.nrnuMod and sottlod by L.,w Dntcli tribo.s from tho In.rdor hindH of (Jormany and hoatuiinavia. 3. Tlw conqnonira ^f Britain bolongt^d to throo difforont tribes or Different ^"""l'^^^" ^-J*'^ '^''t^As, tho Saxona, and the AngloH. Tho tribes. ;'"'*'*': «'"*»'"? »■«'""» what is now tho |Hmin»ula of .Fut- land m Denmark, though tho ttrnt to latid in Britain were ct>nu>amtively few in nnmbor. Tho Saxons, and tho Anglos o^ Jungle— ,»f whom tho Latter woiv the more nnnierouH and powcn-fnl - came f,H>,n tlie lower cnirses of the Kibe, the Wosor, and the Rhine. Ihe Anglos vdtimately ^y,y thoir name to the whole of Southern Bntam fii,,,/art•'*''« ^''^^ •'^ '"'"'^ <^f their infltionce in such names as Ks.sY.r (KjvstSaxons)and"Sus.,rx" (South Saxons). The tribes, ct.llectively and gi^nenUly, were spoken ,)f by the native liritish an .Sti,r,),w. Tins w.ws not because the Saxons wore more dreaded than the \ngles, but in imitation of the Romans, who called tho people dwoUmgontheslKn'os of the (German ()ce.an " Saxons," without dis- tmction of tnlK.. This use of language was strengthened by the fact th.%t the Angles were the last to enter Britain. First impressions aro apt to bo permanent, and to this day the Celtic people of Scotland habitually call an Englishman a Saxon. 4. The .lute.s, Angles, and Saxons were essentially one race, and si>oke a common languiige, the basis of our modern Kn- ^sh. They wore fierce warriors, enslaving those whom they overcame. They had never been subdued by Rome, and thei-efore had never felt the civilizing influence of her laws and her literature. Their religion was a rude paganism, involv- uig the worship of the sun and the moon, as well as of other deities, such Descrip- tion of invaders. OONgUKHT AND HKTTLKMKNT OF HUITAIN. ir I firo ntul t)f a I'ftcn latiK'iiHijro, Minon trti- >r ht>l|) t«» iKK'l" with l>t) IlKHillHt n"l l),v tho n>, coniiiiK by V(irti- a HritiMh I woni in lin iH that onth vou- CJorinany tribes or OH. The » of .Fiit- Hritain, lnf;floH or »W(ari of Hani|mhire. In 47<), the SaxouH laid the foundations of the kingdom of HuHHex. In 41)5, a Htill largfir body landed in Ham|»- uhire, and, aftor a Herien of denperate oonflictM, Huceeeded (5I1») in fomidiuK auothnr Saxon kiuKdoni, VVoHKex. KHwex, the third .Shx<.ii kiiiKdom, with liondon aH itH capital, daten hmii 527. About 547, the AngleH niade their appearance in the inland, and became maHterw of two BritiHh HtatoM in tht- extreme north, liornicia and Deira, Heparat«wl frt)m «!ach other by a vant and trackloHH fore«t, ICarly in tim Heventh century, theHe AuKlian colonieH became united an the powerfid king- dom of Northumbria. Thiw inchided the territory n(»rth of the If um)x!r iiH far aH to the I^'irth of l'\.rth. They founded aiKo the kingdom of Morcia in the centre of the inlatul ; which in courne of time came to include all the territory bouufled by the Hevern, theThamcH, and the If umber. (I. The lirit(mH matio a Htid)b(»rn reHiHtance. lieHideH WaleM, Corn- wall, ami Devcm, they long retained in a Htato of partial independence a large dintrict in the north-wcHt, called ^rtt'sh CunihrU., including Cumberlanfl, WeHtmoreland, and *'•*'•'*"<'*• LancaHhire. A vivid pictiu-e of the liritish ntrugglo for independent national exiHtonce is given in the legendary oxploitH of King Arthur of WaleH and Iuh famoiw " KnightH of the Hound Table." 7. The Saxon c(m(pieHt extinguiHhed Roman civilization in Britain; and throughout the conquered diMtrictH, where it did not exterminate the Celtic por»idation, it reduced the people to a Htato little better than slavery. It is probable that of the BritoUH Hi)r.red, the great nuvjority were women. The few Celtic words which became incorporated into the language of the cp, Jtaimd. Within the subjugated area the institutionH of Christianity seem to have completely disaiipeared. Paganism reigned supreme, 8. The Hevcn kingdoms— Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Khhcx, East Anglia, Northumbria, and Mercia— are simietimes called "the Hei)tarchy,"— rule of seven. This name m misleading, '""^^ '^^P" implying, as it does, a collective unity which never ex- ^^^^^V" * istfid. Thnr« wore «♦• "o ♦ir"" Mi"f "o-c- i-j » ^ iTiisnomer. kingdoms within established limits. Boundaries were contintially shift- ing, and beft)re Bernicia and Deira were consolidated into Northum- bria, some of the above kingdoms had been virtually merged in others. Results of conquest. 18 CHRI8TIANIZATI0N OP THK INVADERS. CHAPTER IV. CHRISTIANIZATION OF THB INVADERS AND CONSOLIDATION OF THBIR KINODOMS.-600 to 827 A.D. 1. The nainoH of cortain Kings, oight in all, who gained diHtinction The "''^'"'''^^^'•"^"^^^torhy wise rulo, arc recorded in the Saxon Bretwaldas. P>''"n»cJo« '^« Jiir(,raM,»,, " ruling chiefs," or, an Roino liold, •• WieldorN of Britain." Nothing of importance is known concerning the first two Kings who bore this title ; but the third liretwalda, Ethelbort of Kent, is celel)rated as the first Christian King in lintain. 2. We have seen that the fierce paganism of the conquering (Jermans had remained unmodified by the Christianity of the subject race. But Bertha *^'^'i*'^^'«''t '>ad married on the Continent a Christian and Princess, Bertha, datighter of the King of Paris. At Aueustlne. '^''^ '"stance Pope Gregory the Great despatched a band of forty missionaries in 597 to labor for the conversion of ner husband and his subjects. At the head of the mission was Auguatnie, a learned aSid zealous monk, afterwards canonized as St. Austin. Augustine and his co-laborers met with a friendly recaption. lUhelbert listened favorably to the new doctrines, and his conversion and bai)tism were followed by a rapid 8r)read t>f Christianity among his people. Canterbury, the chief town of Kent, became naturally the central seat of Christi.anity in Britain, and Augustine was the first of Its long line of archbishops. 3. Ethelbert's nephew, Sebert, King of Essex, embraced the new Spread of !^^/'^''"' *"^ ^^^^^o"' »"» capital, was soon adorned with Christianity, ^'^".^^'f^ churches. More important still, Ethelbert's son-m-law, Edwin of Northumbria, a ruler of great capacity, who figures in history as the fifth Bretwalda, also gave in his adhesion to Christianity ; and Paulinus, one of the missionaries who arided with Augustine, became the first Archbishop of York Edwin hves in history as the founder of Edinburgh (Edwinesburh), which per- petuates his name, and as promulgator of the first code of English laws 4. The spread of Christianity was for a time checked by the exploits Penda. ''^ ?*^"'*''*' ^'""^ "^ ^ercia, a bitter pagan. He defeated and slew the great Edwin of Northumbria in 03.3 ; and nme years later Edwin's successor, Oswald, the sixth Bretwalda, ex- perienced a similar fate at the hands of this fierce chieftain. Penda himself was ultimately overthro^vn by Oswald's brother Oswy. the seventh Bretwalda, in 655. ^' Kingdoms 5- Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex were now the reduced to chief kingdoms, and for more than a century their Kings three. waged a ceaseless struggle for the supremacy. A King THE UNION OF THE KINGDOMS. 19 namod Oihx, who died in 7fMi, riUHod Mercia to a high |»itch of power • but aftor hiH (loath that kinKed's death. 3 names CHAPTER VI. EARLY ENQLISH KINGS FROM ALFRED TO THE DANISH CONQUEST.— 901 to 1017 A.D. Kings of England. 1. Alfred the Great was succeeded by his son Edward, who was the first to assume the title of " King of England," his pre- decessors having styled themselves simply "Kings of Wessex," or "of the West Saxons." A cousin, Ethel- wald, disputed Edward's claim to the throne, though that claim was sanctioned both by his father's will and by the decision of the Witena- gem6t, or great National Council. Edward defeated the army of Ethelwald, composed in good part of Danes from the Danelagh, and reigned thereafter in peace until his death in 925. 2. Brief mention v-U suffice for the Kings of the succeeding century. Their names and order of succession will be found in the genealogical table on page 27.— Athelstan, the second Brief from Alfred, took a great interest in commerce, and showed his regard for religion by having the Bible trans- lated into English and a copy placed in every church. — His successor, Edmund, experienced much trouble from the Danes of the Danelagh, more particularly from those of a certain district called the Five Burghs. He drove the Welsh from Cumberland, and died by the hands of an assassin in 946. — Edred, who succeeded, was largely under the influence of Dunstan, Abbot of Glastonbury, a famous ecclesiai^ic, who labored zealously to restore monastic institutions, and promote what he conceived to be the true welfare of the clergy. — The reign of Edred's nephew and successor Edwy was brief and troubled. v.i\tj iHaiTicvi ilia vuuaiii xuigiva, cuiiwiiry lu uuuiesiascicai law, aaa thus incurred the displeasure of Dunstan, whom he proceeded to banish from the kingdom. A general revolt of the northern part of the sketch of reigns. ' If- 32 EARLY ENGLISH KINGS. i U hi ! :' country was with difficulty HupproHsed. In 958 Archbishop Odo pre- vailed on Edwy to divoico Elgiva and send her out of England. a Edwy waH succeeded by his brother Edgar, who reigned peace- Sketch of ^""^ *"? I)ro8perou8ly for nearly twenty years. -His huc- relgns cessor, Edward, is known in early English history as " the continued. Martyr." He was assassinated in 1)79, at the instance of his heartless step - mother, Elfreda. — Elfreda's son Ethelred, for whom this cruel act gained the succession, was sumamed the Unreadn-s. corruption of Unraedig, or counsel-lacking-because he persistently set aside the advice of his Earls, and acted accord- ing to his own will. A long and disastrous reign proved Ethelred to be worthy of his surname. Instead of bravely fighting the Danes whom his weakness invited to the shores of England, he endeavored to buy them off; a disgraceful tax called the Darwjeld being imposed to raise the necessary means. Successive fleets were thus induced to retire from the Humber and the Thames, only to return with a greedier thirst for gold. 4. In 1002, in a sudden fit of madness, Ethelred resolved to ex- Sweyn. change his temporizing policy towards the Danes for a course ^f outrageous cruelty. The Danes regularly settled in England were suddenly attacked and slain by thousands. Among those thus massacred was Gunhilda, sister of Swege-i or Sweyn, King of Denmark. Gunhilda had been converted to Christianity' and was married to a prominent English noble. Burning with rage' the Danish King renewed his attacks upon England, allowing himself to be bought off for a time, only that he might thus equip a force strong enough to absolutely subdue the country. At length in 1013 he was ready to strike the decisive blow. He sailed up the Trent with a powerful fleet, and marching southward, swept all before him in his triumphant progress. The whole country soon made formal sub- mission ; but Sweyn died before he had time to establish himself in his new possessions. 5. Ethelred, who had fled to Normandy, was now recalled by the Ethelred Witenagemot, though Sweyn had bequeathed the suc- recalled. cession to his son Canute. The latter retired peacefully to Denmark; whence, however, he soon returned' >n hearing that Ethelred had renewed his murderous attacks on the ].>ari- ish settlements. At this juncture Ethelred died. 6. His eldest son Edmund, sumamed Irovside, claimed the suc- cession. This claim was contested by Canute, and for seven months the rivals waged a bitter struggle for supremacy. Then a compromise was effected. It was agreed that Edmund should rule south and Canute north of the J. ..ames. A month ,::fi>n , Edr,;uiid died, leaving Canute sole monafch of England. Edmund Ironside. THE DANISH KINGS. 28 CHAPTER VII. THE DANISH KINOS. 1017 to 1041 A.D. 1. The firat step of Canute the Dane, who became King of England in 1017, was to make as secure as iiuanible his iK)Hition on the throne. The infant sons of Ednnmd Ironside were Canute. sent out of the kingdom. Edward and Alfred, the surviving sons of Ethelred, fled to Normandy ; while their mother, Eniiiia, Canute took to himself as wife and queen. Some tin-.e previous to his accession, Canuto had embraced Christianity, and notwithstanding his harsh treatnient f)f his stepsons, his reign generally was that of a wise and just sovereign. Many were the proofs which he gave of sincere attachment to hiH aew faith. By his exertions Denmark, a i)art of his dominions, became a Christian country. In the more neglected parts of his English realm churches and monasteries rose in swift succession. It is said that he even undertook in person a journey to Rome, to obtain some special religious privileges for his subjects. He divided England into four great earldoms, two of which were ruled by Danes and two by Englishmen. By his mild policy he almost entirely removed the distinctions and ill-feeling which had kept apart the Saxon and the Danish inhabitants of England. In personal virtue and piety Canute ranked high. He impartially administered the English laws, and merited as well as received the reverence and attachment of his whole realm. He died in 1035. 2. Harold, surnamed Harefoot, a son of Canute by his first wife, who happened to be in England when his father died, immediately seized the throne. This was contrary to Harold Canute's wish and to the stipulations of his marriage con- nS'^oroot. tract with Emma, by which the right of succession was conceded to her family. Godwin, Earl of Wessex, a powerful noble, immediately claimed the crown for Hardicanute, Canute's son by Emma. Ulti- mately the Witan divided the kingdom, assigning to Harold the country north of the Thames, and to Hardicanute the rest. Until Harold's death in 1040, Hardicanute remained in Denmark, being represented in England by Emma and Godwin. During Harold's reign, Alfred and Edward, Emma's sons by Ethelred, came over to England with, it was suspected, a design upon the kingdom. Edward returned to the Continent ; but Alfred was seized by Harold's troops and conveyed to Ely, where, after being subjected to the shocking cruelty of having his eyes put out, he soon died. 3. Acceding to the throne in 1040, Hardicanute reigned but two was as mglorious as it was brief. He dug up the corpse "*™»" of the late King, beheaded it, and flung it into a ditch. *^*""*®' ir u RESTORATION OP THE ENGLISH LINE. I ir Heavy taxes wore imposed, for the benefit, not of England, but of his Danish dominions. His deatli caused all England to give forth a sigh of relief. CHAPTER VIII. EESTORATION OF THE ENGLISH LINE. THE NORMAN CONQUEST. -1042 to Ij66 A."^. Edward the Confessop. 1. The nation, by this time tired of Danish rule, gladly recalled the English line in the person of Edward, second son of Ethelred the Unready, by Emma, afterwards tlie wife and then the widow of Canute. Strictly, the right of succession belonged to the children of Edmund Ironside; but the influence of Godwin secured the cro\vn for Edward, who was ac- knowledged by the Witau and crowned at Winchester. Edward at once married Godwin's daughter Edith, and proceeded to deal sternly with all who had favored the Danes, confiscating the treasures of his mother Emma, and placing herself in a state of mild confinement for life. He abolished the Danej^eld ; and having revised the old English laws, he published them in a collected form, so that afterwards, in times of oppression, the people sighed for "the good old laws of Edward the Confessor." The title "Confessor," by which Edward is known in history, evinces his piety and the strictness with which his religious duties were performed. 2. Brought up as an exile in Normandy, Edward the Confessor was in tastes and language a Frenchman. Hence it was natural that his Court should gradually become filled with Norman knights, and that his favors, both political '•nd ecclesiastical, should be somewhat liberally showered upon French- men. This state of things led to serious differences between the King and his father-in-law, Godwin, who stoutly espoused the cause of his own countrymen. 3. At length Godwin flew into open rebellion when ordered by the Banishment ^^"^ *^ punish the people of one of his towns for some of Godwin. ^^^^^^^ insults to the train of a Norman baron. Other; ^ English nobles interposed ; and the matter having been referred to the Witan, that body banished Godwin and his sons, and confiscated their estates. The next year, however, saw Godwin sailing up the Thames with a large fleet, and meeting with such a welcome from the English nobility that the King was forced to accept terms of reconciliation. Godwin's estates were restored, and the English ascendency was re-established, many of the Norman barons and prel- ates leaving the kingdom. Godwin died in 1053, and was succeeded in his vast possessions by his son Harold. Norman influence. RESTORATION OF THE ENGLISH LINE. 25 Harold. William of Normandy. 4. Edward the Confessor was childless. His true heir was his nephew, Edward, son of his elder brother Edmund Iron- side. That prince had been sent out of the kingdom ^^j^^^ ^^® when an infant by Canute, and had spent his life in ° heirs°'^ * Hungary. Having been recalled in 1056, at the age of forty, to take his true position as heir to the throne, he died a year after his anival in England. His son Edgar, a mere child, was too young to assert his rights in presence of the powerful claimants who were awaiting the death of Edward the Confessor. 5. Harold, son of Godwin, was, after his father's death, and for the last; twelve years of Edward's reign, practically governor of England. The power which he had inherited he increased by becoming the virtual ruler of Northumbria, as well as by great successes over the Welsh. He managed to acquire a remarkable influence over Edward's mind during his later years, while entirely concealing from him his own ambitious projects. 6. Among the Continental nobles who at an earlier period had visited the English Court was William, Duke of Normandy. The presence around Edward, childless as he was, of so many stout barons from Normandy who acknowledged himself as their true liege-lord, suggested to William's mind the idea of becoming Edward's successor by their aid. This thought ripened into a purpose,, and was carefully fostered. He afterwards based his claim on a direct promise or bequest by Edward, though no clear proof of such was ever given. Besides, it was quite beyond Edward's power to make a personal disposal of his crown. The Duke was prepared, too, to build much on an oath said to have been once taken by his rival Harold, when as a shipwrecked stranger he was in his power on the Continent. He had then sworn to exert all his influence in William's favor. 7. Early in 1066 Edward the Confessor died, and was buried in the famous abbey which he himself had built at West- minster. Harold was immediately elected by the Witena- gemot as his successor, and promptly issued an order that all Normans should leave the kingdom. This edict was in response to a summons from William to acknowledge his sovereignty, in terms of the Confessor's alleged promise and of Harold's own oath. The order for the expulsion of the Norma'is was accompanied by a distinct refusal from Harold to recognize the validity of the oath, on the groiind that it had been exacted from him by force, and in defiance of the laws of hospitality. William at once prepared for invasion. 8. Harold found that he had enemies nearer home. Soon after his accession, his brother Tostig, whom he ht.,d deposed from Battle of the earldom of NorthiTmbria, landed in Yorkshire in al- Stamford liance with Harold Hardrada, King of Norway, and Bridge. Rival claims. 26 THE NORMAN CONQUEST. * * ;i n gained a 8i>eedy victory over the new Earl of Northumbria. Harold marched northward with deci«ive swiftness, and after a sharp struKfrle defeated and slew both Tostig and the Norwegian King at Stam- ford Bridge, in September lOOG. 9. Less than a week after the Battle of Stamford Bridge, William Landing of ^'"''J®'^ *"* Pevensey in Sussex. His army was sixty thou- Wllllam. "?"'^ ^''■{*"^' ^'■c^ers and horsemen. He took up a posi- tion at Hastings, where he awaited Harold's approach. contenting hiniself meanwhile with ravaging the surrounding country! 10. It probably would have been the part of wisdom for Harold to have taken time to collect all the forces xvithin his reach. His brothers Harold's ''^'''^^^ ^^^^y ^"^ ^ cautious policy. But following his advance. !''^" inU'ulses ho rapidly rushed southward, merely paus- mg at a few points to pick up the troops that offered theinselves. Under the impression that he could take the Norman Duke unawares, he left London after a brief day'a rest, with an army but partially reinforced and in a state of great exhaustion from the forced marches which it had made. 11. On October 14th, 1000, at Senlac, eight miles from Hastings, where he had taken up An entrenched position, Harold saw advancing against his worn and weary troops the steel-clad legions of Normandy -archers, infantry, and horse. He kept his men close behind the Battle of *r^f^f ^'"d palisades, and awaited the onset with trud Hastings, -^".^lisli coolness. His own body-guard was composed of citizens of London, while the men of Kent stood im- mediately in front. The Norman archers advanced first, but they were powerless to move the sturdy lines. Then charged the famous Norman cavalry -mighty knights clad in steel from head to foot J^ven these could make no impression on the English, who, under Harold and his brothers Gurth and Leofwin, smote dowi the Idvanc- mg squadrons with their huge battle-axes. William, after restoring with great presence of mind his troops from a panic caused by a report of his death resolved to try stratagem where force had failed. By an artful retreat he drew the English from their strong position, and thus exposed them to an attack by horsemen from every side. Even then It was with great difficulty that he succeeded in breaking through the Ime at a few pomts ; and the result was still in doubt, when a well- aimed arrow p.erced Harold to the brain, and placed victory within the reach of the Normans. A charge of xXorman horse followed the fall of Harold, and swept away the brave remnant that surrounded and tried to protect the body of their King. The English standard was captured, and the consecratp.d banner =pp<- fn "t-^ik i- xr -r. floated over the field of triumph. ' 12 The Witun, under the guidance of the remaining English nobles elected the youthful Edgar, riglitful heir to the throne, as successorof 1 i I 1 THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 27 the slain Harold. Such oppoHition counted for but little to a man like William. In a few days he had marched on London, scattered the forces collected to oppose him, and rendered Resistance all thoughts of resistance hopeless. ^'ain. 13. Archbishop Stigand, Edgar liimself, and the chief nobility, hastened to make submission to William, who, on Christ- mas Day, lOGC, was crowned King of England in West- ^°!^?"f "°" minster Abbey. °^ William. 1. ENGLISH KINGS BEFORE THE CONQUEST. SHOWING UNION OP SAXON AND NORMAN LINKS. Egbert (802-839). Ethelwolf (839-857). Ethelbald (857-860). Ethelrhrt (860-866). ETHELRED I. <866-87i). ALFRED THE GREAT (871-901). Edward the Elder (901-925). ATHELSTAN (925-940). Edmund (940-946). Edred (946-955). EDWy (955-959). EDGAR (959-975). Edward the Martyr (975-979). Ethelred II. (979-1016), married— /. Illfleda. 2. Etmna 0/ Nonnaudy. Edmund Ironside (April to Nov., 1016). Edward the Confessor (1042-1066) = Hdith, daughter of liarl Godwin. Edmund. Edward I Edgar the .^theline. (End of English male Ur ne.) Marijaret - .rrare. = Afakohn HI. of Scotland. Matilda = //<';(>-ji/ /. o/Englatid (uniting English and Norman lines). 2. HOUSE OF GODWIN. Wulfnoth. Earl Cod win ■ Githa, grnndniece ofSiueyn. Edith = Edward the Confessor. HAROLD II. (Jan. -Oct. 1066.) Tostig. Gurth. Leofwia a ,J \ii.i m 28 EARLY ENGLISH INSTITUTIONS AND CUSTOMS. 3. DANISH KINGS OP ENGLAND. SWKYN. Canute (1017-10-55), married— '• ^Usif**- i- l:mma of Normaudv, I ividoiv of f.thclreii 11. ! I 1 Harold I. (1033-1040). Hardicanute (1040- 1042.) 4. NORMAN LINE. Rollo. tlie Sea-Kinjr. Willimn. Richard I. Richard II. I Richard III. 1 Robert (Lc Diable). William (the Conqueror) = ^/wr of Aqxiitaine. Adehi = Step/teit oflilois. Stephen, CHAPTER IX. EARLY ENGUSH INSTITUTIONS AND CUSTOMS. 1. Succession to the kingly office was regulated, partly by descent, The King P^''^^^ ^^ election. There was a recognized royal family professing to trace its origin from the god Woden, but the nation, through its chief council, held itself free to choose froir among the near male relatives of the deceased monarch the most suit- able successor. Generally, a preference was admitted in favor of the eldest son. The sons and brothers of the King were called jEthel- ings, a title which originally was not restricted to members of the royal family. 2. There were two grand divisions of the people, freemen and slaves. Divisions of "^^^^ latter, who were called theoivas, were in some parts the nfto.ols, ^^ *^® country quite numerous. Those who were slaves by birth were descendants of the conquered Celts, and were found in the greatest mmibers in the districts adjacent to Wales and Cornwall. Freeborn Englishmen might incur slavery as a penalty / EARLY ENGLISH INSTITUTIONS AND CUSTOMS. 29 k for debt or as a punishment for crime. Slaves often purchased their freedom ; and the emancipation of a slave by his master was always lawful, and was, happily, not uncommon. 3. Freemen were at first divided into two great classes, eorh or "earls," and ceorls or "churls;" or, as we might say, into "gentle" and "simple." The earl was the highest Classes of officer of the shire, commanding the militia and presid- ^''®®'^®"* ing over the courts of justice. In course of time an inferior order of nobility, called the thanes, came into great prominence. The thane was originally a freenian rendering military service to a superior and receiving his reward in a gift of land. At length the name was given to all who owned a certain quantity of land. Hence the origin of an hereditary nobility based on territorial possessions. The ceorls were the lowest order of freemen, living under the protection of a lord, whose land they cultivated. They were, however, capable of attain- ing to the ownership of soil ; and the possession of the required amount of land raised them to the dignity of thanes. Eventually the ceorls developed into that independent yeomanry of whom England has had such just reason to be proud. The inhabitants of the towns were freemen, on a social equality with the ceorls. 4. The early English King was not a despot. His power to rule was limited by law and by usage. The highest exj^res- sion of the nation's will was given through the supreme ^^^ Wltena- council, the Witenagemdt, or "assembly of wise men." S^iT^ot. This seems to have been at first a popular body, embracing the great mass of freemen; but attendance soon became restricted on most occasions to the earls, the higher thanes, and, after the introduc- tion of Christianity, the archbishops, bishops, and abbots. It regularly met at Easter, Whitsuntide, and Christmas, but held special sessions when required. Besides making laws, it served as the highest court of justice, elected or deposed the King, imposed taxes, and acted as the supreme arbiter of war and peace. 5. Beneath the Witenagemot, justice was administered in three different classes of courts. Of these the lowest was the Hall Moot or Mote, corresponding to the township, oi « smallest division of land. It owes its name to the fact "*oots. of its being held in the hall of the lord. The Hundred Moot, court of the hundred, or territorial division next above the township, was a representative body, each township sending its reeve and other delegates. In the Shire Moot or court of the county, all the thanes had a right to vote. 6. There were two peculiar methods by which persons arraigned as criminals could prove their innocence. By the first, the accused was expected to produce a certain number of Methods, persons, varying according to the nature of the crime, to of trial. 30 WILLIAM I. IIP lif, i& '^^IlXT^c!!:f ^"Y ^'. ^^V"^«««"«e- Those who thus swore purrt oi " ^p'^'^^^^^^'^^d the system itself was called " Com- purgation The 8e«x)nd method, termed "Ordeal," was never used excep when the first had failed. It was supposed to be a direct appeal to God. The person accused M^as required to plunge his arm in boihng water, or to carry red-hot iron in his naked hand If thTin" jured member were not healed within a specified time, guilt was sud- Idlv anTev T 1 W ^ ^""^^'- "^"^^^ "^^ mu'ch aTfirstt modify and eventually to remove, these imperfect and cruel systems. 7. The early Eng ish were a people "given to hospitality," exces- Habits of «'^«^y/»"d of "good cheer," and sometimes indulging the early ''''^'' '"! gluttony and drunkenness. In matters of food English, ^"d drink they desired abundance rather than delicacy statelv castlP. Th !? "?r ' "^ *''" ^™*" *^«*" ^""^ «"« houses and wh le tho^^^^^^^^^^ ' 1 "^' '"'^ "^ '^' "^'^^'^^^ *^^"«« -«re plain, while those of the lower classes were squalid and uncomfortable. Out- door sports received much attention. The early English were honor- ary distinguished for their love of music and poetry ; nor diTIny other 8 alf r' "'f ','"", '" ^'^ development of 'a native literature 8. Great changes took place between the landing of the Jutes General ^""^ ^^^ Norman Conquest. Descriptions are sometimes progress of ^''^^^ '^f ^^' ^^ile true as applied to the barbarous civilization. ?^^^^^ that originally conquered Britain, do great in- W,Hiar« ^r^'u''^ ^""r^^^ Comparatively civilized people whom Wilham and his barons found upon our shores. CHAPTER X. THE NORMAN LINE.— WILLIAM L 1066 to 1087 A.D. 1. William, though known in English history as the Corujueror, Claim to "lun . ^^^"""""^ ""^ England as lawful heir of Edward the throne. *^.^ Confessor. In this view, he took up arms, not to w^» a crown by conquest, but to maintain a title justly his. But as we have already seen, the succession belonged to the ]\ orman Duke neither by natural right nor by English law. He was a foreigner, while Harold, whom he defeated and slew, was an English- man of noble birth, duly chosen by the highest national authority to succeed the childless Confessor. 2. The Conqueror united with great military skill uncommon ««n. ,_ political sagacity and foresight. Hr wns nnf w^-itonlv Character. ^^"^^' *"^ ^^'^ admirers claimed that he never shed blood unnecessarily. In his own province of Normandy, his rule 18 said to have been mild as well as wise. Still, he was ambitious- WILLIAM I. 31 Beginning of reign. and, as the English learned too well, in carrying out the purposes of his ambition, he shrank from no measure however stern. He was determined that no one but himself should be master. 3. William's first care was to establish his authority. The celebrated Tower of London was begun. Winchester and other important points were strengthened. All real power was placed in the hands of the Norman barons. Yet, on the whole, the outlook for the native English was not unpromising. Their laws were renewed, and the charters of their chief towns were legally confirmed. Acting as lawful successor of Edward the Confessor, William claimed the right to confiscate the property of the English nobles and gentry who had taken sides with Harold ; but at first this right was exercised with moderation, and most of the land was for the time left in the hands of its original owners. 4. Early in 1067, six months after his coronation, William visited his native dominions, accompanied, not only by his own barons, but also by many of the chief English nobles and Beginning prelates. During his absence, the misgovernment of his °*^^?"*^^ ^^ regents, Fitz-Osbern, and Odo of Bayeux, his own half- °"'°^®**'S- brother, caused serious outbreaks in England, and hastened his return from Normandy. 5. On William's return he promptly suppressed the risings, which were chiefly confined to Kent and Hertfordshire. He then turned his attention to the west, which had not yet formally acknowledged his authority. Exeter was taken ; and to guard against further trouble in that quarter, several large Nor- man earldoms were founded out of territory confiscated for the purpose. 6. In 1068, a formidable insurrection broke out in the north, under the leadership of the English Earls Edwin and Morcar. These had secured promises of aid from the Welsh, from Ke^^el^lon in the King of Denmark, and from Malcolm of Scotland, ***® "°^'*** with whom the English heir to the throne, Edgar the ^Etheling, had taken refuge. William soon relieved York, which the rebels had be- sieged, and was on his way homeward when tidings reached him of the arrival of a Danish fleet, and the recapture of York (1069). Retracing his steps, he was again victorious ; York fell once more into his posses- sion, and Edgar, with his followers, retreated precipitately into Scot- land. 7. The next year, 1070, the King proceeded to inflict a terrible doom on the north of the country. Almost the whole of Yorkshire and Durham, a tract sixty miles in length, was converted by sword and fire into a^ unpeopled, bar- ren waste. Seventy thousand persons are estimated to have perished. The depopulated district remained a desert for more than half a cen- tury. It is supposed that this cruel act was intended not merely to 3 The west subjugated. Tepplble 17An rVAQ V1#»A .«. 32 WILLIAM I. i i^: I: K It i gratify William's vengeance, but also to make the country less liable t. mcursmns from Scotland. In the same year Malcolm married hdgav 8 Hister, the English Princess Margaret 8. Wilham had now deliberately entered up,m a new policy towards Decisive l^ *^"»^'"^ subjects. They were to be made to feel that measures. "^^^^ ^^^ "^« subjects, conquered and humiliated. No post of honor, influence, or trust was left in English hands Means were taken to remove the chief ecclesiastical officers, from Archbishop Stxgand downward. The English estates generally were cmhscated. and were either granted to Norman barons or added to the Kmg s own domain. 9. The last stand for English freedom was made in the Isle of Ely Final "^^^""^ an English warrior named Hereward for a time struggle. «"cces8fully defied the arms of the Conqueror. Over- the n,nr« f.v'T? ^^ ^'"^^' *^' ^'^""^ Englishman secured terms all fLu^^ ff^vorable on account of his bold resistance. The northern Earls Edwin and Morcar, who took part in the rising, were less for- tunate. Edwin was kUled when on his way to Sco land Morcar joined Herevvard in the Isle of Ely. and was captured ; and he sjl h s las days in a Norman prison. Edgar, the true heir to the crown, :^^^:::^z\z:!^^^ -' -- --^ ^ --^- - 10. England was now conquered. 1071. The ownership of land Effects of ' ^ ""^^'^^ positions had passed over to the conquer- the r'^J^^AT ^^® ^"^^^^^^ '^^ ^*"^® ''^^^ ^"^ ®^'ery part of the Conquest. ^'^^"^- Norman influence p^tevailed everywhere, and the J^rench language became the tongue of polite society trs^e^ofta^rnrg."^^^ ^" ''' '-'' ^^ ''^ ^^"« ^^ ^^' -^ ^ 11. The Norman love of hunting led William to enact very stringent Forest *'.';t^* ^^"^^^ according to which any one who killed a stag laws. without proper authority, was punished with blindness Ko ^ w J ^f ^^^ ^^^ ^^" fondness for the chase, he caused to l^ depopulated and laid out a. a hunting-park, an immense tra^t of ^mcSXlLtrr ^"' ''' ''-' ^^"^^^"^"^ ^'^ --' -^ 12. The Normans established in England a regulation quite common The f u ^,^'T ""^ ^^^ Continent, whereby, on the ringing Cupfew. "^^ ^ "^^^' «-" "ghts had to be extinguished, in summer at «,. ^ ^ '""?*' *'''* '" '^'"*®'' ^* ^ P-^- As the houses were all ' wooden, and regular appliances for putting out fires were unknown, the curfew was simply a measure of wise precaution, and not, as many «nn '.f r "' w f °' ^^ormau oppression. Curfew is a corrup- tionofeoMtTe-/(?M, "fire-cover." ^ 13. Durmg William's later years he experienced feiuch trouble from WILLIAM L • less liable n married 3y towards ofeel that ated. No n English il officerB, ! generally i or added le of Ely, or a time )r. Over- terms all I northern > less for- Morcar he spent le crown, >nsion on of land conquer- irt of the , and the society, 3, and in stringent 3d a stag lindness. aused to tract of res, and common ringing mmer at were all )wn, the bs many corrup- )le from 33 the turbulence of some of his Norman nobles. In 1075, during his absence in Normandy, a plot called the Bridal of Norwich was supi)re8Hed by the prompt action of Lanfranc, the '^^*'"**Jos« Norman prelate who succeeded Stigand as Archbishop of Canter- bury. 14. In 1078, the King's eldest son, Robert, on being refused the rule of Normandy, headed a revolt in that province. William besieged Robert in the Castle of (ierberoi, where ^o**®^'' it is said that father and son, both their visors being drawn, actually came mto personal conflict. Eventually Robert was forced to ask for terms of reconciliation. The King's half-brother, Odo of Bayeux also ff;;^. '""' "»."^^ *^""ble. Odo was a bishop as well as a baron', and Wilham on imprisoning him wittily said: " I seize not the Bishop of Bayeux, but the Earl of Kent " (1082). 15. In William's case, as in that of many others, as riches increased so also did the desire for them. Until his death, he con- tinued to amass treasures by confiscating the estates of ^^vlval of noblemen and gentlemen who displeased him. We even ^*"®fi^®'<*- find him seizing upon the report of a contemplated Danish invasion as a pretext for reviving the odious Danegeld (1084). ' 16. In 1085, William ordered a general survey to be made of the landed property of the kingdom, as a guide for the imposition of taxes. The original record of this survey Domesday still exists. It is called Doviesday Book, probably from ^°°*^- DomusDci r the house of God"), the name of the chapel of Winches- ter Cathedra m which it was kept. It contains a description of every estate in the kingdom as far north as the Tees, with minute details L o ownership^ different kinds of land, stock, mining and fishing privi- leges, etc. Domesday Book is of great historical value, and is a strik- ing evidence of the thorough manner in which William caused public business to be transacted. 17. William died in September 1087, near Rouen, in France, where he was carrying on war with Philip I., to whom he him- self, as Duke of Normandy, owed feudal allegiance The ^he Con- French King had jeered at William's corpulency, and ^"erop's perhaps also had interfered in the affairs of his dukedom **®*^*'- William's troops had captured and sacked Mantes, a small town on the heme As he was entering on horseback, his horse stumbled on the hot a^shes and inflicted on the rider an injury from which he never recovered. William had not been throughout life without a strong i^Ta^H f.'f ^r' ^^'''^ if^creased in strength as death drew near. It LT\l r't"' i-ccollection of iiis cruelties filled him with remorse, andrhrrV hi^TJ''''^rx^V"' P""^*""^" ^^ many pious benefactions Senlac. '' ^He founded Battle Abbey on the battle-field at ^ 34 WILLIAM II. 18. To his eldest son, Robert, the Conqueror bequeathed Normandy; His wer, and not always very scnipulotiH aH to the means by which he carried out his cndH. Thoiigh Iuh i^rsonal habitH were not altogether irreproachable, ho lived a purer l^'o than hirt brother William. It niUHt always be mentiimed to his praiHo that l»e laboretl hard to promote tiie spread of knowledge among his mib- joctH : and that, while ho was a Htern ruler, the laws enacted for the protecticm of the common people were faithfully administered. 3. Aware that his claim to the cr. ns. Tho signed to bs known resenting • zier, was revenues ishops in e lord of lendence )nsecrate ented to yield tlie right of investiture, AnHolm agreed to waive his objection to homage. 7. In 1120 Henry oxperioncod a heavy blow in the death of his only H*tn, Prince William, then in tho eighteenth year of his age. The yoimg rrince was returning from Normandy in a '***'*' o' vessel called the IVhitc Skip, liy bad steering, caused it wmr** is supposed by hard drinking among tho crew, the White ™' Shi/} was wrecked in tho Itace of Aldornoy, only (me man being "left to toll tho tale." The Prince, with the courage of his race, sacrificed his own life in brotherly efforts to nave that of his half-sister, tho CounteM of I'orcho. It is said that Henry never smiled again after receiving tho sad news that ho was loft without a s(m to succeed him r)n the thnme. 8. The nation was now threatened with the dangers of a disputed succession. Two years before Prince William's death, Henry had lost his amiable and virtuous queen Matilda, ***"<*. called by +,he English "Good (^ueen Maud." His subsequent uni(m with Adelais of Louvain proving childless, he dotenninod to secure the succession for his daughter Maud, widow of the German Emperor, Henry V. Thf)ugh the reign of a woman was contrary to both Norman and English precedent, Henry was able to obtain from the barons thrice-repeated oaths of fealty to his daughter, and a general consent to her succession from the whole nation. In 1127 he caused the future Queen to be given in marriage to Geoffrey Plantagenet, eldest son of the Count of Anjou. Anjou was contig- uous to Henry's province of Maine, and this marriage was designed to turn a possible enemy into a powerful friend. 9. Henry died in 1135, while on a visit to Normandy. His death is said to have been caused by eating too heartily of lampreys. His daughter Maud was left by his will heir to both England and Nor- mandy, CHAPTEE XIII. NORMAN LINE CONTINUED.— STEPHEN. 1130 to 1164 A.D. 1. Among the powerful Norman nobles who had surrounded Henry, and had sworn fealty to his daughter Maud, was his nephew Stephen, Earl of Blois, son of the Conqueror's daughter Adela. Stephen had received many favors from his uncle, in the Stephen, shape of lands, castles, and honors, while his brother ^p,***. ®^ Henry had been created Bishop of Winchester, He * was a knight of manly bearing, having much in his personal accom- plishments to attract the Nonnan nobles, to whom the prospect of being ruled over by a woman was anything but pleasing. ^r If 38 STEPHEN. liilr I? «i 2. Hastily taking part in the ceremony of the late King's interment Stephen ^*®I'^.'^" ^"^^ «« tune in having himself proclaimed as his seizes the ^^^f^f «r- The fact that the usurper was the nearest cpown. ^'^"'^ "eir to the throne weighed much with the barons • ^ , , . ^"^^"^^ ^^« brother, the Bishop of Winchester, exerted a powerfu influence m gaining the favor of the clergy. Normandy cesTor ^^^"'""^ '""" ^^^"^^l^dging Stephen as Henry's sue 3. The possession of the royal treasures enabled Stephen to confirm He stpeng- , f, ^^'f ""l *^^ ^^^P*^« ^^ dispensing generous gifts. He thens his *«^^<^wed his predecessors in issuing a charter full of position, f ncouraging promises. The clergy were to be protected nfinnl« f •''' T ^^^^f j^^^i^^l ^^ghts and privileges, the common people to enjoy a larger liberty, and the nobles to be permitted to erect and fortify castles freely on their own estates. This last conces- sion proved m the end a great curse to the country. It enabled the barons to establish little kingdoms of their own, and thus prevented the spread oi universal law and order. 4. Maud's uncle, David I. of Scotland, was the first to espouse her Battle of r"^®* ^^""^^^ *^"^® ravaged Northumberland, which the ef fanned by right of his wife. MatUda, heiress of the Standard. ^'^^ of Northumberland, he advanced in 1138 into .« • ^ V. 7''^^'''^^ ®' w^ere he was met by a large army raised and equipped by the. northern barons. At Northallerton was fought what s known in history as the Battle of the Standard. The name is derived from the consecrated banners, floating from a lofty mast, under which 7^Z7^ ^''"^^ ^"^"^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^^-* ^^'^ f-«' The undis ciphned Scots could not resist the onset, fired as it was by the inspira- ion of religious zeal. David was decisively defeated, losing twX thousand of his men^ Northumberland was, however, confLed on David s son. Prince Henry. 5. The next year Maud herself landed in England with a small Evil times, ^^"f "f kmghts, and, aided by her half-brother, Robert, K.. X J 7 ? Gloucester, tried to retake the crown that had been wrested from her by force. Meantime Stephen's policy of allo'^ Sh'utuointr- "!' T'" '^^ ^^^^^ *« b«- bit'^ier fn^L to L^ But S^ .T '^'Tf ^!^f' "^'"^'^^ *^^ ^^^«»« b-de defiance cLck theevl H T "^.^^^f .^'"* imprudence in his efforts to and Lincoln .^^/«f ^^^^^ ^^ their castles the bishops of Salisbury Wmsdf in a'nT" 1 "^kT ' T'^''^'^''' ""^ "^^«^' ^^^ *hus embroiled ^Z^^r^rT^ *'^ ^^^^^^' - -^^^^ ^^« «- ^-ther Henry 6. A dreary period of civil war followed. The fighting was done chiefly Civil War. by mercenaries, the barons, secure in their strongholds, takmg httle part in it. At length, in 1141, Stephen STEPHEN. 39 was defeated and captured at the Battle of Lincoln, and Maud came into possession of the crown. 7. The Queen was unable to retain the advantage she had won. She refused to recognize the old English laws, and to release Stephen on terms which would have been very ™*"" fails, advantageous to herself. She also alienated the clergy, and Stephen's brother Henry was again arrayed against her. His influence moved the people of London in the captive King's behalf. Robert of Gloucester, the chief reliance of Maud, was captured. In a few months, by an exchange for Robert, Stephen was released, and the war with all its horrors was renewed, 1141. 8. Maud managed to maintain a doubtful foothold in England for a number of years. At the end of the first year after the renewal of hostilities, Stephen obliged her to evacuate Oxford. Thence she betook herself to the wetiern part Maud of the kingdom, where with a band of trusty followers ^®^*''6s to she remained until 1148, when she retired to Normandy. o^nianay* 9. By this time her son, Prince Henry of Anjou, was approaching manhood, and was already one of the most powerful territorial rulers on the Continent. Maud had re- P^^nce linquished Normandy in his behalf. He had already "®"*'y* succeeded to liis paternal domain of Anjou and Maine. By marriage with Eleanor of France he had acquired Guienne, Poitou, and Aqui- taine. Moreover, Henry had powers of intellect and will which did much to strengthen the influence gained by such large posses- sions. 10. In 1153 Kenrf invaded England, in vindication of his mother's rights and his own. A short time before, the death of his son. Prince Eustace, left Stephen without an heir. Henry This prepared the way for an arrangement by which the kingdom was happily saved from the renewal of civil strife. Henry consented that Stephen should occupy the throne for the term of his natural life, on the acknowledgment of his own right to the succession. 11. A year afterwards (1154), Stephen died. In itself, the ambition which prompted him to aspire to the throne is not sur- prising. He was not only the laost powerful of the Nor- man barons, but he was also the direct male representative of the Conqueror's line. Apart from his usurpation, which involved the violation of his oath of fealty to Maud, his personal character stood high. In both prowess and politeness he was a model of Norman chivalry. His reign, however, with its fourteen years of civil strife and bloodshed, was a blank ih EngUsh History, so far as industrial and intellectual progress was concerned. invades England. Stephen's death. 40 til Hi f t flj I ii II' GOVERNxMENT AND SOCIETY. NORMAN LINE. /,^^o"r'^''^" I- (The Conqueror) (1066-1087) worried Matilda o/Fianders. Robert (Duke of Nonnandy). William (rnianH broujjlit into Knf?land a wtylo of architecture much Huperior to that which had previouHly i)i'ovailiid. Kroni this period many HI )londid cathedralw and abbeys < hito tlioir orijfin. The cantloH, too, of the n«)bleH were ohibo- rate .structures— strong, massive, and imposhig. Th(\y wero at once fortresses and hinises. Between the u|)per com-t and the lower was the kirp, where tlie baron and his family lived in lordly style : below all was the (Untjon or la-isoji. Thu houses of the connnon i)eoplo showed little improvement over those of the preceding period. 8. The Normans ("Northmen") were closely allied in race to the English whom they had compiered. They wore descend- ants of a band of northern sea-rovers, who at an early l)eriod subdued and colonized the north-western part of France. These fierce freebooters, when bnmght into contact with Roman civilization in their new home, laid aside their own national speech and customs, and adopted the language, laws, and religion of tho i)eople whom they had subjugated. Thus in process of time they became one of tho mosti refined and cultured races in Europe. In matters of dress and diet, they introduced into England new and greatly impi-oved standards of taste and delicacy. 0. As rulers of England, the Normans naturally brought their Language, the so-called Norman-French, into use in the schools, the courts, the church, as well as in their own palaces. Language, rpj^^^^^^jj ^jj^^jiy permanently to supplant the Anglo- Saxon tongue spoken by the English people, Norman-French has left its mark on om- national si>eech. This is seen particularly in words cimnected with field-s[)orts, legal matters, and military affairs. 10. For a cimsidei-ablo time the two races in England remained essentially distinct. The first signs of intermixture ap- Minghng p^j^^ed in the towns and among the middle-class folk races, ggj^grally. To this day, tho nobleman boasts of his Nor- man blood, while the peasantry are regarded as purely English. CHAPTER XV. PLANTAGENET LINE: HOUSE OF ANJOU.— HENRY IL 1164 to 1189 AD. 1. The accession of Henry of Anjou was welcomed by the entire nation, with the exception of a few personal adherents of the late monarch. Even these gave no outward signs of dissatisfaction. HENRY II. 43 The fj 4 The Plan- tagenets. Character of Henry. Reform of abuses. Henry ia known in EnKliHh hirttory an firHt of tlio PhintaitvncU. crciHt of the Anjou lino waH a Hprig of Spanibli broom, called in LwXm, itUinta ijcnida ; in Yvandi, fiantayehit. Honco tho family Hurnamo. 2. Henry wan crowned at WoHtminster in Docombor 1154. Though but twenty-one years of age, he had already given conHi)ictiouH proofs of govorniug ability. Hiw intellect waH clear, and hin will Htrotig. His ambition waH tempered by caution. He generally ruled with iirudence and impartiality, though an ungovernable tem])er sometimcH led him to commit acts which no one can defend. Unfortunately, too, hin word could not bo relied on, when truth would seem to be opposed to his own intercHts. 3. Though a feudal vassal of tho King of France, Henry, even before ho became King of England, was a more powerful ruler than his liege-lord. The French provinces then \mder his con- trol have already been mentioned. To those he after- ^^q^I^ wards added Nantes and Brittany, making himself mas- ter of more than a third of France. 4. The new King at once sought to reform the abuses which had grown up during the civil war. The Earl of Leicester, an able man, was appointed chief justiciary, and was endowed with ample powers. All mercenary troojjs were sent out of tho kingdom. More than a thousand castles, which had enabled powerful nobles to bid defiance to law and order, were dis- mantled. The coinage of the realm was promi)tly restored to a state of purity, and strenuous efforts were made to revive industry and commerce. >^ 5. A year after Henry's accession, the office of chancellor was con- ferred on Thomas Becket, Archdeacon of Canterbury. The new Chancellor was one of the most remarkable men of his ^j^^^^^^g time. By eevere study at Oxford, Paris, and Bologna, gg^j^gj^ lie had made himself master of both civil and ecclesiasti- cal law. He possessed excellent natural abilities, while travel and society had imparted a marvellous ease and polish to his manners. In Becket the King ' mnd a powerful aid in his efforts to reform abuses. 0. In 1161, the death of the aged Theobald, a saintly prelate who had in Stephen's reign been banished for his fidelity to the cause of Maud, left vacant the see of Canterbury. A year after, Becket was appointed as Theobald's successor. Foreseeing diffi- culties between the Church and the King, he accepted the i)osition with reluctance. As Chancellor he had lived in a style of great splendor. Treasures and estates had been lavished on him with a profusion which enabled him to vie with the King himself in display. But with his new dignity all was changed. His habits became as simple and austere as they had been showy and extravagant. He released him- Becket an archbishop. 44 HENRY II. Disputes be- tween King and clergy. Constitu- tions of Clarendon. / self from all secular pursuits, laboriously devoted himself to the duties of his sacred office, and set a wortliy example of pious zeal to all the clergy of the Icingdom. 7. Meantime the King had resolved to reduce the power of the ecclesiastical or spiritual courts. No member of the clerical order could be brought to trial before a civil court ; and as the spiritual courts could not inflict the punishment of death, Henry claimed that, as compared with laymen, clergy- men accused of capital offences were unduly privileged. The bishops and clergy, on the other hand, maintained the right of being tried by members of their • ■ , orders ; and to Henry's surprise, his new Archbishop placed hin.- • ;he head of his oi)ponents. 8. Soon a case occurred in which it was alleged that a spiritual court had dealt too leniently with an offender. Henry determined to strike a decisive blow. He demanded from each bishop an explicit answer to the question : " Will you observe the ancient customs of the realm ? " They answered cautiously, "Yes, saving the privileges of our own order." The King could not have reasonably expected any other response ; but his temper was aroused, and he at once summoned a great council of prelates and barons to deal with the question. This met at Clarendon in Wiltshire, in January 11G4. Sixteen articles, since known as the Constitutions of Clarendon, were submitted and agreed to. They pro- fessed to be "£(,ncient customs," but some of them certainly bore the aspect of innovations. Their general effect was to limit the power of the clergy. Indirectly all clergymen accused of crime were brought under the jurisdiction of the ordinary civil courts. 9. At the Council of Clarendon, Becket seemed to yield to the King's wishes. Soon afterward, however, on reflection, he re- Becket an ^'®^*®^ ^^ ^^^ compliance, abjured his promise to obey peals to *^® Constitutions, referred the matter to the Poi^e, and the Pope, craved forgiveness for having weakly yielded up the rights of the Church. Henry at once confiscated the Archbishop's estates, called upon him to return many of his own former • gifts, and generally treated him with such harshness that he was obliged to flee to France, where he spent six years in exile. At length, through the good offices of Pope Alexander III., a reconciliation was effected between the King and Becket, and the latter returned to his post at Canterbury. 10. Shortly before Becket's return, the Archbishop of York and several of the bishops had given ecclesiastical offence by the coro- Death of "*^^"" ^^ Prince Henry, the King's eldest son, who was Becket. *^^"^ designated as Vice-roy, or King-associate. This act was condemned as a usurpation of Becket's function. HENRY II. 45 Sentences of suspension were pronounced against the offending prelates, and to an noimce these was Becket's first act after his return to Canter- bury. The King's wrath burst out afresh, and he hastily exclaimed among his courtiers in Normandy, "Will none of the cowards I have brought up at court free me from this turbulent priest ? " These were but the hot and hasty words of sudden anger, but, alas ! they fell on willing ears. Four knights, whose names have been carefully pre- served, Reginald Fitz-urse, William Tracy, Hugh de Moreville, and Richard Brits, bound themselves to repair to England and literally fulfil the King's request. Reaching Canterbury, they entered the palace and demanded of Becket a prompt suspension of the sentences against his brother prelates. When the Archbishop firmly refused, the knights retired to arm themselves for the deed of violence. Mean- while Becket's attendants had conveyed him to the cathedral, where vespers were being performed. The first efforts of the murderers were directed to the dragging of their victim from the sacred edifice ; but these having failed, they did not hesitate to stain the very altar with his blood. Becket died with martyr-like courage, repeating, as he awaited the third blow, which was to sever head from body, the im- mortal words, " Into thy hands, O Lord, I commend my spirit." The character of Becket has been variously drawn, according to the religious bias of historians ; but none can deny him the praise of personal virtue, of extraordinary fidelity to his convictions, and of an heroic death. Henry was naturally shocked beyond measure when the terrible tid- ings reached him. He despatched an envoy to the Pope, to assure the Pontiff at once of his innocence and his sorrow. As years rolled on, the load of his grief became heavier, until at last he visited the martyr's shrine in person, and there made public expiation for his hasty words. 11. The annexation of Ireland to the English Crown took place shortly after the death of Becket. In the year 1171 the King landed on that island with a large army, and at once received the formal submission of the Irish chieftains. Henry based his claim to the sov eignty of Ireland on a grant conveyed to him in 1156 by Pope Adrian IV., the only English- man who ever filled the Papal See. This decree, or hull, has been generally accepted as an authentic document, though some modern historians regard it as an invention to give color to Henry's usurpa- tion. Ireland was at the time of Henry's invasion divided inio five principal states or kingdoms : Leinster, Ulster, Munster, Connaught, and Meath. The King of Leinster, Diarmaid, or Dermot, having been expelled for carrying off the wife of another chieftain, had sought help from Henry, who granted a general license to his barons to espouse the cause of Dermot. Some earlier adventurers were followed in 1170 by Richard de Clare, Earl of Pembroke, who captured Dublin, and by marrying Dermot's daughter Eva, succeeded him as King of Leinster. Conquest of Ireland. 46 HENRY II. Henry's sons. The growinpr power (if Pembroke, who is better known by his surname of Stronybmo, induced Henry to assert his own superior authority. Strongbow did homage with tlio other chieftains. In 1172 Henry re- turned to Normandy, leaving Ireland nominally annexed to England, but with the power of the native rulers practically unbroken. 12. Henry's numerous ijossessions and his large family made the division of his dominions a matter of much difficulty. He arranged that on his death, his eldest son, Henry, should have England, Normandy, Anjou, Maine, and Touraine ; to his second son, Richard, he assigned Guienne and Poitou; Geof- frey, the third, was to have Brittany ; while Ireland was reserved as the patrimony of John, his youngest son. As Ireland was still in the hands of its native rulers, John received the not inappropriate surname of Sanstei'ir, or "Lack-land." 13. In his later years Henry suffered much annoyance from the un- filial conduct of his sons. The elder Princes, Henry, Richard, and Rebellion of ^®^^^®y' demanded immediate possession of their shares his sons. ^^ ^^^ paternal dominions ; and, when their requests were refused, they fled to France. Their mother, Queen Elea- nor, whose affection the ^ing had estranged by his cruel and licentious conduct, sided with the Princes. The King of France also took up the cause of Prince Henry, who was his son-in-law. The opportunity was embraced by William the Lion, King of Scotland, to attack England from the north. 14. Henry proved more than a match for all his opponents. His sons were soon compelled to submit. In passing from Normandy to Scotland, the King paused at the tomb of Saint ThomavS at Canterbury, and performed the acts of penance to which we have previously alluded. On the following morning he received the welcome tidings that the Scottish King had been defeated and captured at Alnwick. William was compelled to yield the northern fortresses in his possession, and to perform an act of formal homage. 15. In 1183 the Princes renewed hostilities against their father. These, however, were suspended by the death of Prince Henry the same year. In 1186 Geoffrey was killed in a tournament. In 1188 Richard, supported by Philip Augustus, King of France, obliged his father to sue for peace, and acknowledge his right to the succession. 16. On finding that his youngest and favorite son John had shared with Richard in the guilt of rebellion, Henry experienced a shock from which he never recovered. He gave full vent to his rage and disappointment, and the violence nf hip- excitement brought on an attack of illness from which he died in July 1189, in the fifty-eighth year of his age. The Kin? victorious. Troubles renewed. Death of TT 12. RICHARD I. 47 is surname authority. Henry re- 5 England, 1. made the anged that 3 England, his second on; Geof- eserved as still in the e surname •m the un- hard, and leir shares uests were leen Elea- licentious lok up the unity was : England nts. His mandy to t Thomas 3nance to following King had ipelled to rm an act ir father. :>{ Prince ;illed in a y Philip Bace, and id shared a shock vent to le nf his which he Social progress. 17. T)esi)ite the numerous troubles of his reign, Henry did much to advance the i)ro'Tre88 of his i)e<)ple. To provide for the proper dis- pensing of justit ), the country was divided into six cir- cuits, through which judges travelled at stated periods. Trial by ordeal and wager of battle were discouraged, .'ind a method involving the jmnciple of our modern jury system came into use. Caaes were submitted to the decision of four knights and twelve freemen; who, however, unlike our jurymen, decided according to their own knowledge, rivther than on the testimony of others. In general, it may be said that Henry's administration of affairs was in the interest of the common people, as distinguished from that of the barons. CHAPTER XVI. PLANTAOENET LINE: HOUSE OF ANJOU. 1189 to 1199 A.D. -RICHARD L 1. Richard, the eldest surviving son of Henry I., was crowned at Westminster in September 1189. The new King was a bold feudal soldier, whose whole nature was inflamed with the love of military glory. Hence he was called Cceur de j j'^** Lion, "the lion-hearted." His passion for war kept *-»on. him continually abroad, and his subjects knew little of him save through his repeated demands for money to support his military enterprises. 2. A terrible massacre of the Jews marred the occasion of Richard's coronation. Anxious to secure the King's protection for their persons and property, a number of those unfortu- Jews. nate people presented themselves to give assurance of their loyalty. A wild rumor, from some uncertain source, spread abroad that the King had ordered the destruction of Jews wherever found, and before the fury of the populace could be restrained, many were actually slain. A still more melancholy tragedy occurred in the burning of York Castle, when nearly five hundred Jews who had fled thither for refuge perished in the flames. 3. Before his father's death, Richard had planned to accompany Philip Augustus of France on the Third Crusade. On his accession, he at once proceeded to raise the necessary ''^® Third funds for the expedition. His father had left a well-filled ^^"^*^®- treasury, and he obtained further sums by the sale of lands in posses- sion of the Crown. The King of Scotland paid a handsome price for release from vassalage ; while the Jews, then as now the bankers of Europe, were glad to buy for themselves freedom from further trouble. Richard sailed from Southampton late in 1189, leaving the bishops of Durham and Ely guardians of the kingdom. He met his ally Philip 4 48 UICHARD I. AngTiHtiiH at Vozelay, in Burpnindy, cm tho 29th of Jnno 1190. Tlieir nnit«(i forccH lunonntt'd to ono hundrod thounand mon. Tln^y ajfreod to moot at MoHsitia in Sicily, t(»\vard which phico each took a different route. 4. Tho alHod Kingw Hpont tho winter at MoHsina, not withoiit Horiotm quarrols. Richard waH under ongaj^oindnt to marry Philip's HiHtor, but having boconio dcoi)ly attached to Berongaria, PrincosH of Navarro, ho roiuidiatod tho contract. Other Beron- garia. matters incroaHod tho diHagreoment, which, liowevor, was Further victories. finally Hottlod, and in the si)ring tho Crusaders ronov ed their expedi- tion. Philip proceeded at once to Palewtine ; Richard delayed in order to Hubduo Cy])ruH, tho ruler of which had on a former occaHion been g^lilty of rude treatment to his beloved Berongaria. Tho island was conipletely subjugated. Before leaving Cyprus, Richard was man*ied to lierongaria, who is noted aa the only Queen of England who never set foot in tho kingdom. 5. On reaching Palestine, Richard found Philip engaged in besieg- ing Acre, one of tho chief Saracen fortresses. His powerful aid enabled the Crtisaders soon to reduce that city, and a fair prospect opened uj) of the capture of Jerusalem itself. G. Philip returned hoine, loavi]>g Richard to accomplish alone the hope of the whole Christian world. The heroic King defeated Saladin, tho greatest of the Mohammedan generals, first at Aske- lon and then at Jaffa. But as regards the great object of the campaign, he was doomed to disappointment. Jerusalem was destined to remain in possession of tho infidels. Even after being in sight of the holy city, Richard was compelled to abandon his purtM>se and to make a triice with Saladin ; not, however, without securing for his English subjects free access to tho spots so dear to the pilgrim heart. 7. At the siege of Acre, Richard had dealt harshly with Leopold, Duke of Austria, going so far as to beat him with his own hands. While in the dominions of the latter, on his way back to England, the King was arrested by the Duke, and de- livered over to the Emperor of Germany for a sum equal The Emperor kept the King a close prisoner for upwards At length the secret of Richard's captivity leaked out, and, at the instance of the Pope, the Emperor agreed to release him on the payment of a sum considerably larger than that paid for his person. 8. During his four years' ab. mce from England, his brother John had striven to excite Richard's subjects to revolt. The King, how- ever, generously forgave the mean-spirited traitor. He rernained but two months in England, and in mid- summer 1194 passed over to Normandy, where he spent the remainder of his days in vexatioas and fruit- Captivity of Richard. to £60,000. of a year. Return and death of Richard. JOHN. 49 lesB RtrifoH with Iuh old ally and enemy, rhilii> AugiiHttiH of France. At lenjftli, in Ajtiil 111)9, the chance arrow of a I'rench Holdior inflicted a fatal wound on this "hero of a thouHand fightH." Richard diwl without iHHue, having HiKjnt in England but hIx uiontliH out of Iuh reign of ten yearH. Ho wan a military adventurer rather than a King, CHAPTER XVII. PLANTAOENBT LINE: HOUSE OF ANJOU.- 1199 to 1216 A.D. -JOHN. Accession and character of John. Neither the ance of Arthur. 1. Shortly before hiH death, Richard had nominated as his successor his yotmgest and only surviving brother, John. This nomination was ratified by a great council of prelates and barons held at Northampton, and in May 1199 John was solemnly crowned at Westminster. According to the present law of succession, Richard's lineal heir was Arthur, Duke of Brittany, son of his elder brother Geoffrey. J ohn proved to be one of the worst Kings that ever sat on a throne, life of man nor tlie honor of woman had any value in his eyes. He was false, cruel, and revengeful. One of his first acts was to divorce his wedded wife, Isabel (or Hawise) of Gloucester, and to marry Isabel of Angouleme, who had been solemnly betrothed to the Earl of March. 2. Tlie Nonnan barons of Anjou, Maine, and Touraine were indis- I)Osed to acknowledge John as their ruler. The French King, Philip Augustus, also 8ui»ported the claims of Prince Arthur. A temiwrary settlement was effected in 1200, but in 1202 open hostilities broke out, which resulted in the capture of Arthur. The young Prince dropped at once from public sight, and John was promptly, and no doubt truly, judged guilty of the crime 6i murder. 3. As Duke of Normandy, John was a vassal of Philip Augustus, who immediately called on him to explain the disappearance of Arthur. On his failing to do so, all his Norman posses- t « * sions were declared forfeited to the French Crown. jjQp,^an Rouen, the chief fortress of Normandy, soon surrendered; possessions. and in 1204 all of her original Norman possessions, except the Channel Islands, were permanently lost to England. Guienne and Poitou, the marriage portion of Queen Eleanor, still remained connected with the English Crown. 4. The next humiliation of England arose out of a quarrel on ecclesi- astical matters. The monks of Christ Church, Canterbury, claimed tho arAa tnrrVif of ■nriTininn.f.inDf f.Vip n.rnbbiahon. This claim '"' _j..w I.- _ !-• - The was disputed by the bishops of the province. When j^^gp^igi;. the matter was referred to the Pope, Innocent vdsely Ir^ 50 JOHN. TI fl Submission of Jolin. paBsed by tho nnniinftOH of both diHpnting jtartioK, luul n,|)i)ointod to the vacant hoo Stephen Lanj^on, an KngliHhuian, and one of the firBt HcholarH in Enrojuj, The nomination was acoptod by the monkn, but waw resented angrily by John, wlio refuHed to recognize Langton as archbishop, and deprived him of the revenuoH of the nee. .fofm jiIho defied the authority of the Churcli in other ways. Innocent III. then placed the kingdom under an Interdict. This ecclesiastical term, de. rived fr a formal demand was made on the King by the barons to redress the grievances of the nati(jn. An answer was promised at the ensuing Easter. The interval was spent by John in vain intrigues to separate the clergy fronj the rest of the people, and thus to conquer his enemies in detail. Easter came, but the King's answer was not ready. The barons marched on London, with " The army of God and of holy Church " inscribed on their banners. John yielded, and met the barons at Kunnymede, a broad meadow on the Thames between Staines and Windsor. There he was forced to subscribe to the memorable docu- ment which is known in English history as Mmjna Carta, "the Great Charter ; " which, while confinning the ancient rights of the nobility and clergy, forms •the basis of the present liberties of the English l)eople. Two copies of the Charter, as old as John's reign, are i)re- served in the British Museum. Some parts of Magna Carta lost their importance with the decay of the feudal system, but its essential principles are the great framework of our Constitution. It has been ratified by succeeding sovereigns nearly forty times. It imi>osed a wholesome restraint on the power of the King by enacting that no tax should be levied without the sanction of the Great Council of the kingdom. Clauses also were introduced which tended to improve the condition of the serfs or villeins. But perhaps the most important words of Magna Carta are these: "No freeman shall be t«ken or imprisoned, or deprived of his property, or exiled, or otherwise punished, except by the lawful judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land; nor shall justice and right be sold, refused, or delayed to any one." 11. The Charter was wrung from John by force, and he did not intend to carry out its provisions, unless compelled to do so. He at once applied to the Pope for a bull annulling the Charter ; but without waiting for suclj, authority he broke his word in a most shameless manner. Instead of keeping his engagement, he raised an armv nf mor/^cinor.iQa n-nA »>>.«« i i i.-, devastate his own kingdom from south to north. The perplexed barons now turned to the King of France for help, ^.^o Faithless- ness of John, 52 HENRY III. sent over his son Louis, with the promise of the English crown, could he win it. 12. John was in Lincolnshire when ho heard that Louis had landed in England. Marching southward, he had to pass the sea coast of the Wash. A sudden rising of the tide swept away his baggage and royal treasures. Wasted by passion and trouble, his frame could not stand the shock of this disaster. He was thrown into a fever, from which he died on the 19th of October 1216. John's death. :r ;: CHAPTEE XVIIT. PLANTAGENET LINE: HOUSE OF ANJOTT.- 1216 to 1272 A.D. -HENRY III. 1. The death of John was followed by an outburst of national feeling, which led all classes to rally round his young of naUonal ^^^ Henry. The Prince's claim to the throne was sup- feeling, ported even by the barons who had been fighting under the banner Qf Louis of France. Henry was but nine years old, and the kingdom was placed under the regency of th« EarL of Pembroke, who was a wise and energetic ruler. At the Battle of Lincoln, in May 1217, he utterly broke the power of Louis and drove him from the kingdom. About the same time, Hubert de Burgh annihilated a French fleet near Dover. Louis then made peace and went home. 2. After Pembroke's death in 1219, De Burgh acted as Regent, till 1223, when Henry at the age of eighteen assumed the reins of government in person. De Burgh continued to act as his chief adviser, though his mind was much under the influ- ence of Peter des Roches, Bishop of Winchester, a native of Poitou. As Henry grew to manhood, he developed a character of great weakness. Mild in manners and amiable in disposition, he allowed himself to be swayed by unworthy favorites, who had their own selfish ends to serve. The first forty years of his reign have been pronounced the dreariest period in all English history. 3. In 1280, Henry was induced to engage in a war with France for the recovery of the Norman provinces lost through the cowardice of his father. The attempt was vain. Nor- mandy was not reconquered, while the English hold on Poitou and Guienne was very much weakened. 4. The un Charactep of Henry. War with France. Cl^1fir*l^soa fill TV cci. rr i L-l 1 "P"" T Ua «T ,i. J.1 — r_n 1 mil illlQ Peter des Roches. disgrace of De Burgh. Des Roches then became chief favorite and counsellor. His career was brief. His policy of filling all possible offices with his fellow-country- HENRY III. 53 Eleanor of Provence. Oppressive levies. men from Poitou excited universal disgust. The feeling became so strong that he was eventually banished. .5, In 1236 Henry married Eleanor of Provence. The Queen, hav- ing great influence over her husband, unwisely followed the course that brought Des Roches to disgrace. Swarms of her countrymen were brought over, and soon monopo- lized all the chief positions in Church and State. 6. The King allowed himself to be led into several unwise military projects, the chief of which aimed at gaining the crown of Sicily for his second son, Henry. The cost of these preparations, the expenses incurred in his former war with France, and the vast sums squandered on foreign favorites, obliged him to resort to oppressive and illegal means of raising money. In 12.53 his necessities compelled him to convoke the Great Council of the realm in order to obtain supplies, which were granted only when he had solemnly ratified Magna Carta. In 1258 more money was needed ; but the barons were deaf to his appeals. They met, clad in complete armor, and after a tumultuous interview with the King, adjourned from Westminster to meet at Oxford in June of the same year (1258). The name of mad Parliament has been given to this meeting, which was held at the time and place appointed. 7. At the head of the barons was Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester. Though a foreigner, he was completely iden- tified with the cause of the English nobles, and, beyond most men of his time, had broad sympathies with popular freedom. He was brother-in-law of the King, having married Henry's sister Eleanor, widow of the younger Earl of Pembroke. Seldom has a cause had an abler leader than that of the barons in their conflict with the King. 8. Henry was obliged to accept the appointment of a Commission of twenty-four barons, with Montfort as president, to reform abuses. It presented a report, the terms of which both the King and his eldest son. Prince Edward, swore to maintain. The reforms thus agreed on are known as the Provisions of Oxford. The leading provisions were, that the free- holders of every county should annually elect a sheriff ; that they should be represented in the Great Council of the nation ; and that the Council should meet regularly thrice a year. The knights of the county, or " shire," thus brought into the Council, mark the origin of county members sitting in the House of Commons. 9. The Provisions of Oxford did not secure peace to the country. Some think tiiat tlic barons did not use their new power wisely, and that they made unjust demands of the King. Henry's cause was embraced by a leading nobleman, the Earl of Gloucester, and was made still stronger by a Simon de Montfort. Provisions of Oxford. The Barons* War. IIS fll !j» m > i li 54 EDWARD I. release from the Provisions of Oxford, obtained on appeal to the Pope. Montfort fled to France, but returning soon after, he met the Kin<' in open battle at Lewes (1264). 10. After the battle, which resulted in the defeat and capture of The Mise ^*^"^y' ^^^ ^^^^ Edward made an agreement with Mont- of Lewes. ^"^* *^ ^^^ ®^®*^* *^*^^ ^^^ disputes should be referred for settlement to a Parliament. The Great Charter was to be observed, and Prince Edward himself detained in custody as a hostage. This compact is known as the Mise of Leives {mise is old French for "treaty"). About this time the name Parliament- from the French ^r/er, ''to speak "—came to be applied to the Great Council. 11. Simon de Montfort, who was now King in all but in name, pro- Origin of ^^^^^^ ^ summon a Parliament. This met in 1205. To House of ^*^^^"^hen himself, and to place the liberties of the people Commons. ^^ ^ broader basis, he called, in addition to prelates, barons, arfU knights of the shire, representatives of the boroughs or towns. Though the knights and members for the boroughs did not yet sit apart from the barons, the House of Commons may be fairly said to date from this Parliament, and to owe its main feature to Montfort. 12. Montfort's supremacy was destined to be short-lived. Powerful MontfoPt's "^^^®^ deserted him. Prince Edward, escaping from death. custody, took command of the royal forces, and totally routed Montfort at the Battle of Evesham, August, 1265. The captive King, whom the barons had compelled to appear on the field at the risk of his life, had the satisfaction of seeing jiis great rival fall dead before his eyes. 13. Henry's authority was now restored, and he reigned in compara- End of *^^® tranquUlity until his death in 1272. Two years Henry's ^^}^^^ this event, his son and heir, Prince Edward, had pelgn. joined a Crusade. He was on his homeward journey when he received tidings of his father's death. CHAPTER XIX. PLANTAGENET LINE: HOUSE OF ANJOU.— EDWARD I. 1272 to 1307 A.D. 1. Prince Edward was in Sicily when he heard that by his father's death he had succeeded to the English throne. Fearing no rival, he pursued his homeward journey in a very leisurely manner. When he reached his French i^osses- Bions he found some matters requiring attention ; and these so delayed him that he did not finally land in England till nearly two years aitter Delay of coronation^ EDWARD I. 55 Appear- ance and character of Edward. his father's death. With his Queen, Eleanor of Castile, who had been his wife for twenty years, he was crowned at Westminster in August 1274. 2. Edward, from the length of his limbs, was surnamed Longshanks. In strength, courage, and skill, he had scarcely an equal among all the barons of his kingdom. In the Crusade he had won a high reputation for gallantry ; and in the wars which he afterwards waged, he bore the severest hard- ships without murmuring. He was a skilful general, as well as a brave soldier. To his military accomplishments Edward added a mind of statesman-like grasp. He ruled with a stern hand ; and though his character was not without its blemishes, he must be ranked among the wisest as well as ablest of English sovereigns. 3. He was the first of the Plantagenet Kings to realize that the dis- tinctions between Norman and Englishman had passed away. His aim was not only to be King of a united English ^'^ Policy. nation, but, if possible, to extend English authority over the whole of Britain. His dukedom in France necessarily mixed h:-ia up to some extent with Continental affairs, but he gave his chief thought and care to England. The troubled reign of his father left behind it a large crop of abuses and difficulties, to the remedying of which Edward apjilied himself immediately after his coronation. Unsuitable and unjust magistrates and judges were summarily dismissed. 4. Llewelyn, Prince of North Wales, had lent "aid and comfort" to the rebellious movements of Simon de Montfort in the previous reign. Called upon by the new King to Conquest of do homage for his dominions, the Welsh Prince refused ; Wales. but he was soon compelled to do so by Edward, who led an expedition against him in person. Llewelyn remained submissive until the death of his wife, daughter of the celebrated De Montfort. Then forming a league with his brother David, who had formerly been his enemy and an attached friend of the King, he broke out into open rebellion. The brothers, with their brave clansmen, fought with determined courage, and inflicted several defeats on Edward's forces. At last they were overcome. Llewelyn was killed in battle, while the unfortunate David was taken prisoner, and ]nit to death as a traitor. Thus ended the struggle for Welsh independence. Wales was formally annexed to England, and was brought in all respects under the same laws and government. Edward remained in Wales for nearly a year, and gave the title of "Prince of Wales" to his second son, Edward, who was born at Caernarvon. An elder brother, Prince Alphonso, dying soon after, the name bpcame permanently attached to the eldest son of the ruling monarch. 5. Wales having been conquered in 1283, Edward was soon enabled by circumstances to interfere in the affairs of Scotland. Though 56 EDWARD I. Rival Claims. Richard I. had sold back to William the Lion, King of Scotland, the The Scottish ^^"^^^ claims which Henry II. had imposed on that mon- succession. ^^^^' *^® English Kings continued to assert a species of lordship over the Scottish Kings, which the latter some- times admitted, but more frequently rejected. In 1286, the throne of Scotland was filled by Alexander III., grandson of William the Lion. Alexander was Edward's own brother-in-law, having married Margaret, daughter of Henry III. To provide for the peaceful union of the crowns, Edward procured the betrothal of the Prince of Wales to Alexander's grand-daughter and heiress, Margaret, daughter of Eric, King of Norway. Unfortunately for Edward's plans, Alexander's death in 1286 was followed a few years after by that of the young Princess on whom so many hopes were built. The Maid of Norway, as she is generally called, died at the Orkneys on the voyage from Norway to Scotland. 6. The death of the Maid of Norway threw everything into con- fusion. The old line of Scottish Kings was practically extinct. Many representatives of remote branches pre- ferred their claims. At last the rivals were reduced to two— John Baliol and Robert Bruce. Both were sprung from daughters of a brother of William the Lion. Baliol was grandson of the eldest daughter ; Bruce was son of the secmd daughter. One insisted that he represented the older and higher branch, the other that he was a generation nearer the original stock. 7. The question at issue was referred to Edward. Marching north- Edward ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ army, the English King summoned the competitors and the Scottish Parliament to meet him on the banks of the Tweed. After a proper interval, he decided in favor of Baliol, on whom he forthwith called to do homage for his crown. Baliol, making a virtue of necessity, V swore fealty to Edward in humble terms, in 1292. 8. Edward was now (1293) summoned by the King of France to Battle of ^*^"® ^^^ ^^^^ injuries inflicted on a French fleet by the Dunbar. ^^"^^'^ subjects in Guienne. He did not respond in per- son to the summons, but sent deputies, who, through some sharp practice on the part of the French King, were induced to surrender the entire duchy to that monarch. Not till some years afterwards was Guienne recovered. Meantime the King of France and John Baliol made comm.,n cause. Encouraged by Edward's diffioulties on the Continent, Baliol asserted his independence; only, however, to find himself -unable to maintain it. Edward soon appeared in the north, and after storming Berwick, decisively defeated Baliol at Dunbar. Baliol was deprived of his throne, if we can believe himself, without regret, and after three years' imprisonment was permitted to retire to Normandy, where he ended his days in peace. Edward appointed arbitrator. EDWARD I. 57 William Wallace. Treaty of Montpeull. returned to England, taking with him the royal treasures and regalia, also the famous " Stone of Scone," on which the Scottish Kings had been crowned, according to immemorial custom. This stone is still I)reserved in the " Coronation Chair " at Westminster Abbey, 9. Scotland was now governed by English officers. Edward was on the Continent, endeavoring to recover Guienne from the French grasp. At this juncture the Scottish love of independence revived. A valiant and patriotic knight, named William Wallace, put himself at the head of the popular movement. Falling on the English forces in Scotland, he almost anni- hilated them near Stirling in 1297. For a year he held Scotland and ravaged the northern counties of England. Edward, returning from France in 1298, completely crushed the bold patriot at Falkirk. Seven years later, Wallace, who had renewed hostilities, was captured and executed as a traitor, which he certainly was not. 10. In 1303, peace was restored between England and France, and was ratified by a marriage engagement between the Prince of Wales and Isabella, daughter of the French King. Guienne became once more an English possession. These arrangements were effected by what is known as the Treaty of Montreuil. 11. In 1306, Robert Bruce (" the Bruce of Bannockbum "), grandson of Baliol's rival for the crown of Scotland, renewed the struggle for Scottish independence. Boldly defying Edward's authority, he had himself solemnly crowned and proclaimed as King of Scotland. Taking the field, he was soon defeated by the King's lieutenant, the Earl of Pembroke, at Methven, and was obliged to seek for shelter amid the wilds of the western islands. But early the next year he was ready to renew the fight. It was now Pembroke's turn to suffer defeat. He was attacked by Bruce at Loudoun Hill, and was utterly routed. 12. Edward then prepared to take the field in person, his seventieth year, and a fatal disease was preying on his system, but his will was as unconquerable as ever. Only death could subdue that proud, vindictive spirit. He reached Burgh-on-Sands, within sight of Scotland, and there died, leaving it as his dying charge to his son that Scotland should be subdued. 13. Edward's long reign was marked by many important events besides those recorded abovp, Tbe TCinf's T.p.ftd of money to carry on his numerous wars often placed him *™P0''t3,ni at the mercy of Parliament, which he had been wise enough to continue on the basis established by Simon de Montfort. He was, therefore, in return for votes of money, often obliged to con- Struggle for Scot- tish in- dependence renewed. He was in Death of Edward I. 58 EDWARD II. Accession and char- acter of Edward II. firm the Great Charter, and in various ways to enlarge the liberties of the people. His expulsion of the Jews was a cruel and indefensible act, though his desire and efforts for their conversion to Christianity merit our sympathy. CHAPTER XX. PLANTAGENET LINE: HOUSE OF ANJOU.— EDWARD IL 1307 to 1327 A.D. 1. Edward I. was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, under the title of Edward II. The new King, who was in his twenty-fourth year, had already given evidence of fatal weakness of cliaracter. He had come under the influ- ence of a dissipated adventurer from Gascony, Piers Gaveston by nam'^. Three months before his death, Edward I. had banished Gaveston from the kingdom, and had com- pelled his son to swear that he would never recall him. So strong a .hold, however, had the favorite on Edward's affections, that one of his first acts was to bring him back from exile and appoint him Regent of the kingdom. Edward's conduct in this matter, first in allowing an unworthy favorite to lead him into disgraceful excesses, and secondly in violating his own pledged word, was a fair indication of his general character. He was weak to resist evil, and continued to the end of his days to be the victim of artful and intriguing favorites. 2. The King also showed himself regardless of his father's wishes War ith ^^"''^^"^"^ *^^ ^"^^^ ^^*h Scotland. On his dying bed, Scotland ^^^^^^ I- had admonished his son to make no terms abandoned. ^^^^ Bruce, but to subdue utterly the rebellious Scots. Before, however, his father's remains had been decently interred, the King patched up a truce with the Scottish general, and disbanded his forces. He proceeded shortly afterwards to France, where he married Isabella, the daughter of the French King, reputed to be the handsomest woman in Europe. 3. On his return from France, Edward continued to bestow his favors on Gaveston with a lavish hand, giving him the place of honor at the coronation ceremonies. This created general dissatisfaction, which was increased by the pride and insolence of the favorite. For a time the King shielded the up- start Gascon from popular indignation by sending him over to Ireland as viceroy. On his recall, which soon took place, owing, apparently, to the King's inability to live without him, the dislike to Gaveston manifested itself still more strongly. The barons took up arms, and, led by the Earl of Lancaster, the King's cousin, soon captured the object of their anger, who was put to death at Blacklow Hill, near Death of Gaveston. EDWARD II. 59 liberties of idefensible hristianity A D IL under the vas in his 3e of fatal the influ- my, Piers tiis death, had com- ) strong a one of his Regent of lowing an i secondly lis general he end of r's wishes ying bed, no terms )us Scots. 1 decently aeral, and 3 France, J, reputed estow his J him the lis created the pride }d the up- ;o Ireland )parently, Gaveston rms, and, tured the iai, near Battle of Bannock- burn. Warwick, in June 1312. The King lamented, but could neither pre- vent nor avenge the death of his favorite. 4. For four years there had been a nominal truce between England and Scotland. But Bruce, taking advantage of the dissen- Hions in England, had silently resumed hostilities, and by the spring of 1314 had seized almost all the English fortresses in Scotland. For once in his life Edward acted with something like prompcitude and energy. Co-operating with his barons, he raised an army of nearly one hundred thousand men, and inarched northward to relieve Stirling Castle, which alone of the English strongholds held out against Bruce. The great battle which secured the independence of Scotland was fought about two miles from Stirling, and derives its name from the Bannock, a burn or small river in the neighborhood. Bruce gave to his followers a prelude of victory, in a duel on the eve of the battle, by cleaving with his own battle-axe the skull of Henry de Bohun, one of the most valiant of the English knights. To the large and variously composed English army he op- posed a much smaller force, estimated at thirty thousand men. But these were veterans, trained under his own eye, and fighting with all the energy of patriots. Bruce, moieover, made his arrangements with consummate skill. The English cavalry fell helplessly into pitfalls. The archers were thrown into confusion by a charge of Scottish troopers sent forward at the opportune moment. Having no proper generalship, the mighty army of England was soon panic-stricken. Edward fled so precipitately that Bruce seized a large part of his treasures. Scot- land never lost the independence which she thus so nobly won. Ban- nockburn was fought on June 18, 1314. 5. The King, on his return to England, took unto himself a new favorite, Hugh Spenser, or De Spenser. Spenser's father was a man of good character ; but the son's proud and upstart manners excited as much ill-feeling among the barons as had those of Gaveston. Parliament caused both father and son to be banished, 1321. G. Edward soon recalled the Spensei's, and taking the field against his barons, defeated his cousin, the Earl of Lancaster, at Boroughbridge. Lancaster was executed as a traitor, 1322. 7. Queen Isabella, whose affection Edward had long since lost, threw in her fortunes with the cause of the barons. She had formed an unwoii;hy allia-.ce with a young nobleman i w iiq named Roger Mortimer.- Taking advantage of an enmity subsisting between her husband and the King of France, Isabella repaired to France, and succeeded in gathering together an army of considerable size. In 1326 she invaded England, where she was wel- comed as a deliverer by the large party hostile to the Spensers. Events The Spensers. Death of Lancaster. II I 60 EDWARD III. followed one another in swift snccession. The Spensers were seized and executed. The hapless King was cajitured in Wales and conveyed as a prisoner to Kenilworth. Isabella assumed regal authority, and summoned a Pariiament, which met at Westminster in January 1327. 8. The Pv.rliament solemnly dei)osed the captive King, and recog- nized his son, Prince Edward of Wales, as his rightful successor. Edward himself was committed to the cus- tody of a certain Sir John Maltravers, who had orders to transfer him hastily from castle to castle. After suffer- ing indignities worse than death, the unfortunate captive was cruelly murdered at Berkeley Castle, September 1327. His death has left an ineffaceable stain on the memory of Isabella and her "gentle Mortimer. " Deposition and death of Edward. 4 ?■ Accession of Edward III. Peace with Scotland. CHAPTER XXI. PLANTAQSITST UNE: HOUSE OF ANJOU.— EDWARD III. 1327 to 1377 A.D. Edward, Prince of Wales, was a minor at the time of his father's death. He was crowned at Westminster in Jarmary 1327, when but fourteen years of age. A council of guardians was appointed to direct affairs during his minority ; but all real control was in the hands of Isa- bella, the Queen-mother, and Mortimer. 2. A 5 ear after Edward's accession, the difficulty with Scotland was settled by a treaty between the English rulers and the Scottish King. England acknowledged the indepen- dence of Scotland, and renounced all claim to feudal superiority (1328). The treaty was very unpopular in England, where Isabella and Mortimer were accused of giving away the rights of their country. 3. As Edward approached manhood, he chafed under the rule of his mother and Mortimer. The haughty demeanor of the latter made him many enemies among the nobles ; and to this feel- ing of hostility, the young King, when eighteen years of age, determined to appeal. Mortimer was surprised at Nottingham Castle by Edward in person, and captured, and was arraigned before Parliament as a traitor. The Queen-mother was imprisoned within her own house for life. Mortimer was hanged at Tyburn (1330). 4. Edward was now in reality King of England. Few sovereigns have surpassed him in the possession of kingly qualities. ' *^ - He was a firm, and, generally speaking, a wise ruler. Edward III ^® caused the laws to be impartially administered, and this secured the confidence and esteem of his subjects. Death of Mortimer. g EDWARD III. 61 Claim to the throne of France. He was, however, ambitious to a fault. His love of conquest involved England in many bloody and needless wars. 5. One of Edward's first steps was to break off the arrangement by which the independence of Scotland had been secured. Edward Baliol, son of John Baliol, asserted his claim to the ^ Hot ^Ia /\t Scottish throne against David II., the son of I^^^^rt „ .. . „... Bruce. In support of Baliol's pretensions, the English King marched into Scotland, and utterly routed the forces opposed to Baliol at the Battle of Halidon Hill, in July 1333. Baliol became King, swore fealty to Edward, and, by the support of English arms, ruled Scotland nominally till 1341, when the line of Bruce was re- stored. G. The death of Charles IV. in 1328 left the throne of France with- out any direct male heir. Charles was succeeded by his cousin Philip of Valois, who reigned in peace until 1337, when Edward of England asserted a rival claim,* and caused himself to be proclaimed " King of France." As females were excluded from the succession by law, or at least by general usage , in France, Philip VI. was undoubtedly the rightful successor of Charles IV. Edward put forth the peculiar doctrine that while females could not inherit, they could transmit the right of suc- cession to male children. But even if this doctrine were true, it did not help Edward's cause, for Charles of Navarre stood nearer the throne than he, by female descent from Louis X., the eldest brother of Isabella, Edward's mother. 7. Edward, who had put forth this claim in 1328, determined to assert it by force of arms in 1337. He was led to this apparently by the conduct of the French King in lending aid to the Scots, and in interfering with Edward's possessions in wpance France. Two or three years were spent in preparation. The first actual blow was struck in June 1340, when Edward decisively defeated the French fleet in a battle off Sluys. 8. Nothing was done on land until 1346. In that year Edward, * For understanding the nature of Edward's claim, the following table will be useful : — PHILIP III. 1270-1285 Philip IV. 128S-1314. Charles of Valc^. Louis X. 1314-1316. I PHILIP V. 1310-1322. CHARLES IV. 1322-1328. JOHN I. Jane. 1316. I Charles of Navarre. Isabella, mother of Edward III. of England. PHILIP VI. 62 EDWARD III. r 1 accompanied by hia son, the Prince of Wales, and a iwwerfnl army, landed at Cape la Hogue in Normandy. He met the Crecy° ^^^''^"ch army on the 26th of August at Cre9y, a small ' ' village near Abbeville. The llnglish army was far out- numbered, but made up in discipline and energy what was lacking in numbers. A shower relaxed the bow-strings of the French archers ; while the stout yeomanry of England discharged their arrows with such terrible directness of aim as to scatter the enemy in confusion. The Prince of Wales, who was only sixteen years of age, performed wonderful feats of valor. He received the name of Black Prince from the color of his armor. The French losses were very great. Philip, surprised and mortified by his defeat, gathered together the remnant of his forces and withdrew to Amiens. 1). Edward followed up his victory by laying siege to Calais ; which, after being beleaguered for nearly a year, was compelled to surrender to avoid famine. Calais was held by the English for upwards of two centuries. 10. During the siege of Calais, David Bruce invaded England, but was defeated at the Battle of Nevil'a Cross, near Durham. King David was taken prisoner, and was held in captivity for eleven years. 11. In 1347 a truce was concluded between England and France through the mediation of Pope Clement VI. Before leaving the Con- tinent, Edward, who was always anxious for the com- mercial prosperity of his country, took steps to make his new possessicm, Calais, a grand distributing point for English products. Soon afterwards, he reached the height of his glory by defeating a powerful Spanish fleet in the Channel, He was virtually master of England, Scotland, and France. 12. In 1349 England was devastated by a terrible pestilence, to which was given the expressive name of the Black Death, This frightful plague had its origin in the far East, and in its passage through the intermediate countries was estimated to have destroyed one-third of the population lying in its path. Some, indeed, 8ui)pose that it slew one-half of the inhabitants of England. Its ravages led to a great scarcity of laborers, which the King and Parliament vainly tried to remedy by legislation. 13. In 1355 war with France was renewed, through difficulties con- sequent on the death of Philip VI. On the i>art of Englaiid, it was chiefly conducted by the Black Prince, though Edward for a time had his head-quarters at Calais. The chief engasrement was the celebrated Battle of Poitiers, fmiirbt on September 19, 1356. With a force of ten thousand men, the English Prince encountered an army six times as large, under the command of John, King of France, in person. By skilful management and deter- Siege of Calais. Battle ofNevil's Cross. Edward's power. The Black Death. Battle of Poitiers. EDWARD III. 63 u \ mined valor, the English triumphed over the tremendous odds against them. The French King was captured and conveyed to England, making the second royal captive in Edward's possession. 14. After a truce of two years, war broke out afresh. During the prevalence of hostilities Frunce suffered severely from the ravages of Edward's armies. Peace was made by the Treaty of Brctit/ni/, 13G0. Edward consented to renounce his claim _ r *f| to the French crown, on condition that his rights in Calais, Poitou, and Guienne were fully acknowledged. It was further stipulated that King John was to be ransomed by the payment of a sum equal to one and a half million pounds sterling. The money was never paid, and John remained in prison until his death, four years later. 15. I- 1367, the Black Prince weakly yielded to the solicitations of a Spanish King, Pedro of Castile, to aid him against his rebellious subjects. In this expedition the English Prince gained little besides glory. Pedro's enemies were defeated, but ^^^ ^diti"'^*^ his promise to repay Edward's expenses was not kept. This failure led to heaping increased taxation on the French provinces held by England. IG. Edward's French subjects now turned to the King of France for help. War with all its horrors spread once more over France. Led by a brave knight named Du Guesclin, the French were victorious. Province after province was wrested from the English, till in 1374 their actual possessions in France were reduced to Bordeaux, Bayonne, and Calais. 17. The Black Prince, who had returned to England with shattered health in 1371, died in 1376. The blots on his memory are the unwise expedition into Spain related above, and a wholesale massacre of the people of Limoges just before his final departure from France. The latter deed, how- ever, was not without provocation ; and the general reputation of the Black Prince is that of a brave, modest, and magnanimous knight. 18. Edward's Queen, Philippa of Hainault, was now dead, and he came under the evil influence of a woman named Alice Perrers. The death of the Black Prince not only gave the aged King a powerful shock, but also seriously disturbed the tran- ^^ days quillity of the kingdom. His third son, John, Duke of vA^^ard III Lancaster, called from his birthplace John of Gaunt, or Ghent, was suspected, and with good reason, of aspiring to the sii'cces- sion. The glory of his foreign conquests had passed away, and nothing length, in June 1377, Edward died, having reigned upwards of fifty years. His surviving sons were John, Duke of Lancaster ("John of Gaunt"); Edmund, Duke of York; and Thomas, Duke of Gloucester. 5 Losses in France. Death of the Black Prince. n 64 UIGHAUD II. Growth of Parliament- ary power. in. Edward's reiffn was marked by important measures. AmonR: those may bo mentioned :—(l.) The Statute of Provisors, forbidding Lefflslatlon "^I'l'lication to tho Pope for presentation to a benefice ; (2.) The Statute of Treasuiis, doHninii what offences consti- tnte hiffh trenxon, and forfeiting the lands, goods, and life of traitors. 20. Edward's need of money enabled I'arlianient to wrest from him largo grants of iK)wer. By refusing to vote supplies, it obliged him to recognize throe important principle.'. : — (1.) That m(mey cannot be legally raised by taxatif llonry IV. Tho advioo was uctod ^»n, and Scotland rocovtu'cd ono of tho wiscHt of lu^r KingH A:|. In l.t2.S. Hodf.jrd n^sohod to cn»ss tho Loire, and if poHsiblo t<. strike a docisivc blow whcro CharloHs m.thority was str..nROHt. In Siege 7':»'.y«"K out this policy, siogo was laid to Orleans, tho of Orleans, f'''^ stronghold of Charles. Tho Knglish invested Or- ...,nf f ':^'"»«/"r «^^ven months, and reduced the garrison to groat oxtronnties : but a most wonderful iiitorposition saved them fn.m the necessity of surrender. 4. At Domremy, a sm.all village near Lorraine, lived a nu.d.st lH>asant maiden named Joan. She is known in history as Joan of Arc though Dr. Lingard thinks that her in{o name was Joan nave. Her family was passionately attached to tlie ,, !'''""^" ^'*"'^^'' '"'^^ 'To'"!, brooding oxi^v the miseries of - r«.ice, conceiTod tlmt she had a divine mission to deliver her country lu rro"S 7h ,^^"'T^ '"^Ty '^ ^'""^««' «'>« ^^^^^J^-^l that li e p we e ammed I,er she would raise tho siege of Orleans, scatter the Lnghs'^., and speedily bring about his coronation at Rhe ins, the ancient Krench ca,HtaI. These enthusiastic predictions were actua 1 v t I Fn^b h m' '"•'"^^''^ ^'\ '"*''■ ^^^'^'^'"^^ ^"'*'"'"<^ opposition from the J.nglKsh. Her presence, her confidence; and her fervid exhorta- tions at once animated the garrison with new hope. Every one be- heved m her celestial mission. Armed and .aountod. the heroic maiden led her countrymen forth in sallies against the siege-works of ol t"J f ;, ^r"^ r'u "'f ^ ^'''^'^''''' ^^*^^^* P^^«»<^i'>«- The besiegers soon concluded that the higher powers were lending help to their enemy They fought with less and less energy, while every day the garriscm caught more of Joan's enthusiasm. Eventually the English raised the siege, and Orleans was safe. Then Joan fnl«ll«rl h„v .-.^oMd prcmuse. She led Charles in triumph into Rheimsrwhere' hTwas solemnly crowned according to the ancient rite of the French Kinjrs A few months later Joan fell into the hands of the English. A charge Joan of Arc. HKNHY VI. 75 of witchcruft having Ixion piofnmtd a^^iiitHt lirr, mIio whh luljiidj^od Kuiity and [nit to (h^itli. Sim <\'m\ with iiiaityr-Iikn conHtanoy, allinn- iiiK to tli(( laHt, tlwit llnavt^ti had iiiHpinMl hrr to navo Imr (ioimtry. No otu) can doiiht that .loan wjih Hinoori). Ah a tnin patriot Mho «hiHorvod u Itottt^r fato. 5. Krotri tho day of .Toati'H dnath, thci l-'riKlinh caiiMci in Kranco Ht(Midily dtKrliimd. Ilndford put forth (iv(U'y iilfort to Htoni tho tido of (liHMHtor, but in vain. Thn r'ninch captunul llarflciu-. T»i 14:?r>, thn |)nl«i of r.niKundy, for yoarw KiiKhuid'H EnRllsh faithful ally, triuiHtorriid IiIh alln^iancH) to liiH own hov- 'ossos. (Mt^iKu. r.t»(lfoid*H dnath followed cloHn n]ion Hinxundy'H doHdrtion. Charlnn Hoon nntdmd I'ariH in triumph; and in IMH tho KngliMh wuro (jflad to niako a tonip(»ra.ry truco. eaceful redress of grievances. This the authorities promised, and the rebels dispersed. The danger past, no further heed was paid to Cade's demands. A price was put on iiis head, which led to his capture and death not long afterwards. 10. In 1454, a young Privno, , h , . ..ived the name of Edward, was Richard ^"^" *" ^^"^-^ ^^^ i»largaret. Befo-e this eve-^t,' and Plantage- '^'"^'^ ^^^ throne was without a direct heir, public atten- net. ''^^"" ^'^^ ^'^^^ directed to Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York, as a nobleman well qualified to rule, and as pos- sessing undoubted claims to the succession. Ho vj^- :-i the male line descended from PMmund of York, ,fiftfi son of Edwara III. ; but by his mother, who was a Mortimer, sister of the Earl of March' who at the deposition of Richard II. stood nearest the throne, he traced his descent to Lionel of Clarence, third son of the hero of Cre9y. On his mother's side, therefore, his ancestral claim to the throne was stronger than that of the reigning family, which sprang from John of Gaunt, Edward's fourth son. York was a nobleman of great wealth and in- fluence. Both in France and in Ireland he had shown himself a master m the art of governing men. He had allied himself by marriage with the Earl of Warwick, a noble even more powerful than himself, anrf surnamed the King-maker from his influence in determining who should occupy the throne during this and the succeeding reign. Shortly after the birth of his son, the King became insane, and the Duke of York received the apptnntment of Protector. His first act in this capacity was to drive from Court the unpopular Duke of Somerset, a member of the Lancastrian family, whom the people held responsible for the final loss of France. On the King's recovery, Somerset was recalled and York dismissed. Without directly asserting his o\vn claim to the throne, the latter appealed to arms. 11. For the past hundred years, England, inspired by the ambition of her Kings, had waged an intermittent war of conquest in France. Now for thirty years her own soil was to be drenched with blood in a dreary series of civil strifes. These conflicts were waged between the partisans of the houses of York and Lancaster, and are known as the War of the Roses. This name is derived from the badges of the respective parties— that of the Yorkists having been a ichite rose, that of the Lancastrians a red one. n/ 12. The first battle of this memorable war was fought at St. Albans, May 23, 1455. The White Rose was victorious, Somerset was slain, and the King himself taken prisoner. T- ho latter vv as soon rcloat-ju, and peace prevailed for a time. Then came fresh hostilities. The Yorkists were again triumph- ant, gaining a signal victory at Blora Heath, in Staffordshire, 1459. War of the Roses. Yopkist victories. IIRNRY VI. 77 Parliament decides in York's favor. A year later, the Lancastrian cause suffered a still more cnishing blow at Northampton, the King himself being again taken prisoner. 13. The 1 Mike of York was now in a ])OHition to claim the crown, l^arliament docided substantially in his favor. It de- creed that Henry should reign nominally for the term of his natural life, but it gave the real directiim of affairs to York, by whom or by whose heirs Henry was to be succeeded. The young Prince Edward was thus com- pletely set aside. 14. Margaret now took the field to avenge the insult inflicted on her 9on. She rej)aired to the north, where tlie Lancastrian cause was {larticularly strong. York met her at Wake- ^^i^^'f ?I field, and encountered a most disastrous defeat. He was ''*'**^®"®'"* himself slain, and his head, encircled with a paper crown, was mock- ingly stuck on the walls of York. He left three s(ms— Edward, Earl of March ; Georj^o, Duke of Clarence ; and Richard, Duke of Gloucester. 15. The Yorkists soon rallied under young Edward, who now as- sumed his father's title and claims. The Lancastrians were defeated at Mortimer's Cross. Their comn\ander, battle of the Earl of Pembroke, sou of Owen Tudor, was seized and executed. 16. Queen Margaret did not abandon the cause of her husband and son. Marching towards London, she encountered the Earl of Warwick near St. Albans, and completely routed Second him. By this victory the captive King was restored to his friends. 17. The Lancastrians did not make a wise use of their victory. They loitered to pillage, while Edward marched boldly to London. There he received a warm welcome. Vigor- Edward IV. ous measures were at once taken, which compelled Mar- garet to flee again to the north. Barons, prelates, and citizens united in calling Edward to the throne. He was proclaimed at Westminster as Edward IV. on March 3rd, 1461. Henry, the deposed King, lived ten years longer, during six months of which he bore the almost empty title of King. 18. Troubled as it was, the reign of Henry VI. settled some impor- tant constitutioral principles. One of these was, that the King could not without the concurrence of Parliament, I'^PO^ta'tit make provision for the government of the country during events. the minority of his successor. Another was, that in cases of disputed succession the supreme decision rested with Parliament. Henry's reign is also noted for statutes prescribing the qualifications of voters, and the mariner in which elections should be conducted. Henry him- self lives in history as the founder of Eton College, and of King's College, Cambridge. Mortimer's Cross. Battle of St. Albans. pro- claimed. 78 iif : EDWARD IV. HOUSE OP LANCASTER. Edward hi. John of (;aunt»A/y in the Tower. Then a charge was suddenly preferred against him of plotting with his fellow- prisDner, Warwick, for their common escape. He was hanged at Tyl arn in November 1499. A few days later, Warwick, who had been imprisoned for fourteen years for no other crime than his birth, was beheaded. His life was plainly sacrificed to promote the selfish interests of the King. He was the last legitimate descendant of the Plantagenets, and his presence naturally excited Henry's jealousy and sense of danger. His death left the first Tudor King without a rival to disturb his dreams. 5. One of the chief aims of Henry's life was to amass treasures which W' uld make him independent of appeals to ParliaTuent for aid. So v/ell did he succeed, that during the last thirteen years of his reign he found it necessary to convoke but a single Parliament. To obtain 88 HENRY VII. "ift ;i|f H r UN III: Henry's avai'ice and extortions. The Star Chamber. money, he did not scruple to resort to the most unjust and illegal means. ** Benevolences," or forced loans, though declared unlaw- ful by Parliament, were revived. Wealthy persons con- victed of crime soon found that there was one way of obtaining pardon— namely, by purchasing it. Obsolete laws were raked up and put in force to aid in the suc- cessful practice of extortion. Innocent men, if rich, lived in mortal terror of the spies and informers by whom they were sur.-ounded. In the infamous work of wringing money from the people by fraud, Henry found fitting instruments in two men named Dudley and Emp- son. The iormer, who at one time was Speaker of the House of Com- mons, disgraced a respectable birth and talents of no mean order ; the latter's origin was as vile as his conduct. To lend dignity to their illegal exactions, the King created Empson and Dudley " Barons of the Exchequer." 6. With the growth of parliamentary power, the Royal Coiuicil of the Norman and the early Plantagenet Kings had fallen into disuse after the reign of Edward III. Henry revived this Council under the title of " Star Chamber " (a name conferred upon it in the reign of Edward III.), and made it an instru- ment t)f the most odious tyranny. The criminal jurisdiction given to tliis secret and irresponsible body gave the King almost absolute con- trol over the lives and fortunes of his subjects. In after years En- gland had reason to curse the day on which the Star Chamber was revived. 7. Henry VII. 's foreign policy was cautious in the extreme. At one ^ time he declared that affairs jn France demanded his foreign interference. Parliament promptly voted supplies, which policy. *^® -^^"^ readily and gi-at;efully accepted. The money was quietly deposited in the royal coffers, beside that which the crafty and avaricious King took care to raise by means of *' benevolences." A few troops were sent over to Brittany, and after- wards Henry crossed the Channel with a small army. But peace was concluded without a single blow being struck, in accordance with a secret understanding which had existed all along between the French and English Kings. By the so-called Treaty of Estaples, Charles VII. agreed to pay Henry a sum equal to £149,000. Here was a King who understood the art of money-making. 8. In 1501, a marriage was contracted between the King's eldest son, Prince Arthur, and a Spanish Princess, Catharine of Aragon. The young Prince died in less than a year after the marriage. An engagement was then made for the widow with Henry's second son. Prince Henry. A Pav)al dispensatii)n permitting the Prince to marry his brother's wife was obtained. In 1503, the King's eldest daughter, Margaret, was married to James IV. Royal marriages. HENRY VIII. 89 of Scotland. From this marriage there resulted in time the union of England and Scotland under one Sovereign, 9. Henry VII. died at Richmond, a few miles from London, in April 1509. He was buried at Westminster, in that beautiful Chapel of the famous Abbey which perpetuates iP^^^'^vn his name. It is said that his last days were clouded ^^^^ with remorse on afccount of his illegal exactions, and that he gave a dying charge to his successor to undo, as far as possible, the wrongs which Dudley and Empson had inflicted on innocent men. 10. Parliament meeting seldom, the legislation of the reign of Henry VII. was meagre and unimportant. A statute was enacted suppressing maintenance, or the system by ^®fifislation. which the greater nobles supported large numbers of retainers, and thus made themselves rivals of the King. Another Act defined the dixty of subjects to the reigning Sovereign. To speak technically, allef/iance was declared to be due to the de facto (the actual) King, as distinguished from the dejure (rightful) one. 11. The period of Henry's reign was throughout Europe marked by great intellectual activity. The revival of learning spread from Italy into other countries. Three great in- Great ventions— gunpowder, the printing-press, and the mari- ^*^""'=' ner's compass— had already brought about important changes, and were making their influence felt in England. It is to Henry's credit that he obtained for his country some share in the glory of maritime discovery. To the expeditions of John Cabot and his son Sebastian, which sailed from Bristol under the auspices and at the expense of the English King, we owe the discovery of the mainland of North America. CHAPTER XXXI. HOUSE OF TUDOR.— HENRY VIII. 1509 to 1547 A.D. 1. In Henry, the second son of the late King, England had at length a Sovereign who reigned with an undisputed title. In the plume of Henry VIII. the colors of the rival Roses were Accession of inextricably blended. The young King being now eighteen "^^^^ * ^"* years of age, proceeded to carry out the marriage contract with Catharine of Aragon, the widow of his deceased brother Arthur. The royal nup- tials were performed on the 7th of June, two months after Henry's acces- sion. The coronation took place a fortnight later in Westminster Abbey. 2. Under the guidance of his father's trusted adviser, the Bishop of Winchester, Henry devoted himself to his new duties with considerable energy. Empson and Dudley, the beginning ministers of the late monarch's avarice, were executed on ^^ ^"* 90 HENRY VIII. :!H Battle of the Spurs. a charge of treason. No restitution was made, however, to those whom their rapacity had impoverished. Then followed a period of mirth- making, of splendid tournanifmts, of gay processions. In a right royal manner did the jovial King dissipate the treasures heaped up by his parsimonious father. It is too soon to draw a picture of his character. All that we know of him up to this point leads us to expect a prosperous reign. As he verged on manhood, Henry was a model of physical strength and beauty. He was so frank, so generous, so kingly in his bearing, that few noticed in his character the germs of evil qualities by which his later life was vlarkened and disgraced. His abilities were good. No Prince of his time had such an extensive knowledge of literature. He was a well-read theologian, and an excellent linguist, speaking Latin, French, and Spanish with fluency. The first twenty years of his reign gave little proof of that arbitrary temper and those consuming passions which his name so readily suggests. 3. Anxious to regain for England some influence on the Continent, Henry was led to declare war against Louis XII. of France in 1511. His allies were the Emperor Maxi- milian I. of Germany, and his own father-in-law, Ferdinand of Spain. Taking the field in person, he encountered the French at Guinegate, near Boulogne. The French troops fled with such precipitate haste that the aifair is known as the Battle oj Spurs. 4. In the same year as the Battle of Spurs (1513), James IV. of Scotland invaded England in the interest of his ally, Louis of France. He was defeated and slain by the English, under the Earl of Surrey, at the Battle of Flodden Fiela. 5. In 1514, Henry made peace both with France and with Scotland. The reconciliation with France was cemented by, the mar- riage of Louis XII. with Mary, Henry's youngest sister. Louis dying soon afterwards, his widow married the English Duke of Suffolk. She thus became the grandmother of Lady Jane Grey. 6. Henry's father-in-law, Ferdinand of Spain, died in 1516, and was succeeded by his grandson, Charles of Austria, a Prince of vast possessions and still vaster ambition. Three years later (1519) the death of the Emperor Maximilian left the splendid jirize of the German Empire to be competed for by the Princes of western Christendom. There were three candidates- Charles, who was already lord of Spain, Austria, the Netherlands, Sicily, and Naples ; Francis I. of France ; and Henry VIII. of En- gland, The last, however, did not press his claims. The real struggle lay between Charles and Francis. Charles was chosen by an immense majority of the electors, and became Charles V. of Germany : his defeated rival vowed revenge. Battle of Flodden Field. Peace. The German Empire. HENRY VIII. 91 7. In their succeeding conflicts, both of these i)owerful Princes sought to secure the support of Henry. In 1520, the Emperor visited England, and was received by his uncle* Henry with the f'tate due to the greatest monarch in the world. °°""^'^<*' The same year the Kings of France and England met near Calais, on territory belonging to the latter. Tournaments of unheard-of splendor were held, giving to the site of the festivities the name of the Field of the Cloth of Gold. After this, the Emperor anrl Henry had a second interview, and eventually England espoused the cause of Germany. The English King, however, did not take a very active part in the struggle. In 152.5, at the famous Battle of Pavia, Charles V. com- pletely annihila 1 t^he forces of his rival, the King of France, who was himself taken prisoner. In 1526, the Treaty of Madrid restored Francis to his throne ; and in 1527 he and the English King- became reconciled, the latter agreeing to renounce all claim to the crown of France. 8. The early part of the reign of Henry VIII. was contemporaneous w ith the rise of Protestantism in Germany. In 1522, a year after Martin Luther had been condemned for heresy defender of by the Diet of Worms, Henry endeavored to prevent ^^^ Faith. the spread of the new doctrines into England by publishing a treatise in defence of the Seven Sacraments of the Church. In return for this service, he received from the Pope the title of " Defender of the Faith " (Fidei Defensor) ; which is still retained as one of the regular designa- tions of the English Sovereign. 9. For a short time after his accession, Henry VIII. acted under the advice of Fox, Bishop of Winchester, and Howard, Earl of Surrey, members of his father's Council. These ^°'^®y' counsellors were soon supplanted by Thomas Wolsey, a clergyman who lived to see himself successively Dean of York, Bishop of Lincoln, Archbishop of York, Cardinal, and Papal Legate. During the first half of Henry's reign, Wolsey filled the high position of Chancellor of the Realm, and had the supreme direction of affairs, both home and foreign. He was a man of remarkable talents and unbounded ambition. Foreign Princes courted his favor, while his own master rewarded his services in the most munificent manner. He was a generous patron of learning. Under the name of Cardinal College, he founded the now famous College of Christ Church at Oxford. Two palaces, Hampton Court and Whitehall, afterwards the abodes of royalty, were built by him for his own use. He shaped the foreign policy of England according to his personal ends, counselling alliance, now vidth Charles, now with Francis. At home his great * Charles V.'s mother, Joanna of Aragon, was sister to Queen Catharine of England. I A ,% s^.X%^i^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) % // // 4^^ A '^ l/j 1.0 !Si^ IM 50 "■"— « II l&l' .^ m I.I IM - lis IIIIIM 11.25 U 111.6 ^ W /}. % "^^"^"V '/ Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 145S0 (716) 872-4503 mtma MM s mm i SSBS i \ il' ii! HI .nr i 92 HENRY VIII. ance of Parliament. Catharine of Aragon. end was to make his master an absolute sovereign, with himself as his sole adviser and executive. In his capacity of Chancellor, Wolsey shoned that he possessed a mind of wonderful judicial breadth and impartiality. 10. As his reign advanced, the King became more and more despotic. To rule without Parliament was the aim both of himself Discontlnu- ^^^ ^^ j^.^ favorite minister. From 1515 to 1522 no Parliament sat. In 1523 it became absolutely necessary to call one, *' benevolences " and other illegal methods of raising money having failed to supply the amount required. A stormy scene occurred when Wolsey appeared in the House of Commons to demand in the King's name an immediate vote of £800,000. The Speaker, Sir Thomas More, boldly pleaded the ancient privileges of Parliament, and the King was obliged to content himself with half of the sum demanded. 11. We are now approaching the turning-point of Henry's career. He has reached the middle of his reign, and his char- acter has been gradually changing for the worse. In the year 1527, he surprised his subjects by announcing doubts as to the validity of his marriage with his brother's widow, Catharine, who had born him one child, Mary, afterwards Queen. Catharine was much his senior, but was a most amiable, virtuous, and accom- plished lady. 12. The Xing professed to be disturbed in mind by the doubts which had arisen in his mind as to the validity of the Papal Bolevn dispensation sanctioning his marriage. But the expla- nation of these doubts appeared when it was seen that Henry had transferred his affections from his wife to a lady of the Court named Anna Boleyn. Anna Boleyn possessed great personal charms, and for a time completely captivated the King, who openly paid her attentions due only to his lawful wife. 13. The King soon made up his mind to put away Catharine. He therefore applied to the Pope for a divorce, on the determfned ^'^"'^'^ *^^* *^® dispensation under which the marriage Qjj^ had taken place was, for various reasons, invalid. Before this, however, he composed a treatise on the subject, in which he tried to show that his demand was justified by the teachings of Scripture. 14. On being applied to for a divorce, the Pope, who was then a prisoner in the hands of Catharine's nephew, Charles v., aODOinted ^PPoi'^ted a Commission, consisting of Wolsey and Car- dinal Campeggio, an Italian, with the rank of Legates, to consider the question and report on the facts. The Commission began, its sittings in London, in May 1329. With queenly dignity, Catha- rine refused to plead before a court whose authority she declined to HENRY VIII. 93 Downfall of Wolsey. recognize. The Commission did not reach a decision. Two months after its proceedings began, it was broken up by orders to transfer the question to Rome, where the King and Queen were summoned to appear. 15. It is generally believed that in his early movements for a divorce Henry received encouragement from Wolsey. The Cardinal, it is said, regarded the fact that the Papal dis- pensation had been obtained without the knowledge or \yish of the young Prince as sufficient to release him from all obliga- tion. But subsequent study did not confirm this view, and, as a member of the Commission, Wolsey hesitated for the first time to gratify his royal master. His hesitation sealed his doom. Both the King and Anna Boleyn blamed him for the delays of the Commission and for its adjournment without a decision. He was deprived of the office of Chancellor in October 1529. Further disgraces, mingled, how- ever, with some marks of royal favor, awaited him. He was prosecuted for violating the Statute of Prcemunirehy holding an ecclesiastical court in England without the King's permission. Henry eased his fall by permitting him to retain the Archbishopric of York, though he stripped him of all his other possessions. For a few months the fallen Chan- cellor enjoyed comparative quiet. But his enemies were active. A new charge of treason was preferred against him, to meet which he was summoned to London. He journeyed as far as to Leicester, where a severe attack of dysentery compelled him to halt. Entering the abbey, he had only strength to say : " Father abbot, I am come to lay my bones among you ;" adding with his dying breath: "Had I but served God as diligently as I have served the King, he would not have given me over in my gray hairs." Whatever may have been his faults, Thomas Wolsey was one of the greatest of Englishmen. A comparison of Henry's career before and after his death shows that he exercised a restraining influence on that monarch's passions. 16. In the office of Chancellor, Wolsey was succeeded by Sir Thomas More, a man of eminent genius and lovable character. More was distinguished both as a statesman and as an Wolsey's author. He published his political speculations in a re- S"°°«ssors. markable book entitled Utopia. His retiring nature was ill-fitted for his new duties, and he retired as soon as he saw that the King was bent on a final breach with the Papal See. Soon we shall find him dying, a martyr for his opinions. Thomas Cranmer, a divine of moderate attainments, took Wolsey's place as ecclesiastical adviser of the Court. He also was destined to die a victim to the religious fury of the times. He had recommended himself to Henry by writing in advocacy of the divorce, and especially by efforts, mostly in vain, to obtain opinions in its favor from the universities and the theologians of the Continent. But Wolsey's real successor was his own favorite secretary, Thomas 94 HENRY VIII. i 1 ' ■ >' Cromwell. This remarkable man gained the King's good-will by advising him to solve the difficulties connected with the divorce by disavowing the Papal jurisdiction and placing the supreme govern- ment of the Church in England in his own hands. It would then be an easy matter to obtain a divorce. Henry eagerly caught at the suggestion. Cromwell was immediately sworn a member of the Privy Council, and for a number of years was the most powerful subject in England. Both Cranmer and Cromwell were in sympathy with that great religious movement which has received the name of the Reforma- tion. It thus happened that greater changes were introduced into England in connection with religion than Henry himself intended. 17. Acting on Cromwell's bold suggestion, Henry now declared Henpy ac- ^^™^®^^ supreme governor of the Church within his own knowledged ^^^^' '^^^ clergy in Convocation were compelled to head of the acknowledge this claim, though their zealous opposition Church, required the insertion of the saving clause, " in so far as is permitted by the law of Chriat." This action was taken in 1531, and in the following year notice was given that the payment of annates, or " first-fruits "—that is, the first year's income of all sees in which a new bishop was appointed— would in future be withheld from Rome. It was this indication of hostility to the Pope that led to the immediate resignation of Sir Thomas More. 18. Foreseeing the drift of events in England, the Pope forbade Henry, on pain of excommunication, to make use of his own courts to secure the divorce which had been denied him by the highest tribunal in Christendom. He also rebuked him for bringing Anna Boleyn to his palace and putting her in the place rightfully belonging to his wedded wife. 19. Henry replied to the Pope's challenge by the Statute of Appeals, an Act which made illegal the carrying of appeals, or ecclesiastical cases of any kind, to the Court of " ->me. Thus at one blow the artful Cromwell destroyed the judicial power of the Pope in England. Instead of appearing at Rome to answer for his conduct, Henry was privately married to Anna Boleyn in January 1533. 20. Meantime Cranmer had been appointed Archbishop of Canter- Cpanmep's ^^^^' ^^^ ^^^^ official act was to pronounce the King's decision. "^f^P*^^ *« Catharine invalid—" null and void " by the Divine law— from the beginning. This decision was announced in May 1533, and was at once followed by the coronation of Anna Boleyn as Queen of England. 21. In 1534 an Act of Supremacy was passed declaring the King to Act of ^ "*^^ ^^^^ supreme head on earth of the Church of Supremacy. ^^S^*'^^-" To withhold or deny this title was to incur the penalty of high treason. The Pope rebukes Henry. Henry marries Anna Boleyn. i I 1 i' >,' HENRY VIII. 95 22. At the same time Parliament solemnly confirmed the sentence of Cranmer's court respecting the divorce. The marriage with Anna Boleyn was confirmed, and the Princess Act of Mary, Catharine's daughter, was excluded from the Succession. succession. 23. Henry and Cromwell were tei-ribly in earnest. The Act of Supremacy was by no means a dead letter. Among those who could not conscientiously subscribe to the oath P®''S®C"tlon. which it embodied were Fisher, the venerable bishop of Rochester now upwards of seventy years old, and the ex-chancellor, Sir Thomas More. They were ruthlessly executed. More died with the fortitude of a philosopher : Fisher with the serenity of a Christian, exclaiming as he laid his head on the fatal block, "This is life eternal, to know thee, the only true God." 24. The years subsequent to her divorce were spent by Queen Catharine in retirement. Through all the trying cii-- cumstances of her lot she demeaned herself with great ^«*ths of dignity. In the interests of her daughter Mary, she de- *« ® *''^** clined to leave England for an asylum on the Continent ^"®®"^- offered her by her nephew Charles V. She died in 153G,' praying with her last breath for " the salvation of her dear lord and master. " Four months afterwards her rival, Anna Boleyn, died too. l.ut a different death. She had lost her hold on the King's affections. A charge of unchastity was preferred against her. She was adjudged guilty and hurried to the block. She left one child, Elizabeth, of whom we shall hear again. Anna Boleyn 'ad "the fatal gift of beauty ' but her innocence of the crime laid to her charge is believed by many. 25. The day after Anna's execution the capricious tyrant married a lady named Jane Seymour. She died within a year, after giving birth to a son, "who subsequently reigned as Other Edward VI. An Act was passed excluding the issue of „^^^® ™ the two former Queens from the succession, and settling ^"^^ it on the offspring of Jane Seymour. A general power, however, was given to the King to devise the crown by will. Henry next married a German Princess, Anne of Cleves. This union was brought about by Cromwell with the design of bringing Henry under Protestant influence The attempt was not successful. The coarse person of Anne displeased the King's taste, and a separation was soon quietly arranged. The decline of Cromwell's power dates from this ill-assorted union. Henry's next wife was Catharine Howard, niece of the Duke of Norfolk. Reports damaging to his Queen's reputation soon reached his ears, and at once orders were given for her execution. Henry's sixth and last wife was Catharine Parr, widow of Lord Latimer, bhe had tact enough so to manage her husband as to outlive him. / i ;'i 96 HENRY VIII. u i .i ! t The prog- ress of Protes- tantism. 26. In 1536 the abolition of the monasteries, many of which were Suppression ^^''^ ^^^ealthy corporations, was decided on. The task ofmon- '^^'^^ assigned to Cromwell, with the title of Vicar- asteries. C^eneral. He performed it thoroughly. First the ^™^^^^^ ™^"^^*^"^^ ^*'''® ^"^'1'"'®^^®^- Three years later (1539) violent hands were laid on the larger ones. A part of the con- fiscated revenues was used in founding new bishoprics ; but much the larger portion was appropriated by Henry himself, or was distributed among his courtiers. 27. Henry VIII. remained to the last a believer in the main doctrines of the Catholic Church. Still, circumstances at times drove him to courses that favored Protestant- ipm. He found in Cranmer and Cromwell such efficient instruments in aiding him to gratify his passions and increase his power, that he was led naturally to assent to religious changes which they represented to be for his own interest. Thua Articles of Eeliffion were adopted by Convocation which varied essentially from the Roman standards. The Bible and the Three Creeds were recognized as the sole bases of doctrine. The Lutheran dogma of justification l?y faith was given a place alongside of penance and transubstantiation. The blow which had stricken down the Papacy in England bade fair to make religious opinion a chaos. 28. For some time Cromwell's power had been waning. The King never forgave him for arranging his marriage with the homely and repulsive Anne of Cleves. The powerful ^^^^ ^'^^^^ supported Henry in rejecting the authority of the Pope, but which at the same time zealously adhered to Catholic doctrine and tradition, could ill brook a minister under whom England was rapidly becoming Protestant. Cromwell's race was run. He was impeached, and convicted of high treason. In July 1540 he was beheaded on Tower Hill. 29. The year before Cromwell's death, the rising influence of the The Bloody ^^*^^?^^ P^^^' ""der the leadership of Gardiner, Bishop Statute. ^^ Winchester, was shown by the passage of an Act called the Statute of Six Articles, but popularly known as the Bloody Statute. The "Six Articles" are six fundamental points of the Catholic faith. Many Protestants lost their lives for refusing to subscribe to these articles, as did many CathoUcs for declining to acknowledge the King's supremacy. It is said that once six of the former and three of the latter were put to death on the same day. 30. In 1541, Henry's nephew, James V. of Scotland, irritated by his uncle's attacks on the Papal authority, sent an army across the Border. This army was easily defeated at Solway Moss, and James died shortly afterwards of a broken heart. His infant daughter was the famous iMary, Queen of Scots. Death of Cromwell. War with Scotland. HENRY VIII. 97 31 Time healed the breach between Henry and his other nephew. Charles V. of Germany. In 1544 they united to make war agiunst the French King, Francis I. Henry took War with , the field in person, and captured Boulogne. Francis ^''*nce. was soon forced to conclude a peace advantageous to England. 32. The later years of Henry's reign were stained by some deeds of atrocious cruelty. In 1538, the new Pope, Paul III., issued a bull excommunicating and deposing Henry' Henry's This act was attributed to the influence of Cardinal Pole* ®^"®^ty- an Englishman of the royal Plantagenet Ime, grandson of the last Duke of Clarence and great-grandson of Warwick, " the King-maker " Not being able to lay hands on Pole, who was out of the kingdom. Henry seized and beheaded his beautiful and venerable mother. Mar- garet, Countess of Salisbury, first cousin of his own mother, EUzabeth nf Jlll\ 1, /^' iTn ''^tr "^"^ *^" ^^'^ ^f S"^^«y' ««» ^«d heir of the Duke of Norfolk. The Duke himself was doomed to death. but he fortunately escaped, the warrant for his execution having been issued only the day before Henry died. h.w;«^rHf V^I'u^^^'''' *^^ ^^^^ ^^ •^^"'^^'■y 1^7- His luxurious habits of life had brought on a corpulency which made existence a burden. A virulent ulcer caused him great Henry's suffering, and so aggravated his ill-temper that his at- *^®*'^- tendants durst scarcely approach him. His death excited but little r^et in either of the two great parties into which his kingdom had become divided By his wiU, which Parliament had Jven him authority to make, he bequeathed the crown to Edward, his son by Jane Seymour, now a lad of nine years. Should Edward die childless the succession was assigned, first to Mary, his daughter by Catharine AntTf' 5T ^f?' ^°^ *^"° ^ Elizabeth, his daughter by Anna Boleyn, and her heirs. Another clause of the will provided for the appomtment of a council to direct the young King during his TT u*!: f * '*' ^^^^ "^"^ P^^^^^ ^'^ maternal uncle the Earl of Hert- ford, tetter known by his subsequent title of Duke of Somerset. • -"^"/"y 7 "• '■signed, especially during the latter part of his reign, with the powers of an absolute sovereign. Par- liament continued to meet ; bi;t, under the management Govern- of Wolsey and Cromwell, it sank into a mere instrument „™®"* ^^ for registering the King's decrees. Persons charged with ''^'^^yVIII. political offences saw themselves deprived of all chance of justice : for they were no longer tried by the ordinary courts, but were summarily condemned by Parliament through bills of attainder. Treason was so minutely defined and so vaguely extended that even the innocent could not escape suspicion, and men were liable to be hanged for their very thoughts. It was possible to incur in advance the guilt and terrible consequences of heresy. Individuals were Uable to be 98 EDWARD VI. !E -i: punished for rejecting to-day doctrines which might not be declared heretical until to-morrow. 36. It must not be forgotten that Henry's reign naturally divides Character ^^^^ ^^ *^^ parts-that which preceded and that which of Henry f<^^^^ his divorce from Catharine of Aragon. During VIII. *h® *^^^* *^*^^ ^^ his reign, Henry was the gay and splendid monarch; devoted to pleasure, yet not neglect- ful of business; lavish of the treasures hoarded by his father; anxious to raise England to a higher place among the European nations; in- teresting himself in the progress of education; and writing in defence of his religious opinions. The course of events accompanying and succeeding the divorce rapidly developed the worst elements of his nature. Base appetites obtained the mastery over him. He became at once cruel, haughty, and licentious. Flattered by servile courtiers, he respected neither the rights of man nor the law of God. With impartial cruelty he beheaded CathoUcs for opposing his spoliations of the Church, and burned Protestants for rejecting his definitions of religion. 36. Notwithstanding the religious troubles which prevaOed, En- gland continued to advance as a commercial nation. Like his father, Henry devoted much care to the build- ing up of an efficient royal navy. Learning also received much encouragement. On his death-bed he munificently endowed that great seat of science, Trinity College, Cambridge. Christ Church College, Oxford, originally founded by Wolsey as Cardinal ColUge, reveres his memory as its chief benefactor. General progress. CHAPTER XXXIL HOUSE OF TUDOR.— EDWARD VL 1647 to 1603 A.D. 1. According to the terms of his father's will. Prince Edward, then Accession "^ ^^ *®"*** '^^^' ascended the throne under the title of Qj, Edward VI. He was crowned at Westminster on Feb- Edward VI. ^^^ 28th 1547. The whole power of the Council of Regency appointed by his father in his will was illegally assumed by its President, Lord Hertford. He took the title of Pro- tector, and was created Duke of Somerset. 2. The Protector was brother of Jane Seymour, and therefore uncle ^^ of the young King. He was naturally interested in the Protector. "^^^^^^^ of his nephew; while the fact that he had no royal blood in his veins tended to disarm popular sus- picion. As a zealous Protestant, he took care to have the King trained in the principles of the new faith. The Earl of Southampton, EDWARD VI. 99 Battle of Pinkie. champion of the Catholic interssts, was dismissed from the Council Somerset made himself the real King of England 3. Henry VIII. had all but arranged by treaty for a marriaitt, h^ tween his sun and the young Princess Mary of Scotknd ^ Somerset mvaded Scotland to secure the carrying out of this project Though he signally defeated the Earl 6f " -—• Arran the Scottish Regent, at the Battle of Pinkie he failed tn ar> comphsh the object of the expedition. Mary wal sent out of^t^^^^^ country, and betrothed to the Dauphin of Fran^ *^' 4 Tlie country was now divided into two well-defined parties Tlie Protector, as leader of the Protestant cause, received strong support from Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury Leaders of and from Latimer, Hooper, Ridley, and other clergymen P*^"««- of note. The chief supporters of the old religion were th^ Pari «f oftir^ Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester^rd "Znt! l^tp 5. Somerset being completely in the ascendant, a series of important reh^ous changes was rapidly developed. The " Statute of ^ the Six Articles was repealed j the Missal and the Brev- Religious lary, long in use, were replaced by the EngUsh Book of ^^anfifes. Common Prayer; peremptory orders were issued to remove all imaires and other objects of religious veneration from the churches ; the sTrXe ^m of rZ'^"'''''-*''' prieste were allowed to marry.' Thestrong ^ Tff r n J^^ vigorously used to carry these sweeping changes ieprivt ^f ^r^''^'' -«d Bonner, who resisted them, wefe sumSy SalTawsL^ ^'' '^' '"'''''''' •'^ Protestantism, all the Z^l!tllnL^^rl^^"^ ^^^^**^« obsolete statutes against Liollardism were formally rescinded hit ^^'"Tf ' '^P'^. "'^ ^"^ arbitrary government raised up against b othr%K '°'r '• ^"^ "^ *^^«« ^^ ^^ own ^ ^ * brother Thomas Seymour, Lord High Admiral of Somerset's ^ngland. Seymour had married the Queen-Dowager enemas. Cathanne Parr, and is said to have aspired to The 'hand of the unsuccesstul. He was beheaded on Tower Hill, in March 1549 John Dudley Earl of Warwick, son of the Dudley 4o h JmSstered to the rapacity of Henry VII., proved a more dangerous fc^Tnder his later title of Duke of Northumberland, he has earned a conspicuous If not an enviable place in English history. conspicuous mentTlTJh^'^^u"^ "^^'^^^ ^^ ^"^^'^^ ^«^ ^^^^ the Govern- ment. These have been variously ascribed to social and to religious causes. Undoubtedly the popular discontent P<>P»lar was to some extent due to the scarcity and high price of outbreaks. food Immense quantities of land, formerl/oi^ed bv the Ch«roh and leased at low rates, were now m'the han/s ofTobl^^ who exa^SS f. I 100 EDWARD VI. I mtich higher rents than the former proprietors had den^anded. Still It 18 clear that diHsatisfaction with the recent religious changes was the chief cause of ihe outbreaks. The mass of the people, oufside of London and a few of the larger towns, were attached to the doctrines and usages of the Roman Catholic Church. Some of these rose in arms to resist changes which they neither desired nor understood. . u'?u^ '^ , ^ ZT^ "^^^ P"* ^*^^" by ^^'^ R"««ell, that in the east by the Earl of Warwick. j 8. Somerset did not long retain his high position. A powerful c^- Fall of ^!"^**^» was formed against him. The nobility hated Somerset. iV'" °" account of his real or supi^sed sympathy with .A u- ^c ''''"^™°" P««Pl« in their social grievances. He had made himself unpopular by confiscating ecclesiastical revenues and by spending the money in rearing an immense palace on the Strand. where Somerset House now stands. The Catholic party thought that any change from such a ruler would help their cause. He was charged with havmg mismanaged affairs at Boulogne. The time of ^iLyu !S;o T"- J^''"^'"'^^ ^r«"» "ffice in 1549, he was allowed to ind beheSed """" """""^^"^ '" " '^'''^' '^ ^^^«"y' ''''''''''^' 9. The Earl of Warwick succeeded to the office and power of Duke of 5.''"!f^®t- He was created Duke of Northumberland. Nopthum- r^ *^^® surprise of all, especially of the Catholics, Nor- bepland. tn«"iberland labored to promote the spread of the new p- I, u ^!'/'*"",®« «ven more ardently than Somerset had done. B^hops who adhered to the Church of Rome were ejected, and the chief PnlT? f"^ by the appointment of leading Protestant clergymen Tnd RidW rT ^f ?P 1 ^^'''^' ^^«I"^' ^^«bop of Gloucester Tlvf. 7'p r ^P ^1 ^*'''^^"' '^be Protestant faith was defined in tl^lZS iT^'l ^'L'^-'^" ^' ^'''' but afterwards reduced to thirty-nine. A Book of Homilies (or sermons) was prepared, and its use was made authoritative in all the churches. Northimberiand was a selfish scheming man; and it is easy to see that his religious zeal was not altogether disinterested. 10. In 1552 the young King gave evident signs of 'ailing health. Ambitious .^^^f *^^e tJ^e Princess Mary, next in succession accord' designs of "f, ^ *be late King's will, inflexibly maintained her the Duke, f aherence to the Catholic religion. She could neither rv. *K AT be ^"gbtened nor bribed into abandoning the faith of her mother. Northumberland saw a chance of securing the cro>^^ for Lady Jane Grey, granddaughter of Henry VIIL's yountrest sister who wL .?. 7.^^^;.^^^".^" ^^^«^ «f tbis beautiful and virtuous lady! who was all the time ignorant of his artful and ambitious desigi^. MARY I. IQl Mary, the rightful heir, was (he argued to the King) out of the question, for she would upset the reformed Protestant faith; besides both she and her sister Elizabeth had been declared illegitimate by Acts of Parliament. Henry VIII. '« will had excluded the heirs of Ja sister Margaret of Scotland, and in default of heirs to his own children had bequeathed the crown to the heirs of his sister Mary The aniieal to Edward's strong Protestant feelings was successful. The younj? King did what he could to disinherit his sisters. Letters-patent were signed bequeathing the crown to Lady Jane Grey. 11. Edward died on the Cth of July 1553, in the sixteenth year of his age, and the seventh of his reign. He was a pious and gentle youth, of scholarly tastes and habits. His ^®*^*' °^ relation to the important events of his reign, which stUl ^^^a**** VI. affect the whole structure and tone of English society, was but that of a spectator; though undoubtedly the strong Protestant sentiments with which his mind was imbued made easier the task of Somerset and Northumberland in effecting a religious revolution. 12. An immense amount of ecclesiastical property was confiscated during Edward's reign. Much of the proceeds was worse than wasted in furthering the designs of ambitious Events of leaders. With a part, however, a number of schools ^^® ''®**^- ivere founded, which are still known as King Edward the Sixth's Free Grammar Schools. Shortly before Edward's death an expedition was sent, under the command of Sebastian Cabot, to discover a north- eastern route to China and India. One of the vessels was wrecked off the coast of Norway, but a part of the fleet reached the Russian port of Archangel. Cabot himself is supposed to have perished on the frozen shores of Nova Zembla. 13. On Edward's death, the first effort of Northumberland was to secure, if possible, the persons of the Princesses Mary and Elizabeth. In this .^e failed ; and he soon found that Northum- he had miscalculated the temper of the nation. The ''®**^*"** majority of the CouncU deserted him on the proclamation *'°"®*** of Lady Jane Grey as Queen, on the 10th of July. The nation as a whole strongly supported the cause of hereditary right. Mary entered London in triumph. Northumberland, with Lady Jane and her husband, was committed to the Tower. CHAPTER XXXIIL HOUSE OF TUDOR.— MARY I. 1663 to 1668 A.D. 1. Mary entered London as Queen on August 3rd, 1553. A fort- night before, after a brief sovereignty of nine days. Lady Jane Grey 102 MARY r. had resigned all claim to the crown, which she had never desired to Accession ^®"''^' ^^*'^* **^*' *^""'^'^"^» Lord (Juilford Dudley, she of Mary. ^^ committed to the Tower. The execution of the sentence of death, which was soon passed on them, was, by the Queen's command, deferred. No mercy was shown to Northtnnberland, the framer of the plot to disinherit Mary. Hav- ing been ccmvictod of treason, he was beheaded (m August 22nd. He died acknowledging his guilt, and declaring that after many wanderings he had returned to the fold of the Catholic Church, (iardiner, Bonner, and other bishops who had been deposed by Edward, were taken from the Tower and restored to their sees. Archbishop Cranmer, together with Ridley, Latimer, and Hooper, Protestant bishops, was thrown into prison. 2. The first Queen that ever swayed the English sceptre began to Chapacter '^^^^^ **^ ^^^ mature age of thirty-seven. Mary possessed of Mary. ^®"^ firmness of character, but few personal attractions. The troubles through which she had passed left their mark both on her countenance and on her disijosition. The latter bordered on the melancholy. She was ardently attached to the Roman Catholic religion, for her fidelity to which she had suffered much inconvenience during her late brother's reign. Like all the Tudors, she was courageous and self-willed. 3. Early in 1554 symptoms of popular discontent began to appear. The Protestants were alarmed at the steps taken to re-establish the old religion, while all classes disapproved of the Queen's contemplated Insurrec- ^"*^"^® ^^*^^ Philip of Spain, son and heir of her cousin, tlon. " *^® Emperor Charles V. In Kent a formidable revolt broke out under the leadership of Sir Thomas Wyatt. Wyatt's aim, apparently, was to dethrone the Queen and transfer the succession to her sister Elizabeth. The insurgents marched on Lon- don with but little opposition. They seized the suburbs of Southwark and Westminster. In this crisis the Queen displayed the courage of her race. By her promptness the Tower gates were closed, and Wyatt was foiled in his attempt to cross London Bridge. The rebel leader then endeavored to enter the city from Westminster; but by the time he reached Temple Bar so many of his followers had deserted him that he gave himself up to the royal forces. He was condemned, and was soon afterwards executed. About the same time the Duke of Suffolk, father of Lady Jane Grey, organized a revolt in the midland counties. This imprudent attempt, which was easily sup- pressed, not only cost Suffolk his life, biA sealed the doom of his amiable and accomplished daughter. V 4. Up to this time Mary had declared her purpose of showing mercy to one whom she regarded .s the innocent victim of the ambition of unscrupulous relatives. Now, those who had previously urged her to # MARY I. 103 carry out the sentence of death already paflsed against her rival found it easy to i^ereuade her that it wan unHafo to allow Lady Jane to live lon^'er. On February 12, 1554, Lady ,^^***l °*' Jane Grey followed her husband, LonI (Juilford Dud- q ley, to the block. She had known nothing of the self- inh intrigues designed to raise her to the throne. Her beauty, her artless innocence, her love of study, lier simjJe piety, all combine to increase our sorrow fo** her sad fate. 5. In the following July Mary carried out her purpose of marrying her cousin, Philip of Spain, In this matter she not only obeyed the dictates of affection, but yielded to the strong desire of Philip's father, her own steadfast friend, the Emi)eror Mary's Charles V. During all the troubles of her father's and *"**'*''*fif«' her brother's reign, that monarch had been her confidential advisor; and, when occasion required, her open advocate and defender. But with Mary's subjects of all creeds and classes the marriage was in the highest degree unpopular. Philip represented national ideas and interests entirely diverse from those of Englishmen. Gardiner and the other bishops of the Queen's own rihurch warmly urged her to wed an Englishman if she wedded at all. This patriotic advice was cordially seconded by the Protestants, who, not without reason, regarded Philip as an enemy of their religion. After the marriage, Philip recei\ ed the nominal title of King ; but Parliament, devoted as it was to Mary, steadfastly refused to consent to his coronation, and to his taking any direct part in the government of the country. It also declined to give him the succession, in case Mary should die childless. Mary loved her husband ; but the union, wliich was not blessed with any offspring, proved an unhappy one. Philip soon tired of the uncon- genial society of England, and embraced the opportunity afforded by his father's abdication to leave the country, to return only for a few months shortly before Mary's death. 6. Among the first events of the reign had been the restoration of the Catholic bishops deposed by Edward, and the re-establishment of public worship according to the Catholic ritual. To pre- pare the way for these changes, all the statutes of the ^econcilia- reign of Edward VI. relating to religion had been re- Rome pealed. The effect of this legislation had been to restore things to the state in which Henry VIII. had left them. Married priests were obliged to leave their churches, the Prayer-book was dis- used, the Mass was restored. This satisfied Parliament, but it by no means satisfied the Queen. The former was quite content that the Act of Supremacy should remain in force, and was determined that there should be no restoration to the Church of the vast amount of its property which had been secularized. The Queen, on the other hand, longed to see her kingdom brought back to full communion with the % li :$:, 104 MARY I, Roman See. At length a couipromise vas effected. Poi>e Julius Ul p.uthorized his legs,te, Cardinal Pole, " t' - last of the Plantagenets," to assure Parliament that all property v % had been wrested from the Church during the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edwavd VI. should be cons'dp,red legally vested in its present owners. This removed the chief difficulty. In November 1.554 an address was adonted by Par- ham _nt acknowledging the national heresy, and praying for reunion with the Papal See. On the following day, in presence of the Queen and Parliament, Cardinal Pole solemnly absolved the kingdom from ^s gyult and restored it to union with the Church. The fabric of English Protestantism seemed completely overthrown. 7. Before adjourning, Parliament revived the laws passed against heretics in the reign of Henry IV., and ordered that they should be Persecu- ^^^'"^^^^ ^^^^ t^^ beginning: of the new year (1555). tion. LTnder these provisions, a court was opened on the 22nd of January. Gardiner, Bishop cf Winchester and Lord Chancellor, presided, though he is believed to have secretly disap- proved of extreme measures. Hooper, the deprived Bishop of Glouce- ster, and three clergymen, named Rogers, Saunders, and Hadley were first arraigned and convicted. They were handed over to the f ivil power, and burned at Smithfield. Three more illustrious victims perished at Oxford-Latimei , Ridley, and Cranmer. Catholic his- torians vie with Protestant in extolling the heroic constancy with which Latimer and Ridley met their cruel fate. Prom his window the ex-archbibhop saw his two friends led forth tc the stake His cov!r»">*-'r'»- f.oi-.fi-.r'^'' " la-i — ■n-""Vi — of Spanish galleons laden with gold and silver. This led Philip to retaliate by lending help to the friends of the captive Queen of Scots. Maritime enterprise. ELIZABETH. Ill ibcl Increasing severity against Catholics. 13. It seems to have been Elizabeth's hope, at the beginning of her reign, that all her subjects would quietly accept the re- ligious system which she established. The hope was a vain one. The Puritans, indeed, continued to sustain her ; and supported her the more strongly, the more rigorously she oppressed the Catholics. But the Catholics themselves proved absolutely irreconcilable. They maintained their refusal t7 13. England now remained eleven years vrithout a Parliament. During this long interval Charles reigned practically as an absolute sovereign. The provisions of the Petition of Right were entirely disregarded. Taxes were imposed and collected without any shadow of legal authority. Political misdemeanors, or what were considered such, were summarily dealt with by the Star Chamber. Religious offenders were arraigned before the Court of High Commission. Wentworth devised a scheme to which he gave the name of Thorough. Its object was to make the King absolute and permanent master of the kingdom by means of a large standing army. Wentworth did much to realize his own design. He was appointed President of the Council of the North, a body which had been formed by Henry VIII. after the suppression of the Pilyriinage of Grace in 1536. Afterwards he was transfen-ed to Ireland as Lord-Deputy. In both positions he ruled with an iron hand, endeavoring to show his master how easy it was to repress opposition by force of arms. The Star Chamber and the Court of High Commission drove many thousands, whose political and religious principles were not in accordance with those of "Wentworth and Laud, to seek refuge in the wilds of America. The colony of Maryland was founded by Catholics in 1633 ; Connecticut and Rhode Island by Puritans in 1635 and 1638. •J 14. It is not necessary to describe all the means to which the King Ship-money ^^^^^'^^^^ *" make up for the loss of parliamentary votes of ' supply. In 1634, London, for refusing to comply with one of his illegal exactions, was fined £50,000 and deprived of the lands owned by her citizens in Ulster. A tax called Ship-money, formerly raised in maritime counties to aid in fitting out ships of war, was revived in 1634, and in the following year was extended to the inland counties. In 1637, John Hampden, a gentleman of Buckinghamshire, refused to pay the tax levied on him as Ship-money, and demanded that its legality be tested in the courts of law. Out of twelve judges, seven decided that "the tax was lawful when necessary," and that "of CHARLES I. 129 ' Cove- nant." its necessity the King was tlis sole judge." This decision, manifestly absurd, did much to strengthen Hampden's cause and to encourage resistance to tyranny. 15. In 1637, the King, acting on the advice of Laud, attempted to impose on the Presbyterians of Scotland the use of a Liturgy. This, following a similar effort to establish ^'^f^^^®" Episcopacy, drove the people to rebellion. In 1G38, all classes, from the nobility to the peasantry, united in subscribing the National Covenant, by which they bound themselves to aid one another in resisting religious changes. A General Assembly, held at Glasgow in November, abolished Episcopacy, the Liturgy, and the High Commission Court, as far as Scotland was concerned. 16. War now seemed imminent between Charles and his Scottish subjects. The King advanced northward as far as to Berwick, only to find that he was too weak to engage in The raciiy" hostilities. He agreed to summon a Parliament, and to Berwick leave the religious affairs of Scotland free from the in- terference of Laud. The agreement by which this temporary peace was patched up is known as the Pacification of Berwick. 17. Charles's fourth Parliament, which met in April 1640, is dis- tinguished as the Short Parliament. It sat only from April 3rd to May 5th. Instead of voting supplies, the papfjoment object for which it was called, it at once determined to consider the national grievances. The King took his revenge by a prompt dissolution. 18. Not satisfied with the manner in which the provisions of the Pacification of Benoick had been carried out, the Scots renewed the war against Charles. They advanced under cg^^iYnd General Leslie into England, and captured Newcastle renewed. and Durham. Then another accommodation was effected, called the Treaty of Bipon. The Scottish force was to remain in En- gland until a Commission representing both parties should adjust the points of difference. Charles agreed to pay in the meantime £5,600 a week for the support of Leslie's army. The King was now at York, where he convoked a great Council of Peers, by which he was advised to summon another Parliament. 19. The fifth and last Parliament of Charles's reign met in 1640. It has received the name of the Long Parliament from the extraordinary length of its duration. It was not finally dissolved till 1660, having lasted more than nineteen years, and outlived the King eleven years. The electors generally re- friends of the Monarchy and the Church were determined that uncon- stitutional courts and illegal taxes should be put dovoi for ever. The first act of the Long Parliament was to set free the imprisoned victims The Long Parliament. 130 CHARLES I. It » J f m Religious affairs. of the Star Chamber and the Court of High Commission. Tt then proceeded to abolish these tribunals, and to limit the powers of the Council of the jiTorth. The leader f)f the opposition party in Parlia- ment now was P>Tn, member for Tavistock, the sole survivor of the band of patriots who struggled against Charles in the earlier Parlia- ments of his reign. Sir Edward Coke was dead ; Eliot had worn out his life in prison ; Wentworth was now the chief supiwrt of the tyranny of the King. 20. Parliament soon took occasion to express its disapproval of the ecclesiastical jwlicy of Archbishoj) Laud. That prelate was himself committed to the Tower. The images, crucifixes, and altars which, under his direction, had been restored in many of the churches, were summarily removed. Beautiful and costly stained windows, "with dim religious light," were in many cases rudely smashed. Clergymen supposed to sympathize with the views of Laud were imprisoned or driven from their livings. 21. Sir Thomas Wentworth, who had returned from Ireland and been Death of ^^^^^'^'^^ ^^^^^ "^ Strafford shortly before the meeting of the Wentworth. "'^""^ Parliamsnt, was now attacked. Pym moved, with * the unanimous consent of the House, " that the Commons do impeach Sir Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, of high treason." As Strafford had been faithful to the Kintf, however unfaithful to the kingdom, the charge of treason was a difficult one to establish. Im- peachment was abandoned, and the more summary process of a Bill of Attainder was substituted. The bill passed both Houses, and on the 7th of May 1641 received the assent of the King. Stratford was beheaded on Tower Hill five days later. 22. The same session at which Strafford was convicted saw an important Act placed on the statute-book, at least tem- porarily. This was the Triennial Act, which provided that Parliament should be summoned at least once in three years, and that when once summoned it should not be prorogued for at least fifty days, save with its own consent. It was also fixed that Parliament should not be dissolved on the mere pleasure of the King. This Act was repealed after the Restoration (in 16G4). 23. In October 1641 an outbreak in Ireland resulted in the death of many of the English and Scottish settlers in Ulster. Strafford's withdrawal had been followed by a large re- duction of the army kept in Ireland. The opportunity had been embraced by the native inhabitants to expel, if possible, the Saxon colonists ; and as is too often the case in conflicts of hostile races and creeds, many acts of savage barbarity were committed. 24. England was now fast arraying itself into two hostile camps, the one supporting the King ; the other, the Parliament. A number of moderate men, who had hitherto lent aid to Pym, refused to follow Triennial Act. Outbreak in Ireland. CHARLES I. 131 mentof Ave members. him in movemonts which they thought dangerous to both Church and State. Among these may be mentioned Edward Hyde, author of the famous History of the Great Rebellion, and Roundheads Lucius Carey (Lord Falkland), in whose mind there p *"?, raged a painful conflict between dread of tyranny and dread of civil war. The two parties were formally styled Royalist» and ParliamentaHans. Cavaliers and Roundheads were the names by which they were ])opularly known respectively. ^7 25. Tlie existence of two well-defined parties even in Parliament was clearly shown in November 1641. Pym determined to appeal to the people against the King, and with nemon- that end in view introduced a Remonstrance, which was Pance. neither more nor less than a forcible arraignment of Charles for his various acts of misgovernment. Hyde and Falkland thought that this was going too far, and the " Remonstrance " was passed by only a narrow majority. 26. In December 1641, twelve bishops who had protested against the legislation of Parliament were impeached by the House of Commons. The King retaliated by impeaching the I^Poach- five members who conducted the impeachment of the bishops— Pym, Holies, Hazelrig, Strode, and Hamp- den. Refusal to surrender the impeached members was followed by the King's forcible entry into Parliament, only to find his prey flown. Thus foiled, Charles retired deeply chagrined io his palace at Hamp- ton Court. The next day the accused members were escorted in tri- umph to their accustomed seats in the House. 27. Everything now betokened civil war. Parliament resolutely pushed the bewildered King to extremes. It obliged him practically to surrender the Tower by nominating a com- JJl^n^i^ mander opposed to his own interests. The great store- houses of arms were at Hull and Portsmouth. Sir John Hotham seized the former, the Earl of Essex the latter. Parliament, feeling its strength, now asked Charles to surrender his prerogative of appoint- ing the commanders of the militia. The King refused to drink this last drop in the cup of his humiliation. 28. In the war now about to begin the King was supported by the majority of the nobility and gentry, and by the whole body of his Catholic subjects. His military strength lay "PPOSing in the spirited cavalry put in the field by the nobles who fought under his banner, and which, under the gallant leadership of his nephew. Prince Rupert, son of Elizabeth of Bohemia, turned several of the earlier battles in his favor. The Parliamentarians had the almost unanimous support of the cities and the larger towns. Hold- ing London, which waS predominatingly Protestant and Puritan, they got all the benefit of the commerce of the country so far as the Th&mes 132 CHARLES I. 1' » u was concerned. At the outset the Parliamentary forces were led by the Earl of Essex, a cautious rather than a brilliant leader. 29. The first battle of the Civil War was fought at EdgehiU, not Battle of ^^^^ ^^^ ^^°"^ Oxford, on October 23rn-.i«« ^ce A 4.„ , — 1 i.„:„ : Tl-s — tciivt -w-imiicc '-•litrictj ii\> iiian.c uci La.111 ;-"uiiv;ca3iUua. incac, however, he withdrew on hearing that the Royalist forces in Scotland under Montrose had gained an advantage. The war in England recommenced, and soon resulted in the King's crushing defeat at Naseby, in Northampton^ shire Charles had marched to The Self- denying Ordinance. Battle of Naseby. .^:> .....A^ .._ . 134 CHARLES I. i f Charles sur- pendeps to the Scots. relieve Oxford, which during the war had been his headquarters and capital, and whicji was then besieged by Sir Thomas Fairfax. The memorable Battle of Naseby was fought on June 14th, 1645. The King's army was almost annihilated by the terrible energy of Crom- well's Ironsides. Fairfax and Cromwell pushed on the advantage thus gained, and in October, Prince Rupert was compelled to surrender the important city of Bristol. The King retired to Oxford. His eldest son, Prince Charles, fled to Paris to join his mother. Queen Henrietta Maria. Meantime the slight Royalist successes in Scotland were more than counterbalanced by the disastrous Battle of Philiphaugh, where the Covenanters completely routed the army of Montrose. 38. Early in 1646, Fairfax renewed the siege of Oxford. The King, fearing capture, fled in despair, and surrendered himself to the Scottish army, quartered at Newark. Negotiations were then entered into between the English Parliament and the Scots, which resulted in the delivery of the King to the former. It was agreed that the Scottish army should retire from England, and receive £400,000 for its past services. Many, however, regard this, sum as really a price paid for the person of the captive King. 39. Parliament, which was still under Presbyterian control, now proposed to disband the army and negotiate a treaty with the King. These purposes were successfully resisted by Cromwell and other leading Independents. Cromwell caused the King to be seized and brought to the army at Newmar ket. Soon afterwards, the great Independent leader was appointed commander-in-chief, and entered London in triumph. By the expulsion of prominent Presbyterians, Parliament was made increasingly subservient to the army. The King was closely confined at Hampton Court. His elder sons, the Prince of Wales, and James, Duke of York, were with their mother in Paris. Prince Henry and the Princess Elizabeth shared their father's captivity, 40. In November 1647 the King escaped from confinement, but was Eicace and '^°^^ recaptured in the Isle of Wight and imprisoned in peeRtupe ^^^^^^^^^^^e Castle. Events occurred from time to time of the King. 7^^^.^ *^^P* ^^^^^ ^^^ ^'^V^ of regaining the crown. Early in 1648, the Scots, who were not pleased with his treat- ment in England, began to plan movements in his favor. Royalist fisings also took place in Wales, in Surrey, in Kent, and in Lanca- shire, but were all put down by the resistless energy of Cromwell. At Preston, in Lancashire, the Scots under the Duke of Hamilton were forced to surrender. Cromwell then marched to Edinburgh, and placed the government of Scotland in the hands of the Marquis of Argyle. The last military event of the Civil War was the capture of Colchester by Fairfax on August 28th, 1648. Quappels between Parliament and Apmy. CHARLES I. 135 41. During the absence of Cromwell, the Presbyterian leaders in Parliament opened negotiations with the captive King. The resolu- tion authorizing this was passed by a vote of 129 against 83. Forthwith an officer named Colonel Pride entered Pride's the House of Commons, followed by two regiments, and '^"'^8^®' forcibly expelled the Presbyterian members. The name Bump was derisively given to the remaining Independents, who constituted all that was left of the famous "Long Parliament." 42. The Rump Parliament proceeded to impeach the King for his j( alleged crimes against the State. It made a new definition of treason, declaring that it was "treason for a King to levy war upon his subjects." The King's trial was committed to J^^^} °*' a tribimal called " the High Court of Justice," consisting ^***"®s I. nominally of one hundred and fifty members, of whom not more than fifty actually attended the sessions. All the peers appointed to the court absented themselves. " The High Court of Justice " met on the 20th of January 1649, and sat for seven days, under the presidency of a lawyer named Bradshaw. Throughout the trial Charles bore himself with quiet dignity, declining to acknowledge the jurisdiction of his judges. The sentence of the court was in the following terms:— "For which treasons and crimes this court doth adjudge that he, the said Charles Stuart, as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public enemy, should be put to death by severing his head from the body," What- ever may have been the King's faults or follies, the illegality of this sentence is beyond all question. To secure its passage, it had been necessary to assume that the House of Commons had power to legis- late without the concurrence either of the Peers or of the Sovereign. 43. Before and during Charles's trial great efforts were made to save him. Strong protests were received from Scotland. The United States of the Netherlands interceded in his behalf. The Prince of Wales offered any concessions that would save his f fJf*"j5!**" father's Ufe. All was in vain. Three days after its issue ® *"** the dread sentence was can-ied out. On the 30th of January 1049, a day held sacred by many generations of loyal Englishmen, Charles Stuart was beheaded on a platform erected in front of the banque^ng hall of Whitehall Palace. The fire which subsequently destroyed the palace si)ared the banqueting hall, which has long been used as one of the chapels royal. Every visitor to London gazes at the window through which King Charles I. stepped forth to the fatal block. The King met his fate with a composure worthy of a Christian. "His tnc 11131/ ui-a^v and a,s the executioner lifted it to the sight of all, a groan of pity and horror burst from the silent crowd." 1 Foreign feeling. 136 THE COUNCIL OP STATE. CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE COMMONWEALTH (1649 to 1660).— 1. THE COUNCIL OF STATE (1649 to 1663). 1. The death of Charles I. was immediately followed by the formal abolition of Monarchy and of the House of Lords. The Commons _ decreed that they were "useless and dangerous." The of State &<>vernment was vested in a Council of State, composed of forty-one members. Bradshaw was appointed Presi- dent; the celebrated poet Milton, Foreign Secretary; Sir Harry Vane, Controller of the Navy, with Blake as chief admiral ; Fairfax and Cromwell, chief military commanders. The latter was also ap- pointed Lord-Deputy to Ireland. It was made an act of treason to acknowledge the claims of "Charles Stuart, commonly called the ' Prince of Wales.' " To intimidate the Royalists, three of their most prominent leaders, the Duke of Hamilton, Lord Holland, and Lord Capel, were executed. 2. The execution of Charles I. excited great feeling throughout Europe. The Czar of Russia dismissed the English envoy. France recalled her ambassador. In Holland, the Prince of Orange, Charles's brother-in-law, warmly espoused the cause of his injured nephew, the Prince of Wales. 3. At home everything was in confusion. The Rump Parliament was unpopular. Even in the army opposition to the Council of State manifested itself. A party called the Levellers broke into mutiny. A number of the councillors refused to be sworn in, and it was estimated that more than half of the judges voluntarily retired from the bench. Still more discouraging to the popular leaders was the aspect of affairs in Ireland and in Scotland. 4. Under the Duke of Ormond almost the entire population of Ire- land was united in support of the Royalist cause. The Prince of Wales was proclaimed as Charles II. immediately after his father's execution. Cromwell, realizing the importance of prompt action, crossed over to Ireland as soon as affairb at home would permit. He had sent, however, a body of troops in advance, by whom Ormond had been defeated before his arrival. His own attention was chiefly directed to the siege of the principal cities and towns held by the Royalists. Drogheda fell in September 1649 ; afterwards Wexford, Kilkenny, and Clonmel. The garrisons of the captured places were treated with remorseless severity beinf butchered without mercy. The inhabitants of the country generally were treated with great harshness ; thousands were transported to the West Indies, while immense numbers were driven to seek service in foreign lands. The Royalist rising in Ireland was effectually suppressed. Home affairs. Cromwell in Ireland. THE COUNCIL OF STATE. 137 Affairs in Scotland. Battle of Dunbar. B. Cromwell returned from Ireland in the spring of 1650. He had been recalled in the preceding autumn to meet the dangers which were threatening the Commonwealth from Scotland. Charles, Prince of Wales, had been proclaimed by the Scots im- mediately after his father's death. But the offer of the crown was made conditional on his acceptance of the National Cove- nant. This Charles had refused, until June 1650, when, having waived his scruples, he landed in Scotland to assert his rights as King. Shortly afterwards, Cromwell marched northward to dispute his claim. 6. The Scottish, or, as it was called, the Covenanting army, under the command of General David Leslie, took up a secure position be- tween Edinburgh and Leith. The Scottish general, who was well versed in military affairs, saw that his true policy was to wear Cromwell out by delay. The sum- mer had nearly gone, and the English troops, suffering severely from scarcity of supplies, mthdrew to Dunbar. Leslie followed them, and took up his position on the hills that overlook the town, shutting in Cromwell on a comer of coast. For some time Leslie adhered to his wise policy of inaction, till, overborne by the entreaties of the Pres- byterian preachers who were in his camp, and who were anxious for a battle, he at length moved down from the heights and attacked Crom- well. The English forces were completely victorious, Cromwell took possession of Edinburgh and Leith, and pursued the young King as far as to Perth. Charles by rapid marches escaped, and moved south- ward into England, hoping to rally the people generally to his stan- dard. 7. Cromwell, having established his authority in Scotland, returned to England the following summer, to hold in check any movement in favor of Charles. On the 3rd of September 1651, the anniversary of the victory at Dunbar, he encountered battle of the Royalist forces at Worcester. Again did the terrible ^ ***' Ironsides utterly rout their enemies. The luckless Charles, after six weeks spent in obscure hiding-places, succeeded in escaping to France. Five brothers belong, ig to a Catholic family named Penderell dis- tinguished themselves for their loyal attachment to the Prince during the time of his concealment. The ensuing nine years Charles spent as a fugitive from England, alternating his residence between France and Holland. 8. For years there had been growing a feeling of jealousy between England and Holland as the chief commercial nations of Europe. In 1651, the English Parliament aimed a blow at the Dutch by passing a Navigation Act, the effect of which The Dutch was to confine the commerce of England to her own merchant vessels. This led to disputes, and finally to war. Before, however, war was actually declared, Blake forced an engagement with < w^ 138 THE COUNCIL OF STATE. End of the Long Parliament. the Dutch admiral, Van Tromp, in Dover Roads. Tlie action, which resulted from Vdn Tromp's refusal to salute the English flag, was on the whole a victory for England. This was in May 1652. In Sep- tember Blake was again successful ; but in October, otf the Goodwin Sands, he was decisively defeated by Van Tromp, who followed the English fleet up the Thames with a broom fastened to his mast-head, as a sign that he was sweeping all before him. The war was resumed the following summer, the naval victories being steadily on the side of the English. At length, in July 1C53, the Dutch fleet was annihilated off Tcxel, on the coast of Holland. The gallant VaL " - ;-> oeribhed with his fleet. This battle ended the war. By thb ' 0/ West- minster (April 5, 1654) the Dutch engaged to lend no hi ,; to the En- glish Royalists, to make compensation for losses inflicted on English merchants, and to salute the English flag. 9. The year 1653 saw the end of the " Long Parliament," or rather of that remnant of it which since "Pride's Purge" had been con- temptuously known as the "Rump." The subjugation of Ireland and the victories at Dunbar and Worcester served to give great prestige to the name of Cromwell. It was generally felt tliat he was the real ruler of England. The Parliament was naturally jealous of his growing influence, and to lessen it determined to reduce the army. On the other hand, there was a genei-al impression that the interests of the country required a new Parliament fresh from the people. But the Rump had no intention of dealing a death-blow to its own existence. In this crisis Cromwell's resolution was soon formed. Taking with him a military force, he entered the House, and after listening a while to the debates, began furiously to upbraid the members, whom he called on "to give place to honester men." He suited the action to the word. The mace, which he pronounced " a bauble," was pitched out of the window, the members were expelled from their seats, and the doors of the Parlia- ment House securely locked. England had seen great changes since the Long Parliament first assembled in 1640. 10. Cromwell followed up the forcible dissolution of the Rump by summoning certain persons hy name to form a new Parliament. The selections were made chiefly from the extreme Puritani- cal ranks. On July 4, 1653, one hundred and twenty- eight persons thus summoned decreed themselves to be the Parliament of England. Among the members was a London leather-seller, to whose surname of Barhon the Puritanical fashion of the times had given the singular prefix of Praise-God. This Parlia- ment, if such it can be called, is known as Barebone's Jfarliament. In less than six months it voted itself out of existence. This was done by an enactment called The Instrument of Government, by which all real power was transferred to Cromwell, under the title of Lord Protector* Barebone's Parliament. THE PROTECTORATE. 139 of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The three countries were to be represented in Parliament by 400, 30, and 30 members respectively. What was really a military despotism had taken the place of the ancient constitutional government of England. Oliver Cpomwell. CHAPTER XXXIX. THE COMMONWEALTH (1649 to 1660).— 2. THE PROTECTORATE (1653 to 1658). 1. Oliver Cromwell, who now became supreme ruler of England, was the son of a country gentleman of Huntingdon. He was educated at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. In 1G28 he repre sented Huntingdon in the House of Commons; in 1640 he was returned as member for Cambridge in the Long Parliament. Until the breaking out of the Civil War, he had given no proof of remarkable ability. He was never distinguished for skill or eloquence in debate. But when he entered the army, which he did at the breaking out of the war, his decided genius for military affairs soon displayed itself. He saw that the only hope of successfully resisting Rupert's cavalry lay in rigidly training his troops, and in inspiring them with his own religious enthusiasm. Cromwell's Ironsides decided the fate of Charles at Marston Moor and Naseby. His character has been variously judged. All admit his ambition, and that he was ca- pable of acts of great cruelty when the real or supposed interests of his cause seemed to demand them. The charge that he was a hypocrite, making a mask of religion to serve his personal and selfish ends, is not so clearly proved. Some modern historians, like Macaulay and Car- lyle, regard him as a sincere man, of intense religious earnestness. His private life was pure, and his habits were simple. 2. The first Parliament of tho Protectorate met on September 4, 1654. This is notable as the first Pa lament in English history that embraced members from Scotland and Ire- ^°^^*^ land as well as from England. Many Presbyterian parliament members of the Long Parliament were in their seats again. Great offence was given to Cromwell by the Parliament's undertaking "to re\ise the Constitution," instead of applying itself Lo practical measures, "healing and settling," as he phrased it. On his own authority he had issued a large number of " Ordinal^ces," dealing with both home and foreign affairs. When Parliament proposed to re- fer these Ordinances to committees of its own, he promptly dissolved it. 3. Another Parliament was convened in September 1656. One hundred members were excluded by an oath which required them to swear allegiance to the Protec- torate as established The remaining members offered Cromwell Second Parliament. V I uo THE PROTECTORATE. ■t^' 111 Military districts. the crown in May 1657. Though this offer was declined, a new document, called the Humhle Petition and Advice, was substituted for the Instrument of Government as the basis of Cromwell's rule. He then had himself inaugurated as Protector in Westminster Hall with a sjDlendor almost equalling that of coronations. An attempt was made to create a new House of Peers. Some sixty persons, including a few of the old peers, were summoned. This movement excited general ridicule. The House of Commons itself refused to recognize the associate legislators. Cromwell then dismissed his last Parliament in a burst of rage. 4. Much discontent prevailed in England. At one time a Royalist insurrection would show itself ; at another, the Republi- cans, smarting under the personal tyranny of Cromwell, would rise against a despot who presumed to dictate to " the saints of the earth." Cromwell determined to keep things in his own hand by dividing the country into eleven military districts, each under a major-general with absolute powers over life and property. Thus prevented from open mutiny, fierce zealots of both parties began to think of assassination as the only means of accomplishing their ends. 5. Cromwell aspired to make himself the champion of Protestantism throughout the world. He therefore entered into alliances with Holland, Denmark, and Switzerland. By his influ- ence with France, with which he allied himself as against Spain, he obtained religious concessions for the people of Savoy. He demanded freedom of trade and worship for English mer- chants in South America, and supported the demand by despatching thither a powerful fleet. His great admiral, Blake, took vengeance on the pirates of Barbary in the interest of all Christian nations, and , especially of English commerce. An English army aided the French in wresting Dunkirk from Spain. The captured fortress was ceded to England. In the West Indies, Admiral Penn failed to gain possession of San Domingo, but he seized Jamaica, which has ever since remained attached to the British Crown. Blake's last exploit was to bum a Spanish fleet in the Bay of Santa Cruz, Teneriffe. The great naval hero died on the homeward voyage, shortly before the Protector's own death. The foreign credit of England has seldom stood higher than during the Protectorate of Cromwell. 6. Oliver Cromwell died of ague on September 3rd, 1658, the anniver- sary of his two great victories of Dunbar and Worcester. His last days had been clouded with melancholy. The success of his foreign policy could not compensate for the murmurs and plots at home. The death of a favorite daughter was added to his other sorrows. His cup was poisoned Avith suspicion and distrust. Colonel Titus, a bitter Royalist, wrote a tract entitled Killing ForeiRn policy of Cromwell. Death of CFomwell. 8 I J, 1 ''*<■ THE PROTECTORATE. 141 no Murder, and to '■' romwell's dismay this plea for his assassination was circulated far aad wide. The experiment of ruling England with- out a free Parliament had ended in failure. Cromwell's bones lay for a" little time amid royal dust in Westminster Abbey. 7. The late Protector was supposed to have indicated a wish that his eldest son Richard should succeed him. Richard Crom- well was a weak man, without either the ambition or the Richard strict religious notions of his father. The nation for a C^°™well. little while acquiesced in his rule ; but it was an attempt to keep up a system after its main prop had been removed. The army mutinied. Richard was forced to dissolve Parliament and to retire into private life. The Protectorate was at an end. Richard Cromwell, after a temporary absence on the Continent, returned to England, and died peacefully at an extreme old age in 1712, in the reign of Queen Anne. 8. An interval of anarchy now occurred. The military leaders who had brought about the expulsion of Richard Cromwell were Lambert and Fleetwood, the latter being brother- Anarchy. in-law of Oliver Cromwell. They agreed to recall the " Rump" Par- liament, which, on being convened, speedily quarrelled with the men who had summoned it. Lambert then forced it to dissolve, and an attempt was made to govern the country by a council of officers, under the name of a Committee of Safety. 9. At the death of Oliver Cromwell, Ireland was governed by his second son Henry, a man of greater ability than Richard, and Scotland by General Monk. Both acknowledged the Protectorate of Richard Cromwell. But now Monk repudiated the assumed authority of Lambert and Fleetwood, and, without any disclosure of his ultimate object, marched with his army to London. On his arrival he declared for a "free Parliament," an announcement which was received with universal joy. The Long Parliament, as it stood before *' Pride's Purge," was recalled. The members resolved on a new election, and at once the Parliament was dissolved. The new House met on the 25th of April 1660, when it appeared that Monk had conducted a secret correspondence with Prince Charles. A declaration from the Prince, called, from the place where it was written, the Declaration of Breda, was read to Parliament. This was addressed to the Prince's "loving subjects," and promised a general amnesty, save in cases excepted by Parliament, "liberty to tender consciences," an equitable settlement of unjust confiscations, and arrears of pay to the army. The Parliament grace- ftiUy accepted the Prince's assurances, and on the 8th of May Charles 11. was prouiaiuied King of England. A fleet was at once despatched to convey him to Dover. General Monk. 142 CIIAIILES II. i-l I CHAPTER XL. HOUSE OF STUART (RESUMED). THE RESTORATION.— CHARLES II. (1660 to 1686 A.D.). The Restoration. Character of Charles II. Charles II. entered Xjondon on May 29, 1(560, his thirtieth birth- day. The restoration of the monarchy was hailed with joy by the nation at large. It was accepted as the signal for the re-establishment of law, order, and domestic tranquillity. The extreme Republicans held their peace or left the country ; the great mass of the Presbyterians, like their leader General Monk, united with the Royalists in welcoming the return of constitu- tiimal government. 2. In their first transports of loyal enthusiasm, the people gave little thought to the character of their restored King. In fact there was nnich to win their confidence in Charles's outward appearance and bearing. His swarthy com- plexicm and rather coarse features were lighted up with the kindliest of smiles. No English r. march ever moved among his subjects with such easy, engaging familiarity. To his dying day, those around him found it impossible to resist the charm of his graceful manners, his ready wit, his frank and affable conversation. But his people soon discovered that this agreeable exterior concealed a selfish and lustful nature. Charles had scarcely reigned a year when he made it clear that his highest ambition was to lead a life of indolence and pleasure. To gratify this, there was scarcely any sacrifice of honor and duty which he was not prepared to make. He died a Roman Catholic, and in his few serious moments during life is supposed to have been attached to the faith of his mother ; but sooner than inter- rupt his pleasures, he allowed the Catholics to suffer the most out- rageous persecution without an effort to save them. For many years he regularly sold the honor of his country to France, enabling himself to defy his own Parliaments by accepting bribes or pensions from Louis XIV. Two years after his accession, he married a Portuguese princess, Catharine of Braganza, with whom he received as a dowry £500,000, together with the fortress of Tangier and the settlement of Bombay. He treated his Queen with little respect, surrounding him- self with abandoned women, and making his Court a by-word of immorality. 3. The Assembly which accepted the Declaration of Breda was not a regular Parliament, the formalityof having been sum- moned by a King being wanting. It is sciinetimes known The Con- vention- as the Convention, sometimes as the Convention-Pa^iiament. It sat until the December following the King's accession. In accordance with the Declaration of Breda, it passed a general Act Parliament. CHARLES II. 143 of Indemnity, bnt excepted from its provisions the reflicidea, or mem- bers of the High Court of Justice which had tried and condemned the late King. Of these, ten were executed, nineteen were imprisoned for life, others escaped to Holland and America. The bodies of Cromwell, Ireton, and liradshaw were disinterred, and buried under a gibbet at Tyburn. The ashes of Blake were transferred from Westminster Abbey to a more common receptacle. The Convention granted the King tunnage and poundage for life, together with a fixed revenue of £1 ,200,000. At the same time it abolished purveyance, or the right of taking property for the King's use, at a valuation, without the consent of the owners ; and also deprived the Crown of certain feudal privileges through which much money had been exacted in former reigns. 4. The first regular Parliament of Charles's reign met in May 1661. One of its first measures was the Corporation Act. By this Act, magistrates, and members of corporations, such ^^^ Corpo- aa mayors, aldermen, etc., were required to commune ^*'*°" A°'* according to the rites of the Established Church, and to swear that it was unlawful to take up arms against the King. This oath of nnn. resistance, as it was called, was abolished in the reign of George I. ; the " Corporation Act " itself continued in force until 1828. 5. At :t8 second session in 1662, Parliament passed a statute dealing with religious affairs, known as the Act of Uniformity. This Act made attendance at the parish church comi)ul- sory, and to speak against the Liturgy a criminal offence. Clergymen were required to be episcopally ordained, and to assent to the Book of Common Prayer. They weie further obliged to renounce the Solemn League and Covenant, and to take the same oath of non- resistance as magistrates. Upwards of one thousand ministers, some of them eminent for their learning and piety, refused to accept the conditions imposed by the Act of Uniformity, and were deprived of their livings on August 24th, 1662. The terms Nonconformist and Dis- senter date from this period, » 6. The Act of Uniformity was followed in 1664 by the Conventicle Act, and in 1665 by the Five Mile Act, both designed to carry out its harsh provisions against Dissenters. The '^^® " ^°^' former made it unlawful to attend religious worship con- ^®J »°i.® " ducted by Nonconformist ministers ; the latter denied ^Je " /cts^ such ministers the privilege of coming within five miles of a city or town sending members to Parliament, and also forbade their teaching in school. These odious restrictions were enforced by fines, imprisonment, and even transportation. 7. As beicniging to two of the chief commercial nations of the age, the English and the Dutch traders came into frequent conflict. In 1664, an English company trading with the ^^Ji^^^**^^ Gold Coast became involved in a quarrel with some of 10 The Act of Uniformity. \ War. 144 CHARLES II. : 'i iM I ilfi: the Dutch settlomenta in Africa. At the hea'^ of this company wan the King's brother, .lames, Duke of York, who was also Lord High Admiral of England. Under his direction an English fleet captured the Dutch colony (»f New Amsterdam in America, which in honor of the Duke has since borne the name of iVcw York. The following year (160.')) war was formally declared. Under the Duke of York and his cousin Prince Rupert, the English fleet gained a decisive victory off Lowestoft, on the Suffolk coast. This was followed by an engageinent, in which neither party got the advantage, off Goodwin Sands. Then the liUglish were once more victorious off the North Foreland, the Dutch Heet being nearly destroyed. In 1667, the Dutch Admirals De Witt and De Ruyter turned the tables against the English. England, suffering from two terrible calamities described in the two succeeding paragraphs, had neglected her navy, while Holland had spared no pains to put hers in an efficient state. The result was that the Dutch fleet sailed almost unopposed up the Thames, causing great alarm and destroying much property. The highest point reached was Tilbury Fort, opposite Gravesend. De Witt then retired without having received a single blow in return for the loss and disgrace inflicted on the English. The war was soon brought to a close by the Treaty oj Breda, which was effected in July 10(57. Though not disadvantageous to Enghind, to which New York, New .Jersey, and Delaware in Amer- ica, Gold Coast Castle in Africa, and Antigua in the West Indies weie ceded, the Treaty of Breda was regarded as a national humilia- tion, because nothing had been done to wipe out the disgrace of the recent insult. 8, During the Dutch War just described, L3 summarily those laws by an exer' cise of the royal prerogative. 3. The first and only Parliament of James's reign met a few weeks p.-_...-_---^ after his coronation. The King had previously assured his Council that he intended to maintain the laws in- violate, and uphold the rights of the Church of England. This promise had sent a thrill of loyal enthusiasm through the country. 1!! ih JAMES II. 151 The members came up from the various constituencies full of ardent attachment to the King and his throne. A revenue of £1,900,000 a-year, with tunnage and poundage for life, was settled on James with- out an opposing voice. vy 4. James was scarcely seated on the throne when a two-headed movement was planned against him in Holland. The chiefs in this plot were two exiles— James's nephew the ^^f^fle and Duke of Monmouth, and the Earl of Argyle, son of the Mo""»o«th. great Marquis who had been beheaded just after the Restoration. Argyle landed among his own clan, the Campbells, on the Argyleshire coast ; but he was soon captured and brought to the block (June 30th. 1685). Three weeks before Argyle's execution, Monmouth, with less than a hundred followers, disembarked at Lyme Regis in Dorsetshire. The rash adventurer claimed royal honors, and issued a proclamation,' in which he charged his uncle, the King, with having poisoned Charles II., set fire to London, and murdered Sir Edmondbury God- frey. This ridiculous manifesto did not prevent the people of the west from joining his ranks in great numbers. He soon found himself at the head of an army. A royal force under the Earl of Feversham, with Churchill, afterwards Duke of Marlborough, as second in author- ity, was sent against him. The decisive encounter took place at Sedgemoor, three miles from Bridgewater. The crushing defeat of the rebels was due chiefly to the military genius of Churchill. Mon- mouth was caught a few days after the battle, hidden, half-starved, in a field of pease. On being brought to London, the captive Duke piteously besought of his uncle, whom he had tried to injure, the favor of a personal interview. The King condescended to see the prisoner, but gave him no hope of mercy. Monmouth was executed on the 15th of July 1685. He was an illegitimate son of Charles II. by Lucy Walters, a Welsh girl whom Charles met during his exile iii Holland. 5. It would have been well for the reputation of James had he con- tented himself with the execution of his nephew. But he determined to strike such a blow in the western J"dge shires, where the rebellion had prevailed, as would Jeff>^eys. effectually intimidate others from similar attempts. The work of trying and sentencing the rebels was intrusted to Judge Jeffreys, a man in whom considerable ability was joined to a most violent temper and an utter disregard of human suffering. The circuit of Jeffreys in the west is known as the Bloody Assize. Three hundred persons were convicted and hanged in Somerset and Dorset. Nearly a thousand Wftrp. t.ra.nai-inrfoH <■<-» ar>rln».r. fKr. V.--.».». -,i; ~i _ ^ i ■• ^ — ,.,,.. ^.,j^. iiOnuis ui Biiivui-y ; II liiwuoiess numoer were whipped and imprisoned. Two women— Mrs. Lisle, wife of one of the regicides, and Elizabeth Gaunt— were put to death for the simple act of harboring a rebel. While it would not be fair to hold 152 JAMES II. Relation of James to Louis XIV. James responsible for all the atrocities of the Bloody Assize, his apologists find it hard to justify the subsequent promotion of Jeffreys to the highest judicial jwsition in the kingdom. On his return from the western circuit, Jeffreys was created Lord High Chancellor. 6. James II. continued the secret league with France which had been entered into by his brother Charles. Gradually the English people became aware that some such compact was in force, and that their King was in receipt of Frencli gold. This knowledge did much to alienate the loyalty of James's subjects and to thwart his plans for the restoration of the Catholic religion in England. In 1685 Louis XIV. revoked the Edict of Nantes, which had allowed freedom of worship to the French Protestants. The latter were now forced to leave their country, and came in large numbers to England, where their x^resence excited a strong feeling against Louis. 7. Relying on his prerogative as Kinrj to dispense with law, James proceeded to treat as null and void the statutes proscribing . . .^" Catholics and Dissenters. He did this after seeking in vain from Parliament a repeal of the Test Act. He, however, obtained from a majority of the Judges a judicial decision to the effect that his prerogative was above all law. Thus armed, he ap- pointed Catholics to important posts in the Army, in the Civil Service, and in the Universities. The Court of High Commission was revived, with Jeffreys at its head, to deal with any clergyman who should oppose the religious jjolicy of the King. Thus far James's chief advisers had been his brothers-in-law — the Earls of Clarendon and Rochester, brothers of his first wife, Anne Hyde. Though extreme Royalists, these men were now dismissed from office, and their places were filled with Roman Catholics. It is not necessary here to discuss the abstract question whether in all this the King made a justifiable use of his prerogative or not ; it is enough to know that he acted unwisely. So at the time thought the most sagacious Catholics, both at home and abroad. The Pope earnestly besought James to act moderately, to consider the prejudices of his Protestant subjects, and to remember that the fate of Catholicism in England might depend on his prudence. The great mass of the ancient Catholic nobility > f England refused to be parties to any violation of the law. But the King was urged on by Louis XIV. of France, a prince whose ambition became so grasp- ing and unbearable that all Europe joined at length in a coalition against him. 8. In 1687 the King issued a Declaration of Indulgence, in express Declara- tions of Indulgence. i*r» '»»^ f-t4- ■ 'r»^l-»*-\I JLl-IZr CBliT,l Dissenters. A year later he caused to be published a second " Declaration," which on appointed days the clergy were commanded to read from their pulpits. This JAMES II. 153 dis- affection. This order was generally disregarded ; having, for instance, been read in only four of the London churches. Bancroft, Archbishop of Canter- bury, with six of his bishops, presented to the King a memorial or remonstrance, showing reason why, in their opinion, the Declaration should not be read. The Court of High Commission not venturing to deal with such exalted offenders, the bishops were prosecuted in the ordinary courts for libel, and after a most exciting trial were acquitted. Their acquittal deeply wounded James's feelings. 9. By this time the King had become intensely unpopular. The Catholics and the Dissenters, whom he sought to favor, were but a small minority of the nation, and of these cjuite a number looked with distrust on favors whose legality might be General called in question. The clergy no longer proclaimed the doctrines of non-resistance a,nd passive obedience. James had managed, after the rebellion of Monmouth, to equip and maintain a standing army of respectable size ; but signs of disaffection even in the army were not wanting. The excited Protestant feeling of the country was raised to the highest pitch by the simple announcement that the Queen had given birth to an heir to the throne. 10. At this crisis a scheme was entered into by certain peers and other prominent men to dethrone James, and give the crown to his son-in-law, the Prince of Orange. Prior to the recent birth of a son to James and Mary of Modena, James's yl ^**"* daughter, the Princess Mary of Orange, was direct heiress ° rang©. to the English throne. William of Orange, whose thoughts had already been turned to England, accepted the invitation addressed to him by prominent English nobles to appear with an army for the dethrone- ment of his father-in-law. Having sent before him a Declaration to the people of England that he was coming, not for conquest, but for the protection of civil and religious liberty, the Prince of Orange landed at Torbay in Devonshire, on November 5th, 1688. He brought with him a force of about fourteen thousand men. For a few days after his landing, his ranks were not strengthened by the adhesion of any men of eminence, but soon the nobility and gentry flocked to his standard in great numbers. 11. Louis XIV. had conveyed to James timely notice of the inten- tions of his son-in-law ; but the intelligence was at first disbelieved and afterwards disregarded. When at length there was no room for doubt, the King sought to gain support by abol- P^'^P^'ra- ishing the High Commission Court, by restoring dismissed magistrates, and by returning to London and other towns their confiscated charters. He strengthened his army, whose loyalty he had good reason to distrust, by large drafts of troops from Ireland. He then advanced as far as to Salisbury ; but finding that his principal officer, Lord Churchill, had deserted him, anrl that Lis own daughter tions of James. 154 WILLIAM AND MARY. Flight of the King. the Princess Anne had also proved faithless, he returned in trembling haste to London. When tidings of Anne's desertion reached him, the hapless King exclaimed, " God help me ; my own children have for- saken me !" 12. Meantime, tlie Prince of Orange pressed on steadily toward the capital, contriving by skilful management to avoid all conflict with the English troops, to whom the sight of a foreign in- vader would naturally have been hateful. James now resolved on flight. On the 10th of December 1688, he despatched his wife and her child to Gravesend, where they embarked for France. On the following day, James himself left Whitehall Palace for Sheerness; but he was arrested by some boatmen on the Thames, and was brought back to London. It was now the object of the Prince of Orange, who was at Windsor, to induce James to leave the country. A detachment of Dutch troops was sent into London, and an order issued to the King to withdraw from St. James's Palace. The hint was taken ; and on the 26th of December 1688 James II. saw his capital for the last time. He repaired to France, and for the rest of his life enjoyed the princely hospitalities of Louis XIV. 13. The flight of James was followed by the creation of a Provisional Government, with the Prince of Orange at its head. The peers and the leading statesmen who were in London agreed that the Prince of Orange should summon a Convention to con- sider the peculiar state of the nation. This Convention met in January 1689. After much discussion, it was unanimously declared that by his abdication and flight James had forfeited his title to the throne, and that the interests of the kingdom required a Protestant successor. The crown was offered to William and Mary, the chief powers of government to be in the hands of the former. Should they die without issue, the right of succession was vested in the Princess Anne. They were required to subscribe to a Declaration of Right, the provisions of which we shall find embodied in the famous Bill of Rights passed a few months later. The Inter- regnum. / (1689 to 1694). CHAPTER XLIL HOUSE OF STUART.— WILLIAM AND MARY WILLIAM IIL (1694 to 1702). 1. The political movement which led to the flight of James and the elevation of William and Mary to the throne is known in English history as the Revolution of 1688. The new Kine^ was the 8on of William, Prince of Orange, and Mary, daughter of Charles I. In 1677 he married his cousin Mary, eldest daughter of James II. Before his accession to the English throne he William and Mary. / WILLIAM AND MARY. 155 The Mutiny Act. had long been engaged in war with Louis XIV. of France, and during his reign his attention was chiefly occupied with checking the designs of that ambitious and powerful ruler. The crown of England was valuable in his eyes simply as a means of strengthening himself against Prance. William was a man of spare frame, simple habits, and unos- tentatious manners. He was troubled throughout life with a con- sumptive cough, which the moist climate of England did much to aggravate. His affections were strongly fixed on his native Holland, and he never learned to love his English subjects. He possessed not only considerable skill, but a statesmanlike grasp of affairs, by which- he was able to form combinations that often baffled his great antago- nist the King of France. Above all, he was animated by an uncon- querable will, which rose superior to every defeat. 2. In February 1689, the Convention declared itself by Bill to be a regular Parliament. It fixed the revenue at £1,200,000, half for the support of an army and navy, half for civil expenses. A Mutinij Act was passed, to be in force but one year, plac- ing the army under martial law. Similar Acts passed each year are to this day the only authority under which a standing army can be legally maintained in England. The necessity of a Mutiny Act, providing for the legal existence and maintenance of the army, re- quires thatl'arliament shall assemble at least once a-year. 3. Though the doctrine of the Divine right of Kings had received a severe shock during the late events, it retained sufficient influence to induce Sancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury, seven bishops, and a number of the higher clergy to refuse to take the oath of allegiance to William and Mary. They held that Kings could not be dethroned and created by an Act of Par- liament. From their refusal to sivear they were called Non-jurors. Many of the clergy who reluctantly took the oath were non-jiu-ors at heart, and gave the new Government s lukewarm support. 4. The King urged his first Parliament to repeal the Test and Cor- poration Act, so far as Protestant Dissenters were concerned, thus giving that class of the population full civil privileges. This was refused, but a Toleration Act was passed, which gave partial satisfaction to all Nonconformists except Roman Catholics and Unitarians. These were still debarred not only from their civil rights, but fvlso from the free exercise of their religion. Other Nonconformists, though still laboring under political disability, were allowed to meet for religious worship. It remained for a more enlightened age to declare that every man has a right to worship God tKv.v-i..iiiig u^/ 1113 uwii c<.>n3Ciciiv;t;, itiiu i/iiat iiiG proiesoion or a par- ticular creed is unnecessary for the enjoyment of full political privi- leges. 5. Another important measure, enacted in the first year of William The Non- jurors. The Tolera- tion Act. 156 WILLIAM AND MARY. The Bill of Rights. and Mary's reign, remains to be mentioned. This is the Bill of RiijhtSy a statute which embodied, with some additions, the Declaration of Right passed by the same Parliament when sitting as a Conventum, and subscribed to by the King and the Queen. The Bill of Rights completely overthrows the theory that our English Sovereigns rule by divine right. That the people, through their parliamentary representatives, can change the order of succession as the interests of the country seem to require, is fully recognized and established. To briefly summarize its nine more important provisions, the Bill of Rights declares :— (1) That the dispensing power, or setting aside of laws by regal authority, is illegal ; (2) that the Court of High Commission is illegal and pernicious ; (3) that the Crown cannot levy money without authority from Parliament ; (4) that all English subjects have the right to petition ; (5) that it is unlawful to maintain a standing army without the con- sent of Parliament ; (0) that all elections to Parliament should be free ; (7) that members should not be called to account elsewhere for words spoken in Parliament ; (8) that the right of trial by jury should be maintained; (D) that Parliament should sit frequently. Another clause settled the succession on the Princess Anne, if Mary should die without issue. It was also provided that ' ' whosoever shall hereafter come to the possession of this Crown shall join in communion with the Church of England as by law established." 6. The claim of William and Mary to th e crown of Scotland was strongly resisted by the people of the Highlands. These took up anns under the command of Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee. William's troops, under General Mackay, met Dundee's forces at Killiecrankie, twenty-six miles from Perth, on July 27th, 1689. Dundee swept the field, but was killed by a chance shot in the very moment of victory. Gradually the friends of James, who became known as Jacobites (ivoxa. the Latin Jacobus, "James"), were reduced to submission. About two years and a half after the Battle- of Killiecrankie, in connection with the final pacification of the Highlands, a most deplorable event occurred, which has left a strdn on the memory of William. This was the infamous Massacre nf Olencoe. The Higiiland chiefs having been required to take the oath of allegiance before a certain date, one of them, through no fault of his own, was a few days late in making his submission. His oath, however, was accepted, and he returned home without a shadow of suspicion that all was not right. This chief, Maclan, head of the MacDonalds of Glencoe, had a bitter personal enemy in the Secretary for Scotland, Sir John Dalrymple, who falsely represented to the King that Maclan had refused to take the oath. Dalrymple then obtained from William a warrant for the extermination of the clan. In Feb- ruary 1692, a party of soldiers entered the village of the MacDonalds, Affairs in Scotland. WILLIAM AND MARY. 157 and, representing themselves as on a peaceful errand, were most hos- pitably received. After a fortnight's feasting, on the night of Feb- ruary 13, the soldieis shot down their unsuspecting hosts in cold blood. One hundred and twenty persons, including those who escaped to the mountains and there died of cold and hunger, are said to have perished. William's precise relation to this tragic affair has never been posi- tively known. The signing of a warrant permitting such a massacre was at best an act of criminal carelessness. It was, also, not to his credit that Dalrymple was allowed to escape with no severer punish- ment than deprivation of his office. 7. The Catholics of Ireland ardently espoused the cause of James, who, emboldened by the support of Louis XIV., deter- mined to make a stroke for the recovery of his crown. ^^fiis-^d. James landt . in Ireland in March 1689, with a small French force, i5 which was joined J3,t once a native force raiced and disciplined by Tyr- connel, who had been Lord -Lieutenant at the time of his abdication. Dublin, and indeed all the island except the extreme north, declared for James. In Ulster, Enniskillen and Londonderry were the chief strongholds of William's friends. From Apiil to July 1089, the latter city endured a siege which has made its name famous. James's troops completely invested it for months, and a boom was stretched across Lough Foyle to prevent relief from reaching the garrison by sea. At length after an heroic resistance, in which all the horrors of famine were suffered, Londonderry was saved to William by two English store-shi[is succeeding in breaking the boom and bringing supplies to the famished garrison. In June 1690, William himself landed in Ire- land and joined his forces to those of General Schomberg, whom he had sent over the preceding summer. The rival Kings, father-in-law and son-in-law, encountered each other on July 1st, on the banks of the river Boyne, near Drogheda. The Battle of the Boyne resulted in the total defeat of James. His army was terribly shattered, and he himself was forced to flee to France. William returned to England after taking Waterford and Wexford, but having failed in his attempt to ca]iture Limerick. Then came the Battle of Aughrim, in which the Dutch general Ginkel defeated the French commander St. Ruth. In October 1691, the gallant Sarsfield, who had previously defended Lim- erick against all the forces of William, was compelled to surrender. By the Pacification of Limerick, Sarsfield's troops were given the option of following him to France. Twelve thousand men took advantage of the offer, choosing, in the words of one of our most eminent historians, him- self an Englishman and a Protestant, "exile, rather than life in a land where all hope of national freedom wa^s lost." With the "Pacification of Limerick" Irish affairs ceased to be a source of anxietv to the English Government ; but, unfortunately, Ireland was ruled as a conquered coun- try, and the seeds of future trouble were sowti in mischievous abundance. 156 WILLIAM AND MARY. War with France. The Treaty of Ryswick. 8. WUlinm, as Stadtholder of Holland, had been engaged in war with France prior to hia accession to the EngliHh throne. His title to that throne was now denied by Louis XIV., who professed to recognize James as still the rightful King of Ent^land. Parliament could not but take notice of the insult thus offered to the man called by itself to nasumo the sovereignty. War was declared against France. In 1690, the combined English and Dutch fleets, under Lord Torrington, were defeated by the French off Heachy Head ; but two years later this defeat was more than counter- b.'ilanced by the great victory off La Hol<>t against the King's life was detected and sup- pressed. From its loader, Sir (ieorge Barclay, it was called Jinrchui's Compiracji. The jJan was to assassinate ^^^^^^y'^ William as he passed through Turnham (Jreen on his Conspiracy, way from London to Richmond Park. Eight of the consinrators were executed. Sir John Fenwick, who was charged with complicity, could not be cfmvicted by legal process, through insufficiency of testimony. He was therefore condemned by a Bill of Attainder, and subsequently beheaded on Tower Hill. 13. The throne of Spain was now occupied by a childless sovereign, Charles II. Various claimants to the succession pre- sented themselves. Louis XIV. asserted the right of his ^^^ son the Dauphin, as nephew of Charles II. The Elector « ^***"*J** of Bavaria put forth the claims of his son, a grand-nephew ^"°°®^^'°"' of the same monarch, but by a younger daughter. Leojmld, Emperor of Germany, asserted the rights of his son the Archduke Charles, on the ground of his descent from Charles II. 's grandfather, Philip III.* * These claims will be more easily understood from the following table :— PHILIP III. Philip iv. Charles ll Maria -Ferdinand III, (Emperor). Maria Theresa "Louis Ajy. Mar^artt (i)='Leopo\d I.=(2) HUanor of (Emperor.) | Ntubiirg Louis, the Dauphin Anne ^Lonis XIII. o/Frixnce. Louis XIV. of France. Louis of Burgundy. Louis XV. 01 France. Philip of Anjou (c). (PHILIP V. of Spain). Maria Joseph I. = Elector of (Emperor). Bavaria Joseph, Electoral Prince (a). Archduke Charles (<») (b) (c). Maria Theresa. (a) The three claimants in the First Partition Treaty (1698). (*) The two claimants in the Second Partition Treaty (1700). {c) The two claimants for and against whom the Grand Alliance was formed (1701). 11 S f 160 14. WILLIAM in. Partition Treaties. Parliament of 1698. In October 1G98, an arrangement, known as The First Partition Treaty, was entered into by Louis XIV. and William. It provided for the division of tlie Spanish dominions among the three above-mentioned claimants. The death of the Prince of Bavaria in 1099 threw everything into confusion again. A Second Partition Treaty was then arranged for the division of the Spanish dominions between the two remaining claimants, the sons of Louis and the Emperor. This treaty was in its turn rendered abortive by the death of Charles II. , who bequeathed the whole of his dominions to Louis XIV. 's grandson Philip, Duke of Anjou, second son of the Dauphin. Louis XIV. at once threw the Partition Treaty to the winds, and eagerly espoused the cause of his grandson, who at once assumed the title of Philip V. Not to be outdone, the Emperor's son gave himself out as Charles III. In these rival pretensions lay the seeds of the great War of the Spanish Succession. 15. The new Parliament, which met in 1698, caused William sore mor- tification. It not only reduced the army to seven thou- sand men, but it insisted that the King should dismiss from the service all the troops which he had brought over from Holland. William was further humiliated by the Parliament declar- ing void the large grants of lan'i in Ireland which he had bestowed on his favorite Dutch generals, and ordering the estates to be forfeited and sold. The Whigs, as the statesmen who had thus far guided the King's policy were called, were now driven from office. The most eminent of these, Lord Somers, ceased to be Lord Chancellor in 1700. It is said that at one time William was so annoyed at what he con- sidered the harsh treatment he received from Parliament, that he meditated a resignation of the English crown. 16. In the year 1700, the Princess Anne of Denmark, next in succes- sion to the throne, buried the last of her large family. The Parliament which met the next year (1701) pro- ceeded by an Act of Settlement to provide for the succes- sion in case, as seemed likely, both William and Anne should die without direct heirs. The Bill of Rights excluded from the throne both the family of James II. and that of Charles I.'s grand -daughter, the Duchess of Savoy, inasmuch as these families were Catholic in religion. The nearest Protestant heirs to the crown were the descendants of Elizabeth of Bohemia, daughter of James I. Eliza- beth's daughter Sophia, Electress of Hanover, was still living, and on her the succession was settled should William and Anne both die without children. Sophia's son George, Elector of Hanover, sub- sequently Came to the throne as George I. The Act of Settlement contained other provisions, extending and confirming the principles of the Bill of Rights. One of the most important of these io that still in force, by virtue of which Judges were made independent of the Crown The Act of Settlement. ANNE. 161 by holding office during good behavior, instead of at the mere plea- sure of the King. 17. The failure of the Partition Treaties led to the formation of a grand European alliance, to resist the threatened exten- sion of French power by the acquisition of the Spanish '^^^ Grand crown. The soul of this alliance was William III. of ^"'*"°e- England. Joined with him were Holland, Austria, Denmark, and Sweden. The Chand Alliance was formed on September 7th, 1701. Its object was to obtain the crown of Spain for Charies, son of Leopold, Emperor of Germany. 18. Nine days after the Grand Alliance was formed, the ex-King of England, James Stuart, breathed his last at St. Germains, where he had lived in regal splendor, a ^^6**^ of pensioner on the bounty of Louis. In violation of the "^^^^^ II. Treaty of Ryswick, the French King at once recognized James's son, James Francis Edward, then a youth of thirteen yea s as James III of England. 19. The last Parliament of "William's reign met on December 30, 1701. A Bill of Attainder was passed against the Pretender, as the son of James II. was called, and all officials were °®*^^ °*' required to repudiate his claims on oath. Large sub- W*"^*™ "I- sidies were voted to carry on the great Continental war in which England was about to engage. William seemed to be becoming really popular with his English subjects. His spirits rose with the prospects of success. But an enemy that mortals can never overcome was near On February 21st, 1702, a fall from his horse broke his collar-bone. On the 8th of March he died. The control of the great coalition which he had formed to humble the power of France passed into other hands. CHAPTER XLIII. HOUSE OF STUART.— ANNE 1702 to 1714 A.D. 1. According to the terms of the Bill of Rights and the Act of Settle ment, the Princess Anne of Denmark now ascended the throne. She was thirty-seven years of age. She had born to her husband. Prince George of Denmark, a numerous family, the last of whom had died in 1700, at the age of twelve. Prince George himself was a man of feeble dowpts- jitiH nf.foriir nrifV..^.-.^- -Cv^-a, affairs. Charles II. aptly described his character by saying;— '' I have tried Prince George drunk and I have tried him sober,°and drunk or sober there is nothing in him." Queen Anne was a rigid Protestant, and was strongly attached to the Established Church. Accession and chap- actep of Anne. in pUOilU I 162 ANNE. i i t' Her general aim seems to have been to rule according to the wishes of Parliament, but her amiable disposition and yielding will gave favorites too much influence over her. For the first eight years of her reign she was completely controlled by Sarah Jennings , Duchess of Marlborough, a woman of singular beauty and of great intellectual, capacity, yet fond of political intrigue and destitute of high moral principle. John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, was of course associated with his wife in directing the policy of the Queen. Anne's first Prime Minister, to use the phrase of the present day, was the Earl of Godolphin, a cautious, calculating man, who had served under both James II, and William III. 2. During this reign the distinction between the two great political parties, the Whigs and the Tories, oecomes very cfearly Topfe^" marked. In general the Whigs of that day may be described as attached to the principles of the Bill of Rights and the Act of Settlement, as inclined to strengthen the powers of Parliament against the encroachments of the royal prerogatives, as favorable to Dissenters, and as anxious to assert the power of England in Continental politics. On the other hand many of the Tories clung to the doctrine of the Divine right of Kings, and therefore looked coldly on recent violations of it, though the number of Tories who were actually Jacobites became continually smaller and smaller. The Tory party zealously upheld the cause of the Church as opposed to all forms of dissent, and contended that England should interfere as little as possible with affairs on the Continent. 3. William III., a few weeks before his death, but after he had arranged the Grand Alliance against Louis XIV., placed the Duke of Marlborough in command of the English army in Flanders. Marlborough had been guilty of treasonable correspondence with James II., but William overlooked this, because he recognized in Marlborough the only Englishman capable of coping successfully with the great genoirals of Louis. Anne was only too well pleased to continue her friend's promotion. Three days after her accession, she appointed him Captain-General of the English forces at home and abroad. With Marlborough, who was a Tory, at the head of the army, the Tories who had looked with dis- trust on the pending War of the Spanish Succession now heartily sup- jiorted it. The world has seen few greater generals than Marlborough, but his character as a man is not one to be envied. His ruling passion was a thirst for gold, and he has been described as " perhaps the only man of real greatness who loved money for money's sake." 4. The War of the Spanish Succession was continued according to the late King's policy. The parties on the one side were The War or Tr^r^loT^rJ nrv,.»y.r.-r.T^ ov».^ 11^110.1/4 i^;v>o^ ;», TTAOU,. C3„,,,.„ Succession ^"^^ Portugal ; on the other, France and Spain. The war lasted from 1702 until 1713, and had for its theatre the Marl- borough. ANNE. 163 Netherlands, Germany, Spain, and the ocean. The chief land conflicts took place m the two first-named countries, where the aUied armies were commanded by Marlborough, ably seconded by the Imperialist general Prmce Eugene of Savoy. In the first campaign (1702), Marl- borough made a good beginning, and drove the French from the JNetherlands Nothing of importance occurred the following year, but m 1704 Marlborough penetrated into Germany and gained a glorious victory at Blenheim, a village in West Bavaria. The French com- mander, Marshal Tallard, and all his staff were taken prisoners. The final charge which decided the victory for the English, one of the most magnificent m modem warfare, was headed by Marlborough in person Parhament rewarded his services by the gift of a princely estate near Oxford, on which was erected at the nation's cost, for the Duke and his descendants, that splendid pile known as Blenheim Palace. The three other great victories, which, with that of Blenheim, have made Marlborough s name immortal, were those at Ramillies in 1706 at Oudenarde in 1708, and at Malplaquet in 1709. These were all fought in Belgium. For several years after the Battle of Malplaquet, the war dragged slovvly along, and in 1712, owing to political intrigues at home, Marlborough was recalled, and was superseded by the Duke of Ormond. 5. At the outset of the war, in several small engagements with J^rench and Spanish fleets, the English navy suffered shght reverses; but in 1704, Sir George Rooke and Sir ^aval Cloudesley Shovel captured the important fortress of ®v®"'s. Gibraltar, which has ever since been retained as a possession of Great Britain. 6. In 1705, the eccentric Earl of Peterborough took by surprise the town of Barcelona, and obtained for the allies an ad- vantageous foothold in Spain. Before that, the German ^^^ '" candidate for the Spanish throne, Charles of Austria, ^***'"- styling himself Charles III., in whose behalf England' was fighting, had entered the Peninsula, but had suffered a severe defeat from an army composed partly of Frenchmen, partly of Spaniards, under the command of the Duke of Berwick, an illegitimate son of James II. At a later period (1707) Berwick, who was a brave and capable officer, gained a still more decisive victory at Almanza over an allied army commanded by the Earl of Galway. The English partially counter- balanced these defeats by subsequent victories, but their affairs in Spain were on the whole mismanaged ; and in 1710, the defeat of General Stanhope by the French, near Madrid, compelled the allies to evacuate the Peninsula. Philip V. now found his throne undisturbed so far as his own dominions were concerned. 7. The War of the Spanish Succession was virtually ended in 1711 bj- the election of the so-called King, Charles III. of Spain, to the imperial 164 ANNE. I^ The Treaty of Utrecht. and Scotland. throne of Germany. The recall of Marlborough in 1712 marked a further stage of its decline. It was finally ended in 1713 by the Treaty of Utrecht. By this treaty, Philip V. was allowed to retain the crown of Spain, on the condition that France and Spain should never be united under one sovereign. France further agreed to recognize the succession of the Eouse of Hanover, and engaged that the Pretender should withdraw from France. Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, the island of St. Christopher, and Gibraltar were ceded to England. 8. Ever since the union of the crowns of England and Scotland under James I., the subject of the parliamentary union of The Union ^j^g ^^^ countries had engaged the attention of statesmen. °*' ^"5i*"*^ The latter union was actually effected in 1707. The Scot- tish Parliament had sought to prevent this by passing an Act in 1704 providing that Anne's successor to the crown of Scotland should be a Protestant of the royal line of that country, but not also the holder of the English crown, thus expressly excluding the House of Hanover. But in July 1706, a Commission represent- ing both England and Scotland agreed on certain articles of union. After a long debate and strong opposition, the Scottish Parliament accepted the articles by a large majority on the 16th of January 1707. They were ratified by the English Parliament on the 6th of the follov/- ing March, and became law in both countries on May 1st, 1707. The Act of Union provides that the two kingdoms shall be united under the name of "Great Britain;" that the united monarchy shall be vested in the House of Fauover ; that there shall be one Parliament for the United Kingdom, Scotland sending sixteen peers to the House of Lords and foi .y-five members to the House of Commons; that the Established Presbyterian Church of Scotland shall be maintained ; that there shall be perfect freedom of trade and navigation between the two countries ; and that Scotland shall retain unchanged her courts of law and certain specified laws and customs. 9. Gradually the Queen had become tired of the domineering manners of her favorite, the Duchess of Marlborough. The Duchess's place in Anne's affections was now taken by a Mrs. Masham, rather an insinuating person, a cousin of Harley, a prominent Tory politician. Other signs indicated that Godolphin and his Whig colleagues, Somers and Halifax, were losing their c(m- trol of affairs. A London clergyman named Sacheverell had preached and published two sermons, remarkable for nothing but the extravagant latigfuage in . !' ch they asserted the theories of non-resistance and passive obedience, and denounced Dissenters as enemies of the Crown. The Government unwisely gave prominence to Sacheverell by having him impeached before the House of Lords for disloyalty and sedition. A small majority of the peers silenced him for three years, and Sacheverell. i PROGRESS UNDER THE STUART SOVEREIGNS. 165 ordered his sermons to be burned by the common hangman. The imnishment was so light as to amount to a virtual triumph for Sach- everell. A violent mob expressed its sympathy with the persecuted clergyman. 10. The disgrace of the Duchess of Marlborough was followed by the dismissal of the Whig ministers. The Tory leaders now coming into power were Robert Harley, afterwards Earl ^^^^ of Oxford, and Henry St. John, Viscount Bolingbroke. supremacy. The latter was an ardent and consistent Jacobite, and his intimacy with the Queen was interpreted to mean that Anne would have set aside the Act of Settlement and the Hanoverian succession if she could. 11. A new Parliament met in 1710, strongly in sympathy with the Tory views now in the ascendant. Even then peace with France was talked of, and the continuance of the War of ^^^ °^ Marl- the Spanish Succession denounced. Marlborough, who OJ'ouK*** thought that his splendid victories should bring some corresponding advantage to his country, strongly opposed all mention of peace. It was under these circumstances that his recall from the Continent (which we have already related) took place. On his return to England, the House of Commons passed a vote of censure on the victor of Blenheim for alleged misconduct in financial matters. He was charged with pocketing percentages on the pay of foreign troops and on the proceeds of contracts for supplies. He was dismissed from the office of Captain- General of the Army, and retired to private life in disgrace. 12. A violent quarrel eventually broke out between the Queen's ministers Harley and Bolingbroke. The latter triumphed, and Harley was driven from the Council-board on the ^'©S'th of charge of having shown undue favor to the Elector ^"^^'^ *^®' George of Hanover, who on the death of his mother the Princess Sophia in June 1714, had become direct heir to the English throne. Bolingbroke was evidently shaping his plans for the restoration of the old Stuart line ; but on August 1st, 1714, Queen Anne died, and all his artful schemes were baffled. The suddenness of the Queen's death completely bewildered Bolingbroke, and prompt action on the part of the friends of the Hanoverian succession secured the throne for the Elector George of Hanover without a struggle. The last of the Stuart Sovereigns died in her fiftieth year, and was bixried with royal pomp in Westminster Abbey. CHAPTER XLIV. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL PROGRESS UNDER THE STUAIWC0 ou V £ore than one occasion to yield to the wishes of Parliament, The assertion by James I. and Charles I. of the doctrine of the Divine Rifjht of Ki»(/s, and the duty of passive obedience on the part of the subject, brought on a conflict which cost the latter prince, a man of undoubted courage and high moral character, both his crown and his life. The experiment of the Commonwealth showed that England was not prepared to submit to a despotism slightly veiled under re publican forms. Charles II., by his tact and easy good nature, escaped serious conflicts with his people ; but his more sincere and earnest brother, James II., precii)itated a revoluticm by trying to carry out the princii^les of his father and his grandfather. The Revolution of 1688 fully established the supremacy of Parliament. 2. The Puritan party, which had been slowly growing throughout The rise and *^^ ^^^S^ "^ Elizabeth, reached the zenith of its power fall of during the Commonwealth. In the course of time, the Puritanism, '''^^igious earnestness that characterized many of its mem bers took the form of an unreasonable hostility to much that makes life enjoyable. One of the worst results of the warfare carried on by the extreme Puritans against the innocent amusements and recreations of society was the reaction which followed at the Restoration, when men plunged wildly into dissipation and excess, the Court, unfortunately, setting the nation a shocking example of license and depravity. Two things the student of English history may well remember : first, that when the Puritans fell as a distinct party in the State, their influence, so far as it was good, did not wholly die, for a great writer, who was himself by no means a Puritan, observes, "En- gland remained three-fourths Puritan;" secondly, that the moral looseness that followed the Restoration was chiefly limited to the capital and the immediate surroundings of the Court, and that even there faithful preachers of righteousness were found, who fearlessly rebuked iniquity in high places. 3. Before the close of tliis period the principles of religious toleration had gained some ground in England. The Toleration Act, passed in the first year of William and Mary, gave to Protestant Nonconformists, except those rejecting the doctrine of the Trinity, rights of worship which were never subse- quently lost, though in the last Parliament of Anne's reign Bolingbroke made an unsuccessful attempt, by means of the Schism Act, seriously to curtail' them. The penal laws against the Catholics unhappily con- tinued in force. 4. One effect of tbe Civil War, already noticed, vas to increase greatlj' emigration from England t;> the American colonies. N e w Hampshire and Mary \ ud were Religious toleration. Coloniza- tion. PROGRESS UNDER THE STUART SOVEREIGNS. 1G7 Literature and science. founded in the reign of Charles I., and Rhode Island dates from about the same time. Maryland, which was founded as a Roman Catholic colony by Lord Baltimore, received its name from Charles's Queen, Henrietta Maria. In the reign of Charles II., English power in the West was extended by the establishment of the colonies of New Jersey and the two Carolinas, and by the cession of New York by the Dutch. In the same reign the celebrated Quaker, William Penn, founded the colony named after him, Pennsylvania. In the remote East, too, small settlements at different points prefigured the vast empire destined to grow up under British auspices beyond the Indian Ocean. 5. During the Stuart Period the English mind continued to display great literary activity. Shakespeare died a few years after the accession of James I. ; but he was succeeded by the great epic and lyric poet John Milton, who was also a powerful prose writer, and who was Cromwell's Latin secre- tary. Milton's masterpiece, the Paradise Lost, was vn-itten after its author had become blind, and when he was reduced to a state of extreme poverty and distress. Other poets deserving mention are Beaumont and Fletcher, wh(; wrote dramatic poems together ; John Dryden, noted for his translation of Virgil ; and Samuel Butler, author of the humorous poem entitled Hudihras. Of the prose writers, we have already mentioned Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon, whose Histoi'i/ of the Great Rebellion must be consulted by all .who would profoundly study the history of those stirring times. No notice of the literature of this period, however brief, should omit the name of "the immortal dreamer," as he has been called, John Bunyan, who wrote the Pilgrim's Progress. Among the religious writers we may mention the eminent Church of England authors. Hall, Ussher, Barrow, and Jeremy Taylor ; and Richard Baxter, an equally eminent Presbyterian divine. The illustrious authors of Anne's reign may be more con- veniently named in connection with the Hanoverian Period, into which their writings extended. The Stuart Period was distinguished by several names eminent for scientific research. Among these maybe mentioned those of William Harvey, discoverer of the circulation of the blood; and Sir Isaac Newton, who first made known to the world the great principle of universal (jravitation. The Royal Society, de- signed to spread the knowledge of the natural sciences, was founded in 1G60. King Charles II. took much interest in its work and progress. It is still a flourishing institution. G. The historian Macaulay has drawn in his celebrated History a vivid picture of the state of English society at the close of the reign of Charles II. The population of England Condition au tnac ume is supposea to nave Deen about live million j and a half. The chief sea-ports in order of importance were London, Bristol, Ipswich, Newcastle, Yarmouth, and Liverpool. I; if 168 GEORGE I. Tlie commerce which has made the last-named city one of the greatest sea-ports in the world was still in its infancy. The introduction of the manufacture of cotton was just beginning to make Manchester a place of some imjiortance. Toward the end of the Stuart Period, stage- coaches were introduced, and a journey from London to Chester (about two hundred miles) took four days in summer and six in winter. The gioat mass of the people were omi)l()yed in agriculture. Wages were low, and the food of the laboring class was coarse. Much ignorance prevailed among the peasantry, and even in the higher grades of society ; but, through such organizations as the i-'ocietit for the Propa(/ation of Christian Knowledge, the light of education was gradually extended. THE HOUSE OP STUART. JAMRS I. (1603-1625). r Chaki.es I. (1625-1649). Charlhs II. (I660-I685). -•/««f //yr/c^ lA.MHS ll.=A/,irv 0/ I (1685-1688). I Modena, r Mary II. (1689-1694) ' lyuiiavi III. Annh (1702-1714). James Francis udward Stuart ("The liKler Pretender "). Charles Edward Stuart (" The Yoiingf Pretender "). Mary = lyaiutin. Prince of Orattge. William lli. (1689-1702! — Alary II. I lilizabcth == Frederick, Ulector- Palatine, and Kins; of Bohemia. .Sophia = I'rnest .'hti^us- Ills, I'.hrtir of Ilancn/er. I George I. 11714-1727). First King of the Hanoverian Line. Henry Benedict Stuart, Cardinal York. (Died at Rome, 1807. " Last of the Stuarts.") CHAPTER XLV. i HOUSE OF HANOVER.— GEORGE L 1714 to 1727 A.D. 1. On f\\Q death of Anne without surviving issue, George, Elector of Hanover, became King of England by virtue of the Act of Settlement. He was fifty-four years of age, of short stature, and of exceedingly awkward manners. He could neither write nor speak English, and had to learn, like a parrot, the few words with which he opened Par- liament. As much of his time as possible after his accession was spent in Hanover. His private character was not above reproach, and he left his wife, Sophia of Brunswick, who was his own cousin, in con- Accession and chap- actep of Geopge I. OEOROE I. 169 -the party to Return of the Whiffs to power. The Riot Act. finement in Germany. On the whole, ho ruled England wisely, put- ting the chief responsibility of government on hit* ministers ; but his partiality for his native dominions often gave trouble both to England and to himself. He had two children ; — (ieorge, who succeeded him, and who, at his father's acccHsion, was thirty-two years of age ; and Sophia-Dorothea, the wife of Frederick William of Prussia and the mother of Frederick the Great. 2. George's first ministry consisted wholly of Whigs- which the House of Hanover was indebted for the throne. Lord Townshend became Prime Minister in j^lace of Bolingbroke. Parliament met in March 1715, and at onco impeached the late ministers, Bolingbroke and Oxford, together with the Duke of Ormond, commander of the forces. Bolingbroke and Ormond escaped to France. Oxford, after a two years' imprisonment in the Tower, was acquitted. 3. There still lingered a strong Jacobite feeling in some parts of the country, and tumultuous risings took place in London, Oxford, and other places. Parliament, to quell such movements, passed the Riot Act, a statute still in force, by which magistrates are enabled to deal promptly with disorderly assemblages. 4. Though the death of Louis XIV., in September 1715, reduced almost to nothing the chances of the Pretender, James III. (as he called himself) still continued to aspire to the throne of his fathers. It was represented to him by Bolingbroke and Ormond that public opinion in England was ripe for his landing and for asserting his right to the crown. It was also arranged by the Jacobite leaders that simultaneous movements in the Pretender's favor should be started in Scotland and in the west of England. The vigilance of the Government nipped the latter part of the project in the bud. 5. In Scotland, however, a rising actually took place. On the 6th of September 1715, the Earl of Mar, at the head of ten thou- sand Highlanders, proclaimed the Pretender at Brae- mar as "James VIII. of Scotland" and "James III. of England." On the 13th of November, a battle with- out any decisive results was fought between Mar and a body of Royalists, under the Duke of Argyle, at Sheriffmuir. On the same day, at Preston, the Jacobites of the north of England, who had also taken up arms for the Pretender, were forced to surrender. Their leader, the Earl of Derwentwater, with the Earl of Nithsdale and other principal men, were captured and sentenced to death. Niths- the others were executed. On the 22nd of December the Pretender himself landed in Scotland, and was immediately joined by Mar. The Pretender. The Rebellion of 1715. 170 GEORGE I. n s* sH. The latter was utterly destitute of generalship, while the cold and unattractive manners of the self-styled "King" brought few sup- porters to his standard. The movement was a failure from the begin- mng. On the approach of a body of Koyalist troops, both James and Mar fled precipitately to France. 6. The executions and confiscaliun.; t'olloumg the suppression of the TheSepten- " ^'■'^^^"der'H L odlioi/' Uft the country in an excited nial Act. ^^^*^' ^"^ *^^ Government party dee.i.ed it unv. a to dissolve Parliament as the Triennial Act required. A measure known as the Septennial Act was therefore introduced and passed, extending the possible duration of Parliament to seven years instead of t/,ree as fixed by the Triennial Act, Thu Soi-tennial Act IS still in force. 7. The Triple AlUance, formed in January 1717, by England, France, Triple and ''^"^ Holland, was designed to obstruct what was then be- Quadpuple ^^^""^^ ^^ ^® *^^^ 1'^^^^^ o^ Philip V. of Spain-namely, to Alliance;. ^^^^^ ^ Midon of the crowns of Spain and France, con- ti-ary to the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht. It also had m view certain intrigues which were going on between Charles XII. of Sweden and the Pretender's friends, and between the latter and the Czar of Russia, to excite a Jacobite revolution in England. The Em- peror of Germany in August 1718 joined England, France, and Hol- land, and thus formed the Quadruple Alliance. The King of Spain, finding this combination too strong for him, dismissed Cardinal Alberoni, on whose advice he had pursued an aggressive policy, and in 1721 joined himself to the Powers forming the Quadruple Alliance. The intrigues of Sweden and Russia against the Hanoverian dynasty in England reached no practical result. 8. In 1720 great excitement was caused in England by the so-called The South '^''"*'' '^^^ Scheme. The SoHh Sea Company was a mer- Sea Scheme. "^^^^^^ corporation organized in 1717, having a monopoly of trade with the coasts of South America. By this time the National Debt had become troublesome, amounting to £53,000,000. It was now proposed to reduce it by transferring" the payment of certain annuities chargeable on it to the South Sea Compamj in return for an increase of trading privileges. Parliament gave the proposal its sanction, and the Company proceeded to raise the needful funds by offering its stock for sale, taking care to spread abroad the most fabulous stories as to the richness of the gold and silver mines of America and the certainty of a lucrative trade. The madness which precedes and creates financial panics now showed itself. Everybody was anxious to invest in the stock of this wonderful com" mny. A one-hundred-pound share was eagerly purchased for ono. thousand pounds. Soon the fictitious nature of the whole scheme was disclosed; the inevitable panic ensued, and thousands were ruined. GEORGE II. in Parliament ordered a searching inveHtigation, and happily was able to make the St) nth Sea directors refund a large part of their ill-gotten gains. 0. Only a sinprle leading statesman had opposed the South Sea Scheme, and had pointed out the ruin it was sure to en- tail. This was Robert Waipole, who became Prime Minis- ^ Robert ter in 1721, and Sir Robert Waipole in 1725. For nearly Waipole. twenty years he was the real ruler of England. In maintaining his control of Parliament, he did not scruple to emi)loy means which cannot be defended, nor to own as his motto, " Every man has his price." 10. In June 1722 died John Churchill, Duke of Marl- borough. The remains of the great general were interred I^©^*'" o' in Westminster Abbey. About the same time Boling- broke was pardonod, and allowed to return to England. 11. In June 171.', King George I. left England to pay his usual summer visit to his ancestral domain in Hanover. As he was journeying thither near Osnabriick, he died in "^^^" oi his carriage of a sudden attack of apoplexy. Marl- borough. George I. CHAPTER XLVI. HOUSE OF HANOVER.-aEORGE 1727 to 1760 A.D. II. Accession and char- acter of George II. 1. George I. was peaceably succeeded by his only son, who ascended the throne as George II. The new King was of the mature age of forty-four when he began to reign. Like his father, with whom, however, he had been on very bad terms, he was a German both by birth and in sym- pathies. He possessed a fair mastery of English, though he spoke it with a decidedly foreign accent. While diminutive in stature, he was personally brave and fond of military life. He was also characterized by excellent b miness habits. His wife was the Princess Caroline of Anspach, a lady of beauty and great force of character. Caroli a was, indeed, one of the most important political factors of her husband's reign. Her influence over George was par- ticularly shown in the continuance in office of Sir Robert Waipole, whose dismissal every one expected, from the previously existing enmity between him and the new King when Prince of Wales. The Queen had the sagacity to see that Waipole was the only statesman ""■pftOxC or gu!'"-ing ner iiusband amid the uimcuities Wiiich suiTouridcd him, 2. We have already alluded to the art by which Waipole secured 172 OEOROE II. Wal pole's policy. The Por- teous Riot. a majority in Parliament. The j^reat aim of his policy was to keep England at peace with foreign countries. This object ho was able to secure during the first ten years of his administration, or as long as the Queen lived. During that period the only serious difficulty he encountered had to do with financial matters. His endeavor to extend the Excise duties so as to include tobacco and wine was violently f)ppo8ed by the mercantile classes. So were his further efforts to enforce a more vigorous collec- tion of the revenue in general. Walixile's measures were wise and salutary, but his political opponents were only too glad to strengthen the outcry raised by the merchants. The Excise Bill was withdrawn, and Walpole retained his position as chief adviser of the Crown. The year 1737 was marked by the death of Queen Caroline, and by such a violent quarrel between the King and his eldest son the Prince of Wales that the latter was ordered to leave the country. 3. The Porteous Riot at Edinburgh, which forms the historical basis of Sir Walter Scott's well-known story The Heart of Mid- lothian, occurred in 1736. A riotous mob at the hanging of a smuggler was fired on by orders of a Captain Por- teous, in command of the City Guard. The death of several citizens as the result of the volley was followed by the trial and conviction of Porteous ; who, however, obtained a reprieve from the sentence of death passed on him. A mob then broke into the jail, dragged out the unhappy Porteous, and hanged him without law. By imbittering the relations between Scotland and England, this event did much to encourage the rebellion in favor of the Second Pretender, shortly to be related. 4. For some time a bad feeling had been growing up between England and Spain. The former comiilained that the crews of Spanish revenue vessels boarded and searched English merchantmen, in violation of international law. Spain, on the other hand, asserted that English cruisers engaged in illegal trade with her South American colonies. In October 1739, much against his will, Walpole was compelled to yield to the popular feeling and declare war against Spain. This war did not bring much glory or profit to England. The capture of Porto Bello, on the Isthmus of Panama, was but a barren success. An attack on Carthagena, in South America, by a fleet under Admiral Vernon, who had taken Porto Bello, failed by reason of quarrels between the Admiral and General Wentworth, commander of the military forces. The most noteworthy incident of the war was Commodore Anson's memorable four years' voyage round the world. Anson, with six ships, sailed "'^ ^cvpt xiorii, am_i aiT.ci piuiiuciiiig uiu uuaai/S ui jreru, sieered across the Pacific Ocean, and returned home by way of the Cape of Good Hope. He passed through many perilous adventures, and finally War with Spain. GEORGE II. 173 reached the Spithead with but a single ship. On his homeward voy- age he captured a Spaniwh galleon laden with an immense amount of silver. 5. Being at length unable to conunand a majority in the House of Commons, m the result of the elections of 1741, Walpole resigned his office as Trime Minister in 1742. He was fj *^' elevated to the i)eerage under the title of Lord Orford, and Waloole died three years later (1745). His downfall as Premier was due to the ill success of the war with Spain, and also to a grow- ing feeling of independence in Parliament, where a band of members, styling themselves Patriots, had acquired great influence. The "Patriots" were disaffected Whigs. Their leader was William Pitt, afterwards the famous Earl of Chatham. In 1743, Henry Pelham, brother of the Duke of Newcastle, became Prime Minister, and re- mained at the head of affairs for the greater part of the ensuing eleven years. G. Before the Spanish War was finished, England was drawn into a general European conflict, in which it had no concern beyond the personal interests of King George as Elector i^^P i of Hanover. This was the War of the Austrian Succession. Succession. England and Holland had agreed to sustain a document called the Pragmatic Sanction, by which the Emperor Charles VI.* had settled his hereditary dominions of Hungary and Silesia on his daughter, Maria Theresa. On the Emperor's death in 1740, Frederick the Great of Prussia seized Silesia, the Elector of Bavaria claimed Hungary, while France sustained the pretensions of both against Maria Theresa, to whose aid a body of English troops was sent, under the command of Lord Stair. 7. In 1743 George II. joined his army in person. The Englinh and their allies were found in a most critical position, from which they were extricated by the victory of Dettingen. _ "^ , ® °^ This was the last battle in which an English King per- *'®''""8r«"- sonally took part. George is said to have fought on foot in com- mand of the right wing, and to have displayed great courage. His favorite son, the Duke of Cumberland, was also present, and fought bravely. 8. Two years later, the Battle of Fontenoy resulted disastrously for the English and their Dutch and Austrian allies. The French were led by Marshal Saxe, a very celebrated battle of commander. In consequence of this defeat the whole of ® ^' Flanders was lost to the English. 9. The War of the Austrian Succession was concluded by the Treaty * As the Archduke Charles, he had claimed the Spanish crown in 1698. pedigree in note, p. 159. 174 GEORGE II. I of Aix-Ia-ChapeUe in 1748. After the Battle of Fontenoy, England took little part in the war, her attention being occupied with ^^j^^^Y °*' the Scottish Rebellion to be related in the next para- ChapeUe g'^aph. By the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Frederick the Great retained Silesia, while the throne of Austria was confirmed to Maria Theresa, in accordance with the Pragmatic Sanction 10, At an early period of the War of the Austrian Succession the King of France had planned an invasion of England in ^/topI^"- ^^^"^ ^'^ Charles Edward Stuart, son of " the Old Pre- ^ tender," and grandson of James II. An expedition waa fitted out in 1744, but was driven back by a storm. In July 1745 the Yonnf/ Pretender, called also the Young Chevalier, landed in Scotland, accompanied by a retinue of only seven persons. His land- ing-place was Moidart, in Inverness-shire, where began the famous RebeUii,,, of 'Forty-five. The time was favorable for striking a de- cisive blow. Charles Edward, who was then twenty-four years old, Iiad many qualities adapted to fire the Highland heart. He was tall, handsome, bold, and affable. The King was at his native seat in Hanover ; hit, eon, the Duke of Cumberland, with most of the troops, was in Flanders, Sir John Cope, commander of the Royalist forces in Scotland, was a man of little judgment. The Highlanders flocked to the Young Pretender's standard, and for a time the rebellion held out reasonable prospect of success. 11. By bad generalship Sir John Cope allowed Charles Edward to march past him to Edinburgh, where the rebel leader comfortably established himself in Holyrood Palace. On September 21st, 1745, Cope, who had slowly followed the Pretender to Edinburgh, suffered a severe defeat at Prestonpans. 12. Six weeks after his victory at Prestonpans, Prince Charles, having received money and supplies, determined to make a bold March into ^^^^^^i for the "throne by marching into England. He aimed at no less a prize than London, and actually reached Derby. At this point both himself and his ofHcers became discouraged. Notwithstanding all that he had been led to expect from the Jacobites, there was not the slightest rising in his favor. The King had returned from Hanover and the Duke of Cumberland from Flanders, Active military preparations were in progress ; the suspen- sion of the Habeas Corpus Act made every one anxious to appear loyal. Charles Edward hastily led his army back to Scotland, Here a transient gleam of success awaited him in the defeat of a s^nall Royal- ist force under General Hnwley at Falkirk, on the 17th of January 1746, 13, Soon the Duke of Cumberland with a large aimy of trained soldiers entered Scotland, and encountered Charles Edwards High- Battle of Preston- pans. GEORGE II. 170 landers at CuUoden Moor on the 16th of April. All that native valor cculd do to win the day was done by the latter, but, mowed down by the terrible artillery of the English, ^^^^'^ o*' the brave clansmen were unable to maintain the unequal ^"^^O'^®"* contest. The Pretender's army was completely routed. The Duke of Cumberland earned the repulsive title of the Butcher by the savage cruelty with which the unfortunate rebels were slain both during and after the battle. These butcheries were followed by numerous trials and executions for treason. Lords Balmerino, Lovat, and Kilmarnock bled on Tower Hill, while nearly a hundred of lesser note shared their fate. 14. For several months after his defeat at Culloden, Charles Edward wandered as a fugitive in the Western Higlilands and the adjacent islands. Marvellous stories are told of "The last his romantic adventures. A reward of thirty thousand cj^^^^f .. pounds could not induce his faithful Highlanders to betray " ' him. At length in a French vessel he managed to effect his escape to France, sailing from Moidart, the point at which he had landed more than a year before. His subsequent life was a wandering and unhappy one. He died in 1788, having outlived his father, the " Old Pretender," more than twenty years. His younger brother, Henry Benedict, Cardinal York, lived to the advanced age of eighty-three, dying at Rome in 1803. Cardinal York uas " the last of the Stuarts." 15. The ^even Years' War between France and England, which began in 1756, resulted from disputes between French and En- glish colonists both in America and in India. In the f c^rmer country, the French, under the Marquis du Quesne, had taken very active measures against the English colonists. Du Quesne's design was to connect the colonies of France in Canada and Louisiana by a chain of military posts extending from the Great Lakes to the Mississippi. That great river, as well as the St. Lawrence, would thus contribute to the glory of French colonization in America, while the English settlers would be kept within the narrow strip between the Alleghanies and the sea. The war was for the possession of a continent. The first movements in America were unfavorable to the English. General Braddock in 1755 suffered a severe defeat as he marched to attack Fort Duquesne, where Pittsburg now stands. Imjiortant English forts were seized and destroyed by Montcalm, the French commander. 16. In the Seven Years' War, England had as her ally Frederick the Great of Prussia, while Austria was joined with France. The European conflict began with an attack on Minorca by a Frenrh fleet. Admiral Byng was sent from Gibraltar to relieve ilio garrison. The attemi)t to render The Seven Years' War. Death of Admiral Byng. aid was unsuccessful, and on hip. return to England Bj'ng was tried ]2 176 GEORGE II. William Pitt. The con- quest of Canada. by a court-martial and condemned to be shot for not having done the best he could. The executi V + • 10. The great Chatham made his last appearance in Parliament in order to denounce the proposal to obtain peace by acknowledging the independence of the colonies. On the 7th of April hr> went from a sick-bed to the House of Lovds, where he began vehemently to protest against " the dismember- K.ent of this ancient and noble monarchy." Befm-e he had proceeded Death of Chatham, 182 GEORGE III. American reverses. Surrender of Yorktown. far he fell in a fit, from the effects of which he died a few weeks later. To a remarkable genius for statesmanship. Lord Chatham added powers of oratory which have been seldom equalled in the British Parlianient. 17. In America, the campaigns of 1778, 1779, and 1780 were, on the whole, favorable to the British, notwithstanding the aid rendered to the colonists by the French. English forces occupied Savannah and Charleston, the two most im- portant southern sea-ports. In the north, Washington himself was driven to great extremities. 18. An unexpected event in 1781 brought about a complete change in the position of affairs. Lord Cornwallis, who, on the departure of Sir Henry Clinton for New York in 1780, had been left in command of the British forces in the south, had gradually advanced northward as far as to Vir- ginia, gaining several decisive advantages over General Gates and other American commanders. The autumn of 1781 foimd him at Yorktown, near the mouth of the Chesapeake. Here the experience of Burgoyne at Saratoga was repeated. Washington, aided by a French fleet and French troops, under Lafayette, succeeded in blockading Yorktown, and comi)elling Cornwallis with his entire army to surrender. After this there was little or no fighting in America, thc^ugh formal terms of peace were not arranged until 1783. 19. During the later years of the War of American Independence, England v/as engaged in fighting, single-handed, the chief Powers of Europe. In 1779, Spain joined with France in the war against England, and the junction of the fleets of these powerful nations threatened for a time to destroy the naval supremacy of Britain ; which, however, soon re-asserted itself by the victory off Cape St. Vincent, won by Admiral Rodney in January, 1780. Towards the close of 1780, Holland joined the alliance against England, and both in European waters and in the West Indies her fleets took an active part in the war. Two events contributed to establish the fact that England was a match for all the foes arrayed against her. One of these was the successful resistance of Gibraltar against a tremendous attack by the combined land and sea forces of both France and Spain. This memorable defence lasted for three and a half years. General Eliott, who conducted it, and who, after a fierce bombardment from the enemies' fleet, from land batteries, and from huge floating batteries, saw it crowned with complete success, v/as raised to the peerage as Lord Heathfield of Gibraltar. The other event alluded to was a splendid naval victory in the West Indies gained by Admirals Rodney and Hood, wliich resulted in the retention in English hands of the important island of Jamaica. 20. The war both* in Europe and America was formally closed by European war. GEORGE III. 183 \ Peace of Versailles. The Gordon Riots. the Treat}/, or, as it is sometimes called, the Peace of Versailles. England agreed to recognize the independence of the United States of America, but acquired the Bahama Islands, and the islands of Grenada, Nevis, Montserrat, Dominica, and St. Vincent, in the West Indies. Florida was ceded to Spain, and Minorca was restored to the same Power. France received Pondicherry in India. The Treaty of Versailles was very unpopular in England. So great, indeed, was the discontent that Lord Shelburne, the Prime Minister, with his able colleague, William Pitt, second son of the illustrious Chatham, was forced to resign. They were succeeded by a short-lived Ministry, with the Duke of Portland as its nominal leader. It was called the Coalition Ministry, since it embraced leading Tories, like Lord North, and leading Whigs, like Charles James Fox. The war that was closed by the Peace of Ver- sailles added £100,000,000 to the national debt. 21. In the course of time the penal laws prohibiting Roman Catholics from the exercise of religious worship had happily become, to a large extent, a dead letter. In 1778 some of the most obnoxious of these statutes were repealed by Parliament. That was followed in London by a wild out- burst of fanaticism, to which the name of the Gordon Riots has been given, from Lord George Gordon, a weak-minded enthusiast, who per- suaded many people that the action of Parliament was likely to uproot Protestantism in England. Catholic chapels were gutted and burned by the rioters ; fires were raised in all directicms ; Newgate, the chief ])rison, was destroyed, and its occupants were turned loose on the streets to add to the reign of terror already prevailing there. The civic authorities proving unable to restore order, the military were called out. Before the riot was quelled several hundred persons lost their lives. While Lord George Gordon was largely responsible for this mad outbreak of popular fury, he does not seem to have had any direct connection with the deeds of violence actually perpetrated. He afterwards became a convert to the Jewish faith, and finally went mad. 22. The Coalition Ministry lasted but a few months. On its down- fall, the King recalled to his councils the younger Pitt, then only in his twenty -fifth year. This celebrated ^^^"™^"*iVjf' statesman remained at the helm of State for seventeen '' yQ^^ggp^ years, though he had arrayed against him three of the pj^^^ greatest of Englishmen—Burke, Sheridan, and Fox. Pitt's strength lay in his financial skill, his readiness in debate, and in tlic refoi-ming bent of his mind. In respect to such subjects as religious equality and parliamentary independence he was much in advance of his age, though circumstances did not allow him to carry all his progres- sive measures into effect. His most prominent opponent was Charles James Fox, an ardent lover of liberty, and, like Pitt himself, an able 184 GEOHGE III. The India Bill. Warren Hastings. debater. Fox's intimacy with the Prince o/ Wales, who waa a dissipated and extravagant young man, rendered him very obnoxious to King George III., who at different times refused to accept him as one of his advisers. 23. In 1784 Pitt revolutionized the system by which India was governed. His India Bill modified the ijowers of the East India Company, by forming a Board of Control, composed of members of the Privy Council, whose duty it was to appi'ove or annul the acts of the Company's directors. The provisions of this Bill remained in force until 1858. 24. In 1786, and again in 1787, the Opposition leaders— Burke, Fox, Sheridan, and others — carried through the House of Com- mons a Bill for the impeachment of Warren Hastings, " for high crimes and misdemeanors," during his service as Governor-General of India. The trial began in 1788 and did not end until 1795, when it resulted in the acquittal of Hastings. It was conducted in Westminster Hall. The speeches of Burke and Sheridan, who had beeYi appointed managers of the prosecution, were master- pieces of eloquence. Pitt consented to the impeachment, but did not take an active part on either side. Hastings had undoubtedly per- formed actions the cruelty and oppressiveness of which deserved the eloquent censures heaped on them by Burke and Sheridan. At the same time he had been cruel and oppressive, not to enricli himself, but to further, as he supposed, the interests of his country. One bene- ficial result of his impeachment, issuing as it did in a bare acquittal after years of mental anxiety on the part of the accused, was to secure for " the peasant of Bengal or Mysore the same rights of justice and good government as are claimed by Englishmen." 25. In October 1788, George III. became suddenly insane. This led to a most exciting series of debates in Parliament. Fox claimed that his friend, the Prince of Wales, had an undoubted hereditary right to the position of Regent or acting-sovereign. This Pitt strenuously denied, arguing that it was the clear prerogative of Parliament to dispose of the regency. At the same time he introduced a Bill conferring the regency on the Prince of Wales by authority of Parliament. Before the matter was finally settled the King recovered his reason. 26. During the period 1789-1793 occurred the French Revolution, one of the most stupendous events of modem times. The details of the French Revolution do not belong to English history ; but the event itself must be noticed, from the far-reaching effects which it had on the politics and general fortunes of our country. Smarting under the oppression of their rulers, the people of France had been incited by the example of the American colonies to attempt the overthrow of monarchy and the Lunacy of the King. The French Revolution. GEORGE III. 185 establishment of a republican form of government. The outbreak was one of the wildest fury. All respect for authority and religion was lost. The streets of Paris ran red with blood. The State prison, called The Bat ilk, was stormed. King Louis XVI. and his (.^ueen, Marie Antoinette, after being detained as prisoners for several years, died on the scaffold by the guillotine in 1793. Every privilege per- taining either to the clergy or to the nobility was swept away. The feudal system fell in ruins. A republic was foinially proclaimed shortly after the King's death, and its proclamation was followed by deeds of carnage that make one's blood run cold. In the excitement that prevailed no o- >'s life was safe. A man might be a popular hero to-day, and to- loiow his head might be rolling in the gutt»;r. 27. At the outset, the revolutionary movement in France excited some sympathy and approval in England. The French „«- ^ had undoubtedly been misgoverned, and the Whig iiarty English especially viewed with favor their efforts to obtain a feeling. better system of rule. But as the horrors of the revolu- tion developed themselves, the feeling in England underwent a de- cided change. A marked proof of this was seen in the case of the celebrated Edmund Burke, who on this question deserted his friend Fox, and wrote a powerful essay, entitled, Reflections on the Revolution in France, in support of constitutional order. Pitt was led to aban- don his projects of parliamentary and financial reform. A desperate and long-continued war with the new republic was about to engross his attention. '/ 28. Before proceeding to trace the course of this great struggle, we must refer to an important measure, entitled the Canada Constitu- tional Act, passed by Parliament in 1791. By this Canada was divided into two provinces, named respectively Upper and Lower Canada, each having a Governor, a Legisla- tive Council, and a representative Assembly. 29. The execution of Louis XVI. rendered the continuance of peace for any length of time between England and France im- ^^ ^ possible. The French Ambassador in England was dis- ppange. missed; and in February 1793 France declared war against England, Holland, and Spain. 30. Warlike operations began in Holland, where ten thousand English troops commanded by the Duke of York, the King's second son, were sent to co-operate with the Dutch forces against the gg-j^j^j^g armies of the French Republic. The campaign in Flan- qj- jj^ewar. ders was attended by no important results ; but the same vear (1793) Lord Hood, with a fleet chiefly composed of English ves- sels, compelled Toulon to surrender. The captured fortress, however, did not long remain in possession of the English. It was invested on the land side by a powerful French force, the well-directed fire of Canada Constitu- tional Act. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) V' ^ ^ m?.r A Ua Ic -% 1.0 I.I 1.25 1^ 1^ 112.2 - lis 110 1.4 1.8 1.6 V] '4 ^3 » "^^^ "'^y Photographic Sciences Corporaticn 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ^k '6^ r \ % ■\% ro> #v <4.^ I/. x$> f E i". 186 OEOROE III. tfe I' whose artillery soon compelled the English fleet to sail away. The re-capture of Toulon was mainly due to the skill of a young colonel of artillery of whom we shall hear again — Napoleon Buonaparte. The war in Holland dragged slowly along during the year 1794, on the w^hole without much advantage on either side ; but in March 1795 the marked numerical superiority of the French obliged our army to return to England. Holland, now overrun by French armies, changed sides, and was numbered among the enemies of England, The latter took her revenge by capturing Dutch colonies both in the East and in the West Indies, and at the Cape of Good Hope. 31. Early in the year 1796, Spain entered tho alliance against En- gland, who now found herself compelled, single-handed, to confront . the combined fleets of France, Spain, and Holland. The acrainst coalition was followed by Napoleon Buonaparte's trium- England. P^ant campaign in Italy, which resulted in the utter overthrow of Austrian power in that country. Then came a project for the invasion of England by a combination of the enemies' fleets. 32. The proj)osed invasion came to nought. The Spanish fleet, de- signed to play the chief part therein, was attacked off Cape St. Vin- cent, or. the south-west coast of Portugal, in February Cane St ^^^^' ^^ fifteen sail of the line under Admiral Jervis, Vincent. ^*^ Horatio Nelson as second in command. The result was a complete victory for the English, though they were surpassed by the enemy both in the size and in the number of ships engaged. Nelson here gave signal proofs of the skill and bravery which gained for him so high a place amcmg our naval heroes. 33. In 1797, two mutinies, threatening serious results, broke out among the seamen of the British fleet. The first, occurriug at the Spit- head, was soon amicably suppressed through the inter- vention of Admiral Howe, who advised prompt conces- sions to the disaffected sailors. The other, known as the Mutiny at the Nore, was more alarming in its character. Headed by a man named Parker, the mutineers seized a number of vessels and blockaded the mouth of the Thames. Prompt action on the part of the authori- ties convinced those directing the movement that actual resietance would be perilous. Discipline was soon restored, after which Parker and the other ringleaders were shot. 34. Three months after the Mutiny at the Nore, the English fleet _ showed that its loyalty was undiminished, by gaining a Camnep- glorious victory over a Dutch naval force off Camper- down, down, on the coast of Holland. The English commander was Admiral Duncan, who was raised to the peerage as Earl of Camperdown. 35. The year 1798 was marked by an attempt at revolution in Ire- Mutinies. GEORGE III. 187 Napoleon Buona- parte. land. A barrister named Theobald Wolfe Tone had some years before formed an association called the Society of United Irish- men. Tone's design was to secure the separation of Ire- „ . ... land from England, and the erection of the former into an independent republic. The movement was national rather than religious, many of its leaders being Protestants. It came to a head in the spring of 1798. For a time the rebels were successful ; but as they received no aid from France, their power gradually declined, and the rising was completely suppressed by the victory gained by the royal troops at Vinegar Hillj near Enniscorthy, on the 2l8t of June. 36. It is now necessary to make a brief reference tc a man whose history for nearly twenty years from this time was mainly the history of Europe. Napoleon Buonaparte, a native of the island of Corsica, had risen by sheer dint of military genius to the leading position in the armies of France. His mar- vellous abilities were equalled, if not surpassed, by his am- bition. He aimed at becoming not only the supreme ruler of France, but also the conqueror of Europe, and the virtual master of the world. Napoleon revolutionized the art of war in Europe. For the slow, cautious tactics that had hitherto prevailed, he substituted a swift, sharp, decisive mode of attack, by which he concentrated his strength on the weakest point of the enemy, and thus conquered him in detail. One of his grand designs was to attack the British ix)wer in India by landing a force in Egypt, subduing that country, and then gradually proceeding eastward. He so far carried out this ambitious purpose as to reach Egypt with a French anny early in the summer of 1798. On his way, he had seized Malta ; and after his landing in Egypt, he de- feated the famous Mameluke cavalry at the Battle of the Pyramids. 37. Buonaparte's voyage to Egypt had been narrowly watched by Horatio Nelson with a weU-equipped English fleet. The French ves- sels, however, had maintained a good lead up the Medi- terranean, and the troops had been some time landed, when Nelson sighted the hostile fleet securely drawn up in Aboukir Bay, near Alexandria. The French admiral thought that his position near the shore, with a powerful battery to aid him on Aboukir Island, completely shielded him from attack. This was a most unsound conclusion. Nelson, with equal skill and courage, placed his ships between the French fleet and the shore, encountering as they proceeded the fire of the enemy's guns. Once inside the lines, the English vessels returned the fire with a vengeance. Nelson's own ship, the Vanguard, went into action with colors streaming from all parts of her rigging. The enemy made a brave but ineffectual resist- ance. Their largest ship, the Orient, caught fire, and then blew up with a tremendous explosion. The pathetic poem, beginning, " The boy stood on the burning deck," relates to the son of the commander Battle of the Nile. f 188 GEORGE III. r Siege of Acre. of the ill-fated Orient. The battle lasted till midnight, and after a lull it was renewed in the morning. Its final issue was the annihila- tion of the French fleet. Eight ships of the line surrendered, two went on shore, one had been blown to atoms. Two managed to make a brief escape, but were captured before they were well out on the bosom of the Mediterranean. For this great victory Nelson received well-merited rewards. He was created a peer under the title of " Baron Nelson of the Nile," and had bestowed on him an income from the public treasury of £2,000 a-year. 38. After the destr action of his fleet at Aboukir, Buonaparte over- ran Syria, but encountered an unexpected repulse at Acre. His attempt to storm that important fortress was foiled by the bravery of Sir Sidney Smith, who aided the Turkish garrison with a small force of British seamen and marines. Buonaparte, after continuing his vain effort to capture Acre for sLxty days, returned to France. 39. Thus far the French Republic had been under the control of a supreme council called the Directory. On his return from Acre, Buonaparte overthrew the Legislature and the Directory, _. P^"^^® and became himself real ruler of the country under the Consul ^^^^® ^^ First Consul. During the ensuing year (1800) he piirsued almost unchecked his career of European con- quest, gaining himself the battles of Montehello and Marengo in Italy, while another army defeated the Germans at Hohenlinden. On the other hand, his troops were compelled in 1801 to evacuate Egypt by the successful efforts of the English generals Abercromby and Hutchinson. 40. During this war, England had claimed and exercised the right of search. By this it is meant that her cruisers stopped neutral ves- sels, and if, after search, these were * nnd to be convey- ing warlike stores to any of her enemies, both the stores and the vessels were confiscated. A combination of Northern Powers, embracing Russia, Sweden, and Denmark, was now formed to resist the right of search. Prussia afterwards joined the Armed Neutrality, as the combination was called. s 41. England responded to the Armed Neutrality by sending a fleet into the Baltic under the command of Sir Hyde Parker and Lord Nel- son. The Danish fleet, which was drawn up in front of Copenhagen, was soon attacked, and every vessel in it was lost, either by burning, by sinking, or by capture. This victory was really gained by Lord Nelson, though he was only second in command. An armistice was at once concluded with Den- mark, and the Armed Neutrality fell to pieces. The Battle of the Baltic was fought on April 2nd, 1801. Even before this the hostile combination of Northern Powers against England had come to an end The Apmed Neutrality. Battle of the Baltic. GEORGE III. 189 'f Peace of Amiens. by the assassination of its chief promoter, the Czar Paul of Russia. His son and successor, Alexander, was a warm friend of England, and hastened to restore relations of peace, 42. The great European war was for a short time suspended by the Peace of Amiens, signed on March 25th, 1802. The parties to this arrangement were Great Britain, France, Holland, and Spain. The terms were disadvantageous to the first- named country, as she had to restore all her colonial captures except Trinidad and Ceylon. France, on the other hand, was allowed to retain a large part of Holland, and to make the Rhine her eastern boundary. It soon became clear that the Peace of Amiens was only a truce, not a permanent settlement of the difficulties which distracted Eurojje. 43. We have already alluded to the Irish Rebellion of 1798. Thut event was followed by the execution of some of its leaders, such as Lord Edward Fitzgerald and Robert Emmett. It was now resolved to unite the kingdoms under one Legisla- ture as well as one Sovereign. A Bill for the legislative Union of Great Brit- ain and Ireland. U7iion of the countries passed the British Parliament in May 1799. A year later, this measure received the as- sent of the Irish Parliament, and on January "Ist, 1801, the Union took effect. In the Parliament of the United > ingdom of Great Britain and Ireland the latter country received a representation of 100 mem- bers in the House of Commons and of 32 peers in the House of Lords. While the measure of union embraced some features of substantial relief to Ireland, the great majority of whose inhabitants were Roman Catholics, Mr. Pitt, the Prime Minister, wished to go much further in that direction. He not only desired to have the penal laws com- pletely annulled, but advocated also the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, so that Catholics might freely practise their religion, and have opened up to them seats* in Parliament and ii> public offices generally. The King obstinately refused to assent to these fair and liberal proposals. Mr. Pitt forthwith retired from office, and was succeeded by Mr. Addington, a man by no means fitted to cope with the difficulties that surrounded England. 44. The Peace of Amiens left both of the chief parties to it in an excited state. England was dissatisfied with the con- pwith cessions she had made ; France was eager for further con- ppance quests. The former charged Buonaparte with -violating renewed. the treaty by keeping his troops in Holland, and on this ground declined to give up Malta, which had been taken from France in 1800. Then Buonaparte, now First Consul for life, grossly insulted the British Ambassador in public ; and England declared war on May 18th, 1803. Buonaparte seized ten thousand British subjects who were living or travelling in France. These were detained in exile for eleven 190 GEORGE III. created Emperor. Battle of Austerlitz. years. An imuiense French force was assembled at Boulogne for a contemplated invasion of England, who replied to the challenge by enrolling three hundred thousand volunteers, and by placing Horatio Nelson in command of her Channel fleet. 45. In May 1804 George III. was comjielled to reinstate Pitt in the office of Prime Minister ; and the same month Buona- Napoleon p^rte was created Emperor of the French as Napoleon I. Later in the year, Spain allied herself with France against England, and it was confidently expected that their combined fleets would successfully convey across the Channel the threatening forces gathered at Boulogne. This, however, was made impossible by the victory gained in July 1805 by an English fleet commanded by Sir Robert Calder, over the combined French and Spanish fleets, off Cape Finisterre. Calder's victory obliged Napoleon to postpone his invasion of England, and to exert his arms in other quarters. 40. Restored to power, Pitt had successfully exerted himself to form a gigantic, and, as he thought, irresistible coalition against Napoleon. Russia, Austria, Sweden, and England formed the alliance, on which Pitt looked as the greatest work of his life. But even this proud coalition did not prove a match for the far-seeing genius of Napoleon. Marching rapidly with the troops which had been collected for the invasion of England, the French Emperor defeated the Austrians atUlm, entered Vienna in triumph, and meeting the combined armies of Austria and Russia at Austerlitz, gained one of the most memorable victories of his remarkable career. The Battle of Austerlitz was fought on the 2nd of December 1805. When the disastrous tidings reached Mr. Pitt, the shock was too much for the great minister's enfeebled health. He died on the 23rd of the ensuing month, and was buried beside his father, the famous Chatham, in Westminster Abbey. 47. Before the Battle of Austerlitz was fought, a great naval victory had freed England from all fear of a French invasion. Battle of rpj^^g ^g^g gained off Cape Trafalgar, near Cadiz, on Trafalgar. October 21st, 1805, by Lord Nelson, over the united fleets of France and Spain. The great Admiral hoisted his flag on board a vessel auspiciously named the Victory, and was ably supported by his friend Rear- Admiral CoUingwood. Signalling to his fleet the ani- mating watchword, Encfland expects every man to do his duty. Nelson led hito action the one division of the British ships, while CoUingwood in the Royal Sovereign commanded the other. The conflict resulted in the capture of nineteen French and Spanish ships of the line, and of no fewer than twenty thousand prisoners. This great victory was dearly purchased by the death of the brave Nelson, who at the moment of as- sured triumph fell, pierced by a musket-ball fired from the rigging of the GEORGE III. 191 all the Talents. Beplin Decrees. ship with which the Victoi'ij was grappled. The remains of England's greatest naval hero were buried in the crypt of St. Paul's Cathedral. His faded uniform, rent by the fatal bullet, is preserved in Greenwich Hospital. The victory of Trafalgar made England completely mis- tress of the seas, and dissipated the last thought of a French invasion. 48. On the death of Pitt a new Cabinet was formed, which, from the fact that it embraced representatives of all sections of both political parties, received the name of the Min- ™'"'Stry of istry of all the Talents. Lord Grenville was the nominal leader, but Fox was its real head. The latter had all along opposed the war, but was now compelled by circumstances to support it. 49. On the Continent, Napoleon continued to pursue his victorious career. At Jena he annihilated the power of Prussia. From Berlin, the capital of the conquered country, he issued on the 21st of November 180G a proclamation known as the Berlin Decrees, with the design of ruining British com- merce. In pursuance of the right of belligerent Powers to blockade their enemy's ports even against neutral vessels, Great Britain had pre- viously declared the coast of Europe from Brest to the Elbe to be under blockade. The Berlin Decrees, which Napoleon issued in retalia- tion, placed the entire British Islands in a state of blockade, and for- bade the carriage of British goods to all nations over which he had control. Eagiand replied by the famous Orders in Council, declaring France and the countries of her allies to be under blockade, and that all vessels bound to any of their jx>rts would be seized as lawful prizes of war, unless they had sailed from an English port. These recrimina- tory measures virtually destroyed the foreign trade of neutral States. 50. Though baffled by the superior power of England on the sea, Napoleon continued to sweep all before him on land, conquering whole kingdoms, and parcelling them out among his relatives and friends according to his pleasure. In July 1807 the Treaty of Tilsit secured for the conqueror the co- operation of Russia and Prussia in his efforts to destroy English com- merce. Denmark, too, with her somewhat powerful fleet, was enlisted on the same side. y. 51. Meantime the Grenville Administration had been displaced by a new Cabinet, the real leader of which was George Canning, though the Duke of Portland was named as Premier. Becoming aware of the negotiations at Tilsit, Canning determined to strike at the enemy before he had time to mature his plans. The Danish fleet presenting the fairest object of attack, a powerful expedition was secretly despatched to Copenhagen. The Danish autho- rities refused to deliver up their fleet on the demand of Gambler, the English admiral in command. Copen- 13 Treaty of Tilsit. Bombard- ment of Co- penhagen. '"•I 192 OEOROE III. ■1' If i hagen was then subjected to a fierce bombardment for four days by both sea and land. The attack was iiTesistible, and the surrender of Coi^en- hageu was followed by the yielding up of the entire fleet, which was taken to England in October 1807. This sudden stroke completely broke up the scheme which had been arranged at Tilsit. It may be noted that it was in connection with this expedition that England ob- tained iK)8session of the little island of Heligoland, opiwsite the mouth of the Elbe. 52. Portugal was the only Europeaii country that had refused to exe- cute Napoleon's Berlin Decrees against English commerce. ^ T?*^?^ In revenge. Napoleon sent an army into that country, by and Spain. ^^^^Yi the King with his family and principal nobles were driven into exile. They sought refuge in the South American colony of Brazil. The French Emperor's treatment of the adjoining kingdom of Spain was still more disgraceful. First he made a treaty (October 1807) with the Spanish King, the imbecile Charles IV., for the parti- tion of Portugal between France and Spain. In March 1808, Charles and his son. Prince Ferdinand, were treacherously lured to an inter- view with Niipoleon at Bayonne, where they were thrown into prison. Napoleon's brother Joseph was then taken from the throne of Naples, and placed on that of Spain. 53. Both Spain and Portugal, in their extremity, sought the aid of England, who at once despatched a force of ten thousand men under Sir Arthur Wellesley. Wellesley landed in Portugal on the The Penin- -^^^ ^£ August 1808. The Peninsular War opened with sular War. ^^^ g^^^j^ ^^ Roliga, fought on August 17th. This en- gagement was but preliminary to the Battle of Vimiera, which ttwk place four days later. At Vimiera, the French marshal Junot was defeated with great loss. Unfortunately, the day after the battle, Wellesley was superseded by a superior officer — Sir Hew Dalrymple, through whose indecision the fruits of the victory were largely lost. A disgraceful compact was made with Junot, by which the French were allowed to leave Portugal with their arms and stores, and were actually transported to France by the English fleet ! 54. Sir Hew Dalrymple was now replaced by Sir John Moore as commanding officer in Portugal. Moore's plan of operations embraced a junction with the Spanish army; btit on finding that Napoleon in person was marching against him with a large army, the English general was obliged to retreat. , He fell back on Corunna, Battle of closely pursued by a French force under Marshal Soult. Copunna. jj.^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^ ^^^y^ ^^^ English fleet, which was hourly expected. Detained by contrary winds, the ships did not arrive in time to enable the troops to embark before the coming up of the French troops. In the ensuing battle, the English were vic- torious, but the gallant Moore himself was slain. On the following GEORGE III. 193 day the ships arrived, and the victory of Coninna enabled the army safely to embark, 55. The command of the English forces in the Peninsula was now intrusted to Sir Arthur Wellesley. His first great victory was gained p.t Talavera on July 27th, 1809. As Wellesley's a mark of the nation'n gratitude, he received a peerage victories as Viscount Wellington. The next year, while gaining no great battles, Wellington successfully defended both himself and the Portuguese capital by the impregnable fortress, or series of forti- fications, known as the Lines of Torres Vedras. In 1811, Massena, one of the most renowned of Napoleon's marshals, was defeated at Fuentes d'Onoro (May 3rd); while a few days later General Beresford routed the French under Soult at the great Battle of Albuera. The year 1812 was marked by a forward movement on the part of the English. The formidable fortresses of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz were taken by storm. The renowned victory of Salamanca was gained over Massena's successor, Marshal Marmont, on June 22nd ; and on the 12th of August, Wellington entered Madrid in triumph. The French were now in full retreat. Wellington, pursuing, overtook them at Vittoria, near Pamj)eluna, on June 21st, 1813. The enemy were commanded by Marshal Jourdan, though King Joseph himself was with his army. The Battle of Vittoria resulted in one of Wellesley's most glorious victories. The French were now driven step by step across the Pyrenees, Wellington steadily pursuing them into France. Our great captain ended his triumphant Peninsular campaigns by defeating Mar- shal Soult on French territory, at Toulouse, on the 10th of April, 1814. 56. We must now notice some events which happened contem- poraneously with the Peninsular War. In 1809 an at- tempt was made by England to seize the island of Wal- cheren, situated on the south-west coast of Holland. The design of this expedition was to check Napoleon's efforts to create a great naval arsenal at Antwerp as a basis of operations against En- gland. The land force was commanded by the Earl of Chatham, elder brother of the deceased Pitt, and the fleet by Admiral Strachan. It is hard to say which of these leaders was the more incompetent. The Walcheren expedition ended in total failure. Time wasted by the British in attacking Flushing was wisely used by the enemy in strength- ening the fortifications of Antwerp. The miasma of the Dutch marshes bred a destructive fever and agiie among the British troops, from which they died in thousands. Antwerp defied capture, and late in the autumn the shattered remains of the army returned to England. 57. While Wellington was holding Napoleon's forces at bay in the Peninsula, the French Emperor continued in other parts , of Europe to pursue a steady career of conquest. In nrJnaiiBsts 1809 he entered Vienna in triumph ; and a few months Walcheren expedition. ♦ 194 GEORGE in. I ^ later utterly proHtrated the imwer of Austrip in the noted Battle of Wagram. The AiiHtrian Kniporor accejited tonnH of jKiace which involved conditions of Hnhnnssion, and the next year (IKIO) gave his daughter in marriage to his conqueror. In order to marry the Arch Duchess Maria Louisa, Napoleon divorced his faithful wife -ToHej)hine. To his son by Maria-Louisa he gave the high-sounding title of Kina/ of Home. In 1810 he seized the States of the Church in Italy, and made a prisoner of Pojje Pius VII. He also doiMwed his own brother Louis, whom he had made King of Holland, and annc^xod that country to France. In 1812 a quarrel arose between NaiM)leon and liis ally the Czar of Russia. The Czar and the King of Sweden entered into a compact to enforce no hmger Najmleon's Berlin Decrees. 58. NajMileon at once declared war against Russia, and invaded that country with an army of half a millitm men. The . *^ . Russians opiMjsed his entrance into their territory with Russia grsfl-t energy, and obliged him to fight many bloody battles. He reached Moscow in September 1812, but was soon obliged to retreat by the burning of that city and the consequent want of supplies. The homeward march of the once proud army of France was a constant scene of horrors. The Arctic frosts of a Rus- sian winter, added to want of food and clothing, and fierce troops of Cossacks hovering on tbair rear, caused the death of hundreds of thousands of the invaders. 59. Naix)leon returned from Russia with a skeleton of his mighty host, only to find the whole of Europe in league against him. Russia, England, and Sweden had been joined by Austria and Prussia. Never greater than when about to fall, Napoleon put forth desperate efforts to meet this powerful coalition. New levies of troops were made, and an army of respect- able size was put in the field ; but genius had to yield to numbers. The great Battle of Leipsic, which began on October 16th, 1813, and lasted for three days, resixlted in his total defeat. Early in Novem- ber he re-entered Paris like a stag driven to bay. 60. The allied army, composed of Russians, Prussians, and Aus- trians, then invaded France. Exhaiisted by repeated levies, France was unable to furnish an army capable of resisting this combined attack. Paris surrendered on March Ist, 1814. Wellington had crossed the Pyrenees, and was rapidly driving the retreating French army northward. On the 10th of April, as we have seen, he won the victory of Toulouse. On the 11th, before the tidings of Wellington's triumph reached him. Napoleon placed his imperial crown at the disposal of his enemies. 61. On the 30th of May 1814, the five Powers— En- gland, France, Russia, Austria, and Prussia — entered into Battle of Leipsic. Napoleon surrenders. Treaty of Paris. an agreement known as the Treaty of Paris. The brother GEORGE III. 195 War with the United States. of Louis XVI. l)ecaino King of France under the title of LouiB XVI 1 1. Napoleon was allowed to retain the title of Kmperor, and had the island of Elba aHsignod to him as a territory, with an income of 1140,000 from the treasury of France. <52. During the years 1812 14, Kngland was engaged in an un- ideasant conflict with the United States of America. The trade of America had greatly suffered from the Berlin Decrees of Na[)oieon and the retaliatory Orders in Council »»f Great Britain, particularly from the latter, because they were more generally and rigorously enforced. Great offence was also given to lO Americans by the right claimed and exercised by England of sec hing American vessels for French goods and warlike, stores, as well as for deserters from the royal navy. England revoked her Orders in Council, so far as the United States were concerned, in Jime 1812, but that country had already declared war. The ensuing conflict was one of alternating success. The Americans invaded Canada, but were driven back after suffering serious repulses, prin- cii)ally from the Canadian militia. The British forces captured Washington, but tarnished their victory by burning the most im- iwrtant public buildings of the American capital. New Orleans, how- ever, was successfully defended, and the English troops under General Pakenham were repulsed with great loss. At sea, the Americans gained some decided advantages ; though towards the close of the war, the capture of the United States frigate Chesapeake by the British man-of-war Shannon did something to restore our reputation for naval supremacy. The war was ended by the Treaty of Ghent, signed December 24th, 1814. Strange to say, the treaty made no menr.ion of the matters in which the war had originated ! 03. In January 1815, representatives of the allied Powers met at Vienna to discuss some matters which the Treaty "f „ , Paris had le.t unsettled. In March their deliberations Napoleon were broken up by the startling intelligence that Na- f^^m Riha poleon, on the first day of that month, had landed at Cannes on the coast of France. So warmly was the ex-Emperor welcomed by his old soldiers and the people of France generally, that on the 20th of March the Bourbon King, Louis XVIII. , was obliged to flee from Paris. Napoleon soon found himself restored to his capital, and at the head of a splendid tho'agh not a very large army. G4. Wellington, who in return for his services in the Peninsular War had been created a Duke, and received a grant of £400,000, was in attendance at the Congress of Vienna when Napoleon landed from Elba. He at once hastened to Belgium, and placed himself at the head of the British and allied troops in that country. His army numbered about 80,000 men, while Battle of Waterloo. 196 GEOROE III. near him wan the PnwHian Marnhal Bhlcher, with a force probably somewhat Urger. Naiwleon, who never diHplayed greater fertiUty of resource than during the memorable Hundrtd Days Instween hih return from Elba and Iuh second downfall, crosued the frontier into Belgium with a force variously estimated at frou) 100,000 to KK),000 men. His aim was to [)revent the jimction of Wellington and BlUcher, and to C()nqucr them in detail. On the KJth of June, Wellington defeated a Hui)erior French force under Marshal Ney at Quatrc Jima, twenty miles south of Brussels, situate, as the name indicates, at the meeting of four roads. On the same day, Nai)oleon gained an advantage over BlUcher at Ligny. The next day, Wellington fell back on Waterloo, a small village about ten miles south-east (»f Brussels. Here, on the next day, June 18th, 1815, was fought the greatest battle of modem times, between two of the greatest generals that ever lived. The anny <»f Wel- lington consisted of 72,700 men, of whom only 36,000 were British, the remainder being Belgians, Hanoverians, and Brunswickers. Napoleon led into the fight 78,000 men, the most of them being trained veterans. Wellington's Continental troops did him little service, the Belgians particularly taking flight early in the day. The battle consisted of » series of furious charges by the French on the English lines, which were formed into squares an the gleaming squadrons of cavalry rode down on them. During the long June day, the British squares stood firm against the tremendous assaults of the French cuirassiers, which were at last dispersed by a tremendous counter -charge of British cavalry. Napoleon made his final effort when he ordered his Impe- rial Guard, the flower of his army, to charge the British lines. The attack, like all its predecessors, failed to shake the steady columns. A withering fire was followed by the uplifting of row upon row of glittering steel, against which the veterans of France dashed them- selves in vain. At this juncture, the Prussians under BlUcher ap- peared on the right, and, joining in the pursuit, drove the French before them in utter rout. Thus was fought and won the great Battle of Waterloo. The English and their allies lost upwards of 20,000 men ; and the French, if we include those who were slain in the pur- suit, not less than 40,000. Napoleon narrowly escaped the Prussians, and reached Paris on the 20th of June. 65. After vainly endeavoring to escape to America, Napoleon gave himself up to the captain of the English war-ship Bellerophon. The de- End of ^^^^^^ finally taken concerning him was, that he should Napoleon's Sf confined for life on the lonely island of St. Helena. career. ^^^^ ^^ carried out ; and on that distant rock in the South Atlantic, the conqueror of Europe died on the 5th of May 1821. 66. Louis XVIII. now resumed the crown of France, and peace was formally concluded by a second Treatij of Paris. This treaty made GEORGE III. 197 liroviaion for a renewal of tlie Conyreas of Vienna for the general Hettlement of the affairH of EuroiKS. Holland and Bel- gium were unite of the Duke of Wel- lington and Sir Robert Peel, on the express policy of maintaining the existing restrictions on Catholics. But soon the Duke, who was a statesman of a practical cast of mind, saw that it was useless to oppose the inevitable. - Early in 1828, Lord John Russell carried through Parliament a Bill repealing the Test and Corporation Acts. Then for the first time were Catholics and Protestant Dissenters permitted to hold offices in corporations ; but the former were still excluded from Parliament by the Papists Disablinrf Act of 1678, which required every peer and every member of the House of Commons to abjure the lead- ing doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church. 7. In 1829, Sir Robert Peel, the Home Secretary, introduced the C th » celebrated Catholic Emancipation Act, by which Roman Emancipa- ^^^^''^^^^ became qualified to sit in Parliament and to tion Act. ^^^^ ^^^ °^^^^ office except the regency, the chancellor- ships of England and Ireland, and the lord-lieutenantship of the latter country. The last-named office was removed from the list of exceptions in 1867, and has since been filled by a Catholic. Catholic emancipation was vehemently opi)08ed by many zealous Protestants, but there are few now of any creed who do not recognize it as a wise and righteous measure. 8. During the reign of George IV. occurred the memorable struggle of the Giooks to free themselves from the Turkish yoke. As early as 1824, the great poet Byron threw himself into this contest, and died at Missolonghi a victim to his own ardor. In 1827 the Turks captured Athens, and the cause of Greek independence seemed lost. At this juncture, England, France, and Russia, Powers wliich sympathized with Greece each for reasons of its own, sent a combined fleet into the Levant for the protection of the endangered country. Through some misunderstanding, before the actual declaration of war, a conflict ensued between the allied fleet Battle of Navarino. a ii r q J r s s C I 1 t WILLIAM IV. 201 and that of Turkey, in October 1827. This battle, which was fought in the harbor of Navarino, on the south west coast of the Morea, resulted in the total destruction of the Turkish fleet, and the stibse- quent acknowledgment of the independence of Greece. 9. George IV. died on the 2Gth of June 1830, in his sixty-eighth year. His influence on public affairs was not very « ^j^ * marked. During his reign he visited both Ireland and Qg^p^g jy^ Scotland, where he was received with outward demon- strations of loyalty, but his character prevented the public from attaching very much weight to his professions of interest in their welfare, 10. This reign was marked by continued improvement in the laws, especially in those relating to crime. Forgery ceased to ^^ ^^^ ^^ be a capital oflfence. The Metropolitan Police Act of Sir ^gjgn^ Robert Peel led to the formation of police forces in all the cities and chief towns of the kingdom. Commercial matters excited great interest, and trade was freed from some of the shackles which had previously hampered it. Mr. Huskisson, President of the Board of Trade, ardently devoted himself to the securing of imi)ortant changes in the Navigation Laws. It was no longer unlawful for artisans to emigrate, and for machinery to be exported from the king- dom. In 1824 a great rage for speculation in stocks seized on the nation. This resulted in a disastrous financial panic the following year, in which a great number of banks closed their doors, and hundreds of merchants became insolvent. CHAPTER XLIX. HOUSE OF HANOVER.— WILLIAM IV. 1830-1837 A.D. 1. The death of the Princess Charlotte, the only child of George IV., in 1817, and of Frederick Duke of York, the second son of George III., without issue, in 1827, left the sue- "^^^^^J cession to the throne to William, Duke of Clarence, third ^Yis^rsLCtep of son of George III. As William IV. had served in the ^unam IV. navy, he became popularly known as the Sailor Kiiuj. He began to reign at the advanced age of sixty-four. In 1818 he had married Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, by whom he had two daughters, both of whom died in infancy. William was plain in person, undigni- fied in his bearing, and exceedingly blunt in his manners. At the same time his sincerity and frankness made him a very popular King. 2. The great question attracting public attention at the time of William IV. 's accession wsls parliamentary reform. Large towns and 202 WILLIAM IV. \ \ cities had grown up within the preceding century which were yet witli- Parlla- ?^^ ^""^ representatives in Parliament to look after their mentapy ^"*®''.^8*3' ^hile many old decayed boroughs almost with- refopm. ^"* inhabitants retained their ancient right of sending members to Parliament. The latter were generally under the control of neighboring landed proprietors, who used them like any other description of property. Hence they were called pocket boroughs. Tlie riiiht affranchise, a privilege of voting at elections, was lunited to a small number of persons in most places. It was felt that a uniform system should be adopted, and that the right to vote should be ex- tended to a much greater number of persons. The Duke of Wellington, who was Prime Minister when William IV. came to the throne, was strongly opposed to any change in the constitution of Parliament ; but the House of Commons elected in 1830 was on the whole favorable to a moderate reform. In 1831 the Ministry was obliged to resign, and a new Cabinet was formed under the leadership of Earl Grey, with Lord John Russell as second in command. A Bill essentially altering the system of parliamentary representation was at once introduced by the latter ; but ^s some of its details encountered unlooked-for opposi- tion, Earl Grey obtained the King's consent to a dissolution, and appealed again to the constituencies. 3. The watchword of the reformers at the elections of 1831 was, the Bill, the whole BUI, and nothing hut the Bill. The elections resulted in a decisive victory for Earl Grey and his party ; and when Lord John Russell re-introduced his Refonn Bill, it passed the House of Commons by a majority of 111. It was, however, rejected by the House of Lords, and this was a signal for disturbances and riots in various parts of the country, especially at Derby, Nottingham, and Bristol. On the reassembling of Parliament, the House again passed the Bill ; but anticipating renewed difficulty witb the Lords, the Cabinet resigned. It soon appeared that the Duke of Wellington was unable to form a Ministry, on which the King recalled Earl Grey and his colleagues, when it transpired that the restored Premier had obtained the King's consent to the creation of such a number of new peers as would secure the passage of the Reform Bill. The Duke of Wellington, in dread of that event, caused a sufficient number of his supporters to absent themselves from the division to enable the measure to pass the House of Lords. The Re- form Bill of 1832 became law on the 7th of June 1832. 4. By the Reform Bill, 56 boroughs, each having less than 2,000 Details of ^"^^^itants, and formerly returning 111 members, were the Refopm ^"^''^^^y disfranchised. Thirty boroughs, having less than gjH^ 4,000 inhabitants, had each its representation reduced from 2 to 1-; while two united boroughs, Weymouth and Melcombe-Regis, previously returning 4 members, were now to send but The Refopm Bill of 1832. WILLIAM IV. 203 f Abolition of slavery. two. Thus 143 borough members were set free for distribution. Of these, 65 were added to the county representation, many counties being subdivided for electoral purposes ; 22 absolutely new boroughs were created, while some of the larger towns had their representation in- creased to 2, 3, and even 4 members. Scotland received 53 representa- tives instead of 45, and Ireland 105 instead of 100. The right of voting in the boroughs was extended to all householders paying a yearly rental of £10, or occupying property rated at that sum ; in the counties, freeholds worth 40 shillings a year, copyholds of £10 per annum, and leaseholds of the annual value of £50, conferred the same privilege. The Reform Bill much increased the power of the great middle class of traders, small farmers, and professional men. 5. The first Act of the reformed Parliament, which met in February 1833, was to abolish slavery throughout the British dominions. A measure to that effect had for many years been introduced almost annually by the celebrated William Wilberforce, member for Yorkshire ; but the influence of wealthy planters, interested in the sugar trade of the West Indies, had prevented its passage. Wilberforce died just as his favorite Bill was at length passing through Parliament. The measure appropriated £20,000,000 to the owners of the slaves thus set free. The enfran- chised blacks numbered nearly seven hundred thousand. 6. William IV. died on the 20th of June 1837, in the seventy-third year of his age. His children having died in infancy, he left the succession to the throne to his niece, the Princess Alexandrina Victoria, only child of his deceased brother, Edward, Duke of Kent, fourth son of George III. 7. William IV. 's reign is memorable for the opening of the first railway for passenger traffic. This was the line between Liverpool and Manchester. The celebration was sad- dened by the accidental killing by the locomotive-engine of Mr. Huskisson, the celebrated financier. Besides the great measure freeing the slaves, much useful domestic legislation was effected by the reformed Parliament. The Poor Laws were amended in important particulars. By the Municipal Reform Act, the rights of self-govern- ment were conferred on the ratepayers of towns and cities. The Marriage Act swept away another relic of religious intolerance by permitting Catholics and Dissenters "to marry and to be given in marriage " in their own chapels according to their own rites. A system of national education was provided for Ireland, and an attempt, only partially successful, was made to institute reforms in the same direc- tion in England. The reign :• 'Villiam IV. is also nt)tcd for an unsuccessful agitation carried on oy Daniel O'Connell with a view to obtain a repeal -f the Union between England and Ireland. The chief foreign events in which our country was interested were the separation Death of William IV. Chief events. 204 VICTORIA. of Holland and Belgium, and the Second French Hevolution, which resulted in the dethronement of Charles X. and the accession of Louis Philippe. ' V Accession and char- acter of Queen Victoria. CHAPTER L. HOUSE OF HANOVER.— VICTORIA. 1837 A.D. 1. Queen Victoria had just completed her eighteenth year when she began her long and glorious reign. Her excellent natural abilities had received a careful training under the direction of her mother, the Dowager- Duchess of Kent. From her twelfth year, her education had had special reference to the regal responsibilities to which it was seen that she was destined. Whether she be regarded as a woman or as a ruler, the character of Queen Victoria has worthily won the esteem and admiration not only of her own subjects, but of the whole civilized world. She has proved herself a queen, a wife, and a mother, of whom any nation might well be proud. 2. As King of Hanover, William IV. was succeeded by his eldest surviving brother Ernest, Duke of Cumberland, fifth son of George III. This was because the law of Hanover did not allow the succession of females to the throne. The priiiciple of excluding women from the crown is known in Europe as the Salic Law, a term derived from the Salian Franks, who incorporated it in their tribal statutes as early as the fifth century. The separation of the two countries was very acceptable to the people of England. Hanover no longer exists as an independent kingdom, having been absorbed by Prussia in 1866. 3. During the later part of William the Fourth's reign Canada had been in a very unsettled state, owing partly to the conflict of races. Rebellion ^"* chiefly to disagi-eements betweea the executive and in legislative departments of the Government. In Lower Canada. Canada an insuiTection broke out under the leadership of Papineau ; while about the same time (December 1837) William Lyon M'Kenzie, a disaffected Scotsman, excited a rebellion at Toronto, in the Upper Province. Both movements were easily put dovm by loyal colonists, aided by regular troops. Some real griev- ances were at the bottom of these outbreaks, and to these the Home Government proceeded to give attention. The Earl of Durham was sent out as High Commissioner, and his report did much to enlia-hten the British authorities as to the true state of affairs in Canada." By the Canada Union Act of 1840 the two provinces of Upper and Lower Canada were re-united-. Separation of the Crowns of Encrland and Han- over. VICTORIA. 205 The Char- tists. 4. In England much discontent prevailed throughout the years 1837 and 1838, as the result of dull trade and bad harvests. Soon the popular dissatisfaction took shape in an organized band of agitators called the Chartists. The name is derived from the People's Charter, a document in which a number of constitutional changes were formally demanded. The six points of the People's Charter were : — (1. ) Universal suffrage ; (2. ) Vote by ballot ; (3.) Annual Parliaments; (4.) Payment of members of Parliament; (5. ) Abolition of the property qualification for members of the House of Commons ; (6.) Equal electoral districts, instead of greatly varying con- stituencies as heretofore. Serious rioting followed the refusal of Par- liament to consider the People's Charter. It is worthy of note that two of the points have been since conceded. Voting by ballot is now legally established in Great Britain, while the property qualification of mem- bers is no longer insisted on. There is a tendency also towards the equalization of electoral districts. 5. For some time the principles of Free Trade had been making progress in England. By Free Trade is meant the doing away with duties on imported goods, and thus reducing their cost, and consequently that of home products. In 1838, at " t aw*^"' Manchester, was formed the celebrated Anti-Com-Laio Lea;nie League, with Richard Cobden and John Bright as its leaders. The special object of this organization was to agitate ag^ainst the Com Laws, which imposed heavy duties on foreign corn, and thus made bread dear to the working classes. 6. On the 10th of February 1840, Queen Victoria was married to her cousin. Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg Gotha. Never did female sovereign contract a marriage more worthy of herself and of her people. The Prince Consort, to use a title be- of Queen stowed at a later period, was a young gentleman of un- victoria. blemished morals, excellent talents, and highly-finished .education. Above all. Prince Albert proved to be a man of rare dis- cretion, capable of giving his royal wife the sagest advice in trying circumstanced. Neither should it be forgotten that he was a most enthusiastic promoter of science, art, and every form of social im- provement. 7. The earlier years of Victoria's reign were disturbed by several wars of some importance. These included the First Chinese or Opium War, the War in Syria, and the First Afghan War. The Chinese War grew out of the determination of Brit- ish merchants to force the opium trade on China. It ended in 1840 Kong, and an indenftiity of £4,000,000. Five Chinese ports were also opened to the trade of foreign nations. The War in Syria had for its object the exjjulsion of rebellious Egyptians from Syria in the interest Wars. 206 VICTORIA. Daniel O'Connell. of Turkey. The First Afghan Wm- rapfed from 1839 to 1842. This war brought Httle glory to England. It was undertaken to prevent a prince favorable to Russia from ruling over Afghanistan. An ex- ])edition under Sir John Keane gained some successes, but these were followed by the treacherous murder of a large number of British officers, and by a retreat in which untold sufferings were endured and many lives lost. At length Generals Pollock, Sale, and Nott retrieved these disasters by some splendid victories. The British abandoned Afghanistan, after the capture of Cabul and the demohtion of ita fortifications, in September 1842. 8. In Ireland, Daniel O'Connell continued his agitation for a repeal of the Union between England and Ireland. Large sums of money were collected to further this object, and the fund thus raised was called Jtepeal Bent. Monster meetings, ac- companied by considerable disturbance, were held at Tara, Clontarf, and other places. The "Great Agitator," as O'Con- nell was called, Avas arrested, tried on a charge of consiiiracy and sedition, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment. The House of Lords set aside, this conviction, and O'Comiell was released. He died at Genoa in 1847. 9. In 1843, a memorable ecclesiastical event occurred in Scotland. A conflict of long standing between the General Assem- bly of the Established Church and the civil tribunals terminated in the secession of several hundred ministers and a large number of people from the Church, and the formation of an independent religious body called the Fixe Church of Scotland. At the head of this movement was Dr. Thomas Chalmers, one of the greatest of religioiis orators. 10. The year 1845 was marked by the total destruction of the potato crop in Ireland by a new and deadly disease affecting both the vines and the tubers of that useful vegetable. As the potato formed the staple food of the great mass of the people,- much suffering resulted from this visitation. The evil culminated in a terrible famine in 1847, which led to the depopulation of wide districts. A deadly pestilence followed in the track of the famine, slaying the people by thousands. Public sympathy was ex- cited by this sad occurrence both in England and in America. Parlia- ment voted large sums of money for relief, while private benefactions were also generously contributed. Grain-laden ships from America showed in a practical way the kindly feeling of the Western world. In two years the population of Ireland is supposed to have been diminisiied by iiertrly two millions. 11. In 1841, the Whig Ministry, which, under different leaders, had been in power since 1832, was defeated. Sir Robert Peel, the leader of the Tories, or Conservatives, as they nctv called themselves, became Free Church of Scotland. Famine in Ireland. VICTORIA. 207 Repeal of the Corn Laws. The Sikh War. Prime Minister, with a majority of eighty in the Hmifie of Commons. The Anti-Corn-Lavr League Btill continued its agitation, notwithstanding the overthrow its principles had sus- tained at the elections of 1841. Gradually the arguments of Cobden pmduced an influence on the views of Sir Robert Peel, an influence which was greatly strengthened by the famine in Ireland and a very bad harvest in England. Sir Robert tried first to shift the responsibility of overturning the Corn Laws on his former i)olitical opponents; but having failed in this, he re- solved in 1846 to deal with the questicm himself by a Bill for the Be- peal of the Corn Laws, which passed Parliament by large majorities. This memorable event led to the breaking up in a short time of the Conservative Government, a large sectitm of the party, under the leadership of Benjamin Disraeli, adhering to the old policy of pro- tecting native industries and products. This section of Ccmservativea took the name of Protectionists. 12. In 1843, Scinde, a district in the north-west of India, around the mouths of the Indus, was occupied by British troops under Sir Charles Napier, and after several severe contests was l)ermanently annexed to the Empire. Then followed a war, or rather a series of wars, with the Sikhs, a warlike people inhabiting the Punjab, a large country lying between Scinde and the sources of the Indus. The chief battles were fought at Feroze- shah on December 21st, 1845, and at Sobraon on February 10th, 1846. In both our troops were victorious, though the Sikhs fought with great bravery. Lahore, the capital of the Punjab, was soon occu- pied, while the remnant of the Sikh army surrendered to Sir Hugh Gough, the British commander. A few years later, the Sikhs re- volted, but were effectually subdued by the brilliant and decisive vic- tory of Goojerat, gained by Lord Gough on the 21st of February 1847. The Punjab was then permanently annexed to the British Empire in India. 13. In 1848, France was thrown into confusion by a third Revolu- tion. This movement was occasioned by the unwise resistance of the Government to proposals of reform. Louis Philippe, the King, fled as a refugee to England. A short-lived Repub- lic was founded on the ruins of the Monarchy. Louis Napoleon, son of the, ex-King of Holland, and nephew of the great Napoleon, was elected President by an immense majority over General Cavaignac, his chief competitor. 14. The same year (1848) is noted for the last attempt at public de- monstration by the English Chartists. It was intended to overawe Parliament by a monster procession in the streets of London ; but through the excellent military arrangements of the Duke of Wellington, seconded by the efforts of 14 Third French Revolution. End of Chartism. 11 208 VICTORIA. 15. The the death Young Ireland Party. Repeal of the Navi- gation Laws. loyal citizens, the movement, instead of exciting terror, excited only ridicule. IriHh movement for roneal of the Union did not end with of the celebrated O'Connell. The leading agitators now were Smith O'Brien and .To)m Mitchell. The latter edited, in a violent but clever manner, a {tayier called the United Irish nian, devoted to the cause of repeal. A ri* ing was planned for the lUth of July 1847. It was, how ever, anticipated by the (Government, which sent a posse of constables to arrest O'Brien and his associates. This they effected after a brief ahow of resistance from the small force surrounding the Irish leaders. O'Brien, who was a man of high character but weak judgment, was, with three others, convicted of high treason and condemned to death ; but the sentence was afterwards commuted to tran8iM)rtation. 16. The year 1849 was marked by a further movement in freeing the trade of the country from artificial restrictions. The Navi(jation Laivs, which put a premium on carrying goods in British vessels, had in some shape been in force s^nce 1672, when they were enacted through jealousy of Dutch commerce. They had been altered in 1822, and were now completely repealed. 17. Shortly after carrying his Bill for the Repeal of the Com Laws, D th f ^^ R*^>bert Peel, the great Conservative leader, had been Sip Robert ^^^^^^ irom office by a union of those members of his own Peel. pfwty who favored Protection, and his Whig, or Liberal, opponents. He was succeeded in the office of Prime Minister by Lord John Russell, the cham.pion of the Reform Bill of 1832. On the 29th of June 1850, Sir Robert was thrown from his horse while taking an airing in Hyde Park, and received so severe an injury that he died four days afterwards. 18. In the year 1851 was held, in Hyde Park, London, the first of those Gh'eat Eochibitions of the works of art and industry Exhibition ^^ "^^ nations, which have so creditably distinguished of 1851. iii^dern times, and which have done so much to promote good feeling among the different nations of the world. This grand event, the success of which surpassed all expectations, was due to the sagacious mind of Prince Albert. The Exhibition was held in an immense building of glass and iron, designed by Sir Joseph Pax- ton. The Crystal Palace, as it was called, covered twenty acres, and sheltered beneath its roof some of the largest trees in Hyde Park. 19. The chief events of the year 1852 were the defeat of the Russell Ministry and the accession to office of a Conservative the"year^ Government, led by the Earl of Derby and Mr. Disraeli ; 1852. ^ ^^ ^*^ *^® Burmese, which resulted in annexing Pegu to the Bxitish possessions in the East ; and particu- VICTORIA. 209 The Russian War. larly the death of the Duke of Wellinpfton, who died at Walmor CaHtlo, on the 14th of September, at the advanced ago (»f eighty-three. Ko expenHe waH upared to make the intennent of the " Victor of Waterloo " worthy of tlie nation which owed ho much to the genius and courage of Arthur WelleHloy. Before tlie year ended, the Con- Hervative AdminiHtration retired from office, and waH Hucceeded by a Liberal Cabinet, led by the Earl of Aberdeen, but including several followers of the late Sir Robert Peel, conspicuous among whom was Mr. (jladstone, himself destined at different times to direct the destinies of the Empire. 20. The year 1854 was noted for the breaking out of the first European war of importance after the general pacifica- tion in 1815. The Czar of Russia, as Head of the (Jreek Church, demanded full control over all members of that Church residing in Turkey. When this was refused, he ])repared for war, and actually invaded Turkish territory in July 1853. England and France — which latter state had exchanged a republican for an im- perial form of government, with Louis Napoleon as Emperor, under the title of Napoleon III. — looked with great suspicion on this move- ment of Russia. They remonstrated, and entered into negotiations ; but while these were in progress, Russia actually bombarded Sinope, a Turkish port on the Black Sea. This led to the declaration of war against Russia by both England and France in the spring of 1854. 21. In the autunm of 1854 an allied English and French force of fifty thousand reached the Russian peninsula known as the Crimea. The English were under the command of Lord jT^u^'^ Raglan, who had fought at Waterloo, and had also served Crimea as Wellington's jirivate secretary. The French leader was Marshal St. Arnaud, a general of experience. The grand object of attack was the renowned Russian fortress of Sebastopol. 22. A powerful Russian army had taken possession of the heights overlooking a small stream called the Alma, to block the passage of the Allied army as it marched southward to- wards Sebastopol. The Battle of the Alma was fought on the 2Gth of September 1854. Both the French and the British gal- lantly attacked the enemy in his superior position, and each succeeded in carrying the heights before them. The British had the more difficult place to scale, and owed their victory largely to the steadfast courage of the Highland Brigade, under Sir Colin Campbell. The Russian general. Prince MenschikofI, retreated towards Sebastopol. The Allies, after a few days' rest, marched forward in the same direction. 2.S, Sebastopol was the chief naval arsenal of Russia, and was strongly fortified by the skill of the great engineer Tod- leben. It was the design of the Allies to invest the fortress both by land and by sea ; but unfortunately their ships could Battle of the Alma. Sebastopol. 210 VICTORIA. Battle of Balaklava. notappnmch near enough to do irmch execution, owing to obBtnictionn placed in the harbor. It was also fitund that the KtiHnian outfit of artillery was far HUi)erior to that of the Allie«. The bane of oi)eration8 for the English was Balaklava harbor, Heven nulen sotith of SebastoiH)!, while the Frencli headquarters were at Kamiesch Bay, three and a half uules distant from the fortress, in a south-westerly direc- tion. 24. The Battle of Balaklava, fought on October 25th, 1854, was due to a Russian attempt to raise the siege of Sebastopol by an attack on the English position. The attempt waH successful so far as t(» cart-y three redoubts manned by Turkish troops ; but a fourth was firmly held by the English soldiers who defended it. The Russians then pressed on Balaklava in almost overwhelming numbers; but after a desperate struggle they were forced back to their old iMisitions. Sir Colin Campbell's Highlanders again distinguished themselves, but were nobly supported by the Enniskillen Dragoons and the Light Horse Brigade of lancers and hussars. The most notable incident was that celebrated by Tennyson in his famous ode, " Charge of the Light Brigade." Through some mistake in connection with an order of Lord Raglan, the brigade of cavalry, under Lord Cardigan, numbering only six hund/ed, rode full on the Russian gims and the main body of the Russian army. With incredible bravery the '* Six Himdred " cut their way through the serried ranks, sabring the artillerymen at the guns, and then hewed their way back again, " stormed at by shot and shell ;"—" but not the six hundred," for two-thirds of their number had succumbed in the unequal fight. 25. Another desperate encounter took place on the 5th of November. This is known as the Battle of Inkermann, fought on Battle of ^YxQ extreme right of the British position. The Russians Inkermann. ^^^^ ^^ ^.^j^ great secrecy and in immense numbers. Nothing but the determined courage of the few soldiers who first took the alarm saved our army from destruction. The front was held safe till the troops generally were called into action. French reinforcements poured in, and before nightfall a glorious i '•oTy was won. 26. During the ensuing winter the Allied troops endured g ■ - i - fering. Through wi-etched mismanagement the English ^f^QKA^filT soldiers particularly Avere half-clothed and half-starved. of 1854-55. ^j^ through the dreary months they had to keep their positions in the dr.mp trenches, and guard against surprises from the siy and crafty Kr.b- iiviS. Tj- was duriiii; Nightingale mR«'x h',: npma immortal by tending the sick and wounded in the hospital at Scriari. 27. In January 1855, Parliament passed a vote of censure on Lord VICTORIA. 211 Aberdeoii'H Miniiitry for itH negliKont and inefficient conduct of thn war. Tho I'reniior reHij^niid, and wuh HuccomU)d by ^j^^^g^^ Lord PttlnierHton, who at once infuMcd new vigor into tlui nianttgonicnt of the content. Abont the Hamo timo the cauHO of tho AllioH wuH MtronKthenod by the aoceHHion of Sardinia, which nent 8ix thousand men ii»tt» tho Held, under (ieneral La Mannoru. 28. In tlie Hpring of l^y^i active operationn wore ro-connnenced in the Crimea, (ieneral Canrobert wan now the French leader. ^.^^ ^^^^ ^f Tho Hecond bond)ardnient of SebttHtopol lasted from April g^bastopol. yth to V2th. Like the first, it failed in itH object, though it enabled the aiege-workB to be moved nearer the doomed fortroMH. Tho thinl bombardment began (m Jmio (Ith, and wan continued the fol- lowing day. This rewulted in the cai)turo of pome important outlying lK)hioionH. On the 17th and 18th, the fourth bombardment took place, the French attacking the Malakoff, and tho Engliwh the Jtnhin, the two main t.>wers or forts. 15oth uHHaults wore unHucceHsful. Ten days later, Lord Raglan died of chol.ira, and was Hucceeded by ( Jeneral Simpson. The enemy now made desperate efforts to raise the siege, but were successfully held in check. The fifth bombardment, on the 17th of August, showed that the end was ai)proaching. On the 5th of September the sixth and final bombardment began. Such a terrific fire was kept up for several days that inmiense damage was done to tho Russian works, while the daily loss in the garrison and town is estimated to have been two thousand five hundred men. On the 8th a grand assault was made both on the Malakoff and on the Redan. The French took and held the former. Marshal Pelissier (who had superseded General Canrobert) supporting the assault with no less than thirty thousand men. The English assault on the Redan failed through bad management. General Simpson having attempted a heavier task than that of Polissier with only one-tenth the number of men. The same evening, the Russians, seeing that further defence was hopeless, abandoned Sebastopol, after blowing up the forts and sinking their ships. The Crimean War was now virtually at an end, though peace was not concluded till the following March. 29. The events of the Russian War outside of the Crimea must be briefly noticed. In 1854, an English fleet commanded by ^^^^^ Sir Charles Napier (cousin of his namesake, the hero of g^g^ts of Scinde) entered the Baltic, but found itself unable to at- ^j^g ^^r. tack the impregnable fortress of Cronstadt. The next year the same fleet, under Admiral Dundas, bombarded Sveaborg suc- cessfully. The same year the fleet which afterwards operated at SftbastoDol made an unsuccessful attack on Odessa. In 1855, an ex- pedition into the Sea of Azof captured Kertch. Military operations were also carried on in Armenia, among which the gallant defence of Kars by General Sir Fenwick Williams deserves honorable mention. 212 VICTORIA. Treaty of Paris. 80. Peace was concluded by the Treaty of Paris, signed March 30th, 1»56. The Russian protectorij.te over Moldavia and Wal* lachia ^ras abolished ; the free navigation of the Danube was secured ; and the Christ'.an subjects of the Sultan of Turkey were placed under the r>rotection of the five contracting parties— England, France, Russia, Austria, and Sardinia. 31. A quarrel between the Chinese police and the crew ot a pmall SeCdnd "**^'® '*^^P flying ti,e British f\Ag ori^nated t le Second Chinese ^'**/^*^ '"'<*»' ^n Jl856. An apology for the conduct of the Wai*. P*>li(^e was demanded of the Chinese Government by Sir John Bowring, British Minister at Hong-Kong, but was refused. Canton was shelled by our fJeet under Admiral Seymour in October 1850, and was finally capiured in December 1857. Peace was restored by the Treaty of Tien-tsin in June 1858, between England, France, and China. Five new ports, including Formosa and Hainan, were opened for trade, and British subjects were to be admitted by means of passports to any part of China. Christians also were to be protected in the exercise of their religion. 32. In 1857, the memorable Indian Mutiny/ broke out. At that time, of an army in India of 300,000 men, only 43,000 were British, the rest being natives, either Hindoos or Mahometans. The real causes of the Mutiny had been slowly operating for many years, but its immediate occasion was the introduction of a new rifle with greased cartridges, A report was circulated among the native soldiers that the grease used in the cartridges was a mixture of cow's fat and hog's lard. The cow was held saci-ed by the Hindoos, and the hog was religiously repulsive to the Mahometans. It was given out that the cartridge in question had been specially prepared to cause a loss of caste to the native troops. The rebellion began on May 10th, 1857, at Meerut, near Delhi. The native or "Sepoy" soldiers composing the 3rd Bengal Cavalry and the 11th and 20th regiments of the line murdered their officers, and committed most brutal outrages on helpless women and children. The mutineers seized Lucknow and Delhi, and were fol- lowed in their revolt by most of the Bengal regiments. At Delhi, a descendant of the Great Mogul was proclaimed Emperor of India. The armies in the Presidencies of Madras and Bombay in general remained obedient to orders, while Sir John Lawrence promptly sup- pressed an attempted rising in the Punjab. By June 1857, fifty thou- sand native soldiers in the Bengal Presidency were in revolt. AA. Afl (j A-lvn rir^fo oVirmf rti*«£^ Vkimrlv*^.^ "I?i...«^rtrt«« ^£ — 1 x a1_ ?.. j ^ . . „ ,,,,. ,,,,„^5,^^j .i:x\.ti.\j}jx:ai.ia, ui WIIUIII tWU'UIirUS Indian Mutiny. Massacres of Cawnporo. were women and children, were besieged by Sepoys under Nana Sahib, Rajah of Bithoor. On June 27th, 1857, General Wheeler, the officer in command, surrendered on condition that the Europeans should be allowed to retire VICTORIA. 213 peacefully to Allahabad. As the English were leaving Cawnpore, in accordance with this arrangement, they were treacherously attacked by the Sepoys, and the men, with few exceptions, were foully massacred. The survivors, including most of tiie women and children, were taken back and flung into prison. General Havelock with a small force marched from Allahabad for the purpose of rescuing Cawnpore and the unfortunate prisoners. Gallantly cutting his way through oppos- ing forces, Havelock reached the doomed city only to find that the villanous Nana Sahib had perpetrated a second massacre, if possible worse than the first. Forced to abandon Cawnpore, the miscreant gave orders that all the European prisoners should be murdered. This hideous command was literally executed, and on entering Cawnpore Havelock found a huge well filled to the top with the yet quivering corpses. It is little wonder that in future battles the English soldiers showed little mercy to the rebellious Sepoys. Unfortunately Nana Sahib was never captured, and his subsequent career has defied aU attempts to trace it out. 34. Havelock hastened from Cawnpore to reUeve Lucknow, where a small European force was holding out against a power- ^^^^^ ^^ ful body of Sepoy besiegers. After protracted delays Lucknow. and much terrible fighting against fearful odds, he sue- ceeded in reaching Lucknow. Forcing his way through the town into the Residency, he ioined his beleaguered countrymen. He could do nothing, however, but share their fate. A second expedition for the relief of Lucknow under Sir CoUn Campbell, who had^been ap- pointed Commander-in-chief, reached the place on the 14th of Novem- ber, and fought its way in on the 17th. The garrison, with the non- combatants, women, and children, were now brought out m safety, leaving LucknoW; however, hi possession .f the rebels, bu: Henry Havelock died of disease a few days after the rescue. 35. Delhi, the chief centre of revolt, was stormed shortly before the relief of Lucknow, and its King summarily shot. Luck- s^jpppgj,jjio„ now was taken and its fortifications were destroyed by ^^^^^ Campbell in March 1858. The capture of Bareilly m Mutiny. Mav of the same year was the last important event of the rebellion. The operations accompanying the final suppression of the Mutiny were carried on with great vigor by Sk Colin Campbell, who was rewarded with a peerage and the title of Lcrd Clyde. 36. In 1858, the Palmerston Government introduced a Conspiracy Bill with the design of denying the right of asylum in jj^^gpipaey T? 1_„J *-> ^n.c/s'na rtrtnar.iriTlDr fr> r>.r>mTnit the crime of ntil murder in foreign countries. This was done to please the Emperor of the French, whose life had been assailed by an Itabun named Orsini, who had subsequently sought refuge m England. Ihe Bill was defeated, and the Ministry was thus compelled to resign. 2U VICTORIA. 37. A Conservative Ministry, led by Lord Derby and Mr. Disraeli, The Derby ^^^"^ *^*™® ^"^^ power. Though it remained in oflice Administra- ^^^^^^ ^^^^ *'*^^ ^ y«a^' being defeated in 1859 on 'a tion. measure affecting Parliamentary representation, con- siderable useful legislation was effected under the auspices of this Administration. We may note (1) the India Bill, by which the famous East India Company was abolished, and the government of the great Empire of India was transferred directly to the Crown ; and (2) the removal of Jewish disabilitiea, by omitting from the oath taken by members of Parliament the words " on the true faith of a Christian." The latter men ure allowed the wealthy Baron de RothschUd, who had been repeatedly elected by the city of London, to take his seat in Parliament. On the defeat of his Reform Bill in June 1859, Lord Derby again gave way to Lord Palmerston, who selected Mr. Gladstone as Chancellor of the Exchequer. 38. Lord Palmerston retained the office of Premier until his death Last P 1 ^^ ^^^^' ^^^^^^^ *^^^ period many domestic events of mepston ^®^* importance occurred. Among these may be men- AdministPa- *^**^P*^ *^^ commencement of the practice of enrolling tion. volunteei' corps for the defence of the country ; the so- called Cotton Famine, or distress among the operatives in the cotton factories of Lancashire, consequent on the cutting off of the supply of cotton by the Civil War in America ; the lamented death of the Prince- Consort in 1861 ; the marriage of the Prince of Wales in 1863 to the Princess Alexandra, daughter of the King of Denmark ; and a commercial treaty with France, negotiated by the celebrated Richard Cobden. 39. Among the foreigti events of ihis period was the Third Chinese Foreign ^^^' ^^ ^^^^^ England punished China for violating events. *^® *®^"^^ ^'^ *^® Treaty of Tien-tsin. This was brought to an end by the Treaty of Pekin (October 24, 1859), in which the conditions of the previous treaty were ratified and further concessions were made to England. From 1861 to 1865 raged the famous Cicil War in the United States of America, in respect to which our country endeavored to maintain a neutral attitude. An event occurred, however, which threatened for a time to disturb friendly relations between England and the Government at Washington. Messrs. Mason and Slidell, and two other gentlemen, agents of the Confederate or seceding States, were forcibly taken from an English mail steamer— the Trent ~hy a United States cruiser. England complained of this as a violation of international law, and when -^i.mcrica hesitated to sunender the captured envoys, our Govern- ment prepared to enforce their liberation by arms. On reflection, the United States acknowledged the justice of our claim, and Messrs.' Slidell and Mason were conveyed to Europe by a British man-of-war. VICTORIA. 215 f 40. In 1865 Lord Palmerston closed his long and dietinginshed career, dying at the age of eighty-one. He had coniinenced his official career as one of the Lords of the Admiralty in the Ministry of the Duke of Portland, formed in 1807. As a public man Lord Palmerston was noted for his patriotism, and for his eagerness to maintain un- tarnished the honor of England. He was succeeded in the premiership by Lord John Russell, whose Ministry was overthrown in June 186b, from its inability to carry a Reform Bill which it had introduced. 41. Lord Derby and Mr. Disraeli now succeeded to office. Their third Administration was marked by two leading events— (1) the passage of the Secmd Rejwm. Bill (1867), and (2) . ^/jj^^f^p^. the Abyssinian War. By the second Reform Bill changes ^j^^ ^^ ^^^^ , were introduced almost as sweeping as those effected by Derby. the celebrated measure of 1832. In boroughs the right of voting was extended to all householders rated for the relief of the poor, and to all lodgers whose premises, unfurnished, were worth £10 a year. In counties the franchise was given to all tenants paying £12 a year, instead of £50 as previously. Eleven English boroughs were totally disfranchised, while twenty-three others, with a population under 10,000, lost one member each. Twenty-two seats were created in new boroughs, while two members were given to the Scottish Universities, and one to London University. The counties were so redivided as to obtain twenty-eight new members. England, on the whole, lost, and Scotland gaimd, seven members.— The Abyssinian War (1868) was undertaken and successfully carried out for the purpose of liberating certain British subjects unlawfully seized and detained by Theodore, King of Abyssinia. In 1868 Lord Derby trans- ferred the leadership of his Government to Mr. Disraeli, who soon dissolved Parliament in consequence of the adoption by the House of Commons of a resolution favoring the disestabUshment of the Irish Church. The elections resulted in the defeat of the Government. Mr. Disraeli resigned, and Mr. Gladstone was recalled to office. 42. The new Prime Minister proceeded to carry out the policy out- lined in the resolution above referred to. In 1869 an Act was passed for the Disestablishment and Disendowment of the Insh Church. By this measure the Protestant (Episcopal) Church of Ireland was cut off from all con- nection with the State and was put on a level with other religious bodies, though allowed to retain a portion of its ... endowed revenues. Irish archbishops and bishops ceased to sit m the House of Lords, while the grant long paid to the Catholic ecclesiastical college of Maynooth was withdraw a. In 1870 two important measurss were enacted. One was the Tenure of Land Act, designed to put the relations between landlords and tenants in Ireland on a better footing. The other was that important piece of legiflation generally known as Mr. Glad- stone's Administra- tion, 1868-1874. 216 VICTORIA. Alabama Claims. the Elementary Education Act of 1870. This Act, while to a certain extent recognizing voluntary effort in behalf of education, provided for the estabhahment of "public School Boards " in all parts of the country, while attendance at school, with reasonable limitations, was made compulsory. In 1872 voting ly ballot was made the law for aU parliamentary elections. 43. In 1871 various matters of dispute between England and the United States were adjusted by the Treaty of Washing- ton. Among the subjects thus disposed of were claims from the United States for compensation for damages done to American shipping by a Southern cruiser called the Alabama, which had been allowed to refit and obtain supplies in British ports This point of dispute was referred to a Board of Arbitration, to sit at Geneva. When the Board met in 1872, it decided that a large sum was equitably due by the English Government, which, without allow- mg the justice of the award, promptly paid it. 44. In 1874, England was engaged in war with the King of Ashan- Ashantee *®®' ^^ Western Africa, by whom our settlements on the War. ^*^^^ °^ *^^* continent were threatened. Under Sir *u A u ^*™et Wolseley, our troops penetrated to Coomassie, the Ashantee capital, and destroyed it by fire. The object of the exi^edition was accomplished, and British power on the West Coast of Africa was placed on a firm basis. 45. The general election held in 1874 resulted in the defeat of the Gladstone Administration. Mr. Disraeli, shortly after- wards created Earl of Beaconsfield, became Prime Min- ister for the second time. The chief measures passed by this Government were the Licensing Act and the Public Worship Regulation Act. During this period Great Britain was engaged in two wars, which, though of no great magnitude, were very vexatious. These were (1) the Afghan War (1878), originating m renewed jealousy of Russian influence in Afghanistan; and (2) the Zulu War (1878-9), fought for the purpose of compelling Cetewayc King of Zululand, in South Africa, to disarm and disband his army. Nothing occurred in the Afghan War which particularly needs re- cital ; but in the war with the Zulus a great disaster befell the English at Isandlanha, where about one thousand men were surprised and almost entirely cut off. Cetewayo was defeated in the Battle of Ulundi, and shortly afterwards captured. A melancholy incident of the Zulu War was the death of Prince Louis Napoleon, only son of Napoleon III. At his own request, he was allowed to join the campaifm as a volun* teer. He, with a small company, was surprised by the Zulus, and fell pierced by their assegais. Lord Beaconsfield signalized his administra- tion by having conferred on the Queen the title of Empress of India. 46. PubUc opiaion was much excited in England during the Beacons- Beacons- field Admi- nlstpation, 1874-1880. VICTORIA. 217 Treaty of Berlin. Gladstone Adminis- tration. field Administration by the war which broke out in 1877 between Russia and Turkey, consequent on the revolt from the latter country of Bosnia and other provinces. When Con- stantinople was about to fall into the hands of Russia, England interfered by sending a powerful fleet through the Darda- nelles. It was then agreed that the chief Powers of Europe should, through their representatives, meet at Berlin and settle the questions at issue between Russia and Turkey, affecting, as these did, the gen- eral peace and welfare of the Continent. The Treaty of Bei'iin (1878) is generally regarded by his friends as the great achievement of Lord Beaconsfield's life. England retained possession of Cyprus, previously ceded to her by Turkey, while a number of the Danubian provinces became altogether independent of the latter country. Russia received some important grants of territory in Asia Minor. Lord Beacons- field's term of office was also marked by the purchase by England of a controlling influence in the Suez Canal, and the assumption of a pro- tectorate over Egypt, which has since given the country much trouble. 47. The general election of 1880 displaced the Beaconsfield Minis- try and restored Mr. Gladstone to office. For some time much xmeasiness had existed in Ireland, where a Land League, designed to secure for the Irish people possession of the soil, now owned by landlords generally residing in England, had acquired great influence under the leadership of Mr. Par- nell and other Irish members of Parliament. As a measure of justice to Ireland, and with the view of counteracting the operations of the League, Mr. Gladstone introduced in 1881 a Land Act for Ireland, a measure intended to grant substantial relief to tenants, by making them to a large extent independent of their landlords. What the ultimate results of this Act may be cannot now be predicted. Un- fortunately, instead of quieting the uneasiness which prevailed in Ire- land, it had to be followed by a Coercion Act, under the operation of which Mr. Pamell and other Irish leaders were temporarily impris- oned. A sad event connected with the Irish troubles was the assassi- nation, in May 1882, of Lord Frederick Cavendish, the Chief Secre- tary for Ireland. Lord Beaconsfield did not long survive his retirement from office in 1880. After one of the most remarkable careers in English history, in which, by sheer dint of genius and industry, he advanced himself step by step to the highest post attainable by a subject,' he died on the 19th of April 1881. 48. Great Britain has never made greater progress than during the long reign which happily is not yet closed. In manu- factures and commerce our country maintains her proud position as the leading nation of the world. Long famed for her universities and her great endowed schools, En- gland has at last determined to be surpassed by no other uenerai progress under Victoria. 218 VICTORIA. land in provision for the education of the masses. Nowhere else have the discoveries and inventions of science been so fully taken advan- tage of in every matter that iiertains to the public safety or to the public health. Nor are the British Islands alone to be taken into account when we consider the greatness of our country. The Sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland rtiles over the mightiest empire the world has ever seen. The colonies under her sway are estimated to covtT one-seventh of the surface of the globe, and to contain at least one- fourth of its population. HOUSE OP HANOVER. George I. (1714-1727)- Georgk II. (1727-1760). Frederick, Prince of Wales (died 1751K GEORGE III. (1760-1820). George IV. (1830-1830). William IV. (1830-1837). Edward, Duke of Kent (died 1830). Victoria (began to reign 1837). DESCENDANTS OP GEORGE III. George IV. = Caroline o/Bruns- ■wick. I Princess Cliarlotte (died 1817) = Leopold, a/fenvards King o/the Belgians. George in. » Charlotte 0/ MecklenbHrg-Strelit*. Frederick, Duke of York (d. 1827). William IV. = Adelaide ofSaxe- Meiningen. Albert Edward, Prince of Wales Princess Alexan- dtu 0/ Den- mark. (Issue- five children.) Alfred, Duke of Edin- burgh Czarina Marie of Russia. Arthur, Duke of Con- naujsfht Princess Louisa Mar- garet of Prussia. Leopold, Duke of Albany (died 1884). Princess Helena of Waldeck. I Edward, Duke of Kent. = Victoria ofSaxe- Coburs^ Saalfeld. Victoria = Prince Albert ofSaxe- Coburg Gotha {d. tS6r). Victoria, Princess Royal the Croivn Prttire of Ger- many. Ernest, Duke ofCum- berland and King of Hanover (d. 1851). AuK'ustus, Duke of Sussex (d. 1843). Alice (died 1878). Prince Louis of Hesse. Adolphus Six Frederick, duugh- Duke of ters. Cam- bridge (d. 1850). George. Two Duke d.iugh- of Cam- ters. bridge. Helena Louise Beatrice; Prince the Chris- Marquis tian of of Lome. tenberg. \ THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION. 219 i CHAPTER LI. THE BRITISH OONBTITTJTION. 1. Tlie WUenof/^mdt of the Anglo-Saxons and the Curia Regis of the Early Norman Kings grew into the EngliHli Parlianient, ^^j^j^ ^^ chiefly by the separation of the minor from the gi-eater p^pHament. nobleB, and the reinforcement of the former by repre- Hentativea from the boroughn. This change, from which originated the House of Commone, began to be apparent in the reign of John. At the Hovolution of 1088 the organization of the British Parliament was diHthictly defined. ... ^ . e ♦!,» 2. The Three Estates of the Realm, or constituent parts of the l»arliament, are the Sovereign, the liords, and the Com- ^^^ ^^^^ moiiH. Thus the Constitution is not pure monarchy, gg^ates. pure aristocracy, or pure democracy, but a comiK)und of all three ; and in this chiefly lies its strength. 3. The office of Sovereign is hereditary ^^ a woman being permitted to reign ; for we have not, as they had in France, a Salic ^^^ Law. The checks on the ix)wer of our Sovereign lie in sovereign. the laws of the land, and the advice of Ministers, who are resi^nsible to Parliament. The chief branches of the royal pre- rogative are, that the Sovereign alone can make war or peace; can pardon a convicted criminal ; can summon, prorogue, or dissolve the Parliament ; can coin money ; can confer nobility. The assent of the Sovereign is necessary to the passing of a Bill. He or she must be a Protestant of the Church of England ; and must maintain Presby- terianism in Scotland. _ 4. The Lords are of two kinds, Lords Spiritual and Lords lem- poral : classified as follows :— Spikitual. English Archbishops 2 EngUsh Bishops ^4 ^^ Temporat.. English Peers ^^f .Scottish Peers J" Irish Peers ;_^ ^^2 Total 508 The Temporal Peers are of six^ ranks:- Royal Princes,^ Dukes, Mar- quises, Eails, Viscounts, and i5aiun». Any """'"^r oi ^^ j^^.^^^ new Peers may be created by the Sovereign. The Scot- tish Representative Peers are elected by their own body for every now Parliament ; the Irish Peers hold their seats for life. Upwards of 45 ^^^ THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION. Scottish Peers and about 80 Irish Peers sit in the House of Lords as Peers o England or of Great Britain The Lord Chancellor sSg o^ the woo sack acts as Speaker or Chairman of the Lords. The Uplr ?ourTs rr. ^"^^««*/-^ ^' J-tice. to decide appeals fromT Courts of Chancery and Queen's Bench in England, and from the Court of Session in Scotland. Any Bill, except a Money BUI mav ongmate m the Upper House. ^v^oney rjui, may 5. The House of Commons possesses the sole right of levying taxes, The f""* ^/, ^^*^"e^ n^oney for the public service. Command- Commons. ^"^ *", *ne sources of suppjy, they can thus effectually House of CoZ *^\S.«^«f«i^- In the reign of Edward L the Hen V VI iTiri T'^'""'^ '^^ "^^"^^^^«= *^«^« ^«^« ^00 under ^co:L'nI\nd"or^t^^^^^^^^ ¥^' ^"t' ' V. 'Z '^^^^^' '' ^^^ this number, but'^edtUtrd'thelts^^^^^^^ ^^ '''' '^'^''^' England and Wales 500 Mnmh-... Scotland 500 Members. Ireland .". ,Z 105 II *' Total 658 The Reform Acts of 1867-8 arranged the numbers thus :- England and Wales 490 MAmh»«. Scotland ;;;; ^S^Menibers. Ireland ,«= ' 105 M Total 658 6. The Parliament is dissolved-(l) by the will of the Sovereign ; Calling a <2) after seven years of existence. The necessity of voting Papliament. «"PPi\f to carry on the Government secures its meeting the Lord rh.^''''T^' ..^^''^ ^ "'^ Parliament must be summoned" Clerk of ?he T "' T"^ ""^'^ '''^''' ^^^™ *^^ ^^«-«' ^-ects th^ Uerk of the Crown to issue Writs. These are despatched to the Sheriffs of counties, who fix a day for the nomination'^o candidates The election, m case of a contest, is decided by ballot. 7. According to the theory of the Constitution no member of Par- TheChiltern ^^^'"fj* can resign his seat. But a law of Queen Anno Hundreds. Provided that a member who took office under the Crown vacated his seat. This law is still in force with the exception that it does not apply to a member who is transLrTfrom one office to another in the same Ministry. The custom, ttreLt™ for a member wishintr to rftsiVn f« op^i,, *„ i.u» ^^.. „ . '. i^xchequer for the Stewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds whose beech-woods now need no custodian. This office, accepted one dly is resigned the next : and so the member is free. THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION. 221 8. When a new Parliament meets, the first thing the Commons do is to elect a Speaker. The members of both Houses take ^^ an oath against conspiracy, treason, etc., according to gj^i^i^gp, the provisions of the Act of Settlement. 9. Members of Parliament have many important privileges, one of which is freedom from arrest or imprisonment on civil ppiy^eges. matters. But some of their old privileges— such as the non-publication of their debates and the non-admission of strangers- have been waived in order to suit the spirit of modern times. 10. Three Lords form a quorum ; that is, a number sufficient for the transaction of business. It takes fm-ty members of the ppog^dure. . Commons to form a working assembly. The Lords say Content or Non-Cmtent m voting ; Ay and No are the decisive words of the Commons. The Speaker of the Commons does not vote except m cases of equality, when he has a casting vote ; the Lord Chancellor can both join in the debates and give his vote. In the Lords, when a case of equal voting occurs, the Non-Contents gain the victory. 11. The introduction of Bills by the Commons originated m the reign of Henry VI. The Crown can originate no act but ^^^^^ one of grace or of pardon. Most public Bills originate with the Commons, because they alone can deal with matters relatmg to the public purse. , x. ,. 12. The process by which a Bill becomes an Act of Parhament is as follows:— After notice of motion is duly given and seconded, leave is given to bring in the Bill. It is then read for the first time ; but no voting takes place, since this reading merely makes the members acquainted with the details of the measure. A day is then fixed for the second reading; before the arrival of which the Bill is printed and circulated. The first debate and voting usually take place after the second reading, which establishes the principle of the Bill. The members vote by going into different lobbies ; and they are counted by tellers, who hand the division lists to the Speaker. The House then forms itself into a Committee to dis- cuss and amend the detaUs of the measure. After a third reading the Bill is sent up to the Lords. In the Upper House it undergoes a similar procedure. But if amended or altered there, it is sent back to the Commons, who either agree to its provisions or demand a conference with the Lords. An endorsement in Norman-French— a relic of the olden days when all statutes were written in that language— marks the successful passage of the measure through either of the Houses. 13. The royal assent is then required before the Bill becomes an Act. iiiis is given oy wiu ouvcrcign cilucx i-^ir7v-...r..j or by commission. The Sovereign, though constitution- ally possessed of a veto on every measure passed by the Houses, never exercises the prerogative now. The last instance of Law making. The royal assent. 222 THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION. The Privy Council. ?^'1!^u"J^m"'?^J^,^" ^''®^" ^""« '" 1707 declined to sanction a Scottiah Mihtia Bill. 14. The maxim that "the King can do no wrong" implies that he acts by the advice of Ministers, who are responsible to Parliament. The Privy CouncU, the members of which are dignified with the title of Right Honorable, have been fiY>m very early times the advisers of the Sovereign. But this assembly being too numerous and scattered for the regular transaction ot pubhc affairs, the Government is conducted by a committee of the Privy Council, known as the Cabinet. 15. When the Ministry is overthrown by a defeat on any important The Cabinet. -^^^^ which they have brought in, or by a vote of want of confidence, the Sovereign sends for the principal states- man of the opiK)site party, and intrusts him with the task of forming a new Government. For the various posts, mentioned below, he selects his leading political supporters. The Cabinet consists necessarily of :— 1. The First Lord of the Treasury ; otherwise called the Prime Minister. 2. The Lbrd Chancellor. 3. The Chancellor of the Exchequer. 4. The Home Secretary. 5. The Foreign Secretary. 6. The Colonial Secretary. 7. The Indian Secretary. 8. The Secretary at War. 9. The President of the Privy Council. The following Ministers have also at different times been included in tlie Cabinet; but that body does not usually consist of more than fourteen or fifteen members : — 10. The First Lord of the Admiralty. The President of the Board of /Trade. The Postmaster-General. The President of the Local Government Board. The Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. The Lord Privy Seal. The Chief Secretary for Ireland. The Vice-President of the Committee of Council on Education. 16. When the House of Commons resolves itself into a Committee of Ways and Means, the Chancellor of the Exchequer 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. The Budfiret. Dresents his BnHcraf orvnfa;*^;*^^ 4-\ £ 1-. file iinaiitji^ii ments he proposes for the coming year (ending April 12th), and the estimates of the Revenue he expects to derive from the various sources of the national income. THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION. 223 Courts of Justice. 17. Each House of Parliament may adjourn its meetings from day to day. The Sovereign, advised by the MiniHtry, pro- p^p^^,o„ ^f royueg Parliament from seHsion to sesBion ; and dmohea p^jiament. it when a new Parliament is to be elected. The duratior of a Parliament is limited by law to seven years ; but no Parliamei since that law was passed (1716) has exceeded six years in duration. During the present reign, the average length of the Parliaments has been under five years. , , ^. i. 18. The administration of British law is founded on three great principles— the Jury, the Habeas Corpus Act, and the ^^^ independence of the Judges. In England and Ireland » Grand Jury sit to judge whether a case is fit to go to trial ; then a second Jury of twelve decide upon the case, and must be unanimous in their verdict of "Guilty" or "Not Guilty." In Scotland there is no Grand Jury--a Jury of fifteen try the case, and return a verdict of " Guilty " " Not Guilty," or " Not Proven," by a majority of votes. 19. There are various Courts, in which the Statute-law, the Com- mon-law, and the law of Equity are administered. Statute-law is that embodied in Acts of Parliament. Common-law is the law of old custom, and depends on the decision of former cases. The law of Equity applies to those cases in which the Sovereign interferes, through the Lord Chancellor to prevent injustice arising from the Common-law. The principal En- glish and Irish Courts are those of Chancery, Queen s Bench, Common Pleas, and Exchequer. In Scotland, the Court of Session and the HiKh Court of Justiciary are the chief tribunals. In the country, justice is administered at Assizes, held generally twice a year by Judges who go on circuit. ., . . . ^ «„;^ 20 The Colonies and Dependencies have their internal affairs administered by resident Governors and Councils, ap- ^^^^^^^^^ pointed by the Crown, and controlled in London by a Secretary of State, wio is a member of the Cabinet. The more populous and older colonies have been placed as much as possib e on the footing of self-government ; that is to say, there is m each a legis- lative assembly elected by the people. 21 The Dominion of Canada may be taken as an example of a self • governed colony. The Executive power is vested m the ^^^^^^^^ ^f Governor-General, aided by a Privy Council, all the Canada. members of which are appointed by the Crown. Ihe Legislature consists of two Houses : the Senate, or Upper House, con- sisting of 77 members appointed by the Governor-Genera m Councd l^A L TTnn«« of Commons, consisting of 200 members elected by the peopie"f or the term of five years. The Executive Council, or MuuHtiy. n?sponsible to the House of Commons ; that is to say, when it cea^s i command a majority there it resigns. ITor local purposes, each 15 224 THE BKITISII CONSTITUTION. province has a Lieutenant-Governor and a Legislature of its own-the latter generally conHistingr of two Houses. 22. The governments of the Australasian Colonies are very simiW Australasian,, *«•«««. the provinces of Canada, with the exception colonies. ""^ ."*® legislative council, or Upper House, is frenerallv appointed by the Crown. In New Zealand. New South Wales and Queensland, there is in each a Governor and a Cablet^ executive council, of four or five members, apix>inted by the Crrn • a hrc:o::::'rd" f '^^T'^'^^^ *^ tlWmembers''alsCl-inted b* peonle^n So ft f f \'' T"'^^^' ^^ ^"^«^ »-"««' «l««ted by the people. In South Australia, the legislative council is elected bv the etcteVbtS^:.!? " r ''""'T ' ^" '^-™-- and vttoriafit i elected by the upper and moneyed classes, but in other respect! the arrangements are the same as in the neighboring colonies. 23. India is an examine of a dei>endency still directly under imperial India. e«»^f';^- Since 1858 the affairs of India have been legu- lated by the Secretary of State for India and the Indian Council, sittmg in London, of which the Secretary is president The ^^iTTZt^^r.'^T''''''-'^^'^ api3oin'ted'by the c'uxl o iJ.rectors of the i,ast India Comj^ny , and eight by the Crown The executive authority in India is vested in the Viceroy, appdnt^ by the ^S ilisT"- : 'I *^!,«--*-y -' State Vindia. He is Catfitl h^«.«^m^nf rative duties by a Supreme Council sitting at fnnTh ^ '*'?^ ^^ ^^^ ^^'^'"^^^ "^^'"bers nominated by hi?nse« and the Commander-in-chief, with six additional members apprted divided into eight provinces under Governors or CormSners foi^ mailer provinces directly under the Government of Ma and IM feuda ory states administered by Hindu and Mohammedl chief^f Sc nd ^r ^l^^^'l P""*^'"^ ^^"*^- M^r-« *«d Bombay (ith S OilT Ind :h''T""k' ^^"^^^' *^« North-West Provinces £ntr«l P^'- .^ ^''''^'^' "^"^ ^ Lieutenant-Governor; the mWner ''' ^''''"' ""^ ^"'^^^ ^"^"^^' ^^^^ * Chief Com! 24. Ceylon, which in government is independent of India, is an Ceylon. ^'^a^Pie of a government in which the local and the im- laf f «r cn>. f 1 ^ elements are combined. But the influence of the latter greatly preponderates. The Governor and the executive council of five members are appointed by the Crown. The legislative councU . .„„ •-tttjr OiXC UUUiliUiili. PRINCIPAL AUTHORS OF THE HANOVERIAN PERIOD. 225 CHAPTER LII. PRINCIPAL AUTHORS OF THE HANOVERIAN PERIOD. Joseph Addison, 1072-1719 — esaayist and poet — chief poem, Cato, a tragedy— chief prose writings, essays in The Spectator. Richard Steele, 1075-1729— essayist and dramatist— started the well-known i)eriodical8 The Tatler and Spectator. Daniel Dkitoe, 1001- 1731— journalist and novelist— chief works, Robinson Crusoe and Great Plaffue of London. Alexander Pope, 1088-1744— poet— chief works, translation of Homer, Easai/ on Criticism, The Dunciad, The Rape of the Lock, and Essay on Man. Jonathan Swift, 1007-174.5- clergyman— chief works, Qulliier's Travels, Tale of a Tub, and the Drapier Letters. James Thomson, 1709-1748— i>oet— chief work, The Seasons. Henry Fielding, 1707-1754— novelist. Samuel Richardson, 1089-1701— novelist- chief work. Sir Charles Orandison. Laurence Sterne, 1713-1708— novelist — chief works, Tristram Shandy and The Sentimental Jouivney. Thomas Chatterton, 1752-1770— poet— wrote under the name of "Rowley" several poetical essays when a mere boy— died by his own hand when eighteen years old. Tobias Smollett, 1721-1771— novelist and historian. Thomas Gray, 1710-1771- poet-chief poem, Elegy Wntten in a Country Chiurchyard. Oliver Goldsmith, 1728-1774— poet— chief works. The Traveller, The Deserted Villar/e, and The Vicar of Wakefield, a novel. David Hume, 1711-1770- historian and philosopher— chief work. History of England. Junius— the anonymous author of a series of famous Political Letters, the publication of which began in 1709. No positive clue to the real authorship of these Letters has ever been discovered. Samuel Johnson, ' 1709-1784— essayist— wrote in The Rambler and. other periodicals— author of the first great English Dictionary. Adam Smith, 1723-1790— writer on political economy— chief work, The Wealth of Nations. William Robertson, 1721-1793— historian— chief work, History of Scotland. Edward Gibbon, 1737-1794— historian— wrote Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.- Robert Burns, 1759-1790- poet— " the bard of Scotland "—chief poems, Tam o' Shanter, Cottar's Saturday Night, etc. ' 226 PRINCIPAL AUTHORS OP THE HANOVERIAN PERIOD. William Cowpeb, 1731-1800-ix)et-chief works, The Task, transla- tion of Homer, and John Gilpin. JaT ^^^;^«' 1795-1820-poet-chief works, Hyperion, Endymion,^ and Eve of St. Agnes. ^^ y j ^, Tl''rZn^^Trr^.''T^' 1702-1822-poet-chief works, Queen Mah, I he Cloud, and The Revolt of Islam. Lord Byron 1788-1324-poet- chief works, Don Juan, Childe Har- old, Prisoner of Chilton. George Crabbe, 1754-1832 -clergyman and poet-chief works, The Vdlage and The Parish Reqister. Sir Walter Scott, 1771-1832-novelist and poet-chief works, The Waverley Novels, The Lady of i^e Lake, and Marmion. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, i.72-1834-poet and philosopher-chief works, The Ancient Mariner, Genevieve, Essays. James Hogg (commonly called the Ettrick Shepherd), 1770-1835- poet-chief works, The Skylark and The Queen's Wake Felicia Hemans, 1793-1835 -poetess-chief poems, Forest Sanctum^ ^ri^ Graves of a Household. ^ ofmL^"^^^ ^^*'''' 1^^^-1^3'^-^^^'k and essayist- chief work, Essays Tl^lZ\tT''^"\''rt''^'^Z''''' ""^ biographer-chief works, Thalaba, The Curse of Kehama, biographies of Wesley and Nelson Thomas Hood, 1798-1845~poet-chief work. The Song of the Shirt ^^r JxT'""' ^«^^-^«^^— ^--^-^ -rk. Tales of ■ ^'SJ^'f Wordsworth, 1770-1850-poet-chief works, The Excur- sion, White Doe of Rylstone, and Tintern Abbey pllT^ ^Tl' 179»-1852-poet-chief works, Lalla Rookh and Paradise and the Peri. Samuel Rogers, 1763-18E5-banker and poet-chief work. The Plea- sures of Memory. Charlotte Bronte ("Currer Bell"), 1816-1855 -novelist -chief work, Jane Eyre. Henry Hallam, 1778-1 859-historian-chief works, Middle Anes and Constitutional History of Europe. Lord Macaulay, 1800-1859 - historian and poet -chief works Essays, History of England, and Lays of Ancient Rome. Mrs. Browning, 1809 -1801 -poetess -chief works, Aurora Leigh and The Vuion of Poets. William Makepeace Thackeray, 1811-1863-nc /elist-chief works Vanity Fair and P'',ndennis; also The Four Georges, historical lectures' Sir Archibald Alison, 1792-1867-historian-chief work, History of Europe. ^ PRINCIPAL AUTHORS OF THE HANOVERIAN PERIOD. 227 Charles Dickens, 1812-1870— novelist— chief works, The PickvAck Papers, Little Dbirit, David Copperficld, and Martin Chuzzfewit. George Grute, 1794-1871— historian^chief work, Historii of Greece. Lord Lytton, 1805-1872— novelist—chief works, The Last of the Barons, Ewjene Aram, and The Last Days of Pompeii. Charles Kinqsley, 1819 1875— novelist— chief works, V/estward Ho! and Yeast. George Eliot (Marian Evans), 1820-1880— novelist and poetess- chief works, Adam Bede, The Mill on the Floss, and Middlemarch. Thomas Carlyle, 1795 1881— historian and biographer— chief works, French Bcvolution, Sartoi' Resartm, and History of Frederick the Great. Earl op Beaconsfield (Benjamin Disraeli), 1804-1881— statesman and novelist— chief works, Coninysby, The Sybil', Lothair, and Endy- mion. Charles Robert Darwin, 1809-1882— scientific writer— chief work. The Origin of Species. Anthony Trollope, 1815-1S83— novelist— chief works, Barchester Towers and Doctor' Thome. Lord Tennyson, 1809— poet laureate— chief works, Idylls of the Kin/j, Palace of Art, and In Memoriam. Robert Bhowning, 1812— poet— chief works— Paraceistts, Men and Women, The Ring and the Book, and Dramatic Lyrics. John Ruskin, 1819— writer on art— cliief work. Modern Painters. LIST OF DATES. -♦♦- I. ROMAN PERIOD. British Islands first mentioned by name First invasion by Julius Cresar Ccesar's second invasion Invasion under Claudius Revolt of Boadicea Agricola Governor of Britain , Defeat of Galgacus at Mons Graupius (Gramnius) Wall of Hadrian Wall of Antoninus Repair of Hadrian's Wall by Severus "".".""!..." First martyrdom for Christianity in Britain""!! London sacked by Picts and Scots [' Departure of the Romans ... Return of a small Roman force Further Roman assistance refused to the Britons .n.c. a50 55 ■ 54 43 A.D. G2 78-85 85 120 140 211 304 368 410 418 446 un. II. OLD ENGLISH PERIOD. The English settlement : Kingdom of Kent begu Kingdom of Sussex begun Kingdom of Wessex begun [[[[[]] Kingdom of Essex begun !..!!!!!!.!!!!!!! Landing of Augustine [[[][[[ Edwin of Northumbria s-lain Oswald, his successor, slain ..... Penda overthrown by Oswy Ina King of Wessex Offa. Kinff of Mercia died Egbert King of all England ..',[, Defeat of the Danes by Egbert !...!........... Edmund of East Anglia defeated by the Danes. .088 449 477 519 527 597 633 642 655 -725 796 827 836 871 I i r fi LIST OF DA KS. 229 Reign Of Alfred the Great ^^^'S?i Alfred hides in the marshes of Sedgemoor H7» Battle of Ethandune °J^° The Danes again repulsed by Alfred o-'"* Reign Of Edward (Alfred's son) 901-926 King Edmund assassinated Massacre of the Danes by King Ethelred i^^ Sweyn avenges ihe massacre Reign Of Canute 1017-^036 Reign of Harold Barefoot 1036-1040 Reign of Hardlcanute ^°*°"1^ The English Restoration • ^^^ Reign of Edward the Confessor ^°*^~i^J Death of Godwin ;• • - J^ Edward the ^theling, son of Edmund Ironside, recalled lUOO Death of Edward the ^theling ^^^" Reign of Harold II J°?* Battle of Stamford Bridge '■^ Battle of Senlac or Hastings •^""" III. NORMAN PERIOD. ^. ,«4i«„«T 1066-1087 Helgn Of William I William revisits Normandy ^^^ Rising in the north ;■.;,;■.,;■. infiQ Capture of York by Danes-recapture by William iwy Desolation of the northern shires by William JW" William's power firmly established •• J^^ Plot called " The Bridal of Norwich " suppressed i"- •> Revolt in Normandy by WilUam's son Robert 1W» Odo imprisoned by William ^^^ Danegeld revived g^ Domesday Book compiled . KelgnolBufus...-. """JJ^ Death of Lanfranc ^j Normandy invaded by Rufus ^^ Invasion of Scotland ^ A nHPilm made Archbishop of Canterbury f ^_ The First Crusade ...! J^J Anselm driven into exile Rufus shot in the New Forest ^^"" ^^^ LIST OF DATES. Reign of Henry I. (son of William I.); born 1068 1100-1135 Henry marries Matilda of Scotland HOO Appearance of Robert in England noi Henry invades Normandy .'.^^^^T.!!. ijos Defeat of Robert at Tenchebrai .............."... uof; Prince William drowned !....'"'"!!! liOQ Henry marries Adelais of Louvain 1121 Stephen of Blois marries Matilda of Boulogne..........'."!..'..'" 1124 The Empress Maud marries Geoffrey Plantagenet 1127 Reign of Stephen (grandson of William I. ) ; born 1094 .... 1135 -1154 Battle of the Standard i|go Battle of Lincoln : Stephen made prisoner ..". 1141 Stephen exchanged for Robert IJ4, Death of Robert, Earl of Douglas nA Maud retires to Normandy 1143 Henry of An jou marries Eleanor of Guienne . 11 59 Henry invades England 1153 # IV. PLANTAGENET PERIOD.-HOUSE OP ANJOU. Reign of Henry II. (grandson of Henry I. ) ; born 1133 ... . 1154-1189 Becket made Chancellor ■■ j-° Becket Archbishop of Canterbury ™ Constitutions of Clarendon framed ij^f Dispute between the King and Becket. hr^ Murder of Becket "" ttll Conquest of Ireland i}!? Henry's sons rise in revolt 1170 -Henry does penance at Becket's tomb 1174 Capture of William the Lion, King of Scotiand ..! r. '!....!"'.!!!!"! " 1174 ' Reign of Richard I. (son of Henry IL); born 1157 1189-1199 Massacre of Jews - "" Muster of armies for the Third Crusade.."....!.."... iion ^ Richard marries Berengaria of Navarre 1 1 oi Siege of Acre ''^^^.'ZZZZZ 1191- Richard a prisoner 1109- Richard returns to England. .."...............!!!!"!.'"'"".'"''']^^ jjgj^ Reign of John (son of Henry II.); bom 1167 1199-1216 John marries Isabella of Angouleme " loOO srz " "•* ii^lvijui , {•/iVj Loss of Norman possessions 1204'^ John quarrels with the Pope !"."!."!.."......"." 120^ England laid under an Interdict 1208- LIST OP DATES. 231 John excommunicated ^209 John's submission to the Pope 1213 Futile attempt to recover Normandy ^f^j'" . Magna Carta signed .']" The French, under Louis, invade England 121{> John's disaster at the Wash 121G Reign of Henry HL (son of John) ; born 1207 1216-1272 Louis defeated at Lincoln 1217- De Burgh and Des Roches chief favorites 1211) War with France 1230 Henry marries Eleanor of Provence 123(> Magna Carta ratified • 1253 Prince Edward marries Eleanor of Castile 1254 The Mad Parliament meets : the Provisions of Oxford enacted ... 1258 - Battle of Lewes— the Mise of Lewes 1264- Leicester's Parliament : origin of the House of Commons 1265 " Battle of Evesham 12^^" Reign of Edward I. (son of Henry III.); bom 1239 1272-1307 , Edward conquers Wales 12°3 Contest for the Scottish throne 1290 Edward decides in favor of John Baliol 1292' John Baliol swears fealty to Edward 1292- Loss of Guisnne ^293 John Baliol dethroned : Scotland placed under English officers... 1296 Wallace's rebelUon 1297- Edward marries Margaret of France 1299 Treaty of Montreuil with France 1303^ Execution of Wallace 1^^ Robert Bruce crowned King of Scots 1306 Death of Edward at Burghon-Sands 1307 / Reign of Edward II. (son of Edward I.); born 1284 1307-1327 Edward marries Isabella of France 1308 Execution of r ers Gaveston loj?- Battle of Bannockburn 1091 Banishment of the Spensers 1321 Execution of Lancaster 1322 Isabella invades England 1320 Deposition of the King— murdered at Berkeley Castle w27 Reijm of Edward in. (son of Edward II. ) ; born 1312 1327-1377 Independence vi fcjcotlaiia acKnowieageu ^---^^ Edward marries Philippa of Hainault 1328 Execution of Mortimer ■ !'S^ The Scots defeated at Halidon Hill 1333 232 LIST OP DATES. Edward goes to war for the Frencli croxvn . . 1 007 French fleet defeated off Sluys 104' Order of the Garter founded :,!: Edward's victory at Cre9y r^TT David of Scotland captured at Ne'vil's' Cross'.'.' iSft Capture of Calais tzy* The Black Death .".".*.*.'.'."."."."." ^^^ Statute of Provisors '. ^^'*^ Statute of Treasons ........'.'.'.'.'.".'.' j??}* War with France renewed l^Z Battle of Poitiers. ^'^^^ Treaty of Bretigny ZZZ S^" The Black Prince in Spain. JxJJ ' Death of the Black Prince . ttil ' Preaching of Wyclif ' ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Sz-}^ Henry Earl of Hereford, marries Mary de Bohun .... 1380 Kichard marries Anne of Bohemia. Vooi Poll-tax levied~Wat Tyler's rebellion... Tori Richard's invasion of Scotland JooJ Gloucester's attack on the throne ™ Battle of Otterburn ^^* Statute of Prsemunire ^^^ Richard marries Isabella of France..... Joqf Banishment of Hereford and Norfolk Joqo Death of John of Gaunt-Hereford's invasion iSo Richard is dethroned „^J 1399 OP LANCASTEB. V. PLANTAQENET PERIOD.-HOUSB DeS I rS"":.^^'."'"" ^' ^'''''' ^"-^^ ^°- 1366...1399-1«3 First Statute of Heretics '. ■^'*^ Execution of Sawtrd... 1401" Battle of Homildon Hill ^^^^ Battle of Hately iiridge : Hotspur'kiiled.': um". Henry marries Joan of Navarre . ^^^3 Second invasion of France .' IV:^' Pp?*^ f T'l^^r^?'^ "'^'^^'^ Catharine'of'France';:.':.'.' 1420 Renewal of the French war.... i*^: Henry dies at Paris J _ 1422 ^ LIST OF DATES. 233 Reign of Henry VI. (son of Henry V.); born 1421 1422-1461 Charles VI. proclaimed King of Franco in opposition to Henry... 1422 James I. of Scotland released 1424~ Siege of Orleans ^ "^^S ~ Orleans relieved by Joan of Arc 1429 - Death of Bedford— Charles enters Paris 1435— Henry marries Margaret of Anjou 1446 Jack Cade's insurrection 1450*" Charles acquires Normandy 1451"* England loses all possessions in France, except Calais 14.^3- Duke of York made Protector l-l^* York dismissed— beginning of the War of the Roses 1455 First Battle of St. Albans : Yorkists victorious 1455 Battle of Bloreheath : Yorkists victorious 1450 Battle of Northampton : capture of Henry by the Yorkists 1460 Parliament decides in York's favor 1460 Battle of Wakefield : Duke of York .slain 1460 Battle of Mortimer's Cross : Edward of York victorious 1461 Second Battle of St. Albans : Warwick defeated 1461 VI. PLANTAGBNET PERIOD. -HOUSE OF YORK. jReign of Edward IV. (great-grandson of Edward III.); born 1441 1461-1483 Battle of Towton: Yorkists victorious 1461 Battle of Hexham : disastrous to the Lancastrians. 1464 Edward declares his marriage with Elizabeth Woodville 1464 Warwick and Clarence drive Edward into flight ^ • ■ • 1470 Henry again King for six months 1470-1471 Battle of Barnet : Warwick slain 1471 Battle of Tewkesbury : Prince Edward slain 1471 Death of Henry VI 1471 Richard, Duke of Gloucester, marries Anne Neville 1473 Invasion of France by Edward— Treaty of Pecquigny 1475 Murder of the Duke of Clarence 1478 Reign of Edward V. (son of Edward IV. ) ; born 1470 1483 Richard, Duke of Gloucester, Protector of the Kingdom... May i, 1483 Execution of Hastings, Rivers, and Grey 1483 The crown is offered to the Duke of Gloucester June 25, 1483 Reign of Richard III. (brother of Edward IV.); bom 14.50.... 1483-1485 Supposed murder of the Princes in the Tower 14S3 Death of Richard's son Edward l'*84 Landing of Richmond at Milford Haven 1485 Battle of Bosworth Field : Richard is slain 1485 234 LIST OP DATE? VII. HOUSE OP TUDOR. ^^^^m ^^"^ ^^^^^^^ in descent from Edward III.) ; born Henry marries Elizabeth of York..........................."*'.' ijgg Lambert Simnel appears in Ireland 1407 Star Chamber Court (first form) l!^! Appearance of Perkin Warbeck.. -,409 Warbeck goes to Scotland j^o^ Death of Warbeck f;;^^ - _ . 14i79 Marriage of Prince Arthur with Catharine of Aragon . mi Death of Prince Arthur-Catharine contracted to Prince Henry 1502 Marriage of Princess Margaret with James IV. of Scotland 1.503 Reign of Henry VIII. (son of Henry VII.); born 1491 1609-1647 Henry marries Catharine of Aragon 15q,) Henry declares war against France ikii Battle of Guinegate (^|, Battle of Flodden : James IV. killed ." .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' " .'.".'.'.".'.'.".'.'.'.'.' 1513 Louis of France marries Henry's sister Mary. 1 ki 4 Cardinal Wolsey Lord Chancellor . . tt-il Death of Ferdinand of Spain '''.■''■ [^ Death of Maximilian, Emperor of Germany ikiq Charles V. visits England.... ttz. Field of the Cloth of Gold ''''''.'.'^.''Z. 1530 The title Fidei Defemor conferred on Henry by the Pope 1522 Battle of Pavia : King of France defeated by Charles V 1 5o« Treaty of Madrid ^'lTi 1526 Henry renounces all claim to the French crown 1 (507 The divorce question ^^Z^L The Papal Commission— downfall of Wolsey 1 500 Henry acknowledged Head of the Church . 1 50. Henry marries Anna Boleyn ^^32 Cranmer's decision on the divorce question /kqq Act of Supremacy f'^^^ Act of Succession tzt: 1534 1535 Fisher and More beheaded .^'.''.. Death of Catharine, and of Anna Boleyn ..!.."..........'.. 1535 Henry marries Jane Seymour ' jg3g Suppression of the lesser monasteries 1 Kon BirtijofPrinceEdward ::::::::::::()ctd,eri2; 1537 Death of Jane beymour October 2i 1537 1 he Pope issues a bull against Henry i 530 Enactment of The Statute of the Six Articles. ........."."''." 1539 Suppression of the greater monasteries I539 LIST OP DATES. 235 Henry marrieH A.iine of Cleves January G, 1540 Henry's marriaj 9 abrogated by Parliament July 24, 1540 Thomas Cromwell beheaded July 28, 1540 Henry marries Catharine Howard Jwly 28, 1540 Catharine Howard executed 1^2 Rout of Scottish army at Solway Moss— death of James V 1542 Henry marries Catharine Parr 1543 Henry and Charles V. ma'.re war against Francis 1 1544 Reign of Edward VI. (son of Henry VIII. and Jane Seymour) ; born 1537 1647-1663 Hertford made Protector and Duke of Somerset 1547 Battle of Pinkie 1547 Thomas Seymour, brother of the Protector, beheaded 1549 Somerset beheaded 1552 Lady Jane Grey proclaimed Queen 1553 Reign of Mary I. (daughter of Henry VIII. and Catharine of Aragon); born 1516 1563-1668 Insurrection of Wyatt 1554 Executions of Lord Guilford Dudley, Lady Jane Grey, and the Duke of Suffolk 1554 Mary marries Philip of Spain 1554 ■Reconciliation with Rome 1554 Beginning of the persecution 1555 The French capture Calais 1558 Reign of Elizabeth (daughter of Henry VIII. and Anna Boleyn) ; born 1533 1668-1603 Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity passed 1559 John Knox labors to reform the Church of Scotland 1559-1572 The Thirty nine Articles of the Church of England ratified 1562 Mary Stuart flees to England 1568 Norfolk and Northumberland executed 1572 Sir Francis Drake sails round the world 1577-1580 Severe measures adopted against Catholics 1581 Elizabeth interferes in behalf of Holland 1585 Babington's Plot discovered 1586 Execution of Mary Queen of Scots 1587 Defeat of the Invincible Armada 1588 Drake and Essex bum several Spanish ships 1589 James VI. of Scotland marries Anne of Denmark 1589 Earl of Tyrone rises in rebellion 155^4 Lord xiowara storms \^a.uiz Death of Philip of Spain 1598 Execution of Essex 1601 The Irish rebellion crushed by Mountjoy 1602 236 LIST OF DATES. VIII. HOUSE OP STUART. Reign of James I. (great-gi-eat-grandson of Henry VII.); born The Main'and the Bye Plots.'.' '.".l.^"^^ ^^^^1603 The Hampton Court Conference. . . it^y. The Gunpowder Plot '''^ZZ.'Z''''Z'^Z 16^ Atteuipt to found a colony in Virginia . -ictor Colonization of Ulster .■■"■■■■ J^"' Charter for colonization of New Zealand ipio Authorized edition of the Bible published .'.'..".'. i^m First English settlement made at Surat i(jl2 The Princess Elizabeth marries Frederick, the Elector' Paiatine.".' 1613 J ames s second Parliament meets -i a^ a Death of Sir Walter Ralegh .".".'.'.".*.'.*.".'.'.'.'.'.".'.*.".'.'.".'.'.' 1618 The Pilgrim Fathers emigrate to America ..........!.!.!! 1620 James's third Parliament meets !.,...... 1021 Prince Charles visits Spain in disguise 1623 James's last Parliament meets .."....... 1624 Relgrn of Charles I. (son of James I. ) ; born 1600 1625-1649 Charles's first Parliament meets 2g25 Expedition against Cadiz ig25 Charles's second Parliament meets !*.....!!^!!!^".. 1626 Buckingham tries to relieve Rochelle Igo? Petition of Right accepted by Charles i628 Laud appointed Archbishop of London i628 Wentworth (afterwards Strafford) chief adviser to the'King 16'>8 Buckmgham is assassinated -,^(528 Parliament is re-assembled and dis.«olved.. 1029 The colony of Maryland founded !..........!.! 1033 Ship-money revived ' ^^04 Connecticut and Rhode Island founded.............".'."......... 1635 1638 Trial of John Hampden : judgment against him ' 1637 1 he National Covenant of Scotland " icss The " Short Parliament " meets 1640 The " Long Parliament " summoned ". 1040 The Triennial Act is passed -toA-, Execution of Strafford "^.!!!...'... 1641 The Grand Remonstrance issued 1641 Outbreak in Ireland " '"'" j641 Impeachment of the five members 1-40 Battle of EdgehiU : indecisive ^.^.................. !! 1042 Death of Hampden at Chalgro ve Field ."..... 7 1643 First Battle of Newbury : indecisive ....!........ 1643 S I I ^ LIST OF DATES. 237 n . 3-1625 .. 1603 . 1604 . 1605 . 1607 . 1609 . 1610 . 1611 . 1612 . 1613 . 1614 . 1618 . 1620 . 1621 1623 1624 -1649 1625 1625 1626 1627 1628 1628 1628 1628 1629 1633 1634 1638 1637 1638 1640 1640 1641 1641 1641 1641 xo^2 1642 1643 1643 Solemn League and Covenant 1643 Battle of Cropredy Bridge : Royalists victorious 1644 Battle of Marston Moor : Royalists defeated 1644 Second Battle of Newbury : indecisive 1644 Execution of Laud 1645 Self-denying Ordinance 164o Battle of Naseby : Royalists totally defeated 1645 Charles surrenders to the Scots at Newark 1646 He is given up to the English Parliament 1647 Escape and re-capture of the King 1647 Pride's Purge }6-*^ Trial and execution of Charles 1 1649 The Commonwealth 1649-1660 Appointment of a Coimcil of State 1649 Cromwell invades Ireland 1649 Battle of Dunbar : Cromwell victorious Sept. 3, 1650 Battle of Worcester : Cromwell victorious Sept. 3, 1651 War with the Dutch 1652 Blake defeats Van Tromp 1652 Expulsion of the Long Parliament 1653 Bpttle off the Texel 16.'>3 Barebone's Parliament July 4-Dec. 12, 16.53 The Instrument of Government 1653 Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector ; born 1599 1653- 1658 Treaty of Westminster, with Holland 1654 Cromwell's first Parliament meets 1654 Blake is victorious at Teneriffe 1657 The Humble Petition and Advice accepted by Cromwell 1657 Death of Oliver Cromwell Sept. 3, 1658 ... 1658 1651) 1G60 1660 1660 1661 i Richard Cromwell, Lord Protector (son of Oliver) ; born 1G26 The Protector resigns ^W 6, Monk declares for the restoration of the kingdom Declaration of Breda The Restoration The Convention-Parliament 1660- Beign of Charles IL (son of Charles I.); born 1630 1660- Corporation Act James, Duke of York, marries Anne Hyde Charles marries Catharine of Portugal Act of Unifuniiity Conventicle Act » Five Mile Act The Dutch war begins 1685 1661 1661 1662 1662 1664 1665 1665 238 - LIST OF DATES. Tlie Great Plague -„„_ The (ireat Firo of London j ?^!^ Treaty of Breda, with Holland .'.'.".".* 1^7 Banishment of Clarendon -.^gi The Cabal Ministry (Clifford, Arlin^iinrBuckinghamrAsh: Icy, Lauderdalt' ) formed 1 /».7 The Triple Alliance ..'.'.'.'.".'".'.'.'.".'.'.''.".'." I668 The Secret Treaty of Dover, with Louis XI V.. 1 r.Tn War with Holland " JgJ" Declaration of Indulgence 1/.L Test Act ...^^^Z'ZZ'''Z 10^ The Cabal Ministry dissolved '....'...........!....... 1673 .James, Duke of York, marries Mary of Modena 1 (5711 The "Popish Plot" ;■ Jgjg The Habeas Corpus Act j^^n Murder of Archbishop Sharp '. i.4q The Rye-House Plot ■ 'Z^ZZZZZZ'.'.'. 1083 The Princess Anne marries George of Denmark........................ 1683 Reign of James IL (son of Charles I. ) ; born 1033 1685 1688 Argyle invades Scotland 2(.gg Battle of Sedgemoor ,«q_ The Bloody Assize J^ DecLaratij^nsof Indulgence :::::r.;::.Zl68o' 1086 1 rial of the Seven Bishops jggo William of Orange lands at Torbay ....".......! I688 The Revolution y,^ Reign of William and Mary (William, grandson of Charles I born I60O; Mary, daughter of Tames IL, born 16G2) 1689-1694 Ihe Convention dedares itself to be a Parliament ifiSQ Mutiny Act-Toleration Act-Bill of Rights... 1689 Battle of Killiecrankie : death of Dundee " ' 1689 Relief of Londonderry.. ,pg^ Battle of the Boyne f^'XT Battle of Aughrim ZZZ'. legi Pacification of Limerick -.pq. Massacre of Glencoe ZZZZZZZZ. 1692 The Trench fleet annihilatea off La Hogiie. ifioo Battle of Steinkirk ,^0, Battle of Landen .'.'."...'.'..'.'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.".'.'.'.'".■ I693 Expedition a^inst Brest repulsed .'''."'.'""'...........'....." 1694 xjaxiK or JCiHgiaud founded irQ4 Triennial Act passed -.no. Death of Mary ■"^^^•^^^^'■■■^^^^■■. ■:!::::::::::::::::::::::::::: leS LIST OF DATES. 239 Reign Of William ra. (alone) 1«M Capture of Nainur Treaaon Act passed Barclay's Conspiracy Treaty of Ryswick A new Parliament meets Montagu (afterwards Earl of Halifax) Prime Minwtei-* First Partition Treaty : Spanish dominions Darion expedition fails Second Partition Treaty : Spanish dominions The Whigs driven from office The Act of Settlement The Grand Alliance Death of James II William's last Parliament 1708 um 1(596 KiOO im 1(598 1(598 1(598 1099 1700 1700 1701 1701 1701 1701 Reign of Anne (daxighter of James II.) ; bom 16(55 1702-1714 Marlborough appointed Oaptain-General 1702 The French driven from the Netherlands 1702 Gibraltar taken 1704 Battle of Blenheim 1704 Act of Security passed in Scotland 1704 Barcelona taken 1705 Battle of Ramillies 170(> The Act of Union with Scotland May 1, 1707 Battle of Almanza 1708 Battle of Oudenarde 1708 Battle of Malplaquet 1709 Trial of Sacheverell 1710 A new Parliament meets 1710 Charles of Spain elected Emperor of Germany 1711 Marlborough recalled 1712 Treaty of Utrecht 1713 ' IX. HOUSE OF HANOVER. Reign of George I. (great-grandson of James I.); bom 1660... 1714-1727 Impeachment of Oxford, Bolingbroke, and Ormond 1715 Riot Act passed 1715 Battle of Sheriffmuir 171-^ English Jacobites surrender at Preston 1715 The Pretender escanes to France 1716 * The names of successive Prime Ministers are in italics from tV ^■ 'nt onwards. 16 240 LIST OP DATES. Septennial Act >. j^jg The Triple Alliance (England, France, and Holland) 1717 The Quadruple Alliance (England, France, Austria, and Holland) 1718 The South Sen Bubble 1720' Robert Walpolc Prime Minister March 1721 Death of Marlborough 1^22 Reign of George II. (son of George I.) ; bom 1683 1727-1760 Walpole's excise scheme I733 The Porteous Riot in Edinburgh 1736 War declared against Spain I739 -designation of Walpole— Wilmington Prime MiniMer 1742 Pclham Prime Minister I743 Battle of Dettingen I743 Death of Walpole I745 Battle of Fontenoy J745 The Young Pretender lands at Moidart I745 Battle of Prestonpans ^ I745 Battle of Culloden 174g Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ' X748 Adoption of the G-regorian Calendar 1752 Death of Henry Pelham— DwArg of Newcastle Prim£ Ministei- 1754 War with France declared I75Q Buke of Devonshire (with Pitt) Prime Minister 1756 Battle of Plassey 1757 JVetocastle {with Pitt) Prime Minister' I757 Battle of Minden ] I759 Conquest of Canada ' I759 Reign of George III. (grandson of George II.) ; bom 1738 1760-1820 The Bourbon Family Coiupact I76I George marries Charlotte-Sophia of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.. "!!""! 1761 Pitt resigns ■|^7gi Lord Bute Prime Minister "" 1752 War with Spain -^7g2 Treaty of Paris 27g3 Geoi'ge Orenville Prime Minister \''_ 1763 Arrest of John Wilkes 1763 American Stamp Act is passed 1765 Lord Eockingham Prime Minister 1765 Lord Grafton (with Chatham) Prime Minister 1766 Loi'd North Prime Minister I77O First American Congress I774 Battle of "Lexington I775 Battle of Bunker's Hill ....!..!!.!!!! 1775 Declaration of Independence July 4, I776 r LIST OP DATESk 241 i' Battle of Brandywine 1777 Death of Chatham 1778 Capture of Jamaica 1780 The Gordon Riots 1780 Surrender of Yorktown 1781 Lord Rockingham, Prime Minister 1782 Peace of Versailles 1783 William Pitt Prime Minister' 1784 The India Bill 1784 Trial of Warren Hastings 1788-1795 Lunacy of the King 1788 The French Revolution 1789-1793 Canada Constitutional Act 1791 War with France declared 1793 George, Prince of Wales, marries Caroline of Brunswick 1795 Coalition against England 1796 Battle off Cape St. Vincent 1797 Mutinies at the Spithead and the Nore 1797 Battle of Camperdown 1797 Battle of Vinegar Hill 1798 Battle of the Nile 1798 Siege of Acre 1799 Battles of Montebello, Marengo, and Hohenlinden 1800 Union of Great Britain and Ireland Jan. 1, 1801 Addington Prime Minister 1801 Battle of the Baltic 1801 Peace of Amiens 1802 War with France renewed 1803 Pitt Prime Minister 1804 Napoleon proclaimed Emperor 1804 English victory off Cape Finisterre 1805 Battle of Austerlitz 1805 Battle of Trafalgar 1805 Death of Nelson 1805 Death of Pitt '. 1806 Lord Grenville Prime Minister 1806 The Berlin Decrees 1806 The Orders in Council 1807 Treaty of Tilsit 1807 Duke of Portland Prime Minister 1807 Bombardment of CopRnhagen 1807 Battle of Roli<;a 1808 Battle of Vimiera 1808 Battle of Cornnna 1809 The Walcheren ox pedition 1809 242 LIST OP DATES. Battle of Wagram jgOg Battle of TaJavera -^gOg Perceval Pnme Minister 2809 Battle of Fuentes d'Onoro 2811 Battle of Albuera 2811 Prince of Wales becomes Regent 1811 Capture of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz 1812 Lord Liverpool Prime Minista' 1812 Battle of Salamanca 1812 Napoleon invades Russia 1812 Battle of Vittoria Ig^o Battle of Leipsic 18iq Battle of Toulouse 1814 Treaty of Paris -j^gj^ . Treaty of Ghent '"""..!!".....". 1814 Napoleon returns from Elba 1815 Battle of Quatre Bras I815 Battle of Waterloo I815 Second Treaty of Paris 1815 Death of Princess Charlotte ..'..!.. 1817 William, Duke of Clarence, marries Adelaide of Saxe-Meinengen 1818 Eelgn of George IV. (son of George III.) ; born 1762 1820-1830 Cato Street Consjnracy Igon Trial of Queen Caroline I820 Death of Napoleon I801 Canning Prime Minister I827 Death of Canning— Zoj-rf Goderich Prime Minister ",, 1827 Battle of Na V arino I827 Repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts '.. 1828 Duke of Wellington Prime Minister 1828 Catholic Emancipation Act I829 Reign of William IV. (son of George III.) ; bom 17G5 1830-1837 Lord Grey Prime Minister I830 First Reform Act 1832 Abolition of slavery Iggo Lord Melbourne Prime Minister' I834 Sir R. Peel Prime Minister I834 Lord Melbourne Prime Minister I835 Municipal Reform Act passed ^.^'.^'. 1835 Reign of Victoria (grand-daughter of George III.) ; born 1819.... 1837 Rano ver separated from the British Crown 1837 Rebellion in Canada I837 The Chartists become prominent 1838 Formation of the Anti-Corn-Law Leagtie 1838 P I L srr::^Tt:itr: s—flfri m ^rj,\ LIST OF DATES. 243 ft The First Chinese War 1839 First Afghan War 1839-1842 Penny postage 1839 The Queen marries Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg 1840 Sir Robert Peel Prime Minister 1841 Disruption in the Scottish Church 1843 Famine in Ireland 1845 The Sikh War 1845-1847 Repeal of the Corn Laws 1846 Lord John Russell Prime Minister 1846 Third French Revolution 1848 End of Chartism 1848 Repeal of the Navigation Laws 1849 Death of Sir Robert Peel 1850 First Great Exhibition 1851 Second Burmese War 1852 Lord Derby Prime Minister 1852 Death of Wellington 1852 Lord Aberdeen Prime Minister 1852 Mr. Gladstone's First Budget 1853 Declaration of war against Russia 1854 Battle of the Alma 1854 Battle of Balaklava 1854 Battle of Inkermann....: 1854 Lord Palmerston Prime Minister 1855 Capture of Sebastopol 1855 Treaty of Paris 1856 Second Chinese War 1856 The Indian Mutiny I857 Massacre of Cawnpore I857 Siege of Lucknow I857 Lord Derby Prime Minister 18.58 Suppression of the Indian Mutiny 1858 Conspiracy Act 1858 Passing of the India Act 1858 Removal of Jewish disabilities 1858 Lord Palmerston Prime Minister 1859 Treaty of Pekin I859 Civil War in the United States 1861-1865 Lo^'d Russell Prime Minister 1865 Lord Derby Prime Minister 1866 Second Reform Act— Household Franchise in Boroughs 1867 Dominion of Canada proclaimed July 1, 1867 Mr. Disraeli Prime Minister' 1868 Abyssinian War 1868 244 LIST OP DATES. Mr. Gladstone Prime Minister 1868 Disestablishment of the Irish Church 1869 First Irish Land Act I870 English Elementary Education Act 1870 Treaty of Washington I871 Voting by Ballot introduced in parliamentary elections 1872 Mr. Disraeli (afterwards Earl of Beaconsfield) Prime Minister 1874 Ashantee War I874 Russo-Turkish War I877 Treaty of Berlin I878 Afghan War I878 Zulu War 1878-1879 Mr. Gladstone Prime Minister 1880 Death of Lord Beaconsfield 1881 Second Irish Land Act 1881 Assassination of Lord Frederick Cavendish 1882 Third Reform Act— Household Franchise in Counties 1884 1 I 868 869 870 870 871 872 874 874 877 878 878 879 880 881 881 882 884 ACCENTED LIST OF FROFEE NAMES. Abbeville'. Ab'ercromby, Aboukir'. Ade'la. Adela'is. A'drian. iEth'eling. Ae'tius, Afghanistan'. Agincourt' iazhincoor^. Agric'ola. Aix-la-Chapelle'. Alabam'a. Albi'nus. Al'bion. Albue'ra. Al'derney. Alen'§on. Allahabad'. Alphon'so. Amiens' (amcongO, An'gevin. Aft'glesey. Aftjou' (angzhoo'). Antoinette' (antwanetO- Antoni'nus. Aquitaine'. (akwetain^. Ar'agon. Archan'gel. Ar'istotle. Ar'undel. Ath'elstan. At'tila. Augh'rim idwg^rim). Augus'tine. Aus'terlitz. Badajos' (badahos^. Bahfi,'ma. Balakla'va. Bal'IoI {hayl'yol). Balmeri'no. Barthol'omew. Bastiiie' {basteel^, Bayeux' (bayii'). Bayonne'. Beau'clerc (bo'clair). Beau'fort. Beau'mont. Beller'ophon, Berenga'ria. Berke'ley. Berni^'ia. Blen'heim. Blu'cher. Boadicje'a. Boleyn'. Bol'ingbroke. Bologn'a (Jbolon^ya). Bordeaux' (bordo') Boulogne' (boolon'). Bour'bon. Bouvines' (booveenO- Bragan'za. Bram'ham. Bre'da (Joray'da). Brest. Bretign'y Qyreteen'ye), Bretwal'da. Brough'am (Jyro'am or hroom). Burgoyne'. Bur'leigh. Cabal'. Ca'diz. Cal'ais (kal'ay). Campeg'gio (kamped^jio). Cam'pion. Cannes (can), Carac'tacus. Carad'oc. Car'isbrooke. Carthage'na. Ca'ry. Cassivelau'nus, Castile' (kasteel^. Castil'lon (kasteeVyong). Cavaignac' Qcavenyak^). Ceteway'o (Jcetchwd^o). Charle'magne (sharl'man). Chartres (shartr). Ciudad' Rodri'go (seoodad'rodree'go) . Clau'dius. Clonmel'. Cloudes'ley. Coomas'sie. Comwal'lis. Corun'na. Creg'y. Cron'stadt. CuUo'den. Cym'ry Qcirn're). Da'cia. Dane'lagh {-law). Da'rien. De Bohun (boon). De Burgh (boorg). D'Esto. De Mont'fort. De Ruy'ter (roi ter). De Spen'ser. Des Roches (rosh). Du Guesclin' (gdklang'). Du Quesne (kain). Dei'ra. Del'hi (deVe). Drogh'eda (droh'heda). Ed'winesburh. Effingham. Elfred'a. Elgi'va. Enniscor'thy. Est&'ples. Eugene' (yoojeen'). Eves'ham (eevz'am). Fe'versham. Finisterre'. Fitzger'ald. Fitz-Os'bern. Foiitenoy'. Foth'eringay. Frey'a. Fro'bisher. Fuen'tes d'Ono'ro. Gal'qacus. Gave'ston. Gene'va. Geof'frey (Jefrey). Ger'beroi (zher'b'nva). Ghent. Glencoe'. Glendow'er. Glouces'ter (glossier). Gooj'erat. Grau'pius. Grena'da. Gui&'na. Gui'do. Guienne' (ge-en'). Guine'gate (geen'gatr). Guise (geez). Ha'drian. Hai'nault (hay^no). Hal'idon. Har'dicanute (-noof). Hardrad'a. Harfleur'. Heligoland. Hefi'gest. Her'eward. Hert'ford (har'ford). Hex'ham. Hiber'nia. Hohenlin'den (hoen-). Hom'ildon. Hono'rius. Hora'tio. Hu'guenot (hew'geno). Ice'ni. ler'ne. Ift'kermann. Isandlah'na. Je'na (j/a'no). Ken'ilworth. Killiecraft'kie. II 246 Lafatkttr'. La Hoguo Qioag). Lafi'castor. Lanfranc'. Leices'ter ilea'ter). Lein'ster (Jleen'ater). Leip'sic (llp'sik), Leof'win (le/win). Lew'es. Lign'y (leei/yp). Limoges' (leemoazh^). Lisle (leel). Llewel'yn. Loire (I'lvar). Lorraine'. Lou'don. Louisia'na. Louvain'. Luck'now. Lut'ter worth. Lyme Re'gis. MacI'an (ee^an). Malplaquet' (malplakah^). Mam'elon. Mantes (mavgt). Maren'go. Martinique'. Maximil'ian. Meck'lenburg Strel'itz. Medi'na Sido'nia {medee'na). Meerut'. Melcombe-Re'gis. Men'schikoff. Meth'ven. Mississip'pi. Missolon'glii. Mo'dena. Moi'dart. Molda'via. Montcalm'. Montebel'lo. Montreuil' (mongtruee^). Montserrat'. Mor'car. More'a. Mountea'gle. ACCENTED LIST OP PROPER NAMES. ) ', Namur' (namoor^. Nanking'. Nantes (iiangt). Navari'no. Navarre'. Nev'il's Cross. Northal'lerton. Northum'briii. No'va Zera'bla. Or'leans. Orsi'ni (orsee'jiee). Os'nabriick. Osto'rins. Ot'terburn. Oudenar'de (oodenar^day), Pa'kenham. Pampelu'ua. Pan'dulph. Pauli'nus. Pa'via. Pecquign'y ipekeen'ye). Pe'dro ipiVdro). Peliss'ier {paUs'ia). Pe'tre. Pev'ensey. Phil'iphaugli. Philip'pa. Phoenl'cians. Piers (peers). Plantag'enet (■tafenet). Plas'sey. Plau'tius. Poitiers' (poiieerz', pwatyea^). Poitou' (pivatoo^. Pondicher'ry (pondesher^ree). Ponte'fract ipom'fret). Provence' iprovanga'). Pun'jab ipun'joh). QuATRE Bras' (katr 6m/i,'). Ra'leoh {raw'lay). Ramil'lies (rameel'ye). Ra'venspur. Rheims (reemz). Riz'zio (rit'seo). Rochelle'. Rol'i9a. Rom'illy. Rouen' (roo-ong'). Run'nymede. Rys'wick irise'ik). Sachev'erell {sashev'-). Sal'adin. Salamaft'ca. Salis'bury {adlz'hury). San'croft. San Domift'go. Sans'terre. San'ta Cruz' (firooz). Sarato'ga. Saw'tr^ (so^tray). Saxe-Co'burg- Go'tha (f/o'to). , Saxe-Mein'ingen. Scandina'via. Scheldt. Scinde (sind). Scone (skoon). Sebas'tian. Sebas'topol (sevaa'-). Se'bert. Seine (sain). Ser'gius. Sheerness'. Sheriflfmuir'. Sino'pe. Sluys (slooz). Sobra'on. Soult (soolt). South'wark (suWerk). Staines. St. Ar'naud (f^f — \ St. Ed'mundsburh St. Ger'main. Stein'kirk. Stig'and. Stone'henge. Strachan (strawn). Su'raj-ad-Dow'la. Surat'. Swartz (shvartz). Tac'itus. Talave'ra. Tav'istock. Tenche'brai (tensh'bray). Teneriffo' (reef). Tewkes'bury. The'obald. There'sa (teree^sa). Tien-tsin'. Tod'leben (tot^ldhe^i). Tor'res Ve'dras. Touloft'. Touraine' Tournay'. Trafal'gar. Troyes (trivali). Tyr'rel. Tyrone'. Ulun'di. U'trecht(oo'irland, Duke of, 99, 102. Nova Scotia, 125. Gates, Titus, 147. Odo of Bayeux, 31, 33, 34. Oldcastle, Sir John (Lord Cobham), 71. Orange, Prince of, 130. Ordeal, 30. Orders in Council, 191. Orleans, Siege, 74. Orrr. )nd Duke of,136,169. Octerburn, Battle, 60. Oudenarde, Battle, 163. Overbury, Sir T., 12i. Paris, Treaties, 194, 197, 212. Parliament, Origin of, 219. Parliament, Short, 120 ; Long, 129 ; Rump, 138. Parma, Prince of, 113. Parr, Catharine, 95. Patriots, The, 181. Paul IIL, Pope, 97. Pavia, Battle, 91. Pecquigny, Treaty, 80. Peel, Sir Robert, 200, 208. Pekin, 214. Pelham, Henry, 173, 170. Peninsular War, 192. Persecution, under Henry VI II., 95; under Mary, 104; under Elizabeth, 111. Perth, 137. Philiphaugh, Battle, 134. Philip of Spain, 102, 105, 107. PIcts and Scots, 15. Pilgrimage of (Irace, 128. Pilgrim Fathers. 124. Pinkie, Battle of, 99. Pitt, William (Earl of Chatham), 176, 179, 182. Pitt, William (younger), 183, 190. Pius v.. Pope, 121. Plague, The Great, 144. Plantagenet, Geoffrey, 37. Plassey, Battle, 176. Poitiers, Battle, 62. Pole, Cardinal, 97, 104 Popish Plot, 147. Porteous Riot, 172. Portugal, 192. Potato, 117. Poundage, 126. Presbyterianism, 109, 118. Presbyterians, Parliamen- tary, 132. Preston, 134. Prestonpans, Battle, 174. Pride's Purge, 135, 138. Privy Council, The, 222. Protectionists, 207. Protectorate, 139-141. Protestantism established, 106, 108. Puritans, 107, 115, 120,124. Pym, John, 125, 131. Pyramids, Battle, 187. Quorum of Houses of Raglan, Lord, 209. Ralegh, Sir AV'alter, 110, 113, 122. Ramillies, Battle, 103. Reading, 132. Religion, Articler of, 96, 100, 107. Revolutions, French, 184, 204, 207. Rhode Island, 128. Richard I., 47-49. Richard II., 64-08. Richard III., 81-83. Richmond, Earl of, 82. Ridley, 99, 102, 104. Ripon, Treaty, 129. Rizzio, David, 109. Rochelle, 126. Roli^a, Battle, 102. Roundheads, 131. Roundway Down, 132. Royal Assent, 221. Runnymede, 51. Rupert, Prince, 131, 133. Russia invaded by Na- poleon, 191. Russian War, 209 Rye- House Plot, 149. Ryswick, Treaty, 158. Sacheverell, 164, Salamanca, 193. Salisbury, Countess of, 97. Salisbury, Earl of (Cecil), 122. Sancroft, Primate, 153. San Domingo, 140. Santa Cruz, 140. Savoy, 140. Sawtr^, William, 70. Saxons, 16. Sebastopol, 209, 211. Sedgemoor, Battle, 151. Selby, Battle, 133. Selden, John, 125. Senlac, Battle, 26, Seven Years' War, 175. Seymour, Admiral, 99 Seymour, Jane, 95. Shaftesbury, Earl of, 147, 149. Shakespeare, 117. Sharp, Archbishop, 149. Sheriffmuir, Battle of, 169. Ship-money, 128. Sidney, Sir Philip, 117. INDEX. 251 96, 184, 33. 97. il). 17, 5f, Sldonia, Duke of Medina, 113. Sikh War, 207. Simnel, Lambert, 80. Sluys, Battle, 01. Sobraon, 207. Solway Moss, 90. Somerset, Duke, 98, 100. Somerset, Earl(Carr), 122. Southampton, Earl, 99. Houth Sea Scheme, 170. Sovereign, the office of, 219. Spanish Marriage Scheme, 123. Spanish Succession, War of, 162. Speaker, Tue, 221 Spenser, Edmund, 117. Spurs, Battle, 90. Stamford Bridge, Battle, 20. Standard, Battle, 38. Star Chamber, 110, 128. Statutes: — Magna Carta (1215), 51. Provisions of Oxford (1258), 53. First Statute of Labor- ers (1349), 02. Statute of Provisors (1351), 04. Statute of Treasons (1352), (14. Statute of PriBmunire (1393), 63. First Statute of Heretics (1401), 104. Act of Supremacy(1534), 94. Act of Succession (1534"*, 95. Statute of the Six Ar- ticles (1539), %. Act of Supremacy(1559), 106. Act of Uniformity (1559), 107. Petition of Right (1628), 127. Triennial Act(1641),130. Militia Act (1642), 131. Grand Eemonstrance (1045), 131. Solemn League and | Covenant (1043), 132, ] 143. j Self-denying Ordinance j (1645), 133. Navigation Act (1051), 137. Instrument of Govern- ment (,1653), 138. Humble Petition and Advice (1657), 140. Corporation Act (1661), 143. Act of Uniformity (1062), 143. Conventicle Act (1664), 143. Five Mile Act(16(15),143. Teat Act (1073), ?4fi. Habeas Corpus Act (1679), 148. Declaration of Right (1688), 154. Mutiny Act (1689), 155. Toleration Act (lu89), 155. Bill of Rights (1689), 150. Triennial Act (1094), 158. Treason Act (1696), 159. Act of Settlement(1701), 160. Act of Union— Scot- land (1707), 164. Riot Act (1715), 109. Septennial Act (1710), 170. American Stamp Act (1705), 179. Canada Constitutional Act (1791), 185. Act of Union — Ireland (1801), 189. Corporation and Test Acts repealed (1828), 200. Catholic Emancipation Act (1829), 199, 200. First Reform Act(l832), Act abolishing Slavery (1833), 203. Municipal Reform Act (1835), 203. Repeal of the Com Laws (1840), 207. Repeal of the Naviga- tion Laws (1849), 208. India Act (1858), 214. Removal of Jewish Dis- abilities (1868), 214. Second Reform Act (1807), 215. Dominion of Canada Act (1867), 243. Disestablishment of the Irish Church (1809), 215. Fir3t Irish Land Act (1870), 215. English Elementary Education Act(i;;70), 210. The BaUot Act (1872), 210. Second Irish Land Act (1881), 217. Third Reform Act (1884), 244. Steinkirk, Battle, 158. Stephen, 37-39. Stigand, 27, 32. Stonehenge, 12. Strafford, Earl of (Went- worth), 130. Stratton 132. Straw, Jack, 05. Strode, William, 131. Strongbow, 45, 46. Stuart, Arabella, 120. Stuart, House of, 118 St. Albans, Battles, 76, 77. St. Vincent, Battle off Cape, 186. Surrey, Earl of, 97, 117. Sweyn, 22. Syrian War, 205. Talayera, 193. Tenchebrai, Battle, 36. Tewkesbury, Battle, 79. Texel, Battle off, 138. Thanes, 29. Thorough, 128. Tien-tsin, 214. Tilsit, Treaty, 191. Titus, Colonel, 140. 252 INDEX. Tol»cco, 117. Torret Vedrw, 108. Toulouso, Battle, 108. Trafalgar, Battle, 100. Troyes, Treaty, 72. Tudors, Despotism of the, 116. Tunnage, 126. Tyler, Wat, 66, 66. Tyrone, Earl of, 116. Tyrrel, Walter, 35. UusTBR, Colonlaition,122. Union Jack, 124. Union of the Crowns, 118 ; of the Parliaments, 164, 189. Utrecht, Treaty, 164. Van Tromp, 138. Vane, Sir Harry, 132, 136. Versailles, Peace, 183. Victoria, 204-218. Vienik, Congress of, 193. VimieAft, Battle, 192. Vlrgini\llO. Vittoria,^ttle, 193. Waoram, 1 Wakefield, B{\tle, 77 Walcheren Ez^dition, 103. Wales, Conquest of, 65. Wallace, William, 57. Waller, General, 133. Walpole, Kobert, 171. Warbeck, Perkin, 87. Warwick, Earl of, "the King-maker," 76, 79. Waterloo, Battle, 196. Wellington (Wellesley), 192, 193, 195, 209. Wentworth, Thomas (StraflTord), 126, 130. Wesleyans, 177. Westminster, Treaty, 146. Westminster Assembly, 182. Wexford, 136. White Ship, The, 87. . Wilkes, John, 179. William I., 26, 80-84. William II., 84, 35. William III., 154-161. WllUam IV., 201-204. William the Lion, 46. Witenagemdt, The, 29, Wolseley, Sir Garnet, 216. Wolsey, Thomas, 91, 98. Worcester, Battle, 187. Writs of Parliament, 220 Wyatfs Rebellion, 102. Wyclif, John, 67. Wykeham, William of, 64 YoRKTowN, Capitulation of, 182. ZUTPHEN, 117.