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IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-S)

«f Bi |2j2
£ Itt 12.0

•'

Photographic

oCi£Ou6S

Carparatkn

as WMT MAM STRHT

WmTli.N.V. 14SM

(7U)l7a-4S03

CIHM/ICMH

Microfiche

Series.

CIHIVI/ICIVIH
Collection de
microfiches.

CwM«*n InMHiiM lor HMoilcal Mlcror«produCfloi<» / InttHul camdiMi d* mlcronproduotlam MMailquM

Ttchnical and Bibliographic Notaa/Notat tachn quaa at bibliographiquaa

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D
D

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Tight binding may eauaa ahadowa or diatortion
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ItX 22X

10X

14X

28X

30X

fix

12X

1AX

aDx

2«X

Th« copy filmed h«r« has b—n r«produc«<l thanks
to tha ganarosity of:

Library of Congrast
Photoduplication Sarvica

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g«n4roait« da:

Library of Congrats
Photoduplication Sarvica

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alon. and anding on tha laat paga with a printad
or illuatratad impraaaion.

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TINUED"), or tha aymbot V (moaning "END"),
whichavar applias.

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originaux sont fllmte an commandant par ia
pramMra paga qui comporta una amprainta
dimpraaalon ou d'lHuatratlon at an tarminant par
la damMra paga qui comporta una talia
amprainta.

Un daa ayml»olaa auhranta apparattra sur ia
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aymbola ▼ signlfia "FIN".

Mapa. plataa, charta, ate., may ba fllmad at
diffarant raduction ratioa. Thoaa too larga to ba
antiraly Inehidad In ona axpoaura ara fHmad
beginning In tha uppar laft hand comar. loft to
right and top to bottom, aa many framaa aa
required. The following dlegrama illuatrate the
nnethod:

planehea, tableeux, etc., peuvent ttre
fHmte i dee taux da reduction dIffAranta.
Lmraque le document eet trop grand pour Atra
reprodult en un eeul cilchA, II eat fNm4 A partir
da I'angki aupArleur gauche, do gauche A drohe,
et de iMUt en baa, an prenant la nombre
d'knagee nAoeeaalre. Lae diagrammae auivanta
llluatrent la mAthode.

■6

THE

EARTH AND ITS INHABITANTS,

EUROPE.

/O U>

lS2LIS:feE RECLITS.

EDITED BT

E. G. BAVENSTEIN, F.R.G.8., F.S.8., Bic.

■ ■',. .*"

VOL. L

GREECE, TURKEY IN EUROPE, RUMANIA, SERVIA, MONTENEaRO,
ITALY, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL.

ILLUSTRATED

a AND MAPS.

NEW YORK:

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,

1, S, AVP 6 B(VND STBBBT.

1869.

sr**-v-«'".-

■. - .awi^ j i h >fcit fe *ttk,-^>.^.^ii.*ia>tt...««tf!a}ra' ■ ■t. i B ^ j) ! - uBirti'i aL ' ; .rtLmigai B

m^^

•i

CONTENTS.

bnoDcoioBT Kmtwi . . • <

BUBOPE.
L OMMHuniOAL iHNMnAmn
n. Kznm Ain> Boumdarim .

XU. NATinUL DlTMIOM AHD MOURTAUM

IT. Tn MABnna BMiom .

v. Ouiun

YL iMHABRAm ....

PAM

vim

VIL Fumn Ponnoii amo PaoinoM or

TrauT 148

Yin. Oonumm and ADtanmATioM . 160

TuATin or Sax Stdako Aim Bolim . 153

. 18

THE MBDITBBRANBAN.

L Htsboumt

n. Amual Lm, Fmnam, aid SAU-rAm
nL Coiomcs AXD NAtraoAnoM

6BBBOT.
L OnauL Aanoit ....
n. ComtanrAii Qumm
m. Tarn XonA, or PiuiroMimnni .
17. Tu IttAmw or nn JtosAM Ska
Y. Tn loaiAK lius ....
YL Tn Fnmr Ain> Fmrai or Qumm
OanauamT Aim Pouiioal Dmsion

1«

88
81

88
48

68
•»
It
80
88

BUMANU .

. 1S8

SEEYU AND MONTBNBOBO.

I SUTU

IL Monmoio

178
179

tubut in kubopb.

L CrRtJBUL Aanon 87

H Outis AID TU iJOAimt 01 m Aioin-

ntAM •*

m. Tomr or nn Gun (Tbraoia, Maob-

PORIA, AMD TUHALT) .... 88

lY. AuAiRA Aim Bmn .118

Y. Tm iLLTMAii AiMi BonnA, a*d Him-

ooriKA 188

YI. BnaAMA . -181

ITALY.

L OWBAL AfFicn ....

. 188

■ABvr, YmnA, Aim Bmiua

. 188

UL LtsraiA AND in BmmA or OnoA

. 880

lY. TraoAiTT'

. 889

Y. Tm BoMAii ArwiiwM, m Yauw

no Tim, Tn MAMm, Aim

AHHTHOt

. 857

YL Sovnaw I*a&t: Natui .

. 888

YU. SiottT

. 808

Th« .£oHan or lipwio Idaiids

. 881

The iBgRdiuk Isbnda .

. 884

]hltouidCh»o ....

. 888

Yin. SAIDimA . . . .

. 888

IX. Tn Punm aiid Fvniu or Itait .

. 858

X. Gommnm and AommiRRAnoK .

. 888

OOBSIOA

868

SPAIN.
L OnauL Asnon ... 870

n. Tn Camiui, Lmw, and ImauDiiBA . 877
IIL ijmA(.niiA . > 884

CONTENTS.

nr. Thi HiDiTUUUiiiAM Ston: Mtmou amd

Valimoia 414

y. Tn Bauabio Iuaiim .498

VI. Tri Vallit or m Bno: AaAaoN ard

Oatalohia 497

VU. BAWica PioTiMon, Natauu, ard Lo-

OBOilo 489

VnL Sartandir, thr AnuRiAa, and Oalioia . 448

IX. Tbr Prrirrt ard Futitrr or Stair . . 460

X Gotrrrmrrt ard Admirirratior . 448

rA«m
PORTUGAL

I. Obrrial AiTBon 4M

II. NoRmRH Portvoal: tbr VAUum or

THR MiRRO, DOORO, ARD MORDROO . 4ft

III. Tn Taurt or nu Taour . 489

IV. SOVTRRRR PORTOdAL: AUORRM ARD Al>

OARTB . 490

V. Thr Prrsrrt ard FunmR or Portvsal . 494

VI. GOTRRRM5RT ARD ADMiniTRATIOH . 498

INDEX . . . .801

-■-■'

VMB

.Mi

ALUTS or

RBMO . 419

. 481

1 Am AL'

. 490

^OITUSAL . 49«

m . .498

. .oot

(

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

MAPS PRINTED IN COLOURS.

1. Ethnognphkal Map of Europe .
3. Turkey«in-Eurape mmI G(«eoe .

3. Thq BtMplionu and Co n i to n t i a ople

4. Bthnognphioal Hap of Turkey .

rA*i

. 18

. M
. 98
. 148

VACS

6. Italy . • • »M

6. TheDdtooftliePo 2^0

7. The Bay of Naples 388

8. Spain and Portugal 36A

PLATES.

Paaa a ntififomttieBnTfaromiof ithana 3\>/m>jnv« M
Cotutoattnople and the Oo' 4 a Horn, from the

Hdfl^ofEynb -99

AlliaiiiaBa • . • 118

Wealthy Anmto 124

TaddahMnletaeniatheHenMigaTiii* . 127

TimoTft . IM

Bolgiaiaiu. 1^

HuMoliBaa of Adriaiu^Ia* and MuHnlmaa Lady

of IV ill end • • 147

WallaeUaiia (Yalakhs) . . ■ . . 182

Bdgiade 17^

The Penaiae Alpa, aa leen from the Becoa di

Nona (PfoOHml}, 10,880 fMk . . . 198
Vanioe ^ ....... 207

The Palace at Faitam -228
VaroDa • 229
PeaiaiitBef tfaeAtmaaoa 2M

Naplaa
Capri,

fkm MaaM Lubtenae

2V/M(jMy« 800

. . 802

804

Layalatta,Halto . • 3>7

Peaaantaitf Toledo, Oaitile • SM

Roman Biidfe at Aliiliitan . • 8>1

dortedeloaaaitBnea,Deflle<rfOuadaIhoroe .399
PflBianto of Ctedon^ An d al n ria . .408

Oibnltar,aaaeen from the "linaa". . 414

Peaaanta of La Hueiia, and CSganeta of Valen-
da . . . ... •««

Women of IWia, Baleario Idea . .426

Monaerrat, Oa t alo ni a 431

Barcelooa, aeen bam the Oaatle of ]foii\|uioh . 437

Gknrgea of Penooibo .440

LosPkaagfla . . . • **T

Opwto • *'•

UOni . . . • • • *»*

^ .. 1 5^ ■rtjM 'i gmwjuij^ni ' .'.' i jw

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

ILLU8TEATION8 IN TEXT.

EUROPE.

1. The Natural Boundary of Europe • • 7

2. Tho Relief of Europe 8

8. Dovelopment of Cout-Unea reUtirely to

Area U

4, The Iiothennal Zone of Europe ... 17

THE MEDITERRANEAN.

6. The Depth of the Mediterranean . . 34

6. The Strait of Qibraltar . . . . 2S

7. Principal Fiaheriea of tho Meditemmeaa . SO

8. Stennter Routea and Telegraph! . . 84

GREECE.

0. Maihoti Aim Spaktav .42

10. Foreign Element! in the Population of

Qneoo 44

11. MovNT PABNAaaua Aim Dnrn . . 48

13. Lower Aoamania 49

15. ThermopyliB M

14. Lake Oopaia . . .83
18. Thb Aobopolu 07 ATunra . . .84

16. Athens and ita Long Walla . , . M

17. Ancient Athena 88

18. MouMT TAToarvB 88

19. Lakea Phenea and Stymphalua . . . 80

20. The Plateau of Mantinea .... 83
31. Bifurcation of the Oastuni . . . . 8S
22. The Valley of the Eniotaa .... 87
2S. Enripus and Ohalda . . . .70

24. Nea Kaimeni 72

28. OoRTV . . . . k . . 76
36. The Channel of Santa Mann ; .77

27. ArgoatoU 79

TURKEY IN EUROPE.

28. Thb Goroi or Haoio Rvmu. . . 91
39. Crete, or Candia 98

50. The .aigean Sea . 98

51. Qeologioal Map of the Peninmla of Con*

■tantinople 99

53. Tho Helleapont, or Dardaaellea . .108
S8. Mount Athoa 108

54. MooiiT Oltkpvs . . .110
85. Mount Olympna and the Valley of TWpe 111

88. Southern Epirus 117

87. Subtenaneaii Beda of the Aillnenta of the

Naienta 138

SB. Mount Vitoah . . . . .182

fn. tAM

89. DelU of the Danube 187

40. Comparative Diwharge of the Months of

the Danube 188

41. Commercial Highways oooTerging upon

Constantinople , .<•■ , IM

43. The Turkiah Empire Ml

RUMANIA.
48. The Rumanians 188

44. The Rivers ShQ and Olto . .188

48. The Danube and Yalomitaa .161

46. Ethnological Map of Moldavian Bessarabia 164

47. BvoHAUST 189

8BBVIA AND MONTENEGRO.
18. Confluence of the Danube and Save . . 174

49. Montenegro and the Lake of Skodra . . 180

ITALY.

80. Rome and the Rooan Empire . . .188

81. MoMTB Vise 189

83. Grand Paradia 191

88. Pkin of D8bris between the Alps and

Apominea 193

84. Slope of the Valley of the Po . .191
as. Mud Voloanoea of the Nosthem Apenniaes 194
88. Andaut OhMuen ol the Alpa . .198

87. Sena of Ivrea and Ancient Olader Lakea

of the Don . .198

88. indent Lakea of Verbano . .197

89. LakeComo 198

80—62. Sectioiia of Lake Como .199

88. Villa Smbblloxi 201

'34. Beech and Pine Woods of Ravenna . . 208

Shingle Beds of the TagUamento, to. . 208
OldBedoffhePiave 20«

68.
88.

87.
88.

89.

Lagoons of Venice 207

Cdloniea of the Romaa Veterans . 309

The Po between Piaoenn and Cremona . 311

70. German Communes of Northern Italy . 216

71. Moim RoaA ..... .217

72. The Lagoona of Comaoohio .9m
78. l>o nsheiies of Comacohio .231
74. MonthofiheAdigeVaUey .838
78. Hie Passagea over the Alps .284
78. The Lakes and Canals of Mantua .337

77. Pahnanova 320

78. Junction of the Alps and Apenninea . . 281

79. Genoa and its Subnzbs . . 284

80. G»OA . 988

FMB

• •

. 1S7

lie Moathi of

• ■

. IM

kTmrging

upon

• •

. 160

• t

. Ml

• •

. IM

• •

. 158

t •

. 1«1

viuBeManbU 194

•

. 160

'ENEOnC

ndCkTe .

. 174

fSkodim.

. 180

n •

. 180

• fl

. 180

. . .

. 101

the Alpi

1 end

• • •

. 192

Po .

. IOC

them Apeoniiuf 194

P« •

. 195

It OlMier Lakes

. . '• •

. 100

• f

. 107

. ,

. 108

. 100

• •

. 301

BaTfmui .

. 003

iiianto,4o.

. 005

• >

. 309

. • ■ •

.207

emu

. too

■nd Orenunui . Sll

fhem Italy

. 210

• •

.217

)

. 2X0

. 221

r .

. 228

. 2S4

[■ntaa

. 227

• •

. 220

Ipennines

. . 281

• ■

. 284

• •

.385

LIST OF niLUSTRATIONS.

81. TheOulf of SpedA 287

83. Tmb OoLroLiNO or thb Amo . .240
88. Defllce of the Amo 341

84. Monte ArgonUro 343

85. VbI di Chiana 344

80. The Lake of Bientina . . .345

87. The Malarial Refiuna . .347

88. FmUnoi 353

80. The Harbour of Leghorn .... 355

00. The Lake of BoLwna 360

01. La Montagna d'Alhano .361

03. Andent Lake of Fuoino . . .268
08. Lake of Tnuimeno 264

04. OAMTAOitA OF Bomb 265

05. Pontine Maidiea 267

06. Andent Lakea of the Tiber and Topino . 260

07. OAaoAOBa or Tbemi . . . 270

08. The Delta of the Tiber . . 271
00. Pbabamti or thb Bomaw Oamtaoma . . 273

100. Bomb 376

101. The Hills of Borne 378

103. Givita Veochia 381

108. Talleyi of Erodon on the Weatem Slope

of the Apeoninea 283

104. Biaini and Ban Marino .... 285

105. Monto Oargano 387

106. Aahea of the Oampania . .380

107. EnumoN or Movmt Ymotiub . . 303

108. Eduoatiooal Map ci Italy . .307
100. Pompeii '801

110. Hw Manhea of Salpl ... .305

111. Harbour of Brindid in 1871 .807

113. Harbour of Taranto . .' . . .808
118. Strait of MeMina SM

114. ProAle of Mount Btna .811

115. Lava Stream of Oatania .818
110. Snbddiary Gonaa of Mount Btna . 814
117. ThaMaooalubasandOlrgMiti . .817
118 Palbsmo Ann Moim Pbubobiiio . . 834
110. Tn^aoi and Mamla . , . 830

120. Syraeuae .328

121. Tbhtu or Ookoobd at OiaoBim . . 880

133. The Oeotial Portion of the JBoUanldanda 332
138. Hm Mediterranean to the South of Sidly. 834

134. The Port of Malta 336

135. The Sea to the South of SanUaia .380

136. Strait of Bonifado . . . .310

137. LaOian ... ... 345

138. Diitrictotlgledaa 348

180. Oaouabi . .350
ISO. Fort of Tenaaora 351

181. Kavigati<m of Italy 855

183. OommerdalBoutea of Italy .356

138. Submarine Plateaa between Coidoa and

Tuaoasy 364

FAua

184. Profile of the Boad from AJaodo to Bastia 865

185. Bastia 368

SPAIN.

J86. Table-landa of Iberian Peninnda . 871

iia7. Deheeaa near Madrid 875

138. Dendty of Population . . .876

180. Profile "f Kailway from Bayonne to Ctdia 370

140. Sierraa de OrMoa and de Oata . .380

141. Dbtilb or thb Taio . .383
143. Steppee of New Oaatile . . 8M

143. siOamanoa 888

144. Thb Aloabab or Sbootu .880

145. ToLBDo .800

140. Madrid and ita Enrirona . .393

147. Aiai\juei 304

148. Badns of the Guadiana and Quadalquirir . 305
140. Thb Paim or DaarBilArBaBoe . .806

150. Thb Sibbba Nbtaoa .307

151. The Mouth of the Ouadalquirir. .800
153. The Steppee of Ec^a 403

153. Zooea of Vegetation on the Coaat of Anda-

luta . . . .408

154. The Minee of Huelva 406

155. Thb Auumbba 408

156. OftdiaanditoBoaditead . .411

157. Gibraltar 418

158. Steppes ot Mtoda 416

150. Thb Palm Obotb or Elohb . .418

160. The Pabn Grore of Elohe and the Huertas

ofOiihuda 410

161. BuDta or thb Otki abotb Loboa . . 430

163. PBAaAMTs or. Mvaou .431
168. The Harbour of Oartagena .438

164. The Grio de Valanda .434

165. The Beleario Idaads 426

166. ViBW or lanA 437

167. Tlk»Pytiaaee 438

168. Port Mahon 430

160. The Delta of the Sfaro . . . . 485

170. The Steppee of Aragon ... 436

171. The Enrirona of Barcelona .440

173. TheSaad-banksolMatavd .441
178. Andom 448

174. Jaisquibel . . .445

175. ABomtia and Aipdtia . .447

176. The i^viroos of Bilbao . .440

177. St. Sebastian 450

178. Br. SaBAsnAH 451

170. Onetaria . .453

180. Guendoa ....... 453

181. Pass of Bdnosa 454

Tiii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

1 h-

IVi, PeflM d4 Eiuro|» *M

181. Uiu of U l!ortiA« uid Fvrrol . . 4AS

IR4. fkntoAs and HiiuUndcr . . . .460

IM. Uvindo and O^on 469

186. TuWBH or UavcvLn . . . 461

187. RU do Vigo 464

188. KaUroada of the Iberian Peninaula . . 466

189. Foraign Commratw of the Iberian Poninaula 466

190. Diagram exhibiting the F^itent of tiw Oaa-

tilian Language 467

PORTUGAL.

Ralnidl of the Iberian PeDinmk
PonTuouHi Ttfm (PiAiAirea)
The Valley of the limia, or lima
Dimes of ATiiro

191.
103.
198.
194,
106. Oporto and the Pdi do Vinho

470
473
476
476
476

no. FM

196. 8lo Jolo da Foi and the Mouth of the

D6uro 480

197. CoiMsaA 483

108. The Eftuary of the T^)o (Tagu)

199. Poniche and tho Berlingaa . .486

300. Mouth of the Tejo 486

301. Zonae of VageUtion in Porln^a . . 488

303. Oaitli or Pmiu di Oimtba . • .489

305. MoKAarnT or thi Kmiomtc or CiiMtr at

Tmomab 491

304. Eituary of the 8ado 403

306. Bern da Monohique and Promontory of

BagTM 496

306. Geology of Alganre 494

307. Faro and Tkrira ....

308. Geographical Extent of the PortogMW

Language 497

200. Telegraph tron Liabon to Rio de Janeiro. 496

*.;-

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. 491

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RiodeJueiro. 49S

THE EARTH AND ITS INHABITANTS.

INTBODUCTOEY BEMABK8.*

|UR earth ii but m an atom in space, a itar amongst stars. Tet, to us
who inhabit it, it is stiU without bounds, as it was in the time of
our barbarian ancestors. Nor can we foresee the period when the
whole of its surface will be known to os. We havo been taught
by astronomers atid geodesists that our planet is a sphere flattened
at the poles, and physical geographers and meteorologiste have applied their
powers of inductive reasoning to establish theories on the direction of the winds
and ocean currents within the polar regions. But hitherto no explorer has
succeeded in reaching the extremities of our earth, and no one can tell whether
land or sea extends beyond those icy barriers which have fri£>trated our most
determined efforts. Thanks to the struggles of indomitable seamen, the pride of
our race, the area of the mysterious regions around the north pole has been
redue««d to something like the hundredth part of the earth's surface, but in the
south there still remains an unknown region of such vast extent, that the moon,
were she to drop upon our planet, might disappear within it without coming into
contact with any part of the earth's surfltce already known to us.

And the polar regions, which present so many natural obstacles to our
explorers, are not the only portions of the earth not yet known to men of science.
It may be humiliating to our pride as men, but we feel constrained to admit that
among the countries not yet known to us there are some, accessible enough as
&r as natural obstacles are concerned, but closed against us by our fellow-men I
There are peoples in this world, dwelling in towns, obeying laws, and having
customs comparatively polished, but who choose to live in seclusion, and are as
little known to us as if they were the inhabitants of some other planet. Their
ftontiers are closed by war and its horrors, by the practice of slavery, by religious

♦ HonaMtt. "HirtoJw da Sol de I'Europe. -Cwl Bitter. "Baiop.."— Kohl, "DieOoogwphkeh*
l»gt der HftupttidU EonpikV

VOL. I. 1

'■'b^..l\

S INTBODUOTOBT BEMABE8.

fanaticism, and even commercial jealousy. Wo have heard of some of these
peoples by vague report, but there are others concerning whom we absolutely
know nothing. And thus it happens that in this age of steam, of the printing
press, of incessant and feverish activity, we still know nothing, or very little, of
th& centre of Africa, of a portion of Australia, of the interior of that fine and
no doubt most fertile island of New Guinea, and of vast table-lands in the centre
of Asia. Nay, even the country which most men of learning love to look upon as
the cradle of our Aryan ancestors is known to us but very imperfectly.

As regards most countries which have been visited by travellers, and figure
more or less correctly upon our maps, a great amount of further research is
required before our knowledge of their geography can be called complete. Tears
will pass ere the erroneous and contradictory statements of our explorers con-
cerning them have been set right. A prodigious amount of labour must be
performed before their climate, their hydrography, their plants and animals, can
be thoroughly known to us. Minute and systematic researches have to be
conducted to elucidate the slow changes in the aspects and physical phenomena
of many countries. The greatest caution will have to be exercised in distinguishing
between changes due to the spontaneous action of natural Dauses and those brought
about by the hand of man. And all this knowledge we must acquire before we
can boast that we know the earth, and all about it I

Nor is this alL By a natural bent of our mind, (dl our studies are carried
on with reference to Man qp the centre of all things. A knowledge of our planet
is, therefore, imperfect as long as it is not joined to a knowledge of the various
races of man which inhabit it. The earth which man treads is but imperfectly
known, man himself even less so. The first origin of races is shrouded in absolute
darkness, and the most learned disagree with refermce to the descent, the
amalgamation, the original seats, and migratory stages of most peoples and
tribes. What do men owe to their surroundings P What to the original seats
of their ancestors, to inborn instincts of race, to a blending with aUen races,
or to influences and traditi9ns l^rought to bear upon them from beyond P We
hardly know, and as yet only a few rays of light b^g;in to penetrate this darkness.
Unfortunately our erroneous views on many of these questions are not livM solely
to ignorance. Contending p«ssions and instinctive national hatreds too frequently
obscure our judgment, and we see man as he is not. ''The lar-off savages- assume
the shape of dim phantoms, and our near neighbours and rivals in the arts (tf
civilisation appear repulsive and deformed of feature. If we would see them as
they really are, we must get rid of all our jnejudioes, and of thoad feelings oi
contempt, hatred, and passion which still set nation against nation. Our fore-
fathers, in their wisdom, said that "the most difficult thing of all was to know
one's self. Surely a comprehensive study of mankind is more difficult stiU.

We are thus not in a positicm at present to fbmish a complete account of the
earth and its inhabitants. The accomplishment of this task we must leave to the
future, when fellow-workers from all quarters of tiie globe will meet to write
the grand book embodying the sum of human kiiowledge. For the present on

■"WrU'WIIilOrtliliMla

INTBODUOTOBT BEMABES.

ne of these
absolutely
the printing
ery little, of
hat fine and
n the centre
ook upon as

B, and figure

research is

ete. Team

plorers oon-

>ur must be

animals, can

have to be

[ phenomena

istinguishing

hose brought

ire before we

are carried
of our planet
if the various
,t imperfectly
)d in absolute
descent, the
peoples and
original seats
I alien races,
eyond P We
this darkness,
lot due solely

00 frequently
▼agea assume

1 the arts of
[ see them as
le feelings of
I. Our lore-
was to know
itstiU.

ooount of the
t leave to the
neet to write
le prMont an

individual author must rest content with giving a succinct account of the Earth,
in which the space occupied by each country shall be proportionate to its impor-
tance, and to the knowledge we possess with respect to it.

It is natural, perhaps, that each nation should imagine that in such a
description it ought to be accorded the foremost place. Every barbarous tribe,
however small, imagines itself to occupy the very centre of the earth, and to be the
most perfect r^resentative of the human race. Its langpiage never fails to bear
witness to this naive illusion, bom of the very narrowness of its horizon. The
river which irrigates its fields is called the " Father of Waters," the mountain
which shelters its camp the " Navel," or " Centre of the Earth ; " and the names
by which primitive races designate their neighbours are terms of contempt, for
they look down upon them as their inferiors. To them they are " mute," " deaf,"
"unclean," "imbecile," "monstrous," or "demoniac." The Chinese, one of the
most remarkable peoples in some respects, and certainly the most important of all
as far as mere numbers go, are not content with having bestowed upon their
Qonntry the epithet of " Flower of the Centre," but are so fully convinced of its
superiority as to have fidlen into the mistake (very excusable under the circum-
stances) of deeming themselves to be the "Sons of Heaven." As to the nations
thinly scattered around the borders of their " Celestial Empire," they know them
merely as " dogs," " swine," " demons," and " savages." Or, more disdainful still,
they dedgnate them by the four cardinal points of the compass, and speak of the
" unclean " tribes of the west, the north, the east, and the south.

If in our description of the Earth we accord the first place to civilised Europe^
it is not because of a prejudice similar to that of the Chinese. No I this place
belongs to Europe as a matter of right. Europe as yet is the only continent the
whole of whose waiaoe has been sdentifioally explored. It possesses a map
approximately correct, and its material resources are almost fully known to us.
Its population is not as dense as that of India or of China, but it neverthelefu
contains about one-fourth of the total populatiwi of the globe ; and its inhabitants,
whatever their fidlings and vices, or their state of barbarism in some respects, still
impel the rest of maiJcind as regards material and mental progress. Europe, for
twoity-five centuries, has been the focus whence radiated Arts, Sciences, and
Thought Nor have those hardjr cobnists who carried their European languages
and customs beyond the sea succeeded hitherto in giving to the New World an
importance, equal to that of "little" Europe, in spite of the virgin soil and vast
area which gave them scope for unlimited espansiott.

Our American rivak may be mora aotive and enterprising than we are— they
certainly are not cumbered to the same extent by the traditiims and inheritances
of feudal times — but they are as yet not sufficiently numerous to compete with us
as regards the totality of work done. They have scarcely been able hitiierto to
asoertain the material resources of the country in which they have made their
home. " Old Europe," where every clod of earth has its history, where every man
is tiw heir of a hundred successive generations, therefore still maintains the first
place, and a comparative study of nations justifies us in the belief that its moral

""■IP

;^B7r mi

4 INTBODUOTOBT BEMABK8.

aaoendancy and industrial preponderance will remain with it for many yean to come.
At the same time, we must not shut our eyes to the fact that equality will obtain
in the end, not only between America and Europe, but also between these two and
the other quarters of the world. The intermingling of nations, migrations which
have assumed prodigious proportions, and the increasing fooilities of intercourse
must in the end lead to an equilibrium of population being established throughout
the world. Then will each country add its proper share to the wealth of mankind,
and what we call civilisation will have "its centre everywhere, its periphery
nowhere.*'

The central geographical position of Europe has undoubtedly exercised «
most favourable influence upon the progress of the nations inhabiting it. The
superiority of the Europeans is certainly not due to the inherent virtues of the
races from which they sprang, as is vainly imagined by some, for in other parts of
the ancient world these same races have exhibited fiur less creative genius. To
the happy conditions of soil, climate, configuration, and geographical position the
inhabitants of Europe owe the honour of having been the first to obtain a
knowledge of the earth in its entirety, and to have remained for so long a period
at the head of mankind. Historical geographers are, therefore, right when they
insist upon the influence which the configuration of a country exercises upon the
nations who inhabit it. The extent of table-lands, the heights of mountain
ranges, the direction and volume of rivers, the vicinity of the ocean, the indenta-
tion of the coast-Une, the, temperature of the air, the abundance or rarity of 'rain,
and the correlations between soil, air, and water — all these are pregnant with
e£Pebcs, and explain much of the charioter and mode of life of primitive nations.
They account for most of the contrasts existing between nations subject to
different conditions, and point out the natural highways of the globe which
nations are constrained to follow in their migrations or warlike expeditions.

At the same time, we must bear in mind that the influence exercised upon
the history of mankind by the general configuration of land ,and sea, or any
special features of the fonder, is subject to change, and depends essentially upon
the stage of culture at which nations have arrived. Geography, strictly speaking,
confines itself to a description of the eartii's sur&oe, and exhibits the various
nations in a passive attitude as it were, whilst Historical Oeography and statistics
show man engaged in the struggle for existence, and striving to obtain the mastery
OYbT his surroundings. A river, which to an uncultured tribe wodd constitute an
insurmountable barrier, becomes a commercial high-road to a tribe further advanced
in culture, and in process of time it may be converted into a mere canal of
irrigation, the course of which is regulated by man. A mountain nmge frequented
by shepherds and huntsmen, and forming a barrier betwem nations, may attract,
in a more civilised epoch, the miner and the manufiusturer, and in course of time
will even cease to be an obstacle, as roads will traverse it in all directions. Many a
creek of the sea, which afforded shelter of yore to the small vessels of our ancestors,
is deserted now, whilst the opm bays, which vessek dreaded formerly, have been
protected by enormous breakwaters, and have become the resort of our largest ships.

Wii lnHMiWIMilil

mmmimt*

■Kiriirririiiiiinjii in

'-•mrtriTt t^Juiuismi^H

nrrBODTJOTOBT BEMABES.

ears to come,
y will obtain
heae two and
rations which
if intercourae
id throughout
I of mankind,
its periphery

' exercised a
ting it. The
virtues of the
other parts of
) genius. To
1 position the
; to obtain a
long a period
;ht when they
sises upon the
) of mountain
I, the indenta-
rarity of' rain,
pregnant with
oitiye nations.
>ns subject to
I globe which
ditions.

ixercised upon
d sea, or any
isentially upon
ictly speaking,
its the various
f and statistics
on the mastery
d constitute an
irther advan<»d
mere canal of
pnge frequented
as, may attract,
course of time
otions. Many a
f our ancestors,
erly, have been
or largest ships.

Innumerable changes such as these have been effected by man in all parts of
the world, and they have revolutionised the correlations existing between man and
the land he lives in. The configuration and height of mountains and table-lands,
the indentation of the coasts, the disposition of islands and archipelagos, and the
extent of the ocean— these all lose their relative influence upon the history of
nations in proportion as the latter emancipate themselves and become free
agents. Though subject to the condition of his dwelling-place, man may modify
it to suit his own purpose ; he may overcome nature as it were, and convert the
energies of the earth into domesticated forces. As an instance we may point to
the elevated table-lands of Central Asia, which now separate the countries and
peninsuks surrounding them, but which, when they shall have become the seats of
human industry, will convert Asia into a real geographical unit, which at present
it is only in appearance. Massy and ponderous Africa, monotonous Australia, and
Southern America with its forests and waterfalls, will be put on something like an
equality with Europe, whenever roads of commerce shall cross them in aH
directions, bridging their rivers, and traversing their deserts and mountain ranges.
The advantages, on the other hand, which Europe derives from its backbone of
mountains, its radiating rivers, the contours of its coasts, and its generally well-
balanced outline are not as great now as they were when man was dependent
exdusively upon the resources fiimished by nature.

This gradual change in the historical importance of the configuration of the
land is a fiwt of capital importance which must be borne in mind if we would
understand the general geography of Europe. In studying ctacb we must take
aooount of aaotha element of equal value — xms.

..> r.

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"MiMi

EUROPE.

I.— Gboobajphioal Impobtanoe.

IN the geography of the world the first place is claimed for Europe,
not heoanse of a prejudice like that of the Chinese, but as a matter
of right. Europe as yet is the only continent the whole of whose
surface has been scientifically explored. It possesses a map approx-
imately cortrect, and its material resources are ahnoet fully known to
us. Its popuktion is not as dense as that of India or of China, but it nevertheless
contains about one-fourth of the total popuktion of the globe ; aed its inhabitants,
whatever their failings and vices, or their state of barbarism in some respects, still
impel the rest of mankind as regards material and mental progress. Europe, for
twenty-five centuries, has been the focus whence radiated Arts, Sciences, and
Thought. Nor have those hardy coir lists who carried their European Unguages
and customs beyond the sea succeeded hitherto in giving to the New World an
importance equal to that of « Uttle "Europe, in spite of the virgm soil and vast
arm which gave them scope for unlimited expaiision.

"Old Europe," where every dod of earth has its history, where every man
is the heir of a hundred successive generations, therefore still maintains the first
place, and a compaiative study of nations justifies us in the beUef that its moral
ascendancy and industrial preponderance will remwn with it for many years to come.
At the same time, we must not shut our eyes to the fact that equality will obtain
in the end, not only between America and Eui«pe, but also between these two and
the other quarters of the world. The ir ermingling of nations, migrations which
have assumed prodigious proportions, and A© increasing feoilitiee of intercourse,
must in the end lead to an equilibrium of popuktion throughout the world. Then
will each country add its proper share to the wealth of mankind, and what we call
civilisation will have " its centre everywhere, its periphery nowhere."

The central geographical position of Europe has undoubtedly exercised a

most favourable infinence upon the progress of the nations inhabiting it. The

superiority of the Europeans is certainly not due to the inherent virtues of the

races from which they sprang, as is vaiiJy imagined by sonae, for in other parts of

■llll>IIWIllllll»

WMNiii

EUROPE.

the ancient world these Bame races have exhibited far less creative genius. To
the happy conditions of soil, climate, configuration, and geographical position, the
inhabitants of Europe owe the honour of having been the first to obtain a knowl-
edge of the earth in its entirety, and to have remained for so long a period at the
head of mankind. Historical geographers are, therefore, right when they insist
upon the influenc*) which the configuration of a country exercises upon the nations
who inhabit it. The extent of table-lands, the heights of mountain ranges, the
direction and volume of rivers, the vicinity of the ocean, the indentation of the
coast-line, the temperature of the air, the abundance or rarity of rain, and the
correlations between soil, air, and water — all these are pregnant with effects, and
explain much of the character and mode of life of primitive nations. They
account for most of the contrasts existing between nations subject to different
conditions, and point out the natural highways of the globe which nations are
constrained to follow in their migrations or warlike expeditions.

11.^ — ^Extent and Boundabies.

The dwellers on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea must have learnt, in
the course of their first warlike and commercial expeditions, to distinguish between
the great continents; for within the nucleus of the ancient world Africa is
attached to Asia by a narrow band of arid sand, and Europe separated from Asia
Minor by seas and channels difiScult to navigate on account of dangerous cnirents.
The division of the known world into three distinct parts could not fail to impress
itself upon the minds of those infant nations ; and when the Greeks had attained
a state of maturity, and historical records took the place of myths and oral tradi-
tions, the name of Europe had probably been transmitted through a long series of
generations. Herodotus naively admits that no mortal could ever hope to find
out the true meaning of this name, bequeathed to us by our forefathers ; but this
has not deterred our modem men of learning from attempting to exphdn it.
Some amongst them consider that it was applied at first to Thrace with its " large
plains," and subsequently extended to the whole of Europe ; others derive it from
one of the surnames, of Zeus with the ''huge eyes," the andent god of the Sun,
specially charged with the protection of ^e continent. Some etymolo^sts believe
that Europe, was designated thus by the Phoenidans, as being the ooontry of
"white men." We consider it; however, to be far more probable that its mane
originally meant simply "the West," as contrasted with Asia, "the East," or
" country of the rising sun." It is thus that Italy first, and then Spain, bore the
name of Hesperia ; that Western Africa received the name of £1 Maghreb from
the Mohammedans, and the plains beyond the Mississippi became known in our
own times as the " Far West."

But, whatever may be the original meaning of its name, Europe, in all the
myths of the imcients, is described as a Daughter of Asia. The Phoenicians were
the first to explore the shores of Europe, and to bring its inhabitants into contact
with those of the East. When the Daughter had become the superior ol her

W M W» ' li li w il MT iH' 'i < rw i a.' l V» iill« Xi i lu i

■wwiawii

EXTENT AND BOUNDARIES.

I genius. To
I position, the
>tain a knowl-

period at the
en they insist
on the nations
Jn ranges, the
itation of the

rain, and the
th effects, and
ations. They
it to different
sh nations are

have learnt, in
tgaish between
orld Africa is
Ated from Asia
;erons currents,
fail to impress
ks had attained
and oral tradi-
a long series of
sr hope to find
ithers ; but this
I to explain it.
with its "Urge
i derive it &om
K)d of the Sun,
lolo^ts believe
the country of
te that its mane
"the East," or
Spun, bore the
I Haghreb from
le known in our

arope, in all the
Phoenicians were
ants into contact
I superior oi hsae

Kother in civilisation, and Greek voyagers were following up the explorations
begun by the mariners of Tyre, all the known countries to the north of the
Mediterranean were looked upon as dependencies of Europe, and that name, which
was originally confined to the Thraco-Hellenio peninsula, was made to include, in
course of time, Italy, Spain, the countries of the Gauls, and the hyperborean

Fig. 1.— Thi Natural Bovni>ary of Edropi.
Soile 1 : 11^)0,000.

M*Ber Or.

.X^

•^

Tlie «m« of deprcnkm extandiag from tli« Black Seit to the Oulf of Obi ii iliaded. *rha darker tbuling
to the north of the Oaapiaiii ahows the area depretaed below the level of the Mediterranean.

regions beyond the Alps and the Danube. Strabo, to whom were known already
the most varied and- fruitful portions of Europe, extends it eastwazd as far as the
Palus HsBOtis and the Tanais.*

* llodem Sea of Aiof and River Don.

l''1i

EUEOPE.

\r- I

Since that epoch the limits between Europe and Asia hav^ Seen shifted hj
geog^phers still farther to the east. They are, however, mc.e or less con-
ventional, for Europe, though bounded on three sides by the ocean, is in reality
but a peninsula of Asia. At the same time, the contrasts between these two parts
of the world fully justify scientific men in dividing them into two continental
masses. But where is the true line of separation between them f Map-makers '
generally adopt the political boundaries which it has pleased the Russian
Government to draw between its vast European and Asiatic territories, and others
adopt the summits of the Ural Mountains and of the Oauoasus as the boundary

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between the two continents; and although, at the first glance, thit delineation
appears more reasonable than the former, it is in reality no less absurd. The
two slopes of a mountain chain can never be assigned to different formationa, and
they are generally inhabited by men of the same race. The true line of sepa-
ration between Europe and Asia does not consist of moortains at all, but, on the
contrary, of a series of depressions, in former times covered by a channel of the
sea which united the Mediterranean with the Arctic Ocean. The stei^)e8 of
the Manych, between the Black Sea and the Caspian, and to the north of die
Caucasus, are still covered in part with salt swamps. The Caq>ian itself, as well as
Lake Aral and the other lakes which we meet with in the direction of the Gulf of
Obi, are the remains of this ancient arm of the sea, and the intermediate regions
still bear the traces of having been an ancient see-bed.

There can be no doubt that vast changes have taken place in the configuration

rtiii Wimw »ii,jjmnj#iw

MMWIM

NATUBAL DIVISIONS AND MOUNTAINS.

in shifted by

or lesB con-

, is in reality

lese two parts

> continental

Map«makers

the Russian

les, and others

the boundary

this delineation

IS absurd. The

formations, and

le line of sepa-

all, but, on the
i channel of the

The steiqpes of

he north of the

itself, as well as

n of the Oulf of

[mediate regions

the configuration

i j ih M > ' - ' - I I "I —

WMM

of Europe, not only during more ancient geological periodu, but also within
comparatively recent times. We have already seen that a vast arm of the sea
formerly separated Europe from Asia ; it is equally certain that there was a time
when it was joined to Anatolia by an isthmus, which has since been converted into
the Bosphorus of Oonstantinople ; Spain was joined to Africa until the waters of
the Atlantic invaded the Mediterranean ; Sicily was probably connected with
Mauritania ; and the British Islands once formed a portion of the mainland. The
erosion of the sea, as well as upheavals and subsidences of land, has effected, and
still effect, changes in the contours of our coasts. Numerous soundings in the
seas washing Western Europe have revealed the existence of a submarine plateau,
which, from a geological point of view, must be looked upon as forming an integral
portion of our continent. Bounded by abyssal depths of thousands of fathoms,
and submerged one hundred fathoms at most below the waters of the ocean, this
pedestal of France and the British Islands must be looked upon as the foundation
of an ancient continent, destroyed by the incessant action of the waves. If the
shallow portions of the ocean, as well as those of the Mediterranean Sea, were to be
added to Europe, its area would be increased to the extent of one-fourth, but it
would lose, at the same time, that wealth in peninsulas which has secured to Europe
its historical superiority over the other continents.

If we supposed Europe to subside to the extent of one hundred fathoms, its
area would be reduced to the oompnss of one-half. The ocean would again cover her
low plr ' iS, most of which are andent sea-beds, and there wotdd remain above the
waters merely a skeleton of plateaux and mountain ranges, far more extensively
indented by bays and fringed by peninsulas than are the coasts existing at the
present time. , The whole, of Western and Southern Europe would be converted
into a huge island, separated by a wide arm of the sea from the plains of interior
Russia. From an historical as well as a geological point of view, this huge
island is the true Europe. Russia is not only half Asiatic on account of its
extremes of temperature, and the aspect of its monotonous plains and interminable
steppes, but is likewise intimately linked with Asia as riegards its inhabitants and
its historical development. Russia can hardly be said to have belonged to Europe
for more than a hundred years. It was in maritime and mountainous Europe,
with its islands, peninsulas, and volleys, it« varied features and unexpected
contrasts, that modem civilisation arose, the result of innumerable local civilisa-
tions, happily united into a single current. And, as the rivers descending from the
mountains cover the plains at their foot with fertile soil, so has the progress
accomplished in this centre of enlightenment gradually spread over the other
continents to the very extremities of the earth.

III. — NATVRAii Divisions and Mountains.

Thb Europe alluded to includes France, Germany, England, and the thfee
Mediterranean peninsulas, and constitutes several natural divisions. The British
Islands form one of these. The Iberian peninsula is separated scarcely leas

EUBOPB.

distinctly from the remainder of Europe, for between it and France rites a
most formidable range of mountains, the most difficult to cross in all Europe ; and
immediately to the north of it a depression, nowhere exceeding a height of
650 feet, extends from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Ocean. The
geographical unity of Europe is represented to the ftill extent only in the system
of the Alps, and in the mountains of France, Germany, Italy, and the Balkan
peninsula which are connected with it. It is there we must seek the framework
of continental Europe.

The Alps, whose ancient Celtic name probably refers to the whiteness of their
snowy summits, stretch in an immense curve, more than 600 miles in length,
frcm the shores of the Mediterranean to the plains of the Danube. They consist
in reality of more than thirty mountain masses, representing as many geological
{proups, and joined to each other by elevated passes; but their rocks, whether
they be granite, slate, sandstone, or limestone, form one continuous rampart rising
above the plains. In former ages the Alps were higher than they are now. This
is proved by an examination of their detritus and of the strata disintegrated
by natural agencies. But, whatever the extent of detrition, they still rise in
hundreds of summits beyond the line of perennial snow, and vast riven of ice
descend f^rom them into every upland valley. Looked at from the plains of
Piedmont and Lombardy, these glaciers and snow-fields present the appearance of
sparkling diadems encircling the mountain summits.

In the eastern portion of the Alpine system — that is to say, between the
Mediterranean and Mont Blanc, the culminating point of Europe — the average
height of the mountain groups gradually increases from 6,600 to more than
13,000 feet. To. the east of Mont Blano the Alps change in direction, and,
beyond the vast citadels represented by Monte Rosa and the Bernese Oberiand,
they gradually decrease in height. To the east of Switzerland no summit exceeds
a height of 13,000 feet, but this loss in elevation is Ailly made up by increase of
breadth. And whilst tL(« general direction of the principal axis of the Alps
remains north-easterly, very considerable mountain chains, hr exceeding the
central mass in breadth) are thrown off towards the north, the eost, and the
south-east. A line drawn across the true Alps from Vienna has a length of no
less than 250 miles.

In thus spreading out, the Alps lose tuo r character and aspect. We no longer
meet with grand mountain masses, glaciers, and snow-fields. Towards the north
they gradually sink down into the valley of the Danube ; towards the south thqr
branch out into secondary chains, resting upon the arched plateau of Turkey.
But, in spite of the vast contrasts offered by the true Alps and the mountains of
Montenegro, the Hsemus, the Rhodope, and the Pindus, all these mountain chains
nevartheless belong to the same orographical system. The whole of the Balkan
peninsula must be looked upon as a natural dependency of the Alps ; and the same
applies to Italy, for the chain of the Apennines is nothing but a continuation
of the Maritime Alps, and we hardly know where to draw the line of separa-
tion between them. The Carpathians, too, must be included among Hm

mi .1. .AM.Ktm mmtmKH

■!^

NATURAL DIVISIONS AND MOUNTAINS.

ttnoe rises a

Europe; and

a height of

!)oean. The

n the system

the Balkan

he framework

enesB of their

es in length,

They consist

iny geological

ouks, whether

rampart rising

re now. This

disintegrated

J still rise in

t rivers of ice

the plains of

I appearance of

between the
) — the average
to more than
direction, and,
Dese Oberlond,
lummit exceeds
by increase of
B of the Alps
exceeding the
cost, and the
I length of no

We no longer
Bids the north
the south th^
Ntu of Turkey.
le mountains of
lountain chains
of the Balkan
; and the same
a continuatitm
line of separa-
1 among the

mountain chains forming part of the system of the Alps. They have been
gradually separated from them through the continuous action of water, but there
can be no doubt that, in former times, the semicircle of mountains known as the
Little Carpathians, the Beskids, the Tatra, the Great Carpathians, and the Transyl>
vanian Alps was joined, on the one hand, to the Austrian Alps, and on the other
to spurs descending from the Balkan. The Danube has forced its way through
these mountain ramparts, but the passages, or "gates," are narrow; they are strewn
with rooks, and commanded by what remains of the ancient partition ranges.

The configuration of the Alps, and of the labyrinthine mountain ranges branching
off from them towards the east, could not fail to exercise a most powerAil influence
upon the history of Europe and of the entire world. The only high-roads known
to barbarians are those traced out by nature herself, and they were consequently
able to penetrate into Europe only by sea, or through the vast plains of the north.
Having penetrated to the westward ot the Black Sea, their progress was first
stopped by the lakes and difficult swamps of the Danubian valley ; and, when
they had surmounted these obstacles, they found themselves face to face with a
barrier of high mountains, whose intricate wooded valleys and declivities led up
to the inaccessible regions of eternal snow. The Alps, the Balkan, and all the
other advanced chains of the Alpine system constituted an advanced defensive
barrier for Eastern Europe, and the conquering nomad tribes who threw them-
selves against it did so at the risk of deetruotion. Accustomed to the boundless
horixon of the steppes, they did not venture to climb these steep hiU»— -they
turned to the northward, where the vast plains of (Jerraania enabled successive
swarms of immigrants to spread over the country with greater ease. And as to the
invaders, whom blind rage of conquest impelled to engage in the defiles of these
mountains, they found themselves caught as in a trap ; and this accounts for the
variety of nations, and of fragments of nations, whose presence has converted the
oountries of the Danube into a sort of ethnological chaos. And as the debris
carried along by the current is deposited in the eddy of a river, so were these
fragments of nearly every nation of the East aocumuUited in motley disorder in
this comer of the continent.

To the south of this great monntam barrier the migrations between Europe
and Asia pould take place only by sea — a high-road open to those nations alone
who were sufficiently advanced in civilisation to have acquired the art of building
ships. Whether pirates, merchants, or warriors, they had raised themselves long
ago above a state of primitive barbarism, and even thnr voyages of conquest added
something to the stock of human knowledge. Moreover, owing to the difficulties
of navigation, they migrated only in small bodies. At whatever point they settled
they came into contact with populations of a different race from their own, and this
intercourse gave birth to a number of local civilisations, each bearing its own stamp,
and nowhere did their influence preponderate. Every isLmd of the Archipela(^x>, and
every valley of ancient Hellas, differed firom its neighbours as regards social con-
dition, dialect, and customs, but they all remained Qreek, in spite of the Phconician
and other influences to which they had been subjected. It is thus owing to the

BVBOPE.

oonflguration of tho mountain oliaina and ooMt*Unef that the oMIiMtion whioh
developed itaelf graduully in the Moditorrunean oountrie* to the wuth of tho Alpa
was, upon the whole, more ipontaneoui in it« nature, and offered more Yariety
and greater oontratta, than the oiviltiation of the far Ioh adTanoed nationi of the
north, who were moving from place to pUoe on vast phiina.

The wide range of the Alps and of their advanced chains thus separated two
distinct worlds, in which historical development went on at a different rate. At
the same time, the separation between the two slopes of the Alpine system was by
no means •.'Omplete. Nowhere in the Alps do we meet with cold and uninhabited
pkteaux, as in the Andes and in Tibet, whose enormous extent forms almost
insurmountable barriers. The Alpine masses are out up everywhere into mountains
and valleys, and the climate of the latter is sufficiently mild to enable man to
exist in them. The mountaineers, who easily maintained their independence,
owing to the proteation extended to them by nature, first served as intermediariea
between the peoples inhabiting the opposite lowlands. It was they who effected
the rare exchanges of produce which took place between the North and South,
aud who opened the first commercial high-roads between the summits of the moun-
tains. The direction of the valleys and the deeply cut mountain passes even then
indicated the grand routes by which thu Alps would be crossed, at a future period,
for the purposes of commerce or of war. That portion of the Alps whioh lies
between the mountain masses of Savoy and of the Mediterranean would natu-
rally cease first to form an obstacle to military expeditions. The Alps there
are of great height, it is true, but they are narrower than anywhere else ; besides
whioh, the climate on the two opposite slopes is similar, and assi m i l ates the mode
of life and the customs of the people dwelling there. Far more formidable, at a
natural barrier, are the Alps to the north-east of Mont Blanc, for they constitute a
climatic boundary.

The other mountain ranges play but a secondary or local part in the history of
Europe, when we compare them with the Alps. Still, the influence whioh they
have exercised upon the destiny of nations is no less evident. The table-lands and
snow-fields of the Scandinavian Alps form a wall of separation between Norwegians
and Swedes. The quadrangular mountain fort of Bohemia, in the oentreof Europe,
whioh shelters the Oheohians, is almost entirely enclosed by Germans, and resembles
an island fretted by the waves of the ocean. The hills of Wales and of Soot-
land have afforded a shelter to the Oeltio race against the encroachments of
Anglo-Saxons, Danes, and Normans. The Bretons, in France, are indebted to
their rocks and landet for the fact of their not having yet become wholly French ;
whilst the table-land of Limousin, the hills of Auvergne, and th* Cevennes con-
stitute the principal cause of the striking oontrast which still exists between
the inhabitants of Northern and of Southern France. The Pyrenees, next to
the Alps, constitute the most formidable obstacle to the march of nations in
Europe; they would have remained an insurmountable rampart down to our
own time, were it not easy to pass round them by their extremities abutting upon
the

■4k,

THE MARITIME RE0I0N8.

Mtion which

of tho Alps

more rurietv

lutioni of the

oparated two

int rate. At

iratem woe by

uninhabited

forms almoet

to mountain!

lable man to

ndependenoe,

ntermediariee

who effected

1 and South,

ofthemoun-

leeeven then

Riture period,

pe which lies

would natu-

e Alps there

else; besides

ktes the mode

rmidable, as a

17 constitute a

the history of
e which they
lUe-lands and
n Norwegians
treof Europe,
and resembles

and of Soot-
■oachments of
) indebted to
lolly French ;
Terennes con-
lists between
nees, next to
»f nations in

down to our
ibntting upon

rV. — TiiK Maritimk Rroions.

Thb Talleys which radiate in all directions from the great central masses of the
Alps are admirably adapted for imparting to almost the whole of Europe a
remarkuble unity, whilst they offer, at the name time, an extreme variety of a«p(>ots
nn^ of physical conditions. The Po, the Rhone, the Rhine, and the Danube
trayerau <f>untries having the most diverse climates, and yet they have their
Houroes in tho same mountain region, and the fortiliaini; alluvium which they
deposit io their valleys results from the disintegration of the same rocks. Minor
valleys out up the "lopes of the Alps and of their dependent chains, and carry
towards the sea the waters of the mountains and tho triturated fragments of their
rooks. Rttsnint; waters are visible, wherever we oast our eyes. There are
neither deserts, nor sterile plateaux, uor inland lakes and river basins such as we
meet with in Africa and Asia. The rivers of Europo are not flooded as are those
of certain portions of South America, which deluge half the country with water.
On the contrary, in the scheme of her rivers Europe exhibits a certain degree of
moderation which has favoured the work of the settler, and facilitated the rise of
a local civilisation in each river basin. Moreover, although most rivers are suffi-
oiently large to have retarded migration, they are not sufficiently so to have
arrested it for any length of time. Even when roads and bridges did not exist,
barbarian immigrants easily made their way from the shores of the Black Sea to
those of the Atlantic.

But Europe, in addition to the advantages due to its framework of mountains
and the disposition of its river basins, enjoys the still greater advantage of poKsess-
ing an indented coast-line. It is mainly the contours of its coasts which impnrt to
Europe its double character of unity and diversity, which distinguish it amongst
continents. It is "one" because of its great central mass, and "diversified"
because of its numerous peninsulas and dependent islands. It is an organism, if
wo may say so, resembling a huge body furnished with limbs. Strabo compared
Europe to a dragon. The geographers of the period of the revival of letters
compared it to a crowned virgin, Spain being the head, France the heart, and
England and Italy the hands, holding the sceptre and the orb. Russia, at that
time hardly known, is made to do' duty for the ample folds of the robe.

The area of Europe is only half that of South America, and one-third of that
of Africa, and yet the development of its ooast-lines is superior to that of the two
continents taken together. In proportion to its area the coasts of Europe have
twioe the extent of those of South America, Australia, and Africa ; and although
they are to a small extent inferior to those of North America, it must be borne
in mind that the arotio coasts of the latter are ice-bound during the greater
portion ci tiiei year. A glance at the subjoined diagrams will show that Europe,
as compared with the two other continents washed by tbo Arctic Ocean, enjoys the
immense advantage of possessing a coast-line almost wholly available for purposes
of navigatitm, whilst a large portion of the coasts of Asia and America is altogether
useless to man. And not only does the sea penetrate into the very heart of

■i

iiiiiiM^

^^ff^ r

EUEOPE.

temperate Europe, cutting it up into elongated peninsulas, but these peninsulas,
too, are fringed with gulfs and miniature inland seas. The coasts of Greece, of
Thessaly, and of Thrace are thus indented by bays and gulfs, penetrating far into
the land; Italy and Spain likewise possess numerous bays and gulfs; and the
peninsulas of Northern Europe, Jutland, and Scandinavia are out up by the
waters of the ocean into numerous secondary peninsulas.

Fig. 3.— DtviLOPMBirr of Coast- UNBt kblatitblt to Abba.

EUROPE

ASIA

AFmCA

SOUTH AMCRICA

NORTH AMCRrCA

AUSTRALIA

4,006,100
3,7£8,30p

18,600

17,010

1:2-6

17,308,400
16,966,000

34.110

28,200

1:2-6

AfriMU

11.642,400
11,293,930

16,480

1:1-4

N. AniMiea.
0,376,860
7,973,700

8. Amcriaa.
6,808,670
6,731,470

3,460,130
2,934.600

Total area, aquare miles . .
Mainland „

Development of coast-line, )

miles >

Accessible ooftsU ....
Ratio of the geometrical to |

the actntd contour . . . )
The shaded circles represent the various continents ; the outer circle represents the actual extant of
coast-line. The blank space between the two concentric circles represents graphically the diiTerence
between the smallest possible or geometrical contour of a country having the area of the respective
continents, and the actual contour as exhibited in the existing ooast-Iines. Europe^ being in reality only
a peninsula of Aria, hardly admits of this comparison.

The islands of Europe must be lo<^ed upon as dqiendencies of that continent,
for most of them are separated from it only by shallow seas. Oandia and the
islands scattered broadcast over the JBgean Sea, the Archipelagos of the Ionian
Sea, and of Dalmatia, Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia, Elba, and the Baleares, are in
reality but prolongations, or maritime out-stations, of neighbouring peninsalas. To
the islands of Sealand and Fyen, at the entrance to the Baltic, Denmark owes

'. '' 41-1J.Ui.JJA.J|i.

■^ ii iii m ii ui i iwui i Mi i i ii wifciui iis im

THE MABITIME REGION.

se peninsulas,
of Qreece, of
rating far into
ulfs; and the
ut up by the

TRIU

ItTKAUA

Amriaa.
,808,070
,781,470

AmtiaUK.
3,460,180

2,934,«00

the actual extaitk of
ically the diffemm
» of the raapeotive
)eiiig ia nalitjr only

that continent,
Oandia and the
i of the Ionian
Baleares, are in
peninralas. To
Denmark owes

most of her commercial and political importance. Great Britain and Ireland,
which actually formed a portion of the European continent in a past age, cannot
be looked upon otherwise than as dependencies of it, although the isthmus which
once joined them has been destroyed by the waters of the ocean. England has
actually become the gprand commercial emporium of Europe, and plays now the
same part in the world's commerce that Gre^e once played in that of the more
restricted world of the Mediterranean.

It is a remarkable fact that each of the European peninsulas should have
enjoyed in turn a period of commercial preponderance. Ghreece, the " most noble
individuality of the world of the ancients," came first, and when at the height of
her power governed the Mediterranean, which at that time meant nearly the whole
universe. During the Middle Ages Amalfi, Genoa, and Venice became the com-
mercial agents between Europe and the Indies. The discovery of a passage round
the Gape and of America diverted the world's commerce to Oadiz, Seville, and
Lisbon, on the Iberian peninsula. Subsequently the merchants of the small
Dutch Bepublic seized a portion of the heritage of Spain and Portugal, and the
wealth of the entire world was floated into the harbours of their sea-bound islands
and peninsulas. In dUr own days Qreat Britain, thanks to its favourable geo-
graphical position, in the very centre of great continental masses, and the energy
of its people, has become the great mart of the world. London, the most populous
city of the world, is alw the great centre of attraction for the treasures of man-
kind ; but there can be no dodbt ihat sooner or later it will be supplanted, in
consequence of the opening of new commercial high-roads, and changes in the
political preponderance of nations. Perhaps some city of the United States will
take the place oi London in a future age, and thus the American belief in the
westward march of civilisation will be verified ; cr we may possibly return to the
East, and convert Constantinople or Oairo into the world's emporium and centre of
intercourse.

But, whatever may happen in the future, ihe great changes which have taken
place in the relative importance of the peninsulas and islands of Europe in the
diort span of twenty centuries, sufficiently prove that geographical features
exercise a varying influence at different epochs. That which at one time was
looked upon as a great natural advantage may become, in course of time, a serious
disadvantage. Thus the numerous inlets and guL» enclosed by mountain chains,
which fiivoqred the rise of the cities of Greece, and gave to Athens tlie dominion
of the Medifdrranean, now constitute as many obstacles to their cotmeotion with
the existing system of European communications. Thai which in former times
ctmstituted the strength of the country has become its weakness. In primitive
times, before man ventured upon the seas, these bays and gulls formed insur-
mountable obstacles to the migration of nations ; at a later date, when the art of
navigati(m had been acquired, they became commercial high-roads, and were
&vourable to the development of civilisation ; and at the present time ihey are
again obstacles in the way of our road'builders and railway engineers.

-> &

»F!«S»}!-»»^««flW*.

^ss^vmf!'^"'

EUBOPB.

V. — Olimate.

The influence exeroiBed by the relief of the land and the configuration of the
coasts varies in diiferent ages, but that of climate is permanent. In this respect
Europe is the most favoured region of the earth, for during a cycle of unknown
length it has enjoyed a climate at once the most temperate, the most equable, and
the most healthy of all continents.

Owing to the inland seas which penetrate far into the land, the whole of
Europe is exposed to the modifying influence of the ocean. With the exception
of Central Russia, no part of Europe is more than 400 miles from the sea, and, as
most of the mountains slope from the centre of the continent towards its circum-
ference, the influence of the sea breezes is felt throughout. And thus continental
Europe, in spite of its great extent, enjoys the advantages of an insular olimate
throughout, the winds passing over the ocean moderating th« heat of summer and
tempering the cold of winter.

The continuous north-easterly movement of the waters of the Atlantic likewise
has a favourable effect upon the climate of Europe. After having been heated by
a tropical sun in the Gulf of Mexico, the gulf-stream issues through the Strait of
Florida, and, spreading over the Atlantic, takes its course towards the coasts of
Europe. This enormous mass of warm water, equal in volume to twenty million
rivers as large as the Rhone, brings the warmth of southern latitudes to the
western and northern shores of Europe. Its influence is telt not only in the
maritime countries of Western Europe, but to some extent as far as the Caspian
and the ITral Mountains.

The currents of the air exercise as favourable an influence upon the climate of
Europe as do those of the ocean. The south-westerly winds predominating on the
coasts pass over the warm gulf-stream, and, on reaching Europe, they part with the
heat stored up by them between the tropics. The north-westerly, northerly, and
even north-easterly winds, which blow during a portion of the year, are less cold
than might be expected, for theiy, too, have to cross the warm waters of the gulf-
stretmi. Atid lastly, there is the Sahara, which elevates the temperature of a
portion of Europe.

The increase in temperature due to the combined influence of winds and
ocean currents amounts to 40°, 50°, and even 60°, if we compare Eurt^ with
other parts of the world lying under the same latitudes. Nowhere else, not even
on the western coast of North America, do the isothermals, or lines of equal annual
temperature, ascend so high towards the arctic regions. The inhabitants of
Europe, though they may live 900 to 1,200 miles fiirther away from the equator,
enjoy as mild a climate as do those of America, and the decrease of temperature
on going northward is fiur less rapid tiiaii in any other pari' of the globe. This
uniformity of temperature oonifttitutes one of the most characteristic features of
Europe. The whole of it lies within the temperate region bounded by the
isothermal lines of 82° F. and 68° F., whilst in America and Asia that {nrivileged
Kone has only half this extent.

mmamBSBm

CLIMATE.

ration of tbe
u this respect
) of unknown
b equable, and

tlie whole of
the exception
iie sea, and, as
ds its ciroum-
lus continental
nsular climate
>f summer and

Aantic likewise
)een heated by
'h the Strait of
8 the coasts of
twenty million
ttitudes to the
at only in the
as the Caspian

1 the climate of
ninating on the
y port with the
, northerly, and
ur, are less cold
ers of the gulf-
mperature of a

) of winds and
re Europe with
re dse, not even
of equal annual
inhabitants of
rom the equator,
) of temperature
^e globe. This
ristio features of
)ounded by the
» that inrinleged

This remarkable uniformity in the climate of Europe is exhibited not only in
its temperature, but likewise in the distribution of its rains. The seas washing
the shores of Europe supply all parts of it with the necessary amount of moisture.
There is no rainless district, nor, with the exception of a portion of the maritime
region of the Caspian and a small corner of Spain, any district where droughts
occasionally entail the entire loss of the harvest. Rains fall not only regularly
every year, but in most countries they occur in every season, ihe only exception
being the countries of the Mediterranean, where autumn and winter are the real
rainy seasons. Moreover, in spite of the great diversity in the physical features of
Europe, the amount of rain is scarcely anywhere excessive, whether it descends as
a fine drizzle, as in Ireland, or in heavy showers, as in Provence and on the

Fig. 4.— Tbb Ibothirmal Zom or Evhopi.
Bt^iinfloojooa.

•0

•l»to»rt*A-

a«Nto«M»lt

• •Man.

southern dope of the Alps. The annual rainMl scarcely ever exceeds thirty-nine
inches, except on the flunks of certain mountain ranges vrhich arrest the passage
of oonents charged with moisture. This uniformity and moderation in the rain-
&U exercise a regulating influence upon the course of the rivers, for even the
smallest amongst Uiem, at all events those to the north of the Pyrenees, the Alps,
and ihe Balkan, flow throughout the year. They rise and fidl generally within
narrow limits, and inundations on a vast scale are as rare as is want at water for
purposes of irrigation. In consequence of this regularity, Europe is able to derive
a greater advantage fiN»n its waters than other continents where the amount of
precipitation is more considerable. The Alps contribute much towards main-

MriMMMpiMi

EUBOPB.

taining a regular flow of the riven ; the excess of humidity which fidls to their
share is stored up in the shape of snow and ice, which descend slowly into the
valleys, and melt daring the heat of summer. This happens just at a time when
the rivers gain least from rain, and lose most by evaporation, and some amongst
them would dry up if the ice of the mountains did not come to the aid of the
waters descending from the sky. It is thus that a sort of balance is established in
the economy of European rivers.

The climate of Europe is thus characterized by uniformity as a whole, and by a
compensatory action in its contrasts. Regularity and freedom from excess, such
as are not known in other continents, mark its ocean currents, its winds, its
temperature and rains, and the course of its rivers. These great advantages
have benefited its inhabitants in the past, and will not cease to do so in the
future. Though small in extent, Europe possesses by far the largest area of
acclimation. Man may migrate from Russia to Spain, or from Ireland to Greece,
without exposing himself to any great risk of life. The inhabitants of the
Caucasus and the Ural Mountains were thus able to cross the plains and mountains
of Europe, and to establish themselves on the shores of the Atlantic. Soil and
climate are equally propitious to man, and enable him to preserve his physical and
intellectual powers wherever he goes. A migratory people might found new
homesteads in any part of Europe. Their companions of travel — the dog, the
horse, and the ox — would not desert them on the road, and the seed-corn which
they carry with them would yield a harvest wherever confided to the earth.

■JL.

VI. — ^iNHABtTANTS.

A STUDY of the soil and a patient observation of climatic phenomena enaUe us
to appreciate the general influmce exercised by the nature of the country upon
the development of its inhabitants ; but it is more difficult to assign to each race
or nation its due share in the progress of European civilisation. No doubt, in
their struggles for existrace, di^erent groups of naked and ignorant savages must
have been acted upon differently, according to their numbers and physical strength,
their inborn intelligence, their tastes and mental tendencies. But who were those
primitive men who first turned to account the natural resources of the country in
which they dwelt P We know not ; for, if we go back for a few thousand years,
every fact is shrouded in darkness. We know nothing even as r^^ards the origin
of the leading nations of Europe. Are we the " sons of the soil," and the " shoots
of oak-trees," as told in the poetical language of ancient tradition, or are we to
look upon the inhabitants of Asia as the ancestors to whom we are indebted for
our languages, and for the rudiments of our arts and sciences P Or did those
immigrants from a neighbouring continent settle down amongst an indigenous
population P Not many years ago the Asiatic origin of European nations was
accepted as an established fact, and the original seats o{ our forefikthers were
pointed out upon the map of Asia. But now most men of soienoe are agreed to

rngmmmmmmmmmmmmm

mMS!»wmmmmmmmm^■nfmml mm

1^"

'A.-j>>%£«UKitiil¥>«&£;.L'ki-.- '.

falls to their
owly into the
b a time when
some amongst
the aid of the
established in

hole, and by a
n excess, such
its winds, its
at advantages
do so in the
irgest area of
and to Greece,
bitants of the
and mountains
itic. Soil and
Is physical and
ht found new
—the dog, the
9ed-oom which
e earth.

aena enable ns
3 country upon
^ to each race

Ko doubt, in
it savages must
ysical strength,
who were those

the country in
thousand years,
;ards the origin
md the " shoots
in, or are we to
xe indebted for
Or did those
I an indigenous
san nations was
bre&thers were
se are agreed to

»iattiiAii

' " .. i i iB ii j i j iiwii*^^^

INHABITANTS.

wek our ancestors upon the very soil which we, their descendants, still occupy.
Caverns, the shores of oceans and lakes, and the alluvial beds of our rivers have
yielded the remains of human industry, and even human skeletons, which clearly
prove that long before these supposed immigrations from Asia there existed in
Europe tribes who had already made some progress in human industry. Even in
the childhood of history there existed tribes who were looked upon as aborigines, and
some of their descendants — as, for ^ •»nce, the Basks — have nothing in common
with the invaders from the neighbouring continent. Nor is it universally admitted
that the Aryans — that is, the ancestors of the Pelasgians, the Greeks, the Latins,
Celts, Germans, and Slavs — are of Asiatic origin. Similarity of language may
justify our belief in the common origin of the Aryans of Europe, the Persians, and
the Hindoos, but it does not prove that their ancestral home should be looked for
somewhere near the sources of the Oxus. Many men of learning * look upon the
Aryans as aborigines of Europe, but certainty on this point does not exist No
doubt, in prehistoric times, intermigrations between the two continents were
frequent ; but we hardly know what directions they took, and can speak with
certainty only of those migrations of peoples which are related by history. We
thus know that Europe sent forth to other continents Oalatians, Macedonians, and
Qreeks, and more recently innumerable emigrants of all nationalities, and received
in turn Huns, Avares, Turks, Mongols, Circassians, Jews, Armenians, Moors,
Berbers, and members of many other nations.

Leaving out of consideration the smaller families of nations, as well as the
members of races who have not attained a national existence, Europe may
be described as consisting of three great ethnological divisions, the principal
boundary between which is formed by the Alps, the Carpavhians, and the
Balkan.

The first of these great families of European nations, the members of which
speak Oreco-Latin languages, occupies the southern slopes of the Balkan and of the
Alps, the Iberian peninsula, France, and a portion of Belgium, as well as a few
detached territories within the limits of ibe ancient Roman empire, altogether
surrounded by alien nations. Such are the plains of the Lower Danube and a
portion of Transylvania, which are inhabited by the Rumanians, and a few
tocluded Alpine valleys inhabited by " Romans." On the other hand, fragments
of two ancient nations have maintained their ground in the midst of Latinised
populations, viz. die Celtic inhabitants of Brittany, and the Basks of the Pyrenees.
Generally speaking, however, all the inhabitants of South-western Europe, whether
of Celtic, Iberian, or Ligurian race, speak languages derived from the Latin, and
whatever diffeieaces existed originally between these various populations, this
oonununity of language has more or less obliterated them.

The Teutonic nations form the second great group. They occupy nearly the
whole of Central Europe to the north of the Alps, and extend through Holland and
Flanders to within a short distance of the Straits of Dover. Denmark and the
great Soandinavian peninsula, as well as Iceland, belong to the same group, and

* L>th«m, Benfey, Ouno, Spiegal, and othoi.

EUBOPR

the bulk of the inhabitants of the British Islands are likewise generally inoluded
in it. The latter, however, should rather be described as a mixed race, for the
aboriginal Celtic population of these islands, which now exists pure only in u few
remote districts, has amalgamated with Anglo-Saxon and Danish invaders, and
the language of the latter has become mixed with mediroval French, the
resulting idiom being almost as much Latin as Saxon. The development of
national characteristics has been favoured by the isolation in which the inha-
bitants of the British Islands found themselves, and they differ essentially flrom
continental neighbours — the Scandinavians, Qermans, and Oelto-Latins — in Ion-
guage and customs.

The Slavs, or Slavonians, form the third group of European nations. They are
less numerous than the Greco-Latins, but the territories they occupy are far more
extensive, for they spread over nearly the whole of Russia, over Poland, a large
portion of the Balkan peninsula, and about one-half of the Austro-Hungarian
monarchy. All the g^reat plains to the east of the Carpathians are inhabited by
Slavs, either pure or mixed with Tartars and Mongols. To the west and south
of the mountains the race is split up into numerous small nations, and in the
valley of the Danube these come into contact with Rumanians, as well as with
Turks and Magyars, the two latter being of Asiatic origin, and these separate the
Slavonians of the north from the Slaronians of the south. In the north, Finns,
Livonians, and Lithuanians interpose between the Slavonians and the Germanic
nations.*

Race and language, however, are not always identical. Members of one race
frequently speak the language of another, and race and linguistic boundaries,
therefore, differ frequently. As for the political boundaries, they scarcely ever
follow those natural feati i~3 which would have been selected had their settlement
been intrusted to the spontaneous action of the different nations. They hardly
ever coincide with the boundaries of races or of languages, except in the case of a
few high mountain ranges or of arms of the sea. On many occasions the countries
of Europe were arbitrarily split up in consequence of wars or diplomatic arrange-
ments. A few peoples only, protected by the. nature of their country as well as

* Popuktion of Euiope, about 805,000,000 :

Oraoo-Iiktiii.

OrMki . .

2,600,000

Albaniuui

1,2«0,000

ItalikM .

27,700,000

French .

80,700,000

Sputiardsand For-

tngueae

20,210.000

Rnmaniaiu ■

8,400,000

BhntiaotC'Bomaiu") 42,000
09,902,000

flw IMIllll

Oennaiu . 63,400,000

Dntoh and Flemish 0,720,000

Soandinavians 6,640,000

Anglo-Saxons . 80,600,000

Finns 4,700,(^

Onnanli 1,800,000

Magyars 6,770,000

Tartan 2,600,000

Calmuoks .... 100,000

96,860,000

BteTonie.

Bnssians

. 69.000.000

Poles .

11.800,000

6.760,000

Servians

6.760.000

Sloyenes

1.200,000

Bulgarians .

8,100,000

Included aboTO are 4,600,000 Jews.

87,600.000

GelU . . .

. 1,600,000

Basks . . .

. . 700,000

Letts. &c.

. 2,000,000

Armenians

. 280,000

Gipsies . . .

. 690,000

Circassians

400,000

59,000,000
11,800,000
6,760,000
«,7<0,000
1,200,000
3,100,000

ARITANT8. M

by their ynlour, hare maintained i«ir itt'iMfmid'^ce since the af^e of ^itk mlgrn-
tiona, but many more have b«^t iv ptavviiy by cocmivo invasions. Mati^ otb «,
again, have alternately seen their rontiers ex rid and oontraot me*''' ti <n ica
even during a generation.

. The so-oalled "baUnce of European powers," fouiul «• it is u * th# rif: 'to
of war and ambitious riyabries between nations, is uet <Mirily iinr ,Ale. Nations
eminently fit to lead a common political existence uv orn an m.ior on the one
side, whilst the most heterogeneous elements are thrown uig< iher on- the other. In
these political arrangements the nations themselves are never consulted, but their
wishes and inclinations must nevertheless prevail in the end, and the artificial
edifice raised by warriors and statesmen will come to the ground. A true
"balance of power" will only be established when every nation of the continent
shall have become the arbiter of its own destinies, when every pretended right of
conquest shall have been surrendered, and neighbouring nations shall be at liberty
to combine for the management of the affairs they have in common. Our arbitrary
political divisions, therefore, possess but a transitory value. They cannot altogether
be ignored ; but in the following descriptions we shall, as far as possible, adhere
to the great natural divisions as defined by mountains and valleys, and by the
distribution of nations having the same origin and speaking the same language.
But even these natural boundaries lose their importance in countries like
Switzerland, inhabited by nations speaking different languages, but held together
by the strongest of all ties — the common enjoyment of freedom.

From an historical point of view a description of Europe should commence with
the maritime countries of the Mediterranean. It was Greece which gave birth to
our European civilisation, and which at one time occupied the centre of the known
world. Her poets first sang the praises of venturesome navigators, and her
histdrians and philosophers collected and classified the information received with
respect to foreign countries. In a subsequent age, Italy, in the very centre of the
Mediterranean, took the place of Greece, and for fifteen centuries maintained
herself therein : Genoa, Venice, and Florence succeeded Rome, as the leaders of
the civilised world. During that period the surrounding nations gravitated
towards tike Mediterranean and Italy; and it was only when the Italians
themselves enlarged the terrestrial sphers by the discovfry of a new world beyond
the ocean that this preponderance passed away from them, to remain for a short
time with the Iberian peninsula. Greece had been the mediator between Europe
and the ancient civilisationa of Asia and Africa ; Spain and Poiingal became the
representatives of Europe in America and the extreme Orient ; historical develop-
ment in its progress had followed the axis of the Mediterranean £rom east to west.

It will be found natural, under these circumstances, when we describe the three
Mediterranean peninsulas in the same volume, particularly as they are peopled
almost exclusively by Greco-Latin nations. France, though likewise Latinised,
nevertheless occupies a distinct position. It is a Mediterranean country only as
respects Provence and Languedoo, the rest of its territory sloping towards the
Atlantic. Its geographical positiou and history have made France the great
2

m^S^SStSSSSSS^

M fca«v Tariff, 4-.-~r>"i

'iWtii'ij'ipaBHHHiRMfcsKi*-^

EIJHOPB.

A.ul n.«. to .xch.nK» «r PJ^J^;;^ •"J/J^. t<^,M upon U.«..H.
taportod inW Fmnc fro,a .11 part. «f *='"°P'; '"^^ ^ „, j^, g„„.k. Next «
part o( »» inwrprotcr We«. A. n...on. of th. N""^"^"' ^.^.^ ij,^
Franc w. -hall d.«rib. A. Oennanio oountn.. o Europe.
^ taudiuuvi. i und U»tly, .1.0 in,n.on« .n.p.ro oi Ba-,-

(I of th«

deal are

oot the

Next to

Iiluids,

■^'^.\ ^

■i • . •*'/, .■}&. .V* , > st"_-~

\; •<, '?^ ^

-^ "i^4^

A. ^' >L ''.:.

r«*r" vii 'T 1,

'*:;- / '■'-- *'

"- , ' \„ „■...,«, :..» -■ ifv . •Ill,* 1

milW i.m ii,.«ii'i.ll!iailLi ^.,<ini . I'illlliiiii,.

■»

THE MEDITERRANEAN.

I. — Hydmilooy.

tA«

REECE and its inaular satellites prove su£Bciently that the unstahle
floods of the Mediterranean have exercised a greater influence upon
the march of history than did the solid land upon which man trod.
Western civilisation would never have seen the light had not the
waters of the Mediterranean washed the shores of Egypt, Phoenicia,
Asia Minor, Hellas, Italy, Spain, and Carthage. The western nations would have
remained in their primitive barbarism if it had not been for the Mediterranean,
which joined Europe, Asia, and Africa ; facilitated the intercourse between Aryans,
Semites, and Berbers ; and rendered more equable the climate of the surrounding
countries, thus facilitating access to them. For ages it appeared almost as if man-
kind could prosper only in the neighbourhood of this central sea, for beyond its
basin only decayed nations were to be met with, or tribes not yet awakened to mental
activity. " Like frogs around a swamp, so have we settled down on the shores of
this sea," said Plato ; and the sea he refers to is the Mediterranean. It is therefore
deserving of description quite as much as the inhabited countries which surround
it. Unfortunately many mysteries still remain hidden beneath its waves.*

From an examination of the coasts, as well as from the traditions of the people
inhabiting them, we learn that the Mediterranean has varied frequently in its
contours and oxtent. The straits which connect its waters with those of the
ocean have frequently changed their position. At a time when peninsulas like
Greece, and even islands like Malta, formed part of continental masses — and that
they did so in a comparatively recent geological epoch is proved, by their fossil
fauna — ^the waters of the Mediterranean covered large portions of Africa, of
Southern Bussia, and even of Asia. The researches of Spratt, Fuchs, and others
have satisfactorily proved that towards the close of the miooene age a vast fresh*

• W. H. Smith, <• The Mediterranean."— Dureau de k Malle,
Koin et de la lIMitemnie."— Bdttger, •' Daa Mittelmeer."

' Giographia Phyiiqae de I» ller

:<^

s ' si^&j.ddMa^

THE MEDITEREANEAN.

water laka stretched from the banks of the Aral, across Russia, the plains of the
Danube and the Archipelago, as far as Syracuse in Sicily. Then came the briny
waters of the osean. There was a time when the Black Sea and the Caspian
connected the Archipelago with the Gulf of the Obi. At another epoch the gulfs
of the Syrtes penetrated far inland, and a large portion of what is now the Libyan
and Saharan desert was then covered with water. The Strait of Gibraltar, which
was torn asunder by Hercules according to the traditions of the ancients, is in
reality but of recent origin, and has taken the place of a more ancient strait which
joined the Mediterranean to the Bed Sea and Indian Ocean : this strait has been
restored by human hands, and is known now as the Suez Canal. The coast-lines of
the Mediterranean are undergoing perpetual change, owing to the upheaval or
subsidence of the countries surrounding it. The Nile, the Po, the Rhone, and
other rivers incessantly enlarge the alluvial plains at their mouths, and still
further encroach upon the sea. Actually the Mediterranean, with its subordinate

Fig. 5. — Tub Depth of tbi Mkoitbrranbam.
Fi-om a Chut by M. Deleoe.

oCc

£•

. k

|v>

ft»

♦*

*•

••.

i«.

OMMor iiomiooon immiuoi-

seas from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Sea of Azof, covers an area about thirty
times that of the British Islands. This area is small if we compare it with the
immense development of the coasts and the wealth in peninsulas, which impart an
aspect of life and independence to at least one-third of the ancient world. The
Mediterranean^ though it takes precedence of all the oceans, in consequence of the
part it has played in history, nevertheless only covers an area one-seventieth that
of the Pacific* It is broken up, moreover, into several separate seas, some of them
so small in extent that the navigator hardly ever loses sight of the land. In the

Area of the Mediterranean basin : —

Europe
■ ■
Drainage of

Asia
Africa .
Mediterranean Sea

683,(00 square miles.

232,000 „

1,737,500 „

l.lfi3,300 „

Ot
H

3,806,300

'^ j^.tf^aimifctw..,., !...,. iiw

HYDEOLOGY.

B of the

e briny

Caspian

he gulfs

Libyan

r, which

ts, is in

it which

has been

it-lines of

eaval or

lone, and

and still

ibordinate

l«»

¥>

V»

ibout thirty
it with the
h impart an
rorld. The
lence of the
entieth that
>me of them
nd. In the

semtimmmmtt

east we have the Black Sea, with its two dependencies, the Seas of Azof and of
Marmara. The ^gean Sea, or Archipelago, with its numerous islands, extends
between the deeply indented coasts of Greece, Asia Minor, and Crete. The
Adriatic stretches towards the north-west, between the Balkan peninsula and
Italy ; and the Mediterranean proper is divided into two separate basins, which
might appropriately be called the Phoenician and Carthaginian Seas, or the Greek
and Boman Mediterraneans. Each of these basins is again subdivided, the one by
Crete, the other by the two islands of Sardinia and Corsica. These various
subdivisions of the Mediterranean differ in area, and still more in depth. The Sea
of Azof almost deserves the name of " Swamp," which was bestowed upon it by
the ancients, for if a ship sinks in it the masts remain visible above the water.
The Black Sea has a maximum depth of over 1,000 fathoms, but the narrow strait
which joins it to the Sea of Marmara is shallower than many a European river.
The cavity filled by the Sea cf Marmara is far inferior to that of many an inland
lake ; and the Dardanelles, like the Bosphorus, are hardly wider than a river. In
the Archipelago and the eastern basin of the Mediterranean proper the depth
corresponds with the protuberance of the land. Abyssal depths and "pits " of 260
and even of 540 fathoms are to be found in close proximity to the scarped
mountain islands of the Cyclades, whilst on the low coasts of Egypt the water
deepens only gradually, until in the centre of the Levantine Sea it attains a depth
of 1,750 fathoms. The maximum depth — 2,170 fathoms — ^is attained between
Crete and Malta. If the whole of the waters of the Mediterranean were to be
collected into an aqueous sphere, the latter would have a diameter of 90 miles ;
if it fell down upon the earth, it would not even wholly cover a country like
Switzerland.

The Ionian Sea is separated from the Adriatic by a submarine ridge rising in
the Strait of Otranto, and bounded on the west by a shoal or submarine isthmus,
already referred to by Strabo, which joins Sicily to Tunis. This isthmus forms
the true geological boundary between tiie western and eastern basins of the
Mediterranean, which are oonneoted here by a narrow breach only, the depth of
which hardly exceeds 100 fathoms. The western of these basins is the smaller and
shallower of the two, but nevertheless it attains a depth of 1,100 fathoms in the
Tyrrhenian, and of 1,360 fitihoms and even 1,640 in the Balearic Sea, and is
separated from the waters of the Atlantic by a submarine ridge lying outside the
Strait of Gibraltar, and joining Europe to Africa.*

This subdivisicm of the Mediterranean into separate basins, divided from each
other by shoals or submarine ridges, by islands and promontories, sufficiently
explains the contrasts between the phenomena of the open ocean and those observed
here. In the Mediterranean, it is well known, the tides are almost everywhere
irr^ular and uncertain^ To the east of the Narrows of Gibraltar, in the sea
extending between Andalusia and Morocco, the tides are hardly felt at all, and

Warfnttbuin.
* Are* . 3U,800

Gmtert dqtth, ftthonu 1,640
Avanga de|)th, ... 040

DMtembuin.

Adriatic.

IreUpelago.

BlaakSok

602,000

60,200

60,600

186,300

1,163,800

2,170

S40

1,070

8.170

0«0

820

S20

640

rr^fm

86 THE MEDITEBBANEAN.

they are, moreover, interfered with to such an extent by currents that it is exceed-
ingly difficult to determine their amplitude, or the establishment of the various
ports. Nevertheless the rise and fall of the tidal wave are sufficiently marked to
have attracted the attention of Greek and Italian navigators. On the coasts of
Catalonia, France, Liguria, Naples, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt the oscillation
is hardly perceptible, but on those of Eastern Sicily and of the Adriatic the tide
sometimes rises three feet, and, if accompanied by storms, may even attain a height
of ten feet in certain localities. The Straits of Messina and of Earipo (Eubcea) have
their regular tides, and in the Gulf of Gabes the waters rise and fall with the same
regularity as in the open ocean. In the Black Sea, however, nc tidal moyements

Fi^. 6. — The Strait of Gibbaltar
According to Robtque^, Rand^nn', and otlnrt. Srato 1 : 700.000.

Depth !••« Own nsMlwins
Bcplk II* Xm tf fetksms

Deplk «7« t* U» bOienw
•r U« bthnm
nllilM.

whatever have been discovered hitherto. It is nevertheless probable that more
careful observations will lead to the discovery of a feeble tide, for it is believed
that this phenomenon exists even on Lake Michigan, which has only one-fifth the
area of the Black Sea.

The Mediterranean differs not only from the open ocean with respect to the
feebleness and irregularity of its fides, but it is likewise without a great stream-
current keeping in constant circulation the whole body of its waters. The currents
which have been observed in various dividons of the Mediterranean can be ascribed
only to local causes. An Italian geographer of the last century, ?*^omtanari, has

that more
18 beUeved
le-fifth the

peotto the
at stream-
lie currents
be ascribed
itanari, has

HYDEOLOGY. 27

advanced an hypothesis of a great circuit current which entered the Mediterranean
through the Strait of Gibraltar, and, after having washed the shores of Africa as
far as Egypt, returned to the west along those of Asia and Europe ; but careful
observers have vainly endeavoured to discover its existence. They have met only
with local currents, produced by an indraught of the waters of the Atlantic, by
winds, by the floods of rivers, or by an excess of evaporation. One of these
currents sets along the coasts of Morocco and Algeria from west to east ; another
flows along the Italian coast of the Adriatic from north to south ; and a third
from the mouth of the Rhone in the direction of Cette and Port Vendres. In
&ot, the configuration of the sea-bottom, and particularly the shoal between Sicily
and Tunis, precludes the existence of any but surface currents in the Mediter-
ranean.

Amongst the local currents the existence of which has been most clearly
established are those which convey the waters of the Sea of Azof into the Black
Sea, and those of the latter into the Archipelago. The Don more than makes up
for the loss by evaporation in the Sea of Azof, and its surplus waters find an exit
through the Strait of Kerch into the Black Sea. Similarly the waters of the
Dniester, the Dnieper, the Rion, and of the rivers of Asia Minor, and, above all, of
the Danube, whicn by itself conveys a lai^r volume of water into the Black Sea
than all the others combined, are discharge through the Bosphorus and the
Dardanelles into the Archipelago. On the other hand, the Archipelago returns to
the Black Sea, by means of a submarine counter-current and of lateral surface
currents, a certain quantity of salt water for the iresh water which it receives in
oxoess. This «iohaage accounts for the salineness of the waters of the Black
Sea. The volume of fresh water discharged into it by the Danube and other
rivers is so large that in the course of a thousand years its waters would become
perfectly fresh, if there did not exist these compensatory highly saline counter-
currents.

Analogous pnenomena take place at the other extranity of the Mediterranean.
Evaporation there is excessive, owing to the neighbourhood of the burning sands
of the deserts, the winds from which blow freely over the sea, absorbing the
vapours and dispersing the clouds. The loss by evaporation amounts to at least
•even feet in the course of a year, and as the annual rainfall is estimated to amount
to twenty inches only, and the volume of water discharged annually by all the
tributary rivers of the Mediterranean, if uniformly spread over its surface, would
hardly exceed ten inches in depth, there exists thus an excess of evaporation
amounting annually to more than four feet ; and this excess has to be made good
by an inflow al the waters of the Atlantic, which takes place through the Strait of
Gibraltar, whose volume far exceeds that of the Amazon in a state of flood. This
inflow of the waters of the Atlantic is felt, as a ourrMit, as &r as the coasts <^
Sicily, and, like all other currents, it is bounded by latend currents flowing in a
direction contrary to that of the main current. During ebb the insetting Atlantic
current takes up the whole of the strait, but when the tide rises the Mediterranean
reaists more sucoessfully the pressure of the ocean, and this struggle gives birth to

■^f' Mi

nMM

■l!i_-i| —

THE MEDITEBBANEAN.

two counter-currents, one of which akirts the coast of Europe, the other that of
Africa between Ceuta and Cape Spartel ; the latter is the larger and more powerful
of the two. In addition to these, there exists a submarine current, which conveys
the highly saline and heavier waters of the Mediterranean out into the Atlantic.

The quantity of salt held in solution in various parts of the Mediterranean
differs widely, as the submarine ridges and shoals which divide it into separate
basins do not permit its waters to mingle as freely as in the open ocean. Owing
to the excess of evaporation, the quantity of salt in greater on the whole than in the
Atlantic, and this is the case more particularly on the coast of Africa. But in the
Black Sea it is far less, and near the mouths of some of the large rivers which
enter that sea the water is almost fresh.*

The temperature of the Mediterranean is affected by the same causes which
produce its varying salineness, viz. the existence of shoals and banks, which
separate it into distinct sub-basins. In the open ocean the currents convey to all
latitudes large bodies of water, some of them heated by a tropical sun, others cooled
by contact with the ice of the polar regions. But these layers of unequal density
are regularly superimposed one upon the other, owing to the differences in their
temperature: the warm water remains on the surface, whilst the cold water
descends to the bottom. In the Mediterranean an analogous superimposition
exists only to a depth of 110 fathoms, which is the depth of the Atlantic current,
flowing into it through the Strait of Gibraltar. If a thermometer be lowered to a
greater depth it will indicate no further decrease of temperature, and the immense
body of water, remaining almost still at the bottom of the Mediterranean, has an
equable temperature of about 56° F. Observations made at depths varying
between 110 and 1,640 fathoms have always exhibited the same result. Professor
Carpenter believes, however, that the abyssal waters of some of the volcanic regions
have a somewhat higher temperature, which may be due to the presence of lava in
a state of fusion.

II. — Animal Life. Fisheries and Salt Pans.

Another remarkable feature of the abyssal waters of the Mediterranean consists
in their poverty of animal life. No doubt there is some life ; the dredgings of the
Porcupine and the teleg^ph cables, which, on being brought to the surface, were
found to be covered with shells and polypes, prove this. But, compared with those of
the ocean, the depths of the Mediterranean are veritable deserts. Edward Forbes,
who explored the waters of the Archipelago, arrived at the conclusion that their
abyssal depths were entirely devoid of life, but he was wrong when he assumed an
exceptional case like this to represent a universal law. Carpenter thinks that
this absence of life in the depths of the Mediterranean is due to the great quantity
of organic remains which is carried into it by the rivers. These remains absorb
the oxygen of the water, and part with their carbonic acid, which is detrimental to

* Quantity of lalt held in solution in the Atlantic, 36 pwta in 1,000 ; in th« If editemuunn (intMi),
38 parta; in the Black tJea, 16 parts.

ofi

•m»

'^W

I that of
jwerful
jnveys
atio.
brranean
|separate
Owing
in the
I in the
which

which

rey to all

irs cooled

1 density

in their

Id water

mposition

c current,

rored to a

I immense

in, has an

8 varying

Professor

lie regions

of lava in

n consists
Qgs of the
face, were
th those of
rd Forbes,
that their
ssumed an
links that
t quantity
ins absorb
imental to

(iDewi)t

Sf!»«B

■P

ANIMAL LIFB. M

animal life. In numerous instances the water of the Mediterranean contains only
one-fourth the normal quantity of the former gas, but fifty per cent, in excess of
the latter. To the presence of these organic remains the Mediterranean is
probably indebted for its beautiful azure colour, so different from the black waters
of most oceans. This blue, then, which is justly celebrated by poets, would thus be
caused by the impurity of the water. M. Delesse has shown that the bottom of
nearly the whole of the Mediterranean ia covered with ooze.

The regions of the Mediterranean immediately below the surface abound in animal
life, particulfcrly on the coasts of Sicily and Southern Italy ; but nearly all species,
whether fish, testacea, or others, are of Atlantic origin. The Mediterranean, in
spite of its vast extent, as far as its &una is concerned, is nothing but a gulf of the
Lusitanian Ocean. Its longitudinal extension and the similarity of climate in its
various portions have &voured the migration of animals through the Strait of
Gibraltar as far as the coasts of Syria. At the same time, animal life is most
varied near this point of entry, and the species met with in the western basin are
generally of greater size than those which exist in the eastern. A very small pro-
portion of non-Atlantic species recalls the fact that the Mediterranean formerly
communicated with the Bed Sea and the Indian Ocean. But amongst a total of
more than eight hundred molluscs there are only about thirty which have reached
the seas of Ghreeoo and Sicily through the ancient straits separating Africa from
Asia, Instead of through the Strait of Gibraltar.* The diminution in the number
of species in an easterly direction becomes most striking when we reach the narrow
channel of the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus. The Black Sea, in fact, diflPers
essentially from the Mediterranean proper as regards temperature. It is refri-
gerated by north-easterly winds sweeping over its sur&ce, to the extent even of
portions of it becoming now and then covered with a thin coating of ice, adhering
to the coast. The Sea of Azof has frequently disappeared beneath a thick crust of
ice, and even the whole of the Black Sea has been frozen over in winters of
exceptional severity. The cold surface waters, together with those conveyed into
the Black Sea by large rivers, descend to the bottom, and prove most detrimental
to animal life. Eohinodermata and zoophytes are not met with at all in the Black
Sea; certain classes of molluscs, already rare in the Levantine Sea and the
Archipelago, are likewise absent ; and the total number of species of molluscs is
only one-tenth of what it is in the Mediterranean. Fish are numerous as far as
individuals go, but their species are few. In fact, the fauna of the Black Sea
appears to resemble that of the Caspian, from which it is cut off, rather than that
of the Greek seas, with which the Sea of Marmara connects it.

In addition to the species which have found a second home in the Mediterranean,
there are some that must still be looked upon as visitors. Such are the sharks,
which extend their incursions to the seas of Sicily, to the Adriatic, and even to the
coasts of Egypt and Syria. Such, also, are the larger cetacea — ^whales, rorquals,
and sperm whales — whose visits, however, are confined now to the Tyrrhenian

* Than an fotmd in the Meditorraneui 444 (pedes of flth (Goodwin Aoeten), MO ipeoies of moUuoe
(Jeffrey*), and about 200 aiieeiea of fbiaminifcra.

) ft

i '^

A ".

: %
\ 'v.

THE MEDITEBRANEAN.

basin, and become less frequent from century to century. The tunny>fish of the
Mediterranean are also visitors from the coasts of Lusitania. First-rate swimmers,
they entei* through the Strait of Gibraltar in spring, ascend the whole of the
Mediterranean, make the tour of the Black Sea, and return in autumn to the
Atlantic, after having accomplished a journey of 8or>e 5,600 miles. In the opinion
of the fishermen the tunnies go upon their travels in three immense divisions or
shoals, and it is the central shoal which visits the coasts of the Tyrrhenian Sea,
and consists of the largest and strongest fish. Each of the three divisions appears
to be composed of i' dividuah about the same age. For mutual protection they
swim in troops, for they are preyed upon by enemies innumerable. Dolphins and
other fish of prey follow their track, but their great destroyer is man. In the
summer the tunny fishery, or tonnaro, is carried on in numerous bays of Sicily,
Sardinia, Naples, and of Provence. Enormous structures consisting of nets

Fig. 7. — Tub Phincipal Fishbriu of thi Mbditbrrakran.
SoOe 1 : 38,800,000.

ebml

•— TmmifH

,._ Sfomgr

Sr)>a*4

Aldose these bays, and they are ingeniously arranged so as to close gradually
around the captured fish, which, passing from net to net, find themselves at last in
the " chamber of death," where they are massacred. Millions of pounds of flesh
are annually obtained from these floating "slaughter-houses," yet the tunny
appears year after year in multitudes, and on the same coasts. There may have
been a slight decrease in the number, but their closely packed masses still invade
the " Golden Horn " of Byzance and other bays, as they did when first they
attracted the attention of Greek naturalists.

Next to the tunny fisheries those of the sardines and anchovies are most
important. Sea-urchins and other ^products of the sea are eaten by the inhabitants
of the coasts, particularly in Italy, but there is no part of the Mediterranean where
animal life is so abundant and so prodigious in quantity as on the celebrated
banks of Newfoundland, or on the coasts of Portugal or of the Oanaries.

A large number of fishing-boats are engaged, not in the'capture of fish, but in

■ u m m^^ ' ^y' '^ x^^f^ ^'-^ m^^:^

wi^iiS^^^M^^wmsmi

of tbe
|immers,
of the
to the
opinion
Uions or
[ian Sea,
appears
lion they
Ihins and
In the
>f Sicily,
of nets

ha»«

gradually
fl at last in
ids of flesh
the tunny
B may have
still invade

first they

I are most

inhabitants

nean where

celebrated

fish, but in

COMMEBCE AND NAYIOATION.

the collection of articles of dresn or of the toilet. Tbe purple-shell fisheries on the
coasts of Phcenicia, the Peloponnesus, and Greece are no longer carried on, but
hundreds of boats are employed annually during the fine season in fishing for coral
or sponges.

Coral is found most abundantly in tbe western portion of the Mediterranean,
and the Italian fishermen do not confine themselves to their own shores — to Sicily,
Naples, and Sardinia — but also visit the Strait of Bonifacio, the sea off St. Tropez,
tbe vicinity of Cupe Creua in Spain, and tbe waters of Barbary. Ordinary
sponges are collected in the Gulf of Gabos, and at the other extremity of the
Mediterranean, on the coasts of Syria and Asia Minor, and in the straits winding
between the Cyclades and Sporades. Sponges are usually found at a depth of
from 12 to 150 feet, and can be gathered by divers ; whilst coral occurs at far
greater depths, and has to be wrenched off with an iron instrument, which brings
up iti; fragments, mixed with ooze, seaweeds, and the remains of marine animal-
culs. This industry is still in a state of barbarism : those devoted to it are not as
yet sufficiently acquainted with tbe sea and its inhabitants to enable them to carry
on the sponge and coral fisheries in a rational manner. Yet this they must aim
at: they must learn how to deprive Proteus, tbe ever-changing deity, of his
dominion over the inhabitants of the deep.

Next to the fisheries, the preparation of sea salt constitutes ore of the leading
industries of the Mediterranean coast-lands. But this industry, too, is frequently
carried on in a primitive way, and only in the course of the present century have
scientific methods been intrc iuced in connection with it. The Mediterranean is
admirably suited for the production of salt, for its waters have a high temperature,
they hold a very large quantity of salt in solution, the rise and fall of the tides are
inconsiderable, and flat seashores alternate with steep coasts and promontories.
The most productive salt marshes of the Mediterranean are probably those on the
Ijagoon, or £tang de Thau, near Cette, and on the littoral of Hy^res ; but consider-
able ones may also be met with on the coasts of Spain, in Italy, in Sardinia,
Sicily, Istria, and even on the " limans " of Bessarabia, bordering upon the Black
Sea. The annual production of salt is estimated at more than a million tons, and
exceeds, therefore, tue entire tonnage of the commercial marine of France.* But
this quantity, large as it is, is infinitesimal if we compare it with the saline
contents of the sea, and science will enable us oue day to raise a far more abundant
treasure from its sterile depths, t

, III. — Commerce and Navigation,

Whatever advantages may be yielded by fisheries and salt-works, they shrink
into insignificance if we compare them with the great gain— ^-material, intellectual,

* The prodnotioii of mtt on the ooMta of the Mediteimneiui is thai distribated unong its coast-
landa:— SpBin, 200,000 tone; France, 250,000 tons; Italy, 300,000 tons; AustrtH, 70,000 tons; Boasia,
120,000 ; other countries, 200,000 tons. Total, 1,140,000 tims, valued at £480,000.

t Tbe annual produce of the fisheries has been eetimated at £3,000,000, of the coral fisheries at
£640,000, of the sponge fisheries at £40,000. Total, £3,680,000.

,,:

THE MEDITERRANEAN.

and moral — which mankind has derived from the navigation of this inland
It has repeatedly been pointed out by historians that the disposition of the coasts,
islands, and peninsulas of the Mediterranean of the Phoenicians and Greeks admi-
rably favoured the first essays in maritime commerce. Many causes have con-
tributed to make this sea the cradle of Euiopean commerce : the faint summits of
distant lands visible even before the port has been quitted ; numerous nooks along
the coasts where a safe refuge may be found in case of storms ; regular land and
sea breezes ; an equability of climate which makes the sailor feel at home wherever
business takes him ; and, moreover, a great variety of productions resulting from
the diverse configuration of the Mediterranean coast-lands. And this commerce,
does it not lead to a peaceful intercourse between peoples on neutral ground, and
to mutual enlightenment, brought about by an interchange of ideas? Every
coast-line which facilitates the intercourse between nations is, therefore, of immense
value as a means of developing civilisation.

Civilisation for many centuries marched from the south-east towards (he north-
west, and Phoenicia, Greece, Italy, and France have successively become great
centres of human intelligence. This historical phenomenon is due to the configura-
tion of the sea, which has been the vehicle of migratory nations. In fact, the axis
of civilisation, if this expression be allowed, has become confounded with that axis
of the Mediterranean which extends from the coast of Syria to the Gulf of Lions,
on the coast of France. But the Mediterranean has ceased to be the only centre of
gravitation of Europe, which sends its merchantmen now to the two Americas and
the farthest East ; and civilisation no longer marches in that general line from east
to west, but rather radiates in all directions. Civilising streams depart from
England and Germany towards Northern America, and from the Latinised countries
of Europe towards Southern America. Their direction is still westerly, but they
have been deflected towards the south, to meet the conditions imposed by climate
and the geographical configuration of land and sea.

It is interesting to trace the changes which have occurred in the historical
importance of the Mediterranean. As long as that sea remained the great highway
between nations, the commercial republics were content to extend this highway
towards the east, by establishing caravan routes to the Gulf of Persia, to India, and
to China. In the Middle Ag^s Genoese factories dotted the coasts of the Black Sea,
and extended thence through Trans-Caucasia as far as the Caspian. European
travellers, and particularly Italians, at that time crossed Western Asia in all
directions ; and many a route hardly known in our days was then frequented almost
daily. But for several centuries direct commercial intercourse with Central Asia
has dwindled down to small proportions.

The Meiiterranean had ceased to be a great ocean highway. Our navigators,
no longer dreading a boundless sea, took their ships into every part of the ocean.
The difficult and perilous land routes yrert^ abandoned, the once busy markets of
Central Asia became solitudes, and the Mediterranean itself a veritable blind a^ey,
as far as the world's commerce was concerned. This condition of afiairs lasted for
many years, but since the middle of this century our relations with the East have

thej

^iSSKSflK^!^

COMMEBCE AND NAVIGATION.

nd
looostSi

I admi-
Jre con-
Imits of
Is along
Ind and
Iherever
lig from

imeroe,
^nd, and
Every
immense

16 north-

ne great

snfigura-

the axis

that axis

of Lions,

centre of

jricas and

I from east

part from

I countries

, but they

\>y climate

historical
t highway
8 highway
India, and
Black Sea,

European
Lsia in all
tted almost
mtral Asia

navigators,
the ocean,
markets of
blind a^ey,
Blasted for
> East have

been renewed, and the lost ground is rapidly being rocovored. Within the last
year a great commeroiul revolution bus been effoctod through the opening of one
of the ancient gates of the Mediterranean, and the Suez Canal has become the
great highway of steamers between Western Europe, the Indies, and Australia.
Possibly, at no distant fUture, a similar canal will enable our merchantmen to
proceed from the BlacK Sea to the Caspian, and perhaps even to the Amu and the
Syr, in the very heart of the ancient continent.

It is thus that the great centres of intercommunication, or vital points of our
planet, as we should like to call them, become shifted in the course of time. Port
Said, an improvised town on a desert shore, has thus become a centre of attraction
for travellers and merchandise, whilst the neighbouring cities of Tyre and Sidon
have dwindled down into miserable villages, with nothing to indicate the proud
position they held in the past. Carthage, too, has perished, and Venice decayed.
Many a thriving place on the shores of the Mediterranean has been reduced to
insignificance through the silting up of iti harbour, the employment of larger
vessels, the loss of independence, or through political changes of all kinds. But
in nearly every instance some neighbouring town has taken the place of these
decayed harbours, and most of the great routes of commerce have maintained their
original directions, and their terminal points, as well as intermediate stations, have
remained in the same localities.

There are, moreover, certain places which ships are almost obliged to frequent,
and where townb of importance arise as a matter of course. Such are the Straits of
Gibraltar and of Messina ; such, also, are places like Genoa, Trieste, and Salouiki,
which occupy the bottom of gulfs or bays penetrating far into the land. Ports
offering the greatest facilities for embarking merchandise intended for foreign
countries, such as Marsdlles and Alexandria, are likewise natural centres of
attraction to merchants. One town there is in the Mediterranean which enjoys at
one and the same time every one of the g^graphical advantages which we have
pointed out, for it is situated on a strait connecting two seas and separating two
continents. This town ie Constantinople, and despite the deplorable maladminis-
tration under which it suffers, its position alone has enabled it to maintain its
place amongst the great cities of the world.

The ports of the Mediterranean no longer enjoy a monopoly of commerce as
they did for thousands of years, but the number of ships to be met with in that
inland sea is, nevertheless, proportionately far greater than what we meet with on
the open oceans. The commercial marine of the Mediterranean numbers thirty-
seven thousand vessels, of a capacity of two million seven hundred and ninety-six
thousand tons, without counting fishing-boats. This is more than one-fourth of
the entire commercial marine of the world, as respects the number of ships, and
one-sixth of it as regards tonnage. This inferiority of tonnage is due to the small
vessels of ancient types which still maintain their ground in Greece and Ttaly, and
which possess certain advantages for the coasting trade.

To this marine of thfe Mediterranean should be added the vessels belonging to
foreign ports, which visit it for purposes of trade, and amongst which those of

^^l^Bmmmmm

t ^imm^"

THE MEDITEBRANEAN.

England take the most prominent runk. The Gnvomment of Great Britain hot
even taken care to secure itself a place amongst the Mediterranean powers. It has
w-ccapied Gibraltar, at the eastern entrance to this basin, and taken possession of
Multu, which commands its centre ; and although the western entrance, formed by
the Suez Canal, is not in its possession, its garrisons on Perim and the rook of Aden
ure able at any moment to close up the only approach to it which leads from the
Indian Ocean through the Red Sea.

The share which England takes in the commerce of the Mediterranean i»
considerable, but it is surpassed by far by that of France and Italy. A sovereign
who aspired to the dominion of the world once spoke of the inland sea extending
from the Strait of Gibraltar to Egypt as a " French lake ; " but with equal juutice
might it be called a Greek, a Dalmatian, or Spanish lake, and with still greater
an Italian lake. The pirates of Barbary were, in reality, the last " masters " of the
Mediterranean : their swift vessels presented themselves unexpectedly before the

Fig. R.— Htbamis Bovtm and Tblioraphs in thb Msdriiuuxiak.

Ill

. StsMnar rout**.

' Telegnph wUm.

noast towns, and carried off their inhabitants. But since their predatory fleets
have been destroyed, the Mediterranean has become the common property of the
world, and the meshea of an international network of maritime highways become
closer from year to year. The merchantmen no longer pursue their voyages in
company as they did in former times, discharging their cargo from port to port,
for a single vessel may venture now into any portion of the Mediterranean in
safety. Still there remain the dangers of reefs and of storms. The art of naviga-
tion has made vaHt progress ; most of the capes, at least on the coasts of Europe, are
lit up by lighthouses , the approaches to the ports are rendered easy by lightships,
buoys, and beacons ; but shipwrecks are nevertheless of frequent occurrence. Even
large vessels founder sometimes, without leaving a stray plank behind to indicate
the place of their disappearance.

Steamers travelling along prescribed routes are now gradually taking the
place of sailing vessels, and where they cross at frequent intervals they may be

4B.

Ci)lfMKRCE AND NAVIGATION.

likened to ferry-boats crosiing a river. The regularity and speed of these stoam
ferries ; the facilities which they afford fur the conveyance of merchandise ; the
increasing number of railways which convey the produce of the interior to the
seaports ; and lastly, the submarine telegraphs, which have established instantaneous
means of communication between the principal ports, all contribute towards the
growth of Mediterranean commerce. This commerce, including imports and
exports, and the transit through the Suez Cunul, actually amounts to about
£333,000,000, a year.* This may not be much for a maritime population of a
hundred millions, but a perceptible increase is taking place fh>m year to year. We
should also bear in mind that, face to face with the busy peninsulas of £urope, there
lies torrid Africa, an inert mass, avoided by the sailors of our own age as much as
it was by those of ancient Qreeoe. Its coasts are hardly ever visited, with the
exception of those portions which extend from Onin to Tunis, and from Alexandria
to Port Said. It is matter of surprise, too, that certain localities which formerly
attracted crowds of vessels, such as Oyrenaica, Cyprus, and beautiful Orete, at the
very entrance to the Archipelago, should itill remain outside the ordinary track
of our steamers.

* Shipping and oommeroe of the Hoditemnran (Mtimated) : —

Spain (MediterranMUi}

Tmtee „

lUly ....

Austria

Oreeoe

Turkey in Europe and Asia

Rumania .

ItuMia (Heditezranean)

Egypt ,,

Malta and Oibialtar .

Algeria

Tunis, Tripoli, to. .

SaU'
2,600
4,000
18,800
3,000
6,400
2,200

MO
100
200
170
400

87,870

CoMHiaouL Mauiib.
ill. Btaamen. Tonnafft,
lOU

230

140

M
M
13

260,000
300,000
1,080,000
380,000
603,000
210,000

60,000
16,000
30,000
10,000
10,000

ErraiBB aho

CUUBID.

TMm.
6,000,000
6,000,000

21,000,000
8,000,000
8,600,000

36,000,000
1,300,000
2,000,000
4,000,000

12,000,000

3,000,000

600,000

V4MiC 0» I>MNn«

A»D InroiiTt.

24,000,000

80,000,000

104,000,000

18,000,000

8,000,000
24,000,000

8,000,000
24,000,000 .
20.000,000
28,000,000
16,000,000

4,000,000

680 2,706,000 96,300,000 363,000,000

GREECE.

I. — Oenerai. ASPECII.

REECE, within its confined political boundaries, to the south of the
Gulfs of Arta and Volo, is a country of about nineteen thousand
square miles, or at most equal to the ten'millionth part of the earth's
surface. Within the vast empire of Russia there are many districts
more extensive than the whole of Greece, but there is nothing
which distinguishes these from other districts which surround them, and their names
call forth no idea in our mind. The little country of the Hellenes, however, so
insignificant upon our maps — how many memories does it not awaken ! In no
other part of the world had man attained a degree of civilisation equally har*
monious in all respects, or more favourable to individual development. Even
now, though carried along within an historical cycle far more vast than that of
the Greeks, we should do well to look back frequently in order to contemplate
those small nations, who are still our masters in the arts, and first initiated us into
science. The city which was the " school of Greece " still remains the school of
the entire world ; and after twenty centuries of decay, like some of those extinct
stars whose luminous rays yet reach the earth, still continues to enlighten us.

The considerable part played by the people of Greece during many ages must
undoubtedly be ascribed to the geographical position of their country. Other
tribes having the same origin, but inhabiting countries less happily situated — such,
for instance, as the Pelosgians of lUyria, who are believed to be the ancestors of
the Albanians — have never risen above a state of barbarism, whilst the Hellenes
placed themselves at the head of civilised nations, and opened fresh paths to their
enterprise. If Greece had renuiined for ever what it was during the tertiary
geological epoch — ^a vast plain attached to the deserts of Libya, and run over by
lions and the rhinoceros — would' it have become the native country of a Phidias,
an iEschylos, or a Demosthenes P Certainly not. It would have shared the fate
of Africa, and, far from taking the initiative in civilisation, would have waited for
an impulse to be given to it from beyond.

^^l^il^'-WUi^^il

OENI-IfiAI. AMl'KCTS.

Orceoe, a lub^poninsuU of the peninsula of the Balkan*, wnii even mora
completely protected by transverse mountain barriers in the nortli than wan
Tbraoia or Macedonia. Or«ek culture was thun able to develop itself without fear
of being stifled at its birth by successive invasions of burburians. Mounts
Olympus, Pclion, and Ossa, towards the north and cust of Thessaly, uonntituted the
Arnt line of formidable obstacles towards Macedonia. A second barrier, the steep
range of the Othryw, runs along what is the present political boundary of Greece.
To the south of the Oulf of Lamia a fresh obstacle awaits us, for the range of the
(Kta closes the passage, and there is but the narrow pass of the Tliurmopyltn
between it and the sea. Having crossed the mountains of the Locri and descended
into the basin of Theboe, there still remain to bo crossed the I'arncs or the
•purs of the Oithooron before we reach the plains of Attica. The " isthmus "
beyond these is again defended by transverse barriers, outlying ramparts, as it
were, of the mountain citadel of the Peloponnesus, that acropolis of nil Greece.
Ilellas has frequently been compared to a series of chambers, the doors uf which
were strongly bolted ; it was diffionit to get in, but more difficult to get out again,
owing to their stout defenders. Michelet likens Graece to a trap having three
compartments. You entered, and found yourself taken first in Macedonia, then in
Thessaly, then between the Thermopylo} and the isthmus. But the difficulties
increase beyond the isthmus, and Lacodiomonia remained impregnable for a long
time.

At an epoch when ti^e navigation even of a land-locked sea like the .^geiin
was attended with danger, Greece found herself sufficiently protected against the
invasions of oriental nations ; but, at the same time, no other country held out such
inducements to the pacific expeditions of merchants. Gulfs and harbours facili-
tated access to her j9*)gean coasts, and the numerous outlying islands were available
as stations or as places of refuge. Greece, therefore, was favourably placed for
entering into commercial intercourse with the more highly civilised peoples who
dwelt on the opposite coasts of Asia Minor. The colonists and voyagers of Eastern
Ionia not only supplied their Aoheean and Pelasgian kinsmen with foreign com-
modities and merchandise, but they also imparted to them the myths, the poetry,
the sciences, and the arts of their native country. Indeed, the geographical
configuration of Greece points towards the east, whence she has received her first
enlightenment. Her peninsulas and outlying islands extend in that direction ; the
harbours on her eastern coasts are most commodious, and afford the best shelter ;
and the mountain-surrounded plains there offer the best sites for populous cities,
Greece, at the same time, does not share the disadvantage of Turkey, which is
almost out off from the western world by a mountain region difficult to cross.
The Ionian Sea, to the west of the Peloponnesus, it is true, is, comparatively
speaking, a desert ; but farther north the Gulf of Corinth almost cuts in two the
Greek peninsula, and the sight of the distant mountains of Italy, which are visible
from the Ionian Islands, must have incited to an exploration of the western seas.
The Acamanians, who knew how to build vaults hg before the Romans, were
thus brought early into contact with the Italians, to whom they imparted their
8

saMiiMffiaMMi

OBEEOE.

knowledge, and at a subsequent period the Qreeks became the civilisen of the
whole western world of the Mediterranean.

The most distinctive feature of Hellas, as far as concerns the relief of the
ground, consists in the large number of small basins, separated one from the other
by rocks or mountain ramparts. The features of the groimd thus favoured the
division of the Greek people into a multitude of independent republics. Every
town had its river, its amphitheatre of hills or mountains, its acropolis, its fields,
pastures, and forests, and nearly all of them had, likewise, access to the sea. All
the elements required by a free community were thus to be found within each of
these small districts, and the neighbourhood of other towns, equally favoured, kept
alive perpetual emulation, too frequently degenerating into strife and battle. The
islands of the j^gean Sea, likewise, had constituted themselves into miniature
republics. Local institutions thus developed themselves freely, and even the
smallest island of the Archipelago has its g^eat representatives in history.

But whilst there thus exists the greatest diversity, owing to the configuration
of the ground and the multitude of islands, the sea acts as a binding element,
washes every coast, and penetrates far inland. These gulfs and numerous harbours
have made the maritime inhabitants of Greece a nation of sailors — amphibise, as
Strabo called them. From the most remote times the passion for travel has always
been strong amongst them. When the inhabitants of a town grew too numerous
to support themselves upon the produce of their land, they swarmed out like bees,
explored the coasts of the Mediterranean, and, when they had found a site which
recalled their native home, they built themselves a new city. It was thus Greek
cities arotie in hundreds of places, from the Mseotis Palus to beyond the columns of
Hercules — from Tanais and Panticapseum to Gades and Tingis, the modem Tangier.
Thanks to those numerous colonies, some of them more powerful and renowned than
the mother towns which gave birth to them, the veritable Greece, the Greece of
science and art and republican independence, in the end overflowed its ancient
cradle, and sporadically occupied the whole circumference of the Mediterranean.
The Greeks held the same position relatively to the world of the ancients which
is occupied at the present time by the Anglo-Saxons with reference to the entire
earth. There exists, indeed, a remarkable analogy betwee:^ Greece, with its srchi -
pelago, and the British Islands, at the other extremity of the continent. Similar
geographical advantages have brought about similar results, as far as commerce
is concerned, and between the ^gean and the British seas time and space have
effected a sort of harmony.

The admiration with which travellers behold Greece is due, above all, to the
memories attaching to every one of its ruins, to the smallest amongst its rivulets,
and the most insignificant rock i^ its seas.. Scenery in Provence or Spain, though
it may surpass in grace or boldness of outline anything to be seen in Greece, is
appreciated only by a few. The mass go past it without emotion, for names like
Marathon, Leuctra, or PlatsBee are not connected with it, and the rustle of bygone
ages is not heard. But even if glorious memories were not associated with the

•WJ

T' 'T^^j^'

'^■!^^'~^m.

4i-

OENEBAL ASPECTS.

coasts of Greece, their beauty would nevertheless entitle them to our admiration.
In the g^fs of Athens or of Argos the artist is charmed not only with the azure
blue of the waters, the transparency of the sky, the ever-changing perspective
along the shores, and the boldness of the promontories, but also with the pure and
graceful profile of the mountains, which consist of layers of limestone or of marble.
We almost fancy we look upon architectural piles ; and the temples with which
many a summit is adorned appear to epitomize them.

It is verdure and the sparkling water of rivulets which we miss most on the
shores of Greece. Nearly all the mountains near the coast have been despoiled of
their large trees. There remain only bushes, mastic, strawberry, and juniper
trees, and evergreen oaks ; even the carpet of odoriferous herbs which clothes the
declivities, and upon which the goat brdwses, has in many instances been reduced
to a few miserable patches. Torrents of rain have carried away the mould, and
the naked rock appears on the surface. From a distance we only see greyish
declivities, dotted here and there with a few wretched shrubs. Even in the days
of Strabo most mountains along the coasts had been robbed of their forests, and one
of our modern authors says that " Greece is a skeleton only of what it used to be t "
By a sort of irony, geog^phical names derived from trees abound throughout
Hellas and Turkey : Caryse is the " town of walnut-trees, " Yalanidia that of the
Yalonia oaks, Kypatrissi that of cypresses, Flatanos or Flataniki that of plane-
trees. Everywhere we meet with localities whose appellation is justified by
nothing. Forests at the present day are confined almost entirely to the interior
and to the Ionian coast. The (Eta Mountains, some of the mountains of .^tolia,
the hills of Aoamania, and Arcadia, Elis, Triphylia, and the slopes of the Taygetus,
in the Peloponnesus, still retain their forests. And it is only in these forest
districts, visited solely by herdsmen, that savage animals, such as the wolf, the fox,
and the jackal, are now met with. The chamois, it is said, still haunts the recesses
of the FinduB and (Eta Mountains ; but the wild boar of the Erymanthus, which
must have been a distinct species if we are to judg^ by antique sculptures, exists
no more in Greece, and the lion, still mentioned by Aristotle, has not been seen
for two thousand years. Amongst the smaller animals there is a turtle, common
in some parts of the Peloponnesus, which the natives look upon with the same
aversion as do many western nations upon tilie toad and the salamander.

Greece is a small country, but the variety of its climate is nevertheless great.
Striking differences in the climate of different localities are produced by the
contrasts between mountains and plains, woodlands and sterile valleys, coasts
having a northern or southern aspect. But even leaving out of sight these
local differences, it may safely be asserted that the varieties of climate which we
meet with in traversing Greece from north to south are scarcely exceeded in any
other region. The mountains of ^tolia, in the north, whose slopes are covered
with beech-trees, remind us of the temperate zone of Europe, whilst the peninsulas
and islands towards the east and south, with their thickets of fig and olive trees,
their plantations of oranges and lemons, their aloe hedges and rare palm-trees,
belong to the sub-tropical cone. But even neighbouring districts occasionally

'II

OBEEOE.

■ I

differ strikingly as regards climate. In the anuient lake basin of Boeotia the winters
are cold, the summers scorching, whilst the temperature of the eastern shore of
Euboea is equable, owing to the moderating influence of sea breezes. Within a
narrow compass Greece presents us with the climates of a large portion of the
earth, and there can be no doubt that this diversity of climate, and the contrasts of
every kind springing from it, must have favourably influenced the intellectual
development of the Hellenes. A spirit of inquiry was called forth amongst them
which reacted upon their commercial tastes and industrial proclivities.

The diversity of the climate of the land, however, is compensated for, in
Greece, by a uniformity in the climate of the maritime districts. As in a mountain
valley, the winds of the ^gean Sea blow alternately in contrary directions.
During nearly the whole of summer the atmospheric currents of Eastern Europe are
attracted towards the African deserts- The winds from the north of the Archi-
pelago and Macedonia then speed the navigator on his voyage to the south, and on
many occasions the conquering tribes of the northern shores of that sea have
availed themselves of them in their improvised attacks upon the inhabitants of the
more southern districts of Asia Minor and of Greece. These regular northerly
currents, known as etesian or annual winds, cease on the termination of the
hot season, when the sun stands above the southern tropic. They are, moreover,
interrupted every night, when the cool sea air is attracted by the heated surface of
the land. When the sun has set the wind gradually subsides; t!. <'3 ip a calm,
lasting a few moments ; and then the air begins to move in an in."^ '> ruction —
"the land begins to blow," as the sailors say. Nor is this regult ^^^ ^i without
its counter-current, known as the embates, or propitious south-easterly breeze of
which the poets sing. General winds and breezes, moreover, are deflected from
their original directions in consequence of the configuration of the coast and the
direction of mountain chains. The Gulf of Corinth, for instance, is shut in by
high mountains on the north and the south, and the winds alternately enter it
firom the east or west — a phenomenon likened by Strabo to the breathing of an
animal.

The rains, like the winds, deviate in many places from the vy^r^ge, and whilst
the water pours down into some mountain valleys as into a funnel, elsewhere the
clouds drift past without parting with a drop of their humid burden. Contrasts
in the amount of precipitation are thus added to those resulting from differences
of configuration and variety of climate. As a rule, rain is more abundant on the
western shores of Greece than on the eastern, and this fact accounts for the smiling
aspect of the hills of Elis, as compared with the barren declivities of Argolis and
Attica. Thunder-storms, driren before the winds of the Mediterranean, likewise
recur with greater regularity in the western portion of the peninsula. In Elis and
Acamania the roll of thunder may be heard in spring daily, for whole weeks, in
the afternoon. No sites more apposite could have been found for temples dedicated
to Jupiter, the god of lightning.

The ancient inhabitants of the Cyclades, and probably, also, those of the coasts

>^M

GENERAL ASPECTS.

I winters
Ishore of

^ithin a
In of the
itrosts of
Itellectual
Lgst them

for, in

mountain

iirections.

luTope are

he Archi-

th, and on

i sea have

ints of the

• northerly

ion of the

moreover,

i surface of

if> a calm,

u\>ction —

V without

rly breeze of

fleeted from

Mwt and the

shut in by

tely enter it

ftthing of an

B, and whilst
ilsewhero the
^ Contrasts
m differences
ndant on the
ir the smiling
' Argolis and
lean, likewise
In Elis and
lole weeks, in
)les dedicated

of the coasts

of Hellas and Asia Minor, had already attained a considerable amount of culture
long before the commencement of our historical records. This has been proved by
excavations made in the volcanic ashes of Santorin and Therasia. At the time
their houses were buried beneath the ashes, the Santoriniotes had begun to pass
from the age of stone into that of copper. They knew how to build arches of
stone and mortar, they manufactured lime, used weights made of blocks of lava,
wove cloth, made pottery, dyed their stuffs, and ornamented their houses with
frescoes ; they cultivated barley, peas, and lentils, and had begun to trade with
distant countries.

We do not know whether these men were of the same race as the Hellenes ;
but thus much is certain — that at the earliest dawn of history the islands and
coasts of the ^gean Sea were peopled by various families of Greeks, whilst the
interior of the country and the western shores of the peninsula were inhabited by
Pelasgians. These Felasg^ans, moreover, were of the same stock as the Greeks,
and they spoke a language derived from the* same source as the dialects of the
Hellenes. Both were Aryans, and, xmless natives of the soil, they must have
immigrated into Greece from Asia Minor by crossing the Hellespont, or by way of
the islands of the Archipelago. The Pelasgians, according to- tradition, sprang
from Mount LycsBus, in the centre of the Peloponnesus ; they boasted of being
" autochthons," " men of the black soil," " children of oaks," or " men bom before
the moon." All around them lived tribes of kindred origin, such as the ^olians
and the Leleges, and these were afterwards joined by lonians and Achseans.
The lonians, who, in a subsequent age, exercised so great an influence over the
destinies of the world, only occupied the peninsula of Attica and the neighbouring
Euboea. The Achteans for a long time enjoyed a preponderance, and in the end
the Greek dans collectively became known by that name. Later on, when the
Dorians had crossed the Gulf of Corinth where it is narrowest, and established
themselves as conquerors in the Peloponnesus^ the Amphiotyons, or national
councils, sitting alternately at Thermopyls and Delphi, conferred the name of
Hellenes, which was that of a small tribe in Thessaly and Phthiotis, upon all
the inhabitants of the peninsula and the islands. The name of Greek, which
signifies, perhaps, "mountaineer," "ancient," or "son of the soil," gradually
spread amongst the nation, and in the end became general. The lonians of Asia
Minor, and the Carians of the Sporades, emulated the Phoenicians by trading from
port to port amongst these half-savage tribes, and, like bees which convey the
fecundating pollen from flower to flower, they carried the civilisation of Egypt and
the East from tribe to tribe.

Phoenician merchants and Roman conquerors scarcely modified the elements
composing the population of Hellas, but during the age of migrations barbarians
in large numbers penetrated into Greece. For more than two centuries did the
Avares maintain themselves in the Peloponnesus. Then came the Slavs, aided, on
more than one occasion, by the plague in depopulating the country. Greece became
a Slavonic, and a Slavonian language, probably Servian, was universally spoken,
as is proved by the majority of geographical names. The superstitions and legends

i»3S@fl

IMN

OREEOE.

of the modern Greeks, as has been remarked bj many authors, are not simply a
beritago derived from the ancient Hellenes, but have become enriched by phantoms

Fig> 9. — Mainoti and Spartan.

!i I

and vampires of Slav invention. The dress of the Greeks, too, is a legacy of their
northern conquerors. But, in spite of this, the polished knguage of the Hellenes

^nftm

GENERAL ASPECTS.

has regained by deg^rees its ancient preponderance, and the race has so thoroughly
amalgamated these foreign immigrants, that it is impossible now to trace any
Servian elements in the population. But hardly had Hellas escaped the danger of
becoming Slav when it was threatened with becoming Albanian. This occurred
during the dominion of Venice. As recently as the commencement of the present
century Albanian was the dominant language of Elis, Argos, Boeotia, and Attica,
and even at the present day a hundred thousand supposed Hellenes still speak
it. The actual population of Greece is, therefore, a very mixed one, but it is
difficult to say in what .proportions these Hellenic, Slav, and Albanian elements
have combined. The Mainotes, or Maniotes, of the peninsula terminating in
Cape Matapan, are generally supposed to be the Greeks of the purest blood.
They themselves claim to be the descendants of the ancient Spartans, and amongpst
their strongholds they still point out one which belonged to " Signer Lyourgus."
Their Ciouncils of Elders have preserved from immemorial times, and down to
the war of independence, the title of Senate of Lacedsemonia. Every Mainote
professes to love unto death " Liberty, the highest of all goods, inherited from
our Spartan ancestors." Nevertheless, a good many localities in Maina bear
names derived from the Servian, and these prove, at all events, that the Slavs
resided in the country for a considerable time. The Mainotes practise the
vendetta, as if they were Montenegrins. But is not this a common custom
amongst all uncivilised nations P

However this may be, in spite of invasions and intermixture with other
races, the Ghreeks of to-day agree in most points with the Greeks of the past.
Above all things, they have preserved their language, and it is truly matter
for surprise that the vulgar Greek, though derived f^om a rural dialect, should
differ so slightly only from the literary language. The differences, analogous
to what may be observed with respect to the languages derived from the Latin,
are restricted almost to two points, viz. the contraction of non-accentuated
syllables and the use of auxiliary verbs. It was, therefore, easy for the modem
Greeks to purify their language from barbarisms and foreign terms, and to
restore it gradually to what it was in the time of Thucydides. Nor has the
race changed much in its physical features, for in most districts of modem
Greece the ancient types may yet be recognised. The Boeotian is still distin-
guished by that heavy gait which made him an object of ridicule amongst
the other Greeks ; the Athenian youth possesses the suppleness, grace of move-
ment and bearing which we admire so much in the horsemen sculptured on
the friezes of the Parthenon ; the Spartan women have preserved that haughty
and vigonms beauty which constituted the charm of the virgins of Doris. Ajb
regards morals, the descent of the modem Hellenes is equally evident. Like
their ancestors, they are fond of change, and inquisitive ; as the. descendants
of free citizens, they have preserved a feeling of equality ; and, still infatuated
with dialectics, they hold forth at all times as if they were in the ancient
market-place, or Agora. They frequently stoop to flattery: like the ancient
Greeks, too, they are apt to rate intellectual merit !>bove purity of morals.

':.

1 I

""^

mmmm

OBEECE.

Like sage Ulyases of the Homeric poem, they well know how to lie and cheat
with grace ; and the truthful Acarnanian and the Mainote, who are " slow to
promise, but sure to keep," are looked upon as rural oddities. Another
trait in the character of the modern and ancient Oreeks, and one which
distinguishes them from all other Europeans, is this — that they do not allow
themselves to be carried away by passion, except in the cause of patriotism.
The Greek is a stranger to melancholy : he loves life, and is determined to enjoy
it. In battle he may throw it away, but suicide is a species of death
unknown amongst the modem Greeks, and the more unhappy they are, the
more they cling to existence. They are very seldom afflicted with insanity.

Fig. 10. — FoniioN Ei.mRim nf thb Potviation op Omicb.

cam Albanian*

I Franck . Italians

• "Airks

In spite of the diverse elements which compose it, the Greek nationality is
one of the most homogeneous in Europe. The Albanians, of Felasgian descent
like the Greeks, do not cede to the latter in patriotism ; and it was they — the
Suliotes, Hydriotes, Spezziotes — ^who fought most valiantly for national independ-
ence. The eight himdred families of Rumanian or Eutzo-Wallachian Zinzares
who pasture their herds in the hills of Acarnania and .^tolia, and are known as
Kara-Gxinis, or " black cloaks," speak the two languages, and sometimes marry
Greek girls, though they never give their own daughters in marriage to the
Greeks. Haughty and free, they are not sufficiently numerous to be of any great
importance. To foreigners the Greeks are rather intolerant, and they take no
pains to render their stay amongst them agreeable. The Turks — who were
numerous formerly in certain parts of the Peloponnesus, in Boeotia, and in the

CONTINENTAL OBEEOE.

island of Euboea, and whose presence recalled an unhappy period of servitude —
have fled to a man, and only the fez, the narghile, and the slippers remind us of
their former presence. The Jews, though met with in every town of the East,
whether Slav or Mussulman, dare hardly enter the presence of the Greeks, who
are, moreover, their most redoubtable rivals in matters of finance : they are to be
found only in the Ionian Islands, where they managed to get a footing during
the British Protectorate. In this same Archipelago we likewise meet with the
descendants of the ancient Venetian colonists, and with emigrants from all parts
of Italy. Freilch and Italian families still form a distinct element of the popu-
lation of Naxos, Santorin, and Syra. As to the Maltese porters and gardeners
at Athens and Oorfu, they continue for the most part in subordinate positions,
and never associate with the Greeks.

The homogeneous character of the population of Greece does not admit of
that country being divided into ethnological provinces, like Turkey or Austro-
Hungary, but it consists geographically of four distinct portions. These are
(1), continental Hellas, known since the Turkish invasion as Bumelia, in
remembrance of the " Roman " empire of Byzantium ; (2), the ancient Pelopon-
ne«as, now called the Morea, perhaps a transposition of the word " Romea," or
from a Slav word signifying " sea coast," and applied formerly to Elis ;
(3), the islands of the ^gean Sea ; (4), the Ionian Islands. In describing the
various portions of Greece we shall make use, in preference, of the ancient names
of mountains, rivers, and towns ; for the Hellenes of our own day, proud of the
glories of the past, are endeavouring gradually to get rid of names of Slav or
Italian origin, which still figure upon the maps of their country.*

II. — Continental Grbecb.

The Findus, which forms the central chain of Southern Turkey, passes over
into Greece, and imparts to it an analogous orog^phioal character. On both
sides of this conventional boundary we meet with the same rocks, the same
vegetation, the same landscape features, and the same races of people. By
dividing the Epirus and handing over Thessaly to the Turiu, European diplomacy
has paid no attention to natural features. The eastern portion of the boundary
is made to follow the line of water parting over the range of the lofty Oi .^rys,
commanding the plain of the Sperchius. Westward of the Pindus the boundary

* Oieoce within its poUtioallimiU:—

Continental Greece
Fbloponnenu .
JBgwa Iilands
Ionian Idanda
Army, navy, and aailoni

Aim.
Bq. m.
7,568
8,388
2,fi00
1.007

Total

10,363

Fopobtion
(1870).
466,018
646,380
206,840
818,870
20,868

1,457,804

OMIiitjr.

217

BtBUWBr—^

I II I ii'iiii mm i"il/ Hi

QBEEOE.

crosses transversely the valley of the Achelous, and the hills which seiiarate it
from the Qulf of Arta.

The isolated summit of Mount Tymphrestus, or Yelukhi, which rises where
the grand chain of the Othrys branches off from the Pindus, is not the culmi-
nating point of continental Greece, but it is a centre from which the principal
mountain spurs and rivers radiate. Within its spurs lies hidden the charming
valley of Karpenisi, and an elevated ridge joins them, towards the south-east,
to the most important mountain mass of modem Greece, viz. the group sur-
mounted by the snow-clad pyramids of the Yardusia and Ehiona, whose slopes
are covered with dark firs, and to the superb Eatavothra, the (Eta of the
ancients, on which Hercules built his funeral pile. The mountains of Yardusia

Fig. 11.— MOVMT FARNAMVa AND DbLPHI.

I^HfiT'CI

^'''

ma:^i

'if J ;«'->■ 1*

■Aih/%

m^^mr * ^Mm*t

mL ^ t' r-*

and EhioDu are lace to face with the fine mountain masses of Northern Mona,
likewise T/ooded and covered with snow during the greater part of the year.

The iiountalns »f ^tolia, to the west of the Yelukhi and the Yardusia, are
far less elevated, Fyut they are rugged, and form a veritable chaos of rocks,
savage det'les, and thickets, into which only WsUachian herdsmen venture. In
Southern ibltolia, en the shores of the lakep and tlong the rivers, the country is
more accessible, hut mountains rise there likewiM, and by tortuous ridges ihvj
are brought into connection with the system of the Pindus. Those on the coast
of Acamania, opposite to the Ionian Islands, are steep, covered with trees and
•hrubs ; they are the mountains of the " Black Continent " mentioned by Ulys8e&

bfSiS

CONTINENTAL GREECE.

To the east of the Achelous there i« another couat chain, well known to mariners :
this is the Zygos, the southern slopes of which, arid and austere, are seen from
off Missolonghi. Still further to the east another range cornea down to the
Heashore, and, together with the promontories on the opposite coast of the Morea,
forms the narrow entrance to the Gulf of Oorinth. Close to this entrance, on
the ^tolian side, there naes hold Mount Yarassova, a huge block of rock. Local
tradition tells ua that the Titans endeavoured to throw this rook into the seb, so
that it might form a bridge between the two coasts ; but the rock proved too
heavy, and it was dropped where we now see it.

Towards the ^gean Sea the mountain mass of the Eatavothra is continued
by a coast range running in a direction parallel to the mountaina of the island of
Euboea. Thia range ahould be described rather aa a series of mountain-groups
separated from each other by deep hollows >xtensive depressions, and even by
river valleys. These mountains, though lew and intersected by numerous roads,
an nevertheless difficult of access, for their slopes are steep, their promontories
abr ipt, and their precipices sudden, and in the times of the ancient Greeks a
small number of men repeatedly defended them against large armies. At one
extrtmity of thia range ia the passage of ThermopylsB; at the other, on the
eastevn foot of the Pentelious, the famous pLiin of Marathon.

Th 9 mountain groups on the northern sliore of the Gulf of Corinth, and to
the south of Boeotia, may be looked upon as a range running parallel with that
fbllowing the channel of Euboea, but far mora beautiftU and pictureaque. Every
one of ita anmmita recalla the sweet memories of poetry, or conjures up the
image of some ancient deity. To the west we find ourselves in the pre-
sence of " double-headed " Parnassus, to which fled Deucalion and Pyrrha, the
anoeatora of the Greeka, and where the Athenians celebrated their torchlight
dances in honour of Bacchus. From the summits of the Parnassus, which rival
in height thoae of the Ehiona, raiaing ita pyramidal head towards the north-west,
nearly the whole of Greece, with its gulfs, islands, and mountains, lies spread out
below us, from the .Thessalian Olympus tu the Taygetus, at the extremity of the
Peloponnesus ; and close by, at our feet, lies the admirable basin of Delphi, the
place of Peace and Concord, where Greeks forgot their animosities. The
mountain group towards the east next td Pamasaus ia quite equal to it. The
valleya of the Helicon, the seat of Apollo and the Muses, are still the most
verdant and the most smiling in all Gbeece. The eastern slope of the Helicon is
more eapeoially distinguished for its charming beauty, its woods, its verdant
paaturea, gardena, and murmuring apringa, which contrast moat &vourably with the
bare and arid plaina of Boeotia. If Mount Pamaasus may boaat of the Castalian
spring. Mount Helicon possesses that of Hippoorene, which burst forth from the
ground when struck by the hoof of Pegasus. The elongated summit of the
Cithsaron, the birthplace of Bacchus, joins the mountains of Southern Boeotia
to those of Attica, whose marble has become famous through the neighbourhood
of the city which they shelter. Mount Pames rises to the north of Athens ;
to the east of it, like the pediment of a temple, rises the Pentelicus, in which are

, J

iSBHi

OBEECE.

the quarries of Pikormi, rendered famoua through their fosnil honei; on the
south appears Mount Hymettus, celebrated for its flowers and its bees. Farther
away, the Ijaurium, with its rich argentiferous slags, stretches towards the south*
east, and terminates in Oape Sunium, consecrated in other days to Minerva
and Neptune, and still surmounted by fifteen columns of an ancient temple.

Another isolbted mountain group to the south of Attica, and occupying the
entire width of the Isthmus of Mcgara, served the Athenians as a rampart of
defence against their neighbours of the Peloponnesus. This is the mountain
group of Gerania, the modem Pera Ehora.* Having passed beyond it, we find
ourselves upon the Isthmus of Oorir'' . properly so called, confined between the
Oulfs of Athens and of Corinth. It is a narrow neck of land, scarcely five mile*
across, whose arid limestone rooks hardly rise two hundred feet above the sea. This
neutral bit of territory, lying between two distinct geographical regions, naturally
became a place for meetings, festivals, and markets. The remains of a wall
built by the Peloponnesians across the isthmus may still be traced, as may also
the canal commenced by order of Nero.

The limestone mountains of Greece, as well as those oi the Epirus and of
Thessaly, abound in lakes, but all the rivers are swallowed up in " sinks," or
katavothras, leaving the land dry and arid. Southern Acamania, a portion of which
is known as Xeromeros, or the " arid country," on account of the absence of run-
ning water, abounds in lake basins of this kind. To the south of the Gulf of
Arta, which may not inaptly be described as a sort of lake communicating with the
sea through a narrow opening, there are several sheets of water, the remains of an
inland sea, silted up by the alluvial deposits of the Achelous. The largest of these
lakes is known to the natives as Pelagos, or "big sea," because of its extent and
the agitated state of its waters, which break against its coasts. This is the
Trichonius of the ancient ^tolians. Reputed unfathomable, it is, in truth, very
deep, and its waters are perfectly pure ; but they are discharged sluggishly into
another basin far less extensive, atid surrounded by pestilential marshes, and
through a turgid stream they even find their way into the Achelous. The hills
surrounding Lake Triohonis are covered with villages and fields, whilst the locality
around the lower lake has been depopulated by fever. The country, nevertheless,
is exceedingly beautiful to look upon. Hardly have we passed through a narrow
gorge, or klimra, of Mount Zyg^s before we enter upon a bridge over a mile
in length, which a Turkish governor caused to be thrown across the swamps
separating the two lakes. This viaduct has sunk down more than half its

* Altitadea of moantains in continental Oreeca (in feet) : —

Gerakavuni (Othryi) .
Yelukhi (Tymphreiitui)
Rhonia ....
Yarduna
Katavothn ((£u)
Honntaint of Acarnania
VaranoTa

8,(J78
7,610
8,186
8,242
6,660
6.216
3,010

Liaknn (ParnaHus)
FalnoTOuni (Helicon)
Elatea (Cithnron) .
Fames .

Pentelicui . .
Hymettua
Oerania (Pera Khora)

8,068
6.7a8
4,630
4,646
S,69S
3,400
4,482

CONTINENTAL OREECB.

4»

height into the mud, but it ia still sufficiently elevated to enable the eye freely
to sweep oTer the surface of the waters, and to trace the coasts which bound them.
Oaks, planes, and wild olive-trees intermingle beneath us, their branches hung
with festoons of wild vine, and these, with the blue waters of the lake and
the mountains rising beyond it, form a picture of great bcuuty.

Another lake busin lies to the south of the Zygos, between the alluvial
lands of the Achelous and the Fidari. It is occupied by a swamp filled with fresh,
brackish, or salt water; and since tho days of ancient Greece, this swamp,
owing to the apathy of the inhabitants, has continued to increase in extent at
the expense of the cultivated land. Missolonghi the heroic is indebted for its
name to its position near these marsb' s, for the meaning of it is " centre of
marshes." A barrier, or ramma, here and there broken through by the floods,

Rg. 11— LoWBR AOABNUIU.

8<nU I : 800,0ga

.KMllM.

separates the basin uf Missolonghi from the Ionian Sea. During the war of inde-
pendence every opening in this barrier wvs protected by redoubts or stockades,
but at present the only obstruction consists of the reed barriers of the fishermen,
which are opened in spring to admit the fish from the sea, and closed in summer
to prevent their escape. Missolonghi, though surrounded by brackish water, is a
healthy place, thanks to the breezes from the sea; whilst a heavy atmosphere
charged with miasmata hangs perpetually over the bustling little town of
^toliko (Anatolikon), which lies farther to the north-west in the midst r>£ the
swamps, and is joined to the dry land by two bridges. Between iEtoliko and
the river Achelous may be observed a large number of rooky eminences, rising
like pyramids above the plain. These are no doubt ancient islands, such as
still exist between the mainland and the island of St. Mauro. The mud brought
down by the Achelous has gpradually converted the intervals between these

M OREEOE.

rooks into dry Und. In former times the commercial city of (Eniodao occupied
one of these islets. The geological changes already noticed by Herodotus are
thus still going on under our eyes, and the muds of the Aohelous, to which it
owes its modem name of Aspro, or " white," incessantly extend the land at the
expense of the sea.

The Aohelous, which the ancients likened to a savage bull, owing to its
rapid current and great volume, is by far the most important river of Oreeoe.
One of the great feats ascribed to Hercules consisted in breaking off one of
the horns of this bull ; that is to say, he embanked the river, and thus protected
the lands which it used to inundate. The neighbours of the Achelous, the

Fig. 13.— Thieiioptljr
n«m tiMlViiMh Staff Map 'laet). SaOel:

I iMw4«f toLMte

rapid Fidari (Evenus, on the banks of which Hercules killed the centaur
Nessus, for offering violence to Dejaiira) and the Momos, which rieee in the
snows of the (Eta, cannot compare With it. Still less is it equalled by the
Oropus, the Oephissus, and the Ilissus, "wet only when it rains," which flow
eastward into the ^gean Sea. The principal river of Eastern Greece, the
SperchiuB, is inferior to the Achelous, but, like it, has extensively changed the
aspect of the plbin near its mouth. When Leonidas and hia three hundred heroes
guarded the defiles of Thermopylae against the Persians, the Gulf of Lamia
extended much farther into the land than it does now. But the alluvial deposits
of the river have extended its delta, and several rivulets which formerly flowed

I'Vi^iW

CONTINENTAL OBEEOB.

directly into the sea have now to bo numbered amongat iti tributaries ; the Ma has
retired Ax>m the foot of the Callidromui for a distance of soYerul miles ; and the
narrow pass of Thermopylae has been converted into a plain sufficiently wide
to enable an entire army to mancouvre upon it. The hot springs which gush
from the rooks, by forming deposits of calcareous tufa, may likewise hare con*
tributed towards thin change of coast*line; nor are more violent convulsions of
naturO precluded in a volcanic region like this, subject to frequent earthquakes.
Sailors slill point out a small island in this neighbourhood, formed of soorisD,
from which the incensed Hercules hurled his companion, Lichas, into the ocean.
Hot springs abound on the opposite coast of Eubooa, and the incrustations
formed by them are so considerable as to assume the appearance of glaciers
when seen f^m a distance. A bathing establishment exists now near the hot
sulphur springs of Thermopylas, and strangers are thus enabled to explore this
region, so rich in memories of a great past. The pedestal, however, upon
which reposed the figure of a marble lion, placed there in honour of Leonidas,
has been destroyed by ruthless hands, lud utilised in the construction of a
mill!

The basin of the Oep'aissus, snoloscl by the chains of the (Eta and Parnassus,
is one of the most remarkable from un hydrologioal point of view. The river
first flows through a bottom-land frnmerly a lake, nnd then, forcing for itself a
passage through a narrow defile commander oy the spurs of Mount P;massus,
it winds round the rook upon which sto ^ .*i4 ancient city of Orchomenus, and
enters upon a vast plain, where "wamps lUid lakef <«re embedded amidst culti-
vated fields and reed-banks, 'i'lirja) swamps are '^;d, likewise, by numerous
torrents descending from the Helicon and other mountains in it« vicinity.
One of these is the torrent of Livadia, into which th^ ^» unteous springs
of Memory and Oblivion — Mnem<>syne and Lethe — discharge themselves. In
summer a large portion of the plain is dry, and it yields a bountiful harvest
of maiae, the stalks of which t:A sweet like sugar-cane. But after the heavy
rains of autumn and winter the waters rise twenty, and even twenty-five feet,
and the plain is converted into a vast lake, ninety-six square miles in extent. The
myth of the deluge of Ogyges almost leads us to believe that the rising floods
occasionally invaded every valley which debouches into this basin. To tho
anoienta the shall ^er part of this lake was known as Oephissua, and its deep
eastern portion ab ;jaii, from Copae, a town occupying a promontory on its
northern shore, and now called Topolias.

The importiuioe of regulating the floods just referred to, and of preventing
the sudden overflow of the waters to the destmotioii of the cultivated fields,
may readily be imagined. The ancient Greeks made an effort to accomplish this
task. To the east of the large Lake of Copais there is another lake basin, about
one hundred and thirty feet lower, and encompassed by precipitous rooks, incapable
of cultivation. This basin, the Hylice of the Bceotiana, appears to be made by
nature for receiving the superabundant waters of the Oopais. The remains of a
canul uiay still be traced in the plain, which was evidently intended to oonvey into

1 '

'II

GREECE.

it the floods of the Copais, but it appears never to have been completed. No
doubt care was taken to keep open the various kataaothras, or subterranean
channels, through which the waters of the Copaic lake discharge themselves into
the sea. One of these, on the north-western shore of the lake, and close to
the rock of Orchomenus, swallowed up the river Melas, and conveyed its waters
to the Gulf of Atalanta. Farther to the east other subterranean channels flow
towards Lakes Hylice and Faralimni, but the most important of these channels
are towards the north-east, in the Gulf of Kokkino. In that extreme angle of
the lake, the veritable Copais, the waters of the Gephissus rush against the foot
of Mount Skroponeri, and are swallowed up by the ground so as to form a sub-
terranean delta. To the south there is a cavernous opening in the rock, but
this is merely a sort of tunnel passing underneath a promontory, and, except

Fig. 14.— Lakb Copais,
Stem the nenoh Staff Map. So*l« 1 : 80(^000.

K. KataToUma.

IOXOm.

during the rainy season, it may be traversed dry-shod. Beyond this, another
opening swallows up one of the most important branches of the Gephissus,
which makes its reappearance in the shape of bounteous springs pouring their
waters into the sea. Two other branches of the river disappear in the rocks
about a mile farther north. They join soon afterwards, and flow northwards
beneath the bottom of a sinuous valley. The old Greek engineers dug pits in this
valley, which enabled them to descend to the subterranean waters, and to clear away
obstructions interfering with their flow. Sixteen of these pits have been discovered
between the opening of the katavothra and the place where the waters reappear.
Some of these are still thirty to one hundred feet in depth ; but most of them have
become choked up with stones and earth. These ancient engineering works, which
Grates vainly endeavoured to restore in the time of Alexander, may possibly date

--i'Wri(l^iff!&0^i:^

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CONTINENTAL OHEEOE.

from the mythical age of King Minyas of Orchomenus,* and the successful drain-
ing of these marshes may account for the well-filled treasury cl that king spoken
of by Homer. Thus the ingenuity of the Homeric age had succeeded in accom-
plishing a work of the engineering art which baffles our modern men of science I

The whole of Western Greece, filled as it is by the mountains of Acamania,
^tolia, and Phocis, is condemned by nature to play a very subordinate part to
the eastern provinces. In the time of the ancient Greeks these provinces were
looked upon almost as a portion of the world of the barbarians, and even in our
own days the ^tolians are the least cultivated of all the Greeks. There is no
commerce except at a few privileged places close to the sea, such as Missolonghi,
.^toliko, Salona, and Galaxidi. The latter, which is situated on a bay, into
which flows the Pleistus, a river at one time consecrated to Neptune, although
quite dry during the gpreater part of the year, was, up to the war of inde-
pendence, the busiest seapor ton the Gulf of Oorinth. As for Naupactus, or Epakto,
(called Lepanto by the Italians), it was important merely from a strategical point
of view, on account of its position at the entrance of the Gulf of Oorinth, which
is sometimes named after it. Many naval engagements were fought to force the
entrance into the g^lf, defended by the castles of Bumelia and Morea — ^the ancient
Rhium and Anti-Rhium. A curious phenomenon has been observed in connection
with the channel which forms the entrance to the Ghilf of Corinth. Nowhere
more than 36 fathoms in depth, it is subject to perpetual changes in its width,
owing to the formation of alluvial deposits by maritime currents. What one
current deposits is carried away by the other. At the epoch of the Peloponnesian
war this channel was 7 stadia, or about 1,200 yards, wide; at the time of
Strabo its width was only 5 stadia ; whilst in our own days it is no less than
2,200 yards from promontory to promontory. The entrance of the Gulf of Arta,
between the Turkish Epiriis and Greek Acamania, does not present the same
phenomena, and its present width is about equal to that assigned to it by every
ancient author ; that is to say, about 1,000 yards.

The valleys and lake basins of Eastern Greece, and more especially its position
between the Gulf of Corinth, the ^gean Sea, and the channel of Eubosa, which
almost convert it into a peninsula, sufficiently account for the prosperity of that
country. With its cities of Thebes, Athens, and Megara, it is essentially a
land of historical reminiscences. The coutrast between the two most important
districts of this region — ^Boeotia and Attica — is very striking. The first of these
is an inland basin, the waters of which are collected into lakes, where mists
accumulate, and a rich vegetation springs forth from a fat alluvial soil. Attica,
on the other hand, is arid. A thin layer of mould covers the terraces of its rocky
slopes ; its valleys open out into the sea ; the summits of its mountains rise into
an azure sky; and the blue waters of the ^gean wash their base. Had the
Greeks been fearful of the sea ; had they confined themselves, as in the earliest

* Onhomemu, a town on the CephiMOB, the wpitel of Northern Bfleotia, deitroyed h^ the Thebaas

871 B.O.

^;^,

i.- >j— AT .«..-Jm<.«fB>*'- ^ > lt i M M**liM#Aa*i

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GBEKUB.

ages, to the cultivation of the soil, Boeotia, no doubt, would have retained the
preponderance which it enjoyed in the time of the Minyao of wealthy Orohomenus.
But the progress of navigation and the allurements of commerce, which proved
irresistible to the Greeks, were bound by degrees to transfer the lead to the
men of Attica. The city of Athens, which arose in the midst of the largest
plain of this peninsula, therefore occupied a position which assured to it a grand
future.

The choice of Athens as the modem capital of Greece has been much
criticized. Times have changped, no doubt, and the natural centres of commerce
have become shifted, in consequence of the migrations of nations. Corinth, on

Fig. 16.— Thb Aobopolu or Athbms.

the isthmus joining continental Greece to the Peloponnesus, and commanding two
seas, undoubtedly deserved the preference. Its fiusilities for communicating with
Oonstantinople and the Greek maritime districts still under the rule of the
Osmanli, on the ouu hand, and with the western world, from which now proceed
all civilising impulses, on the other, are certainly greater than those of Athens.
If Greece, instead of a small centralised kingdom, had become a federal republic,
which would have been more in accordance with her genius and traditions, there
is no doubt that other towns of Ghreece, more favourably situated than Athens
for establishing rapid commimications with the rest of Europe, would soon have
surpassed that town in population and commercial wealth. Athens, however,
has grown upon its plain, and, by the construction of a railway, it has become even

CONTINENTAL OBEECE.

a maritime city, as in ancient days, when its triple walls joined it to the ports of
the Piraeus and Phalerum.

But how great the difference between the monuments of the ancient city and
of the modem ! The Parthenon, though gutted by the shells of the Venetian
Morosini, and robbed since of its finest sculptures, still retains its pure and simple
beauty, which agrees so well with the sobriety of the surrounding landscape — still
remains the finest architectural work of the world. By the side of this
majestic ruin, on the same plateau of the Acropolis, where the mariner in the
Gulf of ^gina saw the gilt spear-head of Athene Promaohos glitter in the sun,
there rise other monuments, the Erechtheum and the Propyleea, hardly inferior
to it, and dating likewise from the great period of art. Outside the city, on a

Fig. 16. — Athiks and its LoNn Walls.
AooordiDgtoKtopMrlaiidSchtniaL Bwla 1 : 114,000.

SIfilM.

promontory, rises the temple of Theseus, the best-preserved monument of Greek
antiquity. Elsewhere, on the banks of the Hissus, a group of columns
marks tho site of the magnificent temple of Olympian Jupiter, which it took the
Athenians seven hundred years to build, and which their degenerate descendants
made use of as a quarry. Remarkable remains have been discovered in many
other parts of the ancient city, and the least of them are of interest, for they
recall the memory of illustrious men. On such a rook sat the Areopagus which
condemned Socrates ; from this stone tribune Demosthenes addressed the multi-
tude ; and here walked Plato with his disciples !

A similar historical interest attaches to nearly every part of Attica, whether
we visit the city of Eleusis, where the mysteries of Geres were celebrated, or the

9^ 'W.- ^ ' ? ?i ^)B-^ ' -l*-<> J.WM'"' ' ' * *- '

" l ll« i H) ' , ' .» i 'j.HU

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OBEEOE.

city of Megara, with its double Acropolis, or whether we explore the field of
Marathon and the shores of the island of Salamis. Even beyond Attica the
memories of the past attract the traveller to Platoia, to Leuotra, Ghwronea, Thebes
of QHdipus, and Orchomenus of Minyas, though, in comparison with what these
districts were in other times, they are now deserts. In addition to Athens and
Thebes, there are now only two cities in eastern continental Greece which are of
any importance. These are Lamia, in the midst of the low plains of the
Sperchius, and Livadia, in Boeotia, at one time celebrated for the cavern of
Trophonius, which archaeologists have not yet succeeded in identifying. The
island of ^gina, which belongs to Attica, ofiEers the same spectacle of decay and
depopulation as the mainland. Anciently it supported more than two hundred
thousand inhabitants ; at present it hardly numbers six thousand. But the island

Fig. 17. — Amcibnt Athbns.
Aoeotdiag to Kiepert and SohmidL Scale 1 : 80^000.

iMik.

still retains the picturesque ruin of its temple of Minerva, and the prospect which
it affords of the amphitheatre of hills in Argolis and Attica is as magnificent

as ever.

ni. — ^The Morea, or Peloponnesus.

Geooraphicallt the Peloponnesus well deserves the name of island, which was
bestowed upon it by the ancients. The low Isthmus of Corinth completely severs
it from the mountainous peninsula of Greece. It is a world in itself, small
enough as far as the mere space is concerned which it occupies upoa the map,
but great on account of the part it has played in the history of humanity.

THE MOBEA, OB PELOPONNESUS.

On entering the Peloponnesus from the Isthmus of Corinth, we see rising in
front of us the mountain rampart of Oneium, which defended the entrance of the
peninsula, and upon one of whose promontories was built the nearly impregnable
citadel of Corinth. These mountains form part of the general mountain system of
the whole island, and, sheltered by them, its inhabitants could live in security.
The principal mountain mass, whence all other chains radiate towards the
entrances of the peninsula, is situated in the interior of the country, about
forty miles to the west of Corinth. There Mount Cyllene of the ancient Greeks,
or Zyria, rises into the air, its flanks covered with dark pines ; and farther away
still, the Ehelmos, or Aroanian Mountain, attains even a more considerable
height, its snows descending into a valley on its northern slope, where they give
rise to the river Styx, the cold waters of which prove fatal to perjurers, and dis-
appear in a narrow chasm, one of the entrances to Hades. A range of wooded
peaks, to the west of the Ehelmos, connects that mountain with the Olonos (Mount
Erymanthus), celebrated as the haunt of the savage boar destroyed by Hercules.
All these mountains, from Corinth as far as Patras, form a rampart running
parallel with the southern shore of the gulf, in the direction of which they throw
o£P spurs enclosing steep valleys. In one of these — that of Buraikos — we meet
with the grand caverns of Mega-Spileon, which are used as a monastery, and
where the most curious structures may be seen built up on every vantage-ground
offered by the rocks, suggesting a resemblance to the cells of a vast nest of
hornets.

The table-land of the Peloponnesus is thus bounded towards the north by an
elevated coast range. Another chain of the same kind bounds it on the east.
It likewise starts from Mount Cyllene, and extends southward, itis various portions
being known as Gaurias, Malevo (Mount Artemisium), and Parthenion. It is then
broken through by a vast depression, but again rises farther south as the range
of Hagios Petros, or Pamon, to the east of Sparta. Getting lower by degrees, it
terminates in the promontory of Malea, opposite to the island of Cerigo. It was
this cape, tradition ^lls us, which formed the last refuge of the Centaurs ; that
is to say, of the barbarian ancestors of the modem Tsakonituiu. No promontory
was more dreaded by Greek navigators than this Cape Malea, owing to sudden
gusts of wind, and an ancient proverb says, '^When thou hast doubled the cape
forget the name of thy native land."

The, mountains of Western Morea do not present the regularity of the eastran
chain. They are out through by rivers, and to the south of the Aroanian Moun-
tains and the Erymanthus they ramify into a multitude of minor chains, which
now and then combine into mountain groups, and impart the most varied uspeot
to that portion of the plateau. Everywhere in the valleys we come unexpectedly
upon landscapes to which an indescribable charm is imparted by a group of trees,
a spring, a flock of sheep, or a shepherd sitting upon a heap of ruins. We are in
beautiful Arcadia, sung by the poets. Though in great port deprived of its woods,
it is still a beautiful country ; but more charming still are the eastern slopes of the
plateau, which descend towards the Ionian Sea. There luxuriant forests and

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OBEEOB.

sparkling rivuleto add an element of beauty to blue waves, distant islands, and a
transparent sky, which is wanting in nearly every other part of maritime Greece.
The table-land of Arcadia is commanded on the west by pine-ola I Msenalua»
and bounded on the south by several mountain groups which fp.\e birth to
separate mountain chains. One of these mountain masses — the E)tylion, or
Paleeooastro — thus gives rise to the mountains of Messenia, amongst which rises the
famous Ithome, and to those of ^galseus, which spread over the peninsula to the
west of the Gulf of Coron, and reappear in the sea as the rooky islets of Sapiensa,

Hg. 18. — ^MovNT TATomn^

Cabrera, and Yenetikon. Another mountain mass, the LycsBus, or Diaforti — the
Arcadian Olympus, which the Pelasgians claim for their cradle — and which rises
almost in the centre of the Peloponnesus, is continued westward of Laconia by an
extended mountain chain, the most elevated and most characteristic of all the
Horea. The highest crest of these mountains is the famous Taygetus, known also
as Pentedactylos (five thumbs), because of the five peaks which surmount it ; or as
St Elias, in honour, no doubt, of Helios, the Dorian sun-god. A portion of the
lower slopes of this mountain is clothed with forests of chestnuts ;*ui walnuts^

\i ]

i'|J

THE MOBEA, OB PELOPONNESUS. ••

interspersed with cypresses and oaks ; but its orest is bare, and snow remains
upon it during three-fourths of the year. The snows of Taygetus direct the
distant mariner to the shores of Greece. On approaching the coast, he sees rising
above the blue wateri' the spurs and outlying ridges of the Eakavuni, or " bad
mountain." Soon afUTwards he comes in sight of the promontory of Tainaron,
with its two capes of Matapan and Qrasso — immense blocks of white marble more
than six hundred feet in height, upon which the quails settle in millions after their
fatiguing journey across the sea. Into the caverns at its foot the waters rush
with a dull noise which the ancients mistook for the barking of Gerberua.
Cape Matapan, like Malea, is dreaded amongst mariners as a great " destroyer
of men."

The three southern extremities of the Peloponnesus are thus occupied by high
mountains and rooky declivities. The peninsula of Argolis, in the east, is likewise
traversed by mountain ranges, which start from Mount Oyllene, similarly to the
Oaurias and the mountains of Arcadia. The whole of the Peloponnesus is thus
a country of table*lands and mountain ranges. If we except the plains of Elis,
which have been formed by the alluvial deposits carried down by the rivers of
ArOadia, and the lake basins of the interior, which have been filled up in the
course of ag^s, we meet with nothing but mountains.* The principal mountain
masses — the Oyllene, the Taygetus, and Pamon — are composed of crystalline
schists and metamorphic marbles, as in continental Greece. Strata of the Jurastio
age and beds of cretaceous limestone are here and there met with at the foot
of these Aiore ancient rooks. Near the coast, in Argolis, and on the flanks of
the Taygetus, irruptions of serpentines and porphyries have taken place, whilst
on the north*eastem coast of Argolis, and especially on the unall peninsula of
Methone, there exist recent volcanoes — amongst others, the Kaimenipetra, which
M. Fouqud identifies with the fire-vomiting mouths of Strabo, and which had its
last irruption twenty-one centuries ago. These volcanoes ^re, no doubt, the vents
of a submarine area of disturbance which extends through Milos, Santorin, and
Nisyros, to the south of the ^gean Sea.

The sulphur springs which abound on the western coast of the Peloponnesas
are, perhaps, likewise evidences of a reaction of the interior of the earth.

It is the opinion of several geologists th&t the coasts of Western Greece are
being insensibly upheaved. In many places, and particularly at Oorinth, we meet
with ancient caverns and sea beaches at an elevation of several feet above the sea-
level. It is this upheaval, and not merely the alluvial deposits brought down by
rivers, which explains the encroachment of the land upon the sea at the niouth of the
Aohelous and on the coast of Elis, where four rooky islets have been joined to the
land. Elsewhere a subsidence of the land has been noticed, as in the Gulf of

* Heigbto of the principal monuUdiM in tlie Pabponneaiu (in English feet) :—

OyUene (Zyria) .... 8,940

Aiwniur Moontein (Khefanoi) . . 7,726

Xryaumthsa (Olonot) . . . 7,297

Artwaiw'um (MatoTo) . . . 6fili

Plunon (HagiM PetiM) . . . 6,365

LyctBoa (Diafinti}
Itiiome
Tmygvtui .
Araohnanu (Argolia)
Masa height of peninwila

4,660
2,680
7,904
3,935
3,000

m ' t/mcuuMiiMmm

LI i!ii«BRui«ii mm

mmi»aaMttam

GBEEOE.

Marathonisi and on the eastern coast of Oreeoe, where the ancient peninsula of
Elaphonisi has been converted into an island. But even there the fluvial deposits
have encroached upon the sea. The city of Oalamata is twice as distant from the
seashore now as in the dayn of Strabo, and the traces of the ancient haven of
Helos, on the coast of Laconia, are now far inland.

The limestone rocks of the interior of the Peloponnesus abound as much in
chasms, which swallow up the rivers, as do Boootia and the western portion of the
whole of the Balkan peninsula. Some of these katavothras are mere sieves, hidden
beneath herbage and pebbles, but others are wide chasms and caverns, through which
the course of the undergnmnd waters may be readily traced. In winter wild birds
poHt themselves at the entrances of these caverns, in expectation of the prey which
the river is certain to carry towards them; in summer, after the waters have
retired, foxes and jaokabi again take possession of their aooustomed dens. The

Fig. 10.— Lakih Phinba and Stymphalvb.
From the FKneh BUfl Hap. 6ml« 1 : 600,000.

10 UUn.

water swallowed up by these chasms on the plateau reappears on the other side of
the mountains in the shape of springs, or kephalaria {kephalovrysis). The water
of these springs has been purified by its passage through the earth, and its
temperature is that of the soil. It bursts forth sometimes from a crevice in the
rocks, sometimes in an alluvial plain, and sometimes even from the bottom of the
sea. The subterranean geography of Greece is not yet sufficiently known to
enable us to trace each of these kephalaria to the katavothras which feed them.

The ancients were most careful in keeping open these natural funnels, for, by
facilitating the passage of the water, they prevented the formation of swamps.
These precautions, however, were neglected during the centuries of barbarism
which overcame Greece, and the waters were permitted to accumulate in many places
at the expense of the salubrity of the country. The plain of Pheneus, or Phonia, a
vast chasm between the Aroanian Mountains and the Cyllene, has thus repeatedly
been converted into a lake. In the middle of last century the whole of this basin

THE MOaSA, OB PELOI>ONN£8UH. ||

wan filled with water to m depth of more than 300 feet. In 1828, when this sheet of
water had already become considerably reduced, it was still 6 miles long and 160 feet
in depth. At length, a few years afterwards, the subterranean sluices opened,
the waters disappeared, and there remained only two small marshes near the places
of exit. But in 1850 the lake was again 200 feet in depth. Hercules, we are told,
constructed a canal to drain this valley and to cleanse its subterranean outlets, but
the inhabitants content themselves now with placing a grating above the " sink-
holes," to prevent the admission of trunks of trees and of other large objects
carried along by the floods.

To the east of the valley of Phraeos, and on the southern foot of Mount Oyllene,
there is another lake basin, celebrated in antiquity because of the man-eating birds
which infested it, until they were exterminated by Hercules. This is the
Stymphalus, alternately lake and cultivated land. During winter the waters
cover about one-third of the basin ; but it happens occasionally, after heavy rains,
that the lake resumes its ancient dimensions. There is only one katavothra through
which the waters can escape, and this, instead, of being near the shore, as usual, is
at the bottom of the lake. It swallows up not only the water of the lake, but like-
wise the vegetable remains carried into it, and the mud formed at its bottom ; and
this detritus is conveyed through it to some subterranean cavity, where it putrefies
slowly, as may be judged f^m the fetid exhalations proceeding f^om the kata-
vothra. The water, however, is purified, and when it reappears on the surface,
dose to the seashore, it is as clear as orystaL

There are many other lake basins of the some kind between the mountains' of
Arcadia and the chain of the Gaurias. They all have their swamps or temporary
lakes, but the katavothras, in every instance, are sufficiently numerous to prevent
an inundation of the entire valley. The moat important of these lake basins is
formed by the &mou8 plain of Montinea, upon which many a battle was fought.
From an hydrologioal point of view this is one of the most curious places in the
world ; for the waters which collect there ore discharged into two opposite seas —
the Gulf of Nauplia on the east, and in the direction of the Alpheus and the Ionian
Sea towards the west. There may exist even some imbterranean rivulet which
discharges itself, towards the south, into the Eurotas and the Gulf of Laconia.

The disappearance of the waters underground has condemned to sterility several
parts of the Peloponnesus, which a little water would convert into the most fertile
regions of the globe. The surface waters quickly suck up and form subterranean
rivers, hidden from sights which only see the light again, in most instances, near the
seashore, when it is impossible to utilise them. The plain of Argos, though sur-
rounded by a majestic amphitheatre of well-watered hills, is more sterile and arid,
even than are Megara and Attica. Its soil is always dry, and soaks up water like
a sieve, which may have given rise to ihe fable of the Danaids. But to the south
of that plain, where there is but a narrow cultivable strip of land between the
mountains and the seashore, a great river bursts lorth from the rooks. This is the
Erasinus, or the *' amiable," tiius called on account of the purity of its water.
Other springs burst forth at the southern extremity of the plain, close to the defile
6

,.-'v .«'.^MeY«(,<LiUriAUM

m OBBEOB.

of Lerna, which, like that of the Eraiinua, are luppoeed lo be fed from Lake fitym-
phaluH. CloM to them is « chasm f^Ho? . ^L water, wtidto be unfathomable. It
abounds in tortoiaet, and venomoua «c;' .'^ti inhabit the adjoining manh. Theae
are the kephalaria, or " headi," of tl< .c at hydru of Lorna, which Herculea
found it ao difficult to seize hold of. Still farther Houth there is another spring
which rises from the bottom of the sea, more than three hundred yards firom Um

Ftf. 20.— Tmb PiATiAc or MAimwBA.
ftaa the rrMMh SUf Ifap- >wl« • : MKKOOflk

shore. This spring — the Doinse of the ancients, and Anavnla of modem Greek
mariners — is, in reality, but the mouth of one of the liyers swallowed up by the
katavothras of Mantinea. When the sea is still it throws up a jet rising to a
height of fifty feet.

Analogous phenomena may be witnessed in the two southern Talleys of the
peninsula, those of Sparta and Massenia. The In, or Eurotas, is, in reality, but a large
rivulet, which discharges itself into the Gulf of Marathcmisi, at the end of a gorgOi

thniugh

some ao

Bufficien

river "),

from thi

consider)

open, d

the only

and it c

advantag

fed by \

where

and the!
ancients J

The
likewise!
Ruphia,!
larger
brated
trana
fed by
aportio
The

j^!^m^y'M; ^ im^

'"'"ppps?^

"tmnmi'*^-

THE MOREA, OB PELOPONNESUS. M

thivugh whioh the wsten of the liake of Spertn forced theiDMlvee a paiaage during
tome ancient deluge ; but it ii only on rare occaaioni that it* volume of water ia
■ufficient to remore the bar which obetruota ii« mouth. The yaaili>rotamo (" royal
river "), on the other hand, whioh burata forth at the foot of a rook a abort diatance
from the Eurotaa, though ita whole courae doee not exceed five milea, diaohargea a
conaiderable volume of water throughout the year, and ita mouth ii at all timea
open. Aa to the river of Meaaenia, the ancient Pamiaua, now called Piniatia, it ia
the only river of Greece, beaidea the Alpheua, whioh forma a harbour at ita mouth,
and it can be aaoended by email veaaela for a diatance of eight milea ; but tbia
advantage it owea ezcluaively to the powerful apringi of Hagioa Floroa, which are
fed by the mountains on the east. These springs, which form a lurge swamp

Fif. 21.— BipVBCATioH or thb OAnvMt.
ftom th« rNMh Star Map. 8«d* 1 1 WtfiO0>

where they rise to the sorfiMse, are the real river, if volume of water is to be decisive,
and the country watered and fertilised by them was called the " Happy " by the
ancients, on account of its fertility.

The western regions of the Peloponnesus receive more rain, and they are
likewise in the possession of the most considerable river, the Alpheus, now called
Ruphia, firom one of its tributaries. The latter, the ancient Lodon, conveys a
larger volame of water towards the sea than the Alpheus. It was as cele-
brated amongst the Greeks as was the Peneus of Theasaly, on account of the
iransparenoy of its waters, and the smiling scenery along its banks. It is partly
fed by the snows of Mount Erymanthus, and, like most rivers of the Morea, derives
a portion of its waters from subterranean tributaries rising on the central plateau.
The Ladon thus receives the waters of Lake Fhenea, whilst the Alpheus proper

iH^

GREECE.

is fed in ?ta upper course from katavothras on the shores of the ancient lakes
of OrchomenuB nnd Matinea. Having traversed the basin of Megalopolis, anciently
a lake, it passes vb^nugh a series of picturesque gorges, and reaches its lower
valley. A charming tradition, illustrative of the ties of amity which existed
between Elis and Syracuse, makes this river plunge beneath the sea and reappear
in Sicily, close to the fountain of his beloved Arethusa. The ancient Greeks,
who witnessed the disappearance of so many rivers, would hardly have looked
upon this submarine course of the Alpheus as a thing to wonder at.

The Alpheus and all other rivers of Elis carry down towards the sea immense
masses of detritus, which they spread over the plains extending from the foot
of the mountains to the seashore. The ruins of Olympia disappeared in this
manner beneath alluvial deposits. They have all frequently changed their beds,
and not one amongst them has done so more frequently than the Peneus, or river of
Qastuni. Anciently it discharged its waters to the north of the rocky promontory
of Chelonatas, whilst in the present day it turns abruptly to the south, and enters
the sea at a distance of fifteen miles from its ancient mouth. Works of irrigation
may partly account for this change, but there can be no doubt that nature unaided
has by degrees much modified the aspect of this portion of Greece. Iskinds
originally far in the sea have been joined to the land ; numerous open bays have
gradually been cut o£f from the sea by natural embankments, and transformed
into swamps or lagoons. One of the latter extends for several leagues to the
south of the Alpheus, and is divided from the sea by a fine forest of pines.
These majestic forests, in which the Triphylians paid honour to their dead, the
surrounding hills dotted over with clumps of trees, and Mount Lycseus, from
whose flanks are precipitated the cascades dedicated to Neda, the nurse of Jupiter,
render this the most attractive district of all the Morea to a lover of nature.

The Peloponnesus presents us with one of the most striking instances of the
influence exercised by the nature ^of the country upon the historical development
of its inhabitants. Held to Greece by a mere thread, and defended at its entrance
by a double bulwark of mountains, this " isle of Pelops " naturally became the
seat of independent tribes at a time when armies still recoiled from natural
obstacles. The isthmus was open as a commercial high-road, but it was dosed
against invaders.

The relief of the peninsula satisfactorily explains the distribution of the
tribes inhabiting it, and the part they played in history. The whole of the interior
basin, which has no visible outlets towards the sea, naturally became the home
of a. tribe who, like the Arcadians, held no intercourse with their neighbours, and
hardly any amongst themselves. Oorinth, Sicyon, and Achaia occupied the sea-
shore on the northern slopes of the inountains, but were separated by high trans-
versal chains. The inhabitants of these isolated valleys long remained strangers
to each other, and when at length they combined to resist the invader, it was
too late. Elis, in the west, with its wide valleys and its insalubrious plains
extending along a coast having no havens, naturally played but a secondary part

in the
to their
had the
by convi
of Euro;
days' fei
the mou
the othe:
Hence tl
in the 1
Greece,
establish
every at
establish*
difficulty
At a lati
plains of
protected
of the Sp
At lengtTi
of Sparta
Greece. !
to Corint
made by
The
Attica,
the Pelo]
where th
Attica, t
commerc
dependei
of the p
which 01
for an
sea by
issue, pi
the soilJ
Eurotasl
distinct]
by whoij

In
on the!
in the
Lacoi

'w^^wmM:^mwm^^mM

THE MOEEA, OB PELOPONNESUS.

in tlie history of the peninsula. Its inhabitants, exposed to invasions, owing
to their country being without natural defences, would soon have been enslaved,
had they not placed themselves under the protection of all the rest of Oreece
by converting their plain of Olympia into a place of meeting, where the Hellenes
of Europe and of Asia, from the continent and from the islands, met for a few
days' festival to forget their rivalries and animosities. The basin of Argos and
the mountain peninsula of Argolis, on the eastern side of the Peloponnesus, on
the other hand, are districts having natural boundaries, and are easily defended.
Hence the Argolians were able to maintain their autonomy for centuries, and even
in the Homeric age they exercised a sort of hegemony over the remainder of
Oreece. The Spartans were their successors. The country in which they
established themselves possessed the double advantage of being secure against
every attack, and of furnishing all they stood in need of. Having firmly
established themselves in the beautiful valley of the Eurotas, they foiind no
di£Sculty in extending their power to the seashore, and to the unfortunate Helos.
At a later date they crossed the heights of the Taygetus, and descended into the
plains of Messenia. That portion of Greece likewise formed 9 natural basin,
protected by elevated mountain ramparts ; and the Messenians, who were kinsmen
of the Spartans and their equals in bravery, were thus able to resist for a century.
At length they fell, and all the Southern Peloponnesus acknowledged the supremacy
of Sparta, which was now in a position to assert its authority over the whole of
Oreece. Then it was that the mountain-girt plateau on the road from LacedsBmonia
to Corinth, upon which stood the cities of Tegea and Mantinea, and which was
made by nature for a field of Mars, became the scene of strife.

The Peloponnesus, with its sinuous shores, forms a remarkable contrast to
Attica. Its characteristios are essentially those of a continent, and anciently
the Peloponnesians were mountaineers rather than mariners. Except in Corinth,
where the two seas nearly join, and a few towns of Argolis, which is another
Attica, there were no inducements for the inhabitants to engage in maritime
commerce ; and in their mountain valleys and upland plains thay were entirely
dependent upon the rearing of cattle and husbandry, Arcadia, in the centre
of the peninsula, was inhabited only by herdsmen and labourers ; and its name,
which originally meant " country of bears," has become the general designation
for an eminently pastoral oountry. The Laconians also, separated from the
sea by rooky mountains which hem in the vaUey of the Eurotas at its point of
issue, preserved for a long time the customs of warriors and of cultivators of
the soil, and took to the sea only with reluctance. "When the Spartans placed
Eurotas and Taygetus at the head of their heroes," says Edgar Quinet, "they
distinctly connected the features of the valley with the destinies of the people
by whom it was occupied."

In the very earliest ages the Phoenicians already occupied important factories
on the coasts of the Peloponnesus. They had established themselves at Nauplia,
in the Gulf of Argos ; and at Cranse, the modem Marathonisi or Gythion, in
Laconia, they purchased the shells which they required to dye their purple

OBEEOE.

cloths. The Greelrs themselves were in possession of a few busj ports, amongst
which was " sandy P7I0S," the capital of Nestor, whose position is now held by
Nayarino, on the other side of the gulf. At a subsequent date, when Greece had
become the centre of Mediterranean commerce, Corinth, so favourably situated
between the two seas, rose into importance, not because of its political influence,
its cultivation of the arts, or love of liberty, but through the number and wealth
of its inhabitants. It is said that it had a population of three hundred thousand
souls within its walls. Even after it had been razed by the Romans it again
recovered its ancient pre-eminence. But the exposed position of the town has
caused it to be ravaged so many times that all commerce has fled from it. In 1858,
when an earthquake destroyed Corinth, that once famous city had dwindled down
into a poor village. The city has been rebuilt about five miles from its ancient site,
on the shore of the gulf named after it, but we doubt whether it will ever resume
its ancient importance unless a canal be dug to connect the two seas. The high-
roads from Marseilles and Trieste to Smyrna and Constantinople would then lead
across the Isthmus of Corinth, and this canal might attract an amount of shipping
equal to that which frequents other ocean channels or canals similarly situated.
But for the present the isthmus is almost deserted, and only the passengers who are
conveyed by Greek steamers to the small ports on its opposite shores cross it.
The ancients, who had failed in the constructjj^n of a canal, and who made no
further efibrt after the time of Nero, because they imagined one of the two seas
to be at a higher level than the other, had provided, at all events, a kind of
tramway, by means of which their small vessels could be conveyed from the Gulf
of Corinth to the .^gean Sea.*

After the Crusades, when the powerful Republic of Yenice had gained a
footing upon the coasts of Morea, flourishing commercial colonies arose along
them, in Arcadia, on the island of Prodano (Prote), at Navarino, Modon, Coron,
Calamata, Malvoisie, and Nauplia in Argolis. At the call of these Venetian
merchants the Peloponnesus again became a seat of trade, and resumed, to some
extent, that part in maritime enterprise which it had enjoyed in the time
of the Phoenicians. But the advent of the Turk, the impoverishment of the soil,
and the civil wars which resulted therefrom, again forced the inhabitants to break
off all intercom's with the outer world, av.A to shut themselves up in their island
as in a prison Tripolis, or Tripolitza, in the very centre of the peninsula, and
called thus, it is said, becnuse it is the representative of three ancient cities —
Mantiuea, Tegea, and Pallantium — then became the most populous place. Since
the Greeks have regained their independence life again fluctuates towards the sea-
shore as by a sort of natural sequence. Patras, close to the entrance of the Gulf of
Corinth, and near the most fertile and best-cultivated plains on the eastern shore,
is by far the most important city at present, and, in anticipation of its future
extension, the streets of a new town have been laid out, in the firm belief that it
will some day rival Smyrna and Trieste in extent.

* The iathmtw is 6,496 yards wide, and riiei to a height of 260 feet where it is narrowest, iti nman
height being 180 feet

frequenj

Turkisl

1828.

fertile

always

is hard

which

to exi

durinf

" I ."l i'iw t y <"llf!W '..' i '

i|P'^PFfge-!«*SS*iSia|f»Wff^jirf«ii

•«pa

THE MOBEA, OB PELOPONNESUS.

The otber towns of the peninsula, even those which exhibited the greatest
activity during the dominion of the Venetians, are but of very secondary
importance, if we compare them with this emporium of the Peloponnesus, ^(jium,
or Yostitza, on the Gulf of Corinth, is a poor port, less celebrated on account
of its commerce than in consequence of a magnificent plane-tree, more than
fifty feet in girth, the hollow trunk of which was formerly used as a prison.
Fyrgos, close to Alphea, has no port at all. The fine roadstead of Kavarino,
defended against winds and wavss by the rocky islet of Sphacteria, is but little

Fig. 22.— Tu Vaxxbt op thx Eubotas.
Vtcm the Prmoh Staff Ifap. S«de 1 ; 870.00C.

1 rfli.Tlrffc

«*l».

- -STC 1

■ f

z ■

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■Bl^'^

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^'^t-.llml^i.

hi--

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1 -1- -«- -H. I

frequented, and the merchantmen riding at anchor there never outnumber the
Turkish men-of-war at tlie bottom, where they have lain since the battle fought in
1828. Modon and Coron have likewise fallen off. Calamata, at the mouth of the
fertile valleys of Messenia, has an open roadstead only, and vessels cannot
always ride in safety upon it. The celebrated Malvoisie, now called Monemvasia,
is hardly more than a heap of ruins, and the vineyards in its neighbourhood,
which furnished the exquisite wii.? named after the town, have long ceased
to exist. Nauplia, which was the capital of the modem kingdom of Greece
during the first few yean of its existence, possesses the advantage of a well-

OBEEOE.

sheltered port ; but its walls, its bastions, and its forts give it the character of a
military town rather than of a commercial one.

The towns in the interior of the country, whatever glories may attach to them,
are hardly more now than large villages. The most celebrated of all, Sparta, thanks
to the fertility of its environs, promises to become one of the most prosperous
cities of the interior of the Peloponnesus. Sparta — that is, the " scattered city,"
. — was named thus because its houses were scattered over the plain, defended only
by the valour of their inhabitants, and not by walls. In the Middle Ag^s Sparta
was supplanted by the neighbouring Mistra, whose decayed Gothic buildings and
castles occupy a steep hill on the western side of the Eorotas ; but it has now reco-
vered its supremacy amongst the towns of Lusonia. Argos, which is more ancient
even than the city of Lacedremon, has likewise risen anew from its ruins ; for the
plain in which it lies, though occasionally dried up, is of great natural fertility.

Strangers, however, who explore the countries of the Peloponnesus, do not go
in search of these newly risen cities, where a few stones only remind them of
the glories of the past, but are attracted by the ancient monuments of art.
In that respect Argolis is one of the richest provinces of Greece. Near to Argos
the seats of an amphitheatre are cut into the steep flanks of the hill of Larissa.
Between Argos and Nauplia a small rock rises in the middle of the plain, which
is surmounted by the ancient Acropolis of Tirynthus, the Cyclopean walls of which
are more than fifty feet in thickness. A few miles to the north of Argos are the
ruins of Mycenee, the city of Agamemnon, where the celebrated " Gfate of Lions,"
coarsely sculptured when Greek art first dawned, and the vast vaults known as
the Treasury of the Atrides, mainly attract the attention of visitors. These
ifaults are amongst the oldest and best-preserved antiquities of Greece. They
exhibit most solid workmanship, and one of the stones, which does duty as a lintel
over the entrance-gate, weigl -> no less than one hundred and sixty-nine tons. At
Epidaurus, in Argolis, on the shores of the Gulf of ^gina, and close to the most
famous temple of -J. cul&pius, we still meet with a theatre which has suffered
less from time thau auy other throughout Greece. Shrubs, interspersed with
small trees, surround it; but we can still trace its fifty-four rows of white
marble seats, capable of affording accommodation to twelve thousand sp'. rtutors.
Amongst other &mous ruins of Avgolis are the beautiful remains of a temple of
Jupiter at Nemea, and the seven Doric columns of Corinth, said to be the oldest
in all Greece. But the most beautiful edifice of the peninsula must be sought for
near Arcadian Phigalia, in the charming valley of the Neda. This is the temple
of Basse, erected by Ictinus in honour of Apollo Epicurius, and its beauty
is enhanced by the oaks and rocks which surround it.

Citadels, however, are the buildings we most frequently meet with ; and many
a fortified place, with its walls and acropolis, yet exists as in the days of
ancient Greece. The walls of Phigalia and Messenia still have their ancient
towers, gates, and redoubts. Other fortifications were utilised by the Crusaders,
Venetians, or Turks, and by them furnished with crenellated walls and keeps,
which add another picturesque feature to the landscape. One of these ancient

fortresses,
the Peloi
manding <

Severa

encies of t

The ii

seamen, w

Hellenic i

Poros, a SI

revolted {

it has an €

naval stat

of Spezzia

islands, wi

population

the exacti(

They were

commerce-

and immec

nearly 400

vessels, ai

in this stri

ruin. No I

was transf

Cythe^

better knc

Republic,]

the Peloj

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rocks, ij

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important

but Cai

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facturersi

who int

Islands I
name oj

appear ;

THE ISLANDS OF THE ^OEAN SEA.

e»

fortresses, transformed during the Middle Ages, rises at the yery gates of
the Peloponnesus — namely, the citadel of Corinth, the strongest and most com-
manding of all.

Several of the islands of the ^^gean Sea must he looked upon as natural depend-
encies of the Peloponnesus, to which suhmarine ledges or shoals attach them.

The islands along the coast of Argolis, which are inhabited by Albanian
seamen, who were amongst the foremost to fight the Turk during the struggle for
Hellenic independence, have lost much of their former commercial importance.
Poros, a small Albanian town on a volcanic island of the same name, which the
revolted people chose for their capital, is, however, still a bustling place, for
it has an excellent harbour, and the Greek Government has made it the principal
naval station of the kingdom. Hydra, on the other hand, and the small island
of Spezzia, next to it, have lost their former importance. They are both rocky
islands, without arable soil, trees, or water, and yet they formerly supported a
population of fifty thousand souls. About 1730 a colony of Albanians, weary of
the exactions of some Turkish pasha on the mainland, fled to the island of Hydra.
They were left in peace there, for they agreed, to pay a trifling tribute. Their
commerce — leavened, to be sure, with a little piracy — assumed large dimensions,
and immediately before the war of indq)endenoe the Albanians of Hydra owned
nearly 400 vessels of 100 to 200 tons each, and they were able to send over 200
vessels, armed with 200 guns, against the Turks. By engaging so enthusiastically
in this struggle for liberty, the Hydriotes, without suspecting it, wrought their own
ruin. No sooner was the cause of Greece triumphant than the commerce of Hydra
was transferred to Syra and the Pineus, which are more favourably situated.

Oythera of Laconia, a far larger island than either of those mentioned, acd
better known by the Italian name of Cerigo, formed a member of the Septinsular
EepubUc, although not situated in the Ionian Sea, and clearly a dependency of
the Peloponnc6us. Cythera is no longer the island oi Yenus, and its voluptuous
groves hbve disappeared. Seen from the north, it resembles a pile of sterile
rooks. It nevt^rtheless yields abundant harvests, possesses fine plantations of
olive-trees, cad populous villages. Cerigo, in former times, enjoyed considerable
importance, owing to its position between the - Ionian Sea and the Archipelago ;
but Cape Malea has lost its terrors now, and the harbour of refiige on the
island is no longer sought after. Heaps of shells, left there by Phoenician manu>
facturers of purple, have been found on the island ; and it was the Phoenicians
who introduced the worsiup of Yenus Astarte.

lY. — ^Thb Islands of the ^oban Sea.

T°LANi>8 and islets are scattered in seeming disorder over the ^gean Sea, the
name of which may probably mean "sea of goats," because these islands
appca? cd at a distance like goats. By e singular misapplication the modem term

r. i r':»ai ».

OBEECE.

Archipelago, instead of sea, is now used to designate these groups of islanda.
The Sporades, ^n tlie north, form a long range of islands stretching in the
direction of Mount Athos. The island of Scyros, farther south, the hirthplace of
Achilles and place of exile of King Theseus, occupies an isolated position ; the
large island of Euhoea extends along the coast of the continent; and in the
distance rise the white mountains of the Cyclades, likened hj the ancient Greeks
to a circle of Oceanides dancing around a deity.

All these islands are so many fragments of the mainland. This is proved by

Fig. 28.— EuBiPVB AMD Chalois.
BmOb 1 : 890,000.

SHilM.

their geological structure, or by shoals which attach them to the nearest coast. The
Northern Sporades are a branch of Mount Felion. Euboea is traversed by limestone
mountains of considerable height, running parallel to the chains of Attica,
Argolis, Mount Olympus, and Mount Athos. Scyros is a rocky mountain mass,
whose axis runjs in the same direction as that of the central chain of Eubcea.
The summits of the Cyclades continue the ranges of Eubcea and Attica towards
the south-east, and the same micaceous and argillaceous schists, limestones, and
crystalline marbles are found in them. They are, indeed, " mountains of Greece

scattered <
the Cycla<
ones of I
Curious a
Antiparos,
Sillaka, o
Granite is
Delos, de<
the Cyola
peninsula i
Euhoea
which sepi
and is no
than two
Chalcis, tl
The irreg
marvellous
because h(
island, Nej
name the s
has at all i
and BoeotI
of Euboea-
prosperity
when invj
participat(
In No
the villag
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charming
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The hig
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vestige ol
Antii
to the wi
Europe, i
haunt tl
in the
The and

"'~':WSS$^

THE ISLANDS OF THE JEOEAN SEA.

scattered over the aea." If Athens may boast of the quarries of Mount Pentelicus,
the Cyclades produce the glittering marbles of Naxos, and the still more beautlM
ones of Pares, from which were chiselled the statues of heroes and of gods.
Curious caverns are met with in the limestone of the islands, especially that of
Antiparos, the existence of which was not known to the ancients, and the Cave of
Sillaka, on the island of Oythnos, or Thermia, celebrated for its hot springs.
Granite is found on some of the islands, and particularly in the small island of
Delos, dedicated to the worship of Apollo and Diana. In the south, finally,
the C^olades are traversed by a chain of volcanic islands, extending J!rom the
peninsula of Methana, in Arg^lis, to Oos and the shores of Asia Minor.

Euboea may be looked upon almost as a portion of the continent, for the striait
which separates it from the mainland resembles a submerged longitudinal valley,
and is nowhere of great depth or width. At its narrowest part it is no more
than two hundred and fourteen feet across, and from the most remote times,
Chalcis, the capital of the island, has been joined to the mainland by a bridge.
The irregular tidal currents flowing through this strait were looked upon as
marvellous by the Greeks, and Aristotle is said to have flung himself into it
because he was unable to explain this phenomenon. The Italian name of the
island, Negroponte, is formed by a series of corruptions from Euripus, by which
name the ancients knew the strait between the island and the mainland. Euboea
has at all times shared in the vicissitudes of the neighbouring provinces of Attica
and Boectia. When the cities of Greece were at the height of their glory, those
of Euboea — Chalcis, Eretria, and Cerinthus — enjoyed likewise a high degree of
prosperity, and dispatched colonies to all parts of the Mediterranean. Later on,
when invaders ravaged Attica, Euboea shared the same fate, and at present it
participates in every political and social movement of the neighbourmg continent.

In Northern Euboea there are forests of oaks, pines, elms, and plane-trees ;
the villages are embedded in orchards ; and the surrounding country resembles
what we have seen in Elis and Arcadia. But in the Cyolades we look in vain for
charming landscapes. Foliage and running water abound only in a very few
spots. Arid rocks, more arid even than those on the coast of Greece, predomi-
nate, and only in a few favoured spots do we meet with a few olive-trees, valonia
oaks, pines, and fig-trees. Everywhere else the hills are naked. And yet these
islands arouse feelings of devotion in us, for their names are great vi history.
The highest summits of most of them have been named after the prophet
Elias, the biblical successor of Apollo, the god of the sun ; and justly so, for the
sim reigns supreme upon these austere rockp, and his scorching rays destroy every
vestige of vegetation.

Antimilos, one of the uninhabited islands of this group, still affords an asylum
to the wild goat (Capra Caucasiea), which has disappeared from the remainder of
Europe, and is met with only in Crete, and perhaps Abodes. Wild pigs likewise
haunt the rocks of Antimilos. Rabbits were introduced from the West, and abound
in the caverns of some of the Cyclades, and especially on Myconus and Delos.
The ancient authors never mention these animals. It ia a curious fact that

?;5

-uammm

OBEEOE.

hares and rabbits never inhabit the same island, with the sole exception of
AndroB, where the hares occupy the extreme north, whilst the rabbits have their
burrows in the southern portion of the island. As a curiosity, we may also
mention that a large species of lizard, called crocodile by the inhabitants, is found
on the islands, but not on the neighbouring continent, and we may conclude from
this that the Cyclades were separated from the Balkan peninsula at a very remote
period.

A chain of volcanic islands bounds the Oyolades towards the south, where they
are separated from Crete by an ocean trough of great depth. Milos is the most
important of these islands. It has an irregularly shaped crater, which has been

Fig. 24.— NiA Eaikimi.
According to DtniUik.

■■i TTjilMaTed, without volcuiie phcnomaiiB.
■■■ TTpheafcd, attended by ftimwolin and eniptioM.
■^ Andent Coaat (Mount George, 400 feet).

invaded by the sea, and forms there one of the safest and most capacious harbours
of refuge in the Mediterranean. Milos has had no eruption within historic times,
but the existence of solfataras and of hot springs proves that its volcanic forces are
not yet quite extinct.

The actual centre of volcanic activity has to be looked for in a omall group of
islands known as Santorin, and lying midway between Europe and Asia. These
islands consist of marbles and schists, similar to those of the other Oyclades, and
they surround a vast crater no less than twelve hundred and eighty feet in depth.
The crescent-shaped island of Thera, on the east, presents bold cliffii towards the
crater, while its gentle outer slopes are covered with vineyards producing exquisite
wine. Therasia, on the west, rises like an immense wall; and the islet of

Aspronisi,
which sep
the centre
Ruddenly e
thousand (
basin. Tb
years of e
islands. Mi
century; i
than doubl
extending
million of
sometimes
ashes coulc

Thoust
witness th
Gorceix, 1
service,
explosion
with enort

Southe
are inhab
pelago is
Naxos, an
importanc
pelago asl
tection o|
land was

Naxos,
hardly all

The
they ha^
bouring
caused tl
their in]
times thq
voyages
Venetian

•PriB

THE ISLANDS OF THE JEOEAN SEA.

Asproniai, between the two, indicates the existence of a submarine partition wall
which separates the crater from the open sea. The submarine volcano occupies
the centre of this basin. It remains quiescent for long periods, and then
suddenly arousing itself, it ejects immense masses of scoriae. Nearly twenty-one
thousand centuries ago the first island rose to the surface in the centre of this
basin. This island is known now as Paleoa Kaimeni, or the " old volcano." Three
years of eruptions in the sixteenth century gave birth to the smallest of the three
islands, Mikra Kaimeni. A third cone of lava, Nea Kaimeni, rose in the eighteenth
century ; and quite recently, between 1866 and 1870, this new island has more
than doubled its size, overwhelming the small village of Yolkario and its port, and
extending to within a very short distance of Mikra Kaimeni. No less than half a
million of partial eruptions occurred during those five years, and the ashes were
sometimes thrown to a height of four thousand feet. Even from Crete clouds of
ashes could be seen suspended in the air, black during the day, and lit up by night.

Thousands of spectators hastened to Santorin from all quarters of the world to
witness these eruptions, and amongst them were several men of science — Fouqu^,
Gorceix, Reiss, Stiibel, and Schmidt — whose observations have proved of great
service. The crater of Santorin appears to have been produced by a violent
explosion which shattered the centre of the ancient island, and covered its slopes
with enormous masses of tufa.*

Southern Euboea and the vicinity of Fort Oavrion, on the island of Androe,
are inhabited by Albanians, but the population in the aonainder of the Archi-
pelago is Greek. The families of Italian or French descent on Soyros, Syra,
Naxos, and Santorin are not sufficiently numerous to constitute an element of
importance. They claim to be of French descent, and are known in the Archi-
pelago as Franks, and during the war of independence they claimed the pro>
tection of the French Government. In former times nearly the whole of the
land was held by these Franks, who had taken possession of it during the Middle
Ages, and these large estates are made to account for the sparse population of
Naxos, which supported a hundred thousand inhabitants formerly, but is now
hardly able to support one-seventh that number.

The Cyclades are farther removed from the coast of Greece than Euboea, and
they have not always shared in the historical dramas enacted upon the neigh-
bouring continent. Their position in ine centre of the Archipelago naturally
caused them to be visited by all the nations navigating the Mediterranean, and
their inhabitants were thus subjected to the most diverse influences. In ancient
times the mariners of Asia Minor and of Phoenicia called at the Oyclades on their
voyages to Greece ; during the Middle Ages the Byzantines, the Crusaders, the
Venetians, the Genoese, and the Knights of Rhodes and Osmanli were masters

* Principal altitudes of the islaiida of Oreece: —

Monnt Delphi, on Euboea
Mount St. Eliaa, on Euboea
Mount Kokbilas, on Scyros
Mount Kovari, on Andtoa

Veet.
£,730
4,840
2,666
3,200

Mount Oxia, on Naxos
Mount St. Elias, on Siphenoa
Mount St. Eliaa, on Nios .
Mount St. Eliaa, on Santorin

Fart.
8,290
2,280
2,410
1.887

.^•J

OREEOB.

there in turn ; and in our own duyii the nations of Western Europe, with the
Greeks themselves, hold the preponderance in the Arobipelago.

These historical vicissitudes have caused the centre of gravity of the Oyoladea
to be shifted from island to island. In the time of the ancient Greeks, Delos, the
island of Apollo, was looktad upon as the " holy land," where merchants congre-
gated from all quarters, carried on business in the shadow of sanoturies, and
held slave markets at the side of tho tomples. The sale of human flesh became
in the end the main feature of tho cM;>merce of Delos, and in the time of the
Roman emperors as many as ten thousand slaves were bartered away there in a
single day. But the markets, the temples, and monuments of Delos have vanished,
and itH stony soil supports now only a few sheep. During the Middle Ages Naxos
enjoyed the predominance; and at present, Tinos, with its venerated church
of the Fanagia and its thousands of pilgrims, is the " holy land " of the Archi-
pelago; whilst Hermopolis, on Syra, though without trees or water, holds the
position of commercial metropolis of the Cyclades. The latter was a town of no
importance before the iicar of independence ; but it remained neutral during that
struggle, and thus attracted numerous refugees from other islands, and, thanks to
its central position, it has since become the principal mart, dockyard, and naval
station of the ^gean Sea. Whether travellers proceed to Saloniki, Smyrna,
Constantinople, or the Black Sea, they must stop at Hermopolis. The town
formerly occupied the heights only, for fear of pirates, but it has descended now
to the foot of the hill, and its quays and warehouses extend along the sea-
shore.

Commerce has peopled the naked rocks of Syra, but it has not yet succeeded in
developing the resouioes of the Archipelago as in ancient times. Euboea is no
longer " rich in cattle,*' as its name implies, and only exports com, wine, fruit,
and the lignite extracted from the mines near Eumi. The gardens of Naxos
yield oranges, lemons, and citrons ; Scopelos, Andros, and Tinos, the latter one of
the best cultivated amongst the islands, export wines, which are excelled, however,
by those of '' :T:torin, the Calliste of the earliest Greeks. The volcanic and other
islands of the Cyclades export millstones, china day, lavas, and cimolite, this being
used in bleaching. Naxos exports emery, and that is all. The marbles of Pares
even remain untouched, and the excellent harbour of that island only rarely sees a
vessel. The inhabitants of the Cyclades confine themselves to the cultivation of
the soil, and to the breeding of a few silkworms, the surplus population of Tinos,
Siphenos, and others emigrating annually to Constantinople, Smyrna, or Greece, to
work as labourers, cooks, potters, masons, or sculptors. But whilst some of the
islands can boast o£ a surplus population, there are others which are the abode of
a few herdsmen only. Most of the islands between Naxos and Amurgos are
hardly more than, barren rocks. Antimilos, like Delos, la merely a pasture-
ground sown over with rocks. Serphos and Giura are still dreary solitudes, as in
the time of the Roman emperors, when they were set aside as places of exile.
Serphos, however, possesses iron of excellent quality, and may, in consequence,
again become of some importance. On Antiparos there are lead mines.

The islam
to the wesi
which div:
passed thn
century.
IB the onl;
assaults of
Bonaparte
A few yeai
which the;;
the Porte.
English ca
and this, U.
into a " Se
British ba^
democratic
suzerainty
annexed t
wealthiest,
consulted
is neverthi
axiom tha
good
of Corfu,
policy has I
has still

Corfu,]
Ionian Is
cial adva
resemblinl
in order
pretend
linen of
gardens
small pel
barges.
Epirus,
much
fragrant!
the hUlJ
exposed]
curtails!

THB IONIAN ISLES.

v.— Thb Ionian Iblm.

The island of Corfu, on the coast of Epirus, and the whole of the Archipelago
to the west of continental and peninsular Greece, down to the island of Cythera,
which divides the waters of the Ionian Sea from those of the ^goan, have
passed through the most singular political vioissitudes in the course of the last
century. Corfu, thanks to the protection extended to it by the Venetian Republic,
is the only dependency of the Balkan peninsula which successfully resisted the
assaults of the Turk. When Venice was handed over to the Austrians by
Bonaparte in 1797, Corfu and the Ionian Islands were occupied by the French.
A few years afterwards the Russians became the virtual masters in these islands,
which they formed into a sort of aristocratic republic under the suzerainty of
the Porte. In 1807 the French once more took possession of them; but the
English captured one after the other until there remained to them only Corfu,
and this, too, had to be given up in 1814. The Ionian Islands were then converted
into a " Septinsular Republic," governed by the landed aristocracy, supported by
British bayonets. T > did England alter the constitution of this republic in a
democratic sense, bu ^tae patriotism of the islanders refused to submit to British
suzerainty ; and, when Great Britain parted with her conquest, the Ionian Islands
annexed themselves to Greece, and they now form the best educated, the
wealthiest, and the most industrious portion of that kingdom. England, no doubt,
consulted her own interests when she set free her Ionian subjects ; but her action
is nevertheless deser>-ing of approbation. England exhibited her faith in the
axiom that moral influence is superior to brute force, and yielded with perfect
good grace, not only the commercial ports of the islands, but likewise the citadel
of Corfu, which gave her the command of the Adriatic. This magnanimous
policy has not hitherto met with imitators in other countries, but England herself
has still many opportunities of applying it in other ports of the world.

Corfu, the ancient Corcyra, has always held the foremost place amongst the
Ionian Islands. It owes this position to the vicinity of Italy, and to the commer-
cial advantages derived from an excellent port and a vast roadstead almost
resembling an inland lake. The inhabitants are fond of appealing to Thuoydides
in order to prove that Corfu is the island of the FhsBaoes of Ulysses. They even
pretend to have discovered the rivulet in which beauteous Kausicaa washed the
linen of her fitther, and the shaded walks near the city are known by them as the
gardens of Alcinous. Corfu is the only one of the islands which can boast of a
small perennial stream, the Messongi, which is navigable for a short distance in
barges. The hills, which are placed like a screen in front of the plains of the
Epirus, are exposed to the full force of the south-westerly winds, which bring
much rain ; the vegetation, consequently, is rich : orange and lemon trees form
fragrant groves around the city, vines and olive-trees hide the barren ground of
the hills, and waving fields of com cover the plains. Corfu, unfortunately, is
exposed to the hot sirocco, blowing from the south-east, and this very much
curtails its advantages as a winter station for invalids.

i
1

:'l

7«

OBE£OE.

The city oooupiei a tnan^lar ,')niniula oppocite the oooat of the Epinu,
and ii the largest, and oommerr: ily the most important, of tho formor republic.
It is strongly fortified, and its sut essive possessors — Venetians, French, Russians,
and English — have sought to render it impregnable. A beautiful prospect may
be enjoyed fVom its bastions ; but far superior is that from Mount Pantokratoros,
the " commandant," for it extends across the Strait of Otranto to Italy. The
commercial relations with the latter, as well as the traditions of Venetian

Fig. 34.— CoHTV.

dominion, have converted Oorfu into a city almost half Italian, and numerous
families residing in it belong to both nations, the Greek and the Italian, by
descent as well as lang^uage. Italian remained the o£Scial language of the island
until 1830. Maltese porters and gardeners constitute a prominent element amongst
the cosmopolitan population of the city.

Oorfu formerly owned the town of Butrinto and a few villages on the mainland ;
but an English governor thought fit to surrender them to the terrible Ali Pasha,

Ipinu,
)ublio.
Mians,
3t may
atoroa,
The
inetian

niitneroua
»lian, by
tbe island
t amongflt

mainland ;
\U Pasha,

»v*;~»^jT-^^ieaOT?*''*""

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

ltt|2£ IIS

Itt U2 i2.2

jU u^ Mil

Hiotographic

^Sdsices

Corparadon

23 WBT MAIN STRIIT

wnsni,N.Y. usM

(716)«72-4S03

Si£3»i<_,..fl«3,a®eHffiSaE '

CIHM/ICMH

Series.

CIHM/ICMH
Collection de
microfiches.

Canadian Instituta for Historical Microraproductiont / inatitut Canadian da microraproductions liiatoriquaa

ffmi

T'l

THE IONIAN ISLES.

and the only dependencies of Corfu at present are the small islets near it, viz.
Othonus (Fauo), Salmastraci, and Ericusa, in the north ; Paxos, with its caverns,
and Antipaxoa, the rocks of which exude asphalt, on the south. Paxos is said to
produce the best oil in Western Greece.

Leucadia, Cephalonia, Ithaca, Zante, and a few smaller islands, form a
crescent'shaped archipelago off the entrance to the Gulf of Patras. They are
the summits of a half-submerged chain of calcareous mountains, alternately
flooded by the rains or scorched by the sun. Their valleys, like those of Corfu,
produce oranges, lemons, currants ('• Corinthians "), wine, and oil, which form the
objects of a brisk commerce. The inhabitants very much resemble those of Corfu,
the Italian element being strongly represented, except on Ithaca.

Leucadia, or the " while island," thus called because of its glittering chalk
cli£fs, is evidently a depend«:icy of the continent. The ancients looked upon it as

Jl'ig. 26. — Thb Ghahnbl or Santa Mauha.
Kram the Frmoh Staff Hap.

J0»»0'

Seale 1:800,000.

SMilM.

a peninsula converted into an island by Corinthian colonists, who cut a canal
through the isthmus which joined it to the mainland; but this legend is not
borne oat by an examination of the locality. These Corinthians probably merely
dug a navigable channel through the shallow lagoon which separates the island
from the coast, and does not exceed eighteen inches in depth. In fact, if there
were any tides in the Ionian Sea, the island of Leucadia would be converted twice
daily into a peninsula. A bridge, of which there still exist considerable
remains, formerly joined the island to the mainland near the southern extremity
of the lagoon, whilst an island occupied by the citadel of Santa Maura — a name
sometimes applied to the whole of the island — defended its entrance to the north.
6

Jia

iHca

ttHmmilr

OBEECE.

Until recently this was the only spot in "Western Greece where a grove of date-
trees might be seen. A magnificent aqueduct of two hundred and sixty arches, which
was also used as a viaduct, joined the citadel to Amaxiki, the chief town and harbour
of Leucadia. Tbis monument of Turkish enterprise — it was constructed in the
reign of Bajazet — has sustained much injury from earthquakes. Amaxiki might
be supposed to be haunted by fever, owing to the salt swamps and lagoons which
surround it ; but such is not the case : on the contrary, it is a comparatively
healthy town, and its women are noted for freshness of complexion and beauty.
To the south of it rise the wooded mountains which terminate in the promontory
of Leucate (Bukato), opposite to Cephalonia. On the summit of this promontory
stood a temple of Apollo, whence, at the annual festival of the god, a condemned
criminal was hurled as an expiatory victim. It was celebrated, also, as the lover's
leap, whence lovers leaped into the sea to drown their passion.

Cephalonia, or rather Cephallenia, is the largest of the Ionian Islands, and its
highest summit — Mount ^nus, or Elato — is the culminating point of the entire
Archipelago. Mariners from the centre of the Ionian Sea can see at one and the
same time Mount ^tna in Sicily and this mountain of Cephalonia. The forests of
conifers, to which the latter is indebted for its Italian name of Montenero, have for
the greater part been destroyed by fire, but there still remain a few clumps of
magnificent firs. On its summit may be seen the remains of a temple of Jupiter.
The island is fertile and populous, but suffers much from want of water. All its
rivers dry up in summer, the calcareous soil sucking up the rain, and moat of the
springs rise from the bottom of the sea, far away from the fields thirsting after
water. On the other hand, two considerable streams of sea-water find their way
into the bowels of the island.

This curious phenomenon occurs a short distance to the north of Argostoli, a
bustling town, having a safe but shallow harbour. The two oceanic rivers are
sufficiently powerful to set in motion the huge wheels of two millfl, one of which
has been regularly at work since 1835, and the other since 1859. Their combined
discharge amounts to 35,000,000 gallons daily, and naturalists have not yet
decided whether they form a vast subterranean lake, in which beds of salt are
constantly being deposited, or whether they find their way through numerous
threads, and, by hydrostatic aspiration, into the subterranean rivers of the island,
rendering their water brackish. The latter is the opinion of Wiebel, the geologist,
and thus much we may assume for certain — that these subterranean waters and
caverns are one of the principal causes of the eevere earthquakes which visit
Cephalonia so frequently. The island of Asteris, between Cephalonia and Ithaca,
upon which stood the city of Alalkomenas, exists no longer, and was probably
destroyed by one of those earthquakes.

Ithaca of " divine Ulysses," the modern Theaki, is separated from Cephalonia
by the narrow channel of Yiscardo, thus named after Robert Ouiscard. The
island is small, and all the sites referred to in the Odyssey are still pointed out
there, from the spring of Arethusa to the acropolis of Ulysses; but the black forests
which clothed the slopes of Mount Neritus have disappeared. The inhabitants are

»IF4«P». fUgffff

THE IONIAN ISLES.

B of date-
les, which
d harbour
sted in the
uki might
lons which
iparatively
id beauty.
»romontory
>romontory
condemned
the lover's

nds, and its
f the entire
one and the
he forests of
ero, have for
w clumps of
e of Jupiter.
,ter. All its
I most of the
irsting after
nd their way

Argoatoli, a
ic rivers are
one of which
leir combined
lave not yet
[g of salt ar0
rh. numerous
)f the island,
|the geologist,
waters and
which visit
a and Ithaca,
was probably

[m Gephalonia
liscard. The
kl pointed out
black forests
labitants are

excessively proud of their little island, rendered so famous by the poetry of Homer,
and in every family we meet with a Penelope, a Ulysses, and a Teleraachus. But
the present inhabitants have no claim whatever to be the deticendants of the crafty
son of Laertes, for during the Middle Ages their ancestors were exterminated by
invaders, and in 1504 the deserted fields were g^ven, by the Senate of Venice, to
colonists drawn from the mainland. Most of those immigrants came from the Epirus,
and the diaiect spoken by the islanders is much mixed with Albanian words. At

Fig. 27.— Aroostoli. •

Aoeotdiag to Wiebrl.

8<alel: 78,000.

. IS MUm.

the present time the island is well cultivated, and Yathy, its chief port, carries on
a brisk commerce in raisins, currants, oil, and wine. Ithaca, as in the days of
Homer, is the " nurse of valiant men." The inhabitants are taU and strong, and
Dr. Schliemann is enthusiastic about the high standard of virtue and morality pre-
vailing amongst them. There are neither rich nor poor, but they are great
travellers, and natives of Ithaca are met with in every populous city of the East.

" Zante, fior del Levante," say the Italians. And, indeed, this ancient island,
Zacynthus, is richer in orchards, fields, and villas than any other of this Archi-
pelago. An extensive plain, bounded by ranges of hills, occupies the centre of this
" golden isle " — a vast garden, abounding in vines, yielding currants of superior
quality. The inhabitants are industrious, and not content with cultivating their
own fields, they assist also in the cultivation of those of Acamania, receiving
wages or a share of the produce in return. The city of Zante, on the eastern coast
of the island, facing Elia, is the wealthiest and cleanest town in the Archipelago.

GREECE.

Unfortunately it suffers frequently from earthquakes, to which a volcanic origin is
ascribed. Nor is this improbable, for bituminous springs rise near the south-eastern
cape of the island, and though worked since the days of Herodotus, they still yield
about a hundred barrels of pitch annually. Oil springs discharge themselves close
to the shore, and even at the bottom of the sea ; and near Oape Skinari, in the
north, a kind of rank grease floats on the surface of the waters.

The only islets dependent upon Zante are the Strivali, or the Strophades, to
which flew the hideous harpies of ancient mythology.*

VI. — The Present and the Future of Greece.

The Greeks, although they have not altogether fulfilled the expectations of
Philhellenes, have nevertheless made great strides in advance since they have
thrown off the yoke of the Turks. The deeds of valour performed during the war
of independence recalled the days of Marathon and Plateea ; but it was wrong to
expect that a short time would suffice to raise modern Greece to the intellectual
and artistic level of the generation which gave birth to an Aristotle and a
Phidias. Nor can we expect that a nation should throw off, in a single genera-
tion, the evil habits engendered during an age of servitude, and digest at once the
scientific conquests made in the course of twenty centuries. We should likewise
bear in mind that the population of Greece is small, and that it is thinly scattered
over a barren mountain region. The numerous ports, no doubt, offer great facilities
for commerce, nor have their inhabitants failed to avail themselves of them ; but
there is hardly a country in Europe which offers equal obstacles to a development
of its agricultural and industrial resources. The construction of roads, owing to
the mountains, meets with difficulties everywhere, whilst the blue sea invites its
beholders to distant climes and commercial expeditions. No immigration from the
neighbouring Turkish provinces has consequently taken place, whilst many
Hellenes, and more especially natives of the Ionian Islands and the Cyolades,
annually seek their fortune in Constantinople, Cairo, and even distant India. Men
of enterprise leave the country, and there remains behind only a horde of intriguers,
who look upon politics as a lucrative business, and an army of government officials,
who depend upon the favour of a minister for future promotion. This state of
affairs explains the singular fact that the most prosperous Greek communities exist
beyond the borders of the kingdom of Greece. These foreign communities are
better °nd more liberally governed than those at home. In spite of the Pasha,
who enjoys the right of supervision, the administration of the smallest Greek oom-

* loniHD Island:! : —

Area.

Inhabitant*.

8q. m.

Highert Honntaiiu.

net

(1870.)

Oorfti ....

224

PantokratoroB .

. . 3,280

72,460

Faxos and Antipaxoa

3.600

Leucadia . . . .

183

Nomali

. 3,870

21,000

Cephalonia

292

Elato

. 6,310

67,600

Ithaca . ' .

Neriton > .

. 2,640

10,000

Zante

. 168

Skopoa . .

. . 1,800

44.600

THE PBESENT AND THE FUTURE OP GREECE.

I origin in
b-eaatern
still yield
lives close
ri, in the

pliades, to

jtations of
they have
ng the war
,B wrong to
intellectual
botle and a
igle genera-
at once the
lid likewise
ily scattered
reat facilities
: them ; but
levelopment
ds, owing to
)a invites its
ion from the
rhilst many
te Oyolades,
India. Men
»f intriguers,
Lent officials,
'his state of
tunities exist
Lunities are
the Pasha,
Greek com-

Inhabitanto.
(1870.)
72,460
3,600
21,000
67,600
10,000
44,600

munity in Thracia or Macedonia might serve as a pattern to the independent and
sovereign kingdom of Greece. Every one there takes an interest in the prosperity
of the commonwealth ; but in Greece a rapacious bureaucracy takes care only of its
own advancemeii , the electors are bribed, and the expenses thus illegally incurred
are recovered by illegal exactions and robbery, such as have prevailed for many
years.

The actual population of Greece may amount to 1,500,000 souls ; that is to say,
it includes about two-fifths of all the Greeks residing in Europe and Asia. The
population is less dense tban in any other country of Europe, including Turkey.
Greece, at the epoch of its greatest prosperity, is said to have supported 6,000,000
or 7,000,000 inhabitants. Attica was ten times more populous at that time, and
many islands which now support only a few herdsmen could then boast of
populous towns. Sites of ancient cities abound on the barren plateaux, on the
banks of the smallest rivulet, and crown every promontory throughout the ancient
countries of the Hellenes, from Cyprus to Corfu, and from Thasos to Crete.

The country, however, is being gradually repeopled. Before the war of inde-
pendence, the population, including the Ionian Islands, amounted, perhaps, to
1,000,000 ; but battles and massacres diminished it considerably, and in 1832 the
number of inhabitants was 950,000 at most. Since that epoch there has been an
annual increase varying between 9,000 and 14,000 souls. This increase, however,
is spread very unequally over the country. The towns increase rapidly, but
several islands, and more especially Andros, Santorin, Hydra, Zante, and Leucadia,
lose more inhabitants by emigpration than they gain by an excess of births over
deaths. The swamp fevers prevailing in continental Greece much retard the
increase of population. Naturally the climate is exceedingly salubrious, but tho
water, in many I<x;alities, has been permitted to collect into pestilential swamps,
and the draining of these and their cultivation would not only add to the wealth
of the country, but would likei^'ise free it from a dire plague.*

Unfortunately agriculture progpresses but slowly in Greece, and its produce is
not even sufficient to support the papulation, still less to supply articles for expoii;.
And yet the cultivable soil of Greece is admirably suited to the growth of vines,
fruits, cotton, tobacco, and madder. Figs and oranges are delicious ; the wines of
Santorin and the Cyclades are amongst the finest produced in the Mediterranean ;
the oil of Attica is as superior now as when Athene planted the sacred olive-tree ;

* Population of the principal towns of Greece (1870) : —

Towns. Fopulstloii.

Argostoli (Cephaloiiia) . . . 9,500

Calamata 9,400

Histitea, in Eubrca .... 8,900

Karystos, in Eubnna . 8,800

JGgion, or Vostiica .... 8,800

Nauplia 8,600

Spezzia 8,400

Kranidbi, in Argolis . . 8,400

Lamia 8,300

Missolonghi 7,600

Andros 9,300

Towns.

Fopnlstion

Athens and Pineni

59.000

Patras

26,000

Corfu

24,000

Hermopolis, or Syra

21,000

Zante

20,500

Lixuri (Cephalonie).

14,000

Pyrgos, or Lettini .

13.600

Tripoiis, or Tripolitsa .

11,500

Chalois, in £ub«ea .

11,000

Sparta

10,700

Argos

. 10,600

■Mi&K.S;:ii0'.S*mf-^

GREKOE.

I-

but, excepting a little cotton grown in Phthiotis, and the raisins known as
currants or Corinthians, which are exporte<l from the Ionian Islands ^nd Patras
to the annual value of about £1,500,000, agriculture contributes but little
towards the exports. One of the principal articles is the valonia, a species of aoom
picked up in the forests, and used by tanners.

In a country so far behindhand in agriculture manufactures cannot be
expected to flourish. All manufactured articles have consequently to be imported
from abroad, and especially from England. Oreece does not even possess tools to
work its famous marble quarries, though they are richer than those of Carrara.
There is only one metallurgical establishment in the whole of the kingdom — that
of Laurion. The ancients had been working argentiferous lead mines in that
part of the country for centuries, and vast masses of unexhausted slag had
accumulated near them. This waste is now being scientifically treated in the
smelting-works of Ergastiria, and nearly ten thousand tons of lead, and a consider-
able quantity of silver, are produced there annually. Quite a brisk little town
has arisen near the works, and its harbour is one of the busiest in all Greece.
But the founders of this flourishing concern had to struggle against jealousies,
and the " Laurion question " nearly embroiled the Governments of France and
Italy with Greece.*

The Greeks do not support themselves by agriculture, nor can they boast
of manufactories, and they would be doomed to starvation if they did not maintain
six thousand vessels acting in the lucrative business of ocean carriers throughout
the Mediterranean. This Greek mercantile marine is superior to that of Russia,
almost equal to that of Austria, and six times larger than that of Belgium, and
we should bear in mind that many vessels sailing under Turkish colours are
actually owned by Greeks. The ancient instinct of the race comes out strongly
in this coast navigation. The large fleets of swift ocean steamers belong to the
powerful companies of the West, and the Greeks are content to sail in small
vessels suited to the requirements of the coasting trade, which hardly ever
extend their voyages beyond the limits of the ancient Greek world. None can
compete with them as regards low freight, for every sailor has an interest in the
cargo, and all of them are anxious to increase the profits. One may have
furnished the wood, another the rigging, a third a portion of the cargo, whilst
their fellow-citizens have advanced money for the purchase of merchandise,
without requiring any bond except their word of honour. On many of these
vessels all are partners, all work alike, and share in the proceeds of the venture.

But, whatever the sobriety and intelligence of these Greek mariners, they
cannot escape the fate which has overtaken the small trader and the handicrafts-
man throughout the world. The cheap vessels of the Greeks may be able to contend
for a long time against the steamers of powerful companies, but in the end they
must succumb. The country will lose its place amongst the commercial nations
of the world unless its agricultural and industrial resources are quickly developed,

* Commerce of Qreeoe (1873): — Mercantile marine: 6,13S vetseli of 419,360 toni; entered, 112,814
vessels of 6,386,487 tons; imports, £4,166,239; exports, £2,721,877.

THE PRESENT AND THE FUTURE OP OUEECR.

lown M
L Patras
at little
of aoorn

nnot be
imported
s tools to
Carrara.
)ni — tbat
s in that
slag had
)d in the
consider-
ittle town
II Greece,
jealousies,
ranee and

they boast
it maintain
throughout
of Bussia,
Igium, and
solours are
it strongly
ong to the
1 in small
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None can
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may have
irgo, whilst
lerchandise,
ly of these
B venture,
iners, they
handicrafts-
e to contend
e end they
cial nations
developed,

lAered. 112,814

and railways are constructed to convey the products of the interior to the sea-
coast. Greece, even now, has only a few carriage roadn, not so much because tho
mountains offer insurmountable obstacles, but because its heedless inhabitants
are content with the facilities for transport offered by the sea. It would be
impossible in our day to travel from the Pylos to liacedtcmon in a chariot, as was
done by Telemachus ; for the road connecting these places leads along precipices
and over dangerous goat paths. Greece and Servia are the European states
which remained longest without a railway, and even now the former is content
with a short line connecting Athens with its harbour. It has certainly been
proposed to construct several lines of the utmost importance, but, owing to the
bankrupt condition of the Greek exchequer, these works have not yet been begun.
The public income is not sufficient to meet the expenditure, the debt exceeds
£15,000,000, and the interest on the loans remains unpaid.* .

The poverty of the majority of the inhabitants of Greece is equal to that of
the State. The peasants are impoverished by the payment of tithes, and of a
Government impost double or even treble their amount. Though naturally very
temperate, they are hardly able to sustain life ; they dwell in unwholesome dens,
and are frequently unable to put by sufficient means for the purchase of clothing
and other necessaries. The young men of the poorest districts of Greece thus
find themselves forced to emigrate in large numbers, either for a season or for
an indefinite period. Arcadia may be likened in this respect to the Auvergne,
to Savoy, and to other mountain countries of Central Europe. The ^tolians,
however, exchange their fine savage valleys for foreign cities only very reluctantly,
though they, too, suffer intensely from the weight of taxation. In ancient times,
before their spirit was broken by servitude, they would have resisted the tax-
gatherer with arms in their hands. They now content themselves with sallying
forth from their villages, in order to pile up a heap of stones by the side of the
high-road, as a testimony of the injustice with which they have been treated.
This heap of stones is anathema. Every peasant passing it religiously adds a
stone to this mute monument of execration, and the earth, the common mother of
all, is thus charged with the task of vengeance.

Ignorance, the usual attendant of poverty, is great in *h& rural districts of
Greece, and especially in those difficult of aooess. In Greece, :>.& in Albania and
Montenegro, they believe in perfidious nymphs, who secure the affections of young
men, and then drag them down below the water ; they believe in vampyres, in
the evil eye and witchcraft. But the Greeks are an inquiring race, anxious
to learn, in spite of their poverty. The peasant of Ithaca will stop a traveller of
education on the road, in order that he may read to him the poetry of Homer.
Elementary schools have been established in nearly every village, in spite of the
poverty of the Government. If no school buildings can be secured, the classes
meet in the open air. The scholars, far from playing truant, hardly raise their
eyes from the hooks to notice a passing stranger or the flight of a bird. The
scholars in the superior schools and at the University of Athens are equally

• Public income (1876). £1,404,063 ; expenditure, £l,409,Cd8 ; debt, £15,232,202.

OBKECE.

conaciontious ond asRidiioua. It may be that somo of them merely aspire to become
orators, but they certainly do not resort to a city on the pretence of study,
whilst in reality they yield themselves up to debauchery. Amongst the students
of the University of Athens there are many who work half the night at some
handicraft, others who hire themselves out us servants or coachmen, to enable
them to pursue their studies as lawyers or physicians.

This love of study cannot fail to secure to the Greek nation an intellectual
influence far greater than could be looked for from the smallness of its
numbers. The Greeks of the East, moreover, look upon Athens as their intel-
lectual centre, whither they send their sons in pursuit of knowledge. They found
scholarships in connection with the schools of Athens, and largely contribute
towards their support. And it is not only the rich Greek merchants of Trieste,
Saloniki, Smyrna, Marseilles, and London who are thus mindful of the true
interests of their native country, but peasants of Thracia and Macedonia, too,
devote their savings to the promotion of public education. The people themselves
support their schools and museums, and pay their professors. The Academy of
Athens, the Polytechnic School, the University, and the Arsakeion, an excellent
ladies' college — these all owe their existence to the zeal of Greek citizens, and not
to the Government. It may readily be understood from this how carefully these
institutions are being watched by the entire nation, and how salutary ir'*'-' ^e the
influence of young men and women returning to their native provinces alver they
have been educated at them.

It is thus a common language, common traditions, and a common hope for the
future which has made a nation of the Greeks in spite of treaties. Greek
patriotism is not confined to the narrow limits laid down by diplomacy. Whether
they reside in Greece proper, in European or Asiatic Turkey, the Greeks feel as
one people, and they lead a common national life independently of the Govern-
ments of Constantinople and Athens. Nay, amongst the Greeks dwelling in
foreign lands this feeling of nationality is, perhaps, most intense, for they are not
exposed to the corrupting influence of a bureaucracy. They have more carefully
guarded the traditions and practices of municipal government, and are practically
in the enjoyment of greater individual liberty. The Greek nation, in its entirety,
numbers close upon 4,000,000 souls. Its power, already considerable, is growing
from day to day, and is sure to exercise a potent influence upon the destinies of
Mediterranean Europe.

We are told sometimes that community of religion might induce the Greeks
to favour Bussian ambition, and to open to that power the road to Constantinople.
Nothing can be further from the truth. The Hellenes will never sacrifice their
own interests to those of the foreigner. Nor do there exist between Greece and
Russia those natural ties which alone give birth to true alliances. Climate,
geographical position, history, commerce, and, above all, a common civilisation,
attach Greece to that group of European nations known as Greco- Latin. In
tripartite Europe the Greeks will never rang^ themselves by the side of the
Slav, but will be found amongst the Latin nations of Italy, France, and Spain.

mksm

•mtiitim

to become

of study,

le Btudonts

it at Homo

to enable

intellectual
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Whether
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GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS.

VIl. — Government and Political Divisions.

The protecting powers have bestowed upon Greece a parliamentary and constitu-
tional Government, modelled upon West European patterns. Theoretically
the King of the Greeks reigns, but does not govern, and his ministers are
responsible to the Chambers, whose majority changes with the fluctuations of
public opinion. In reality, however, the power of the King is limited only
by diplomacy. Nor do those Western institutions respond to the traditions
and the genius of the Greeks, and although the charter has been modified
three times since the declaration of independence, it has never been strictly
adhered to.

In accordance with the constitution of 1864, every Greek citizen possessing
any property whatever, or exercising a profession, has a right to vote on attaining
his twenty- fifth year, and becomes eligible as a deputy at thirty. The deputies,
one hundred and eighty-seven in number, are elected for four years, and are paid
for their services. The civil list of the Enng, inclusive of a subvention granted by
the protecting powers, amounts to £46,000 a year.

The orthodox Greek Ohurch of Hellas is independent of the Patriarch of
Constantinople. It is governed by a Holy Synod, sitting in the capital, and
presided over by an archbishop as metropolitan. A royal commissioner is present
at the meetings of the Synod, and countersigns every proposition that is carried.
Decisions not bearing this official signature are void. The King, on the other
hand, is permitted to dethrone or remove a bishop only by consent of the Synod,
and in accordance with the canon law. The constitution guarantees religious
liberty, but this official Church nevertheless exercises considerable powers, and
frequently calls upon the civil authorities to give force to its decrees. The
Synod carefully watches over the observance of religious dc^mas ; it points out to
the authorities heretical or heterodox preachers and writers, and demands their
suppression; exercises a censorship over books and religious pictures; and calls
upon the civil tribunals to punish offenders.

There are no longer any Mohammedans in Greece,, except sailors or tra-
vellers, and the last Turk has quitted Euboea. The only Church besides
the established one which can boast a considerable number of adherents is
the Roman Catholic. It prevails amongst the middle classes on Naxos, and on
several others of the Cyclades, and is governed by two archbishops and four
bishops.

Greece is divided into thirteen nomes, or nomarchies, and these, again,
into fifty-nine eparchies. Each eparchy is subdivided into districts, or dimes
(dimarohies), and the latter into parishes, governed by paredres, or assistant
dimarohs. These officials are appointed by the King, and are in receipt of small
emolumoitB. The number of officials is proportionately greater in Greece than
in any other part of Europe. They form the sixtieth part, or, including their
families, the twelfth part of the population, and although their pay is small, they
swallow up between them more than half the public income.

,K ' :i J ' M ' ll

mmf

mmm0^

GBEECE.

The thirteen noines and fifty-nine eparchies of Greece, with their population
in 1870 :—

Town. Fopulation.

Mantinea 46,174

Kjnuria . . , . . . 26,738

Oortynia 41,408

Megalopolii 17|426

Arkadia

131,740

Lakedemon 46,428

Gythion 13,967

Itylos ((Etylos) 26,540

Epidauros Limera 18,031

Lakonia

. 105,861

EalamtB 26,020

MesHini 29,529

Pylia 20,946

Triphylia 29,041

Olympia 26,872

Mesaenia

130,417

Nauplia 16,023

Argos 22,138

Korinthia

8pet«aB and Hermionis

Hydra and Trizinia

Kytbyra

Argolis and Korinthia

42,803
10,919
17,301
10,637

127.820

Syrwi 30,643

Kea 8.687

Andros 10,674

Tinos 11,022

Naxoa 20,682

Thira (Thera, Santorin) . . . 21,001

Milos 10,784

Kyklades

123,203

Attiki 7«,919

^gina 6,103

Megaris 14,940

Thi»a(Theb») 20,711

Livadia 18,122

Attiki and Viotia (Boeotia) . 136,804

Tlie modem nvmcnolatore has been adopted in the abore table.

TowiM. Populatioii.

Kbiilkia. . . . . . . 29,01?

Xerocborion

Karyatia

Skopeloa

Euria (Kuboea)

11,216

33,086

8,377

82,641

Fhthiotia 26,747

Pamaaia 20,868

Lokris 20,187

Doria 49,110

Fhthiotia and Phokia

106,421

Meaolongion (Miaaolonghi) . . . 18,907

Valtoa 14,037

Trichonia 14,463

Evrytania 33,018

Navpaktia 23,210

Yomtn and Xerometo* . . . . 18,970

Akamania and JEUAIa

. 121.603

Patraa . . < . . . . 46,627

JGgialia 12^64

Kaiavryta . . . . . 80,204

Ilia(EIia) . . . . . 61,08d

Achaia and Ilia (Elis)

149,661

Kerkyn (Corfu) . . . . . 26,729

Meai ...... 21,764

Oroa 24,983

Paxi(Paxoa) 3,682

Leuoaa (Santa Maura) .... 20,892

Kerkyra (Corfu)

06,940

KraniBa 33,868

Pali 17,877

Sami 16,774

Itaki 9,878

Kephallinia
Zakynthoa (Zante)

i g a ftwUl i tM ftff^a

it>mmm«mM^tiiii^¥!^^^''^^^''^<^-^y^ ■ ■:;.:>-«» a ' p^^ ^w i—if m

opulation

Populstiaa.

. 11,215
. 33,086
. 8,877

82.641

26,747
20,368
20,187
49,119

106,421

18,997
14.027
14,468
33,018
22,219
18,979

121,698

, 46,627
12/r64
89,204
61,036

149,661

26,729
21,764
24,983
3,682
20,892

96,940

83,868

17,877

16,774

9,878

77.382
44,667

TURKEY IN EUROPE.*

I. — General AsrEcrs.

HE Balkan peninsula is, perhaps, that amongst the three great
peninsulas of. Southern Europe which enjoys the greatest natural
advantages, and occupies the most favourable geographical position.
In its outline it is far less unwieldy than Spain, and even surpasses
Italy in variety of contour. Its coasts are washed by four seas ; they
abound in gulfs, harbours, and peninsulas, and are fringed by numerous islands.
Several of its valleys and plains vie in fertility with the banks of the Guadalquivir
and the plains of Lombardy. The floras of two climes intermingle on its soil, and
add their charms to the landscape. The mountains of Turkey do not yield to those
of the two other peninsulas in graceful outline or graudeiir, and most of them are
still covered with virgin forests. If they are less accessible than the Apennines of
Itdy or the sierras of Spain, that is owing simply to the want of roads ; for they
are, as a rule, of moderate elevation, and the plateaux from which they rise are
narrower and more extensively intersected by valleys than is the table-land of
Castile. Both Spain and Italy are closed in the north by mountain barriers
difficult to cross, whilst the Balkan peninsula joins the continental trunk by almost
imperceptible transitions, and nowhere is it separated from it by well-defined
natural boundaries. The Austrian Alps extend without a break into Bosnia, and
the Carpathians cross the Danube in order to e£Feot a junction with the system of
the Balkan. To the east of the " Iron Gate " there are no mountains at all, and
Turkey is bounded there by the broad valley of the Danube.

• AnUioritieB :— R. Pa»hley, " Travels in Crete ; " Raulin, " Deeoription Phyrique de I'lle de CWte ; "
G. Penot, «• L'lle de CrAte ; " Viqaeniel, «' Voyage dans la Turqiu'e d'Eorope ; " Ami Boui, «• La Tarqnie
dTEurope ; " A. Dumont, " Le Balkan et I'AdxiaUqup ; " Lejean, " Ethnographie de la Turquie d'Eorope ; "
Von Hammer, " Konetantinopel und der BoepOTus;" P. de TchihatoWf, "Le Bo«phore;" Houaey,
" Voyage arcMologique en MacMoine ; " Fanahawe Toier, " BeMarabee in tiie TTiglil«nd« of Turkey ; "
Barlh, " Reiaen in der europiuKhen Tiirkei ; " Von Hahn, " AlbaneuMsha Studien ; " Hecqnatd. " HJk
uOn «t Dawription de la Haute-Allwnie ; " Dora d'latria, " NationaliU albanaiM ; " F. Maurer, " Reiae
dnrch BoniiB ; " F. de Sainte-Harie, " L'Hem^goTine ; " Kaniti, " Donaa-Balgarieo and der Balkan • "
H. Kiepevt, M19 of Taikey in Europe.

For duuiges made by tfKBerlin treaty, gee page 158.

88 TUEKEY IN EUEOPE.

The proximity and parallelism of the coasts of two continents confer upon the
Balkan peninsula an advantage unrivalled, perhaps, throughout the world. It is
separated from Asia only by the narrow channel which joins the Black Sea to the
^gean Sea : this channel is an ocean highway, and yet forms no serious obstacle
to the migration of nations from continent to continent. If the Black Sea were
larger than it is at present ; if it still formed one sea with the Caspian, and extended
far into Asia, as it did in a past age, then Constantinople would necessarily become -
the great centre of the ancient world. That proud position was actually held by
it a thousand years ago, and even if it should never recover it, its g^graphical
position alone insures to it an importance for all time to come. If the city were
to be razed to day, it would arise again to-morrow at some other spot in the neigh-
bourhood. In the dawn of history powert'ul Ilion kept watch at the entrance of
the Dardanelles : it survives in the city on the Bosphorus ; and had there been no
Byzantium, its mantle would have descended upon some other town in the same
locality.

We know the part played by ancient Greece in the history of human culture.
Macedonia and Thracia, the two other countries bordering upon the ^gean, have
played their part too. It was those provinces which, after the invasion of the
Persians, gave birth to the movement of reaction which led the armies of Alexander
to the Euphrates and Indus. The power of the Romans survived there for a
thousand years after Rome itself had fallen, and the precious germs of civilisation,
which at a later period regenerated Western Europe, were nurtured there. It is
true, alas ! that the Turk has put a stop to every enterprise of a civilising nature.
These conquerors of Turanian race were carried into the Balkan peninsula in the
course of a general migration of nations towards the west, which went on for
three thousand years, and was attended by perpetual broils. It is now five
hundred years since the Turks obtained a footing in the peninsula, and for more
than four hundred years they have been its masters, and during that long period
the old Roman empire of the East has been severed, as it were, firom the rost of
Europe. The normal progpress of these highly favoured countries has been inter-
rupted by incessant wars between Christians and Mohammedans, by the decay of
the nations conquered or enslaved by the Turks, and by the heedless fatalism of tiie
masters of the country. But the time is approaching when that important portion
of Europe will resume the position due to it amongst the countries of the earth.

Vast tracts of the Balkan peninsula are hardly better known to us than the
wilds of Africa. Kanitz found rivers, hills, and mountains figuring upon our
maps which have no existence. Another traveller, Lejean, found that a pretended
low pass through the Balkans existed only in the imagination. Russian geodesists
engaged upon the measurement of an arc of a meridian found that Sofia, one of
the largest and best-known cities of Turkey, had been inserted upon the best maps
at a distance of nearly a day's journey from its true position. The entire chain of
the Balkans had to be shifted considerably to the south, in consequence of explora-
tions carried on within the last few years. Men of science have hardly ventured
yet to explore the plateaux of Albania or Mount Pindus, and much remains yet to

n '■■.'(■^j.-w^j^ mmumnv ^im

OENEBAL ASPECTS.

upon the
Id. It is
3a to the
} obstacle
Sea were
extended
y become -
^ held by
igraphical
city were
he neigh-
Ltranoe of
■e been no
the same

kn culture,
jean, have
ion of the
Alexander
bere for a
livilisation,
ere. It is
ag nature,
aula in the
ent on for
now five
for more
Dng period
the rest of
)een inter-
le decay of
lism of the
mt portion

earth.
18 than the
upon our
pretended
geodeflists
>fia, one of
best maps
re chain of
of explora-
y ventured
lains yet to

be done before our knowledge of the topography of the Balkan peninsula can be
called even moderately complete. The voyages and explorations of a host of
travellers* have, however, made known to us its general features and its geological
formations. Their task was by no means an easy one, for the mountain masses and
mountain chains of the peninsula do not constitute a regular, well-defined system.
There is no central range, with spurs runniilg out on both sides, and gradually
decreasing in height as they approach the plains. Nor is the centre of the penin-
. Bula its most elevated portion, for the culminating summits are dispersed over the
country apparently without order. The mountain ranges run in all the directions
of the compass, and we can only say, in a general way, that those of Western Turkey
run parallel with the Adriatic and Ionian coasts, whilst those in the east meet the
coasts of the Black Sea and the ^gean at right angles. The relief of the soil and
the water-sheds make it appear almost as if Turkey turned her back upon con-
tinental Europe. Its highest mountains, its most extensive table-lands, and its most
inaccessible forests lie towards the west and north-west, as if they were intended to
cut it o£P from the shores of the Adriatic and the plains of Hungary, whilst all its
rivers, whether they run to the north, east, or south, finally find their way into the
Black Sea or the ^gean, whose shores face those of Asia.

This irregularity in the distribution of the mountains has its analogue in the
distribution of the various races which inhabit the peninsula. The invaders or
peaceful colonists, whether they came across the straits from Asia Minor, or along
the valley of the Danube from Soythia, soon found themselves scattered in
numerous valleys, or stopped by amphitheatres having no outlet. They failed to
find their way in this labyrinth of mountains, and members of the most diverse races
settled down in proximity to each other, and frequently came into conflict. The
most numerous, the most warlike, or the most industrious races gradually extended
their power at the expense of their neighbours ; and the latter, defeated in the
struggle for existence, have been scattered into innumerable fbigments, between
which Aere is no longer any cohesion. Hungary has a- homogeneous population,
if we compare it with that of Tuarkey ; for in the latter country there are districts
where eight or ten di£Perent nationalities live side by side within a radius of a few
miles.

Time, however, has brought some order into this chaos, and commercial inter-
course has done much to assimilate these varions races. Speaking broadly, Turkey
in Europe may now be said to be divided into four great ethnological zones. The
Greeks occupy Crete, the islands of the Archipelago, the shores of the ^gean Sea,
and the eastern slopes of Mounts Pindus and Olympus ; the Albanians hold the
country between the Adriatic and Mount Pindus ; the Slavs, including Servians,
Oroats, Bosnians, Herzegovinians, and Tsemagorans (Montenegrins), occupy the
Hlyrian Alps, towards the north-west ; whilst the slopes of the Balkan, the
Despoto Dagh, and the plains of Eastern Turkey belong to the Bulgarians, who,
as &r as language goes, are Slavs likewise. As to the Turks, the lords of the land,

* We montion Palnui, Vaudonoourt, Lapic, Boa6, Viquenel, Lqjeaa, Kanits, BatUi, Hoohatottar,
and Abdullah Bay.

TURKEY IN EUBOPB.

they are to bo met with in most places, and partioularly in the large towns and
fortresses ; but the only portion of the country which they occupy to the exclusion
of other races is the north-eastora corner of the peninsula, bounded by the Balkans,
the Danube, and the Black Sea.

IT. — Oretb and the Islands of the Archipblaoo.

Cbete, next to Cyprus, is the largest island inhabited by Qreeks. It is a natural
dependency of Greece, but treaties made without consulting the wishes of the people
have handed it over to the Turks. It is Greek in spite of this, not only because
the majority of its inhabitants consider it to be so, but also because of its soilt its
climate, and its geographical position. On all sides it is surrounded by deep seas,
except towards the r.orth-west, where a submarine plateau joins it to Oythera and
the Peloponnesus. n .

< There are few countries in the world more favoured by nature. Its climate is
mild, though sometimes too dry in summer; its soil fertile in spite of the waters
being swallowed up by the limestone rocks; its harbours spacious and well sheltered;
and its scenery exhibits both grandeur and quiet beauty. The position of Orete, at
the mouth of the' Archipelago, between Europe, Asia, and Africa, seems to have
destined that island to become the great commercial emporium of that part of the
world. Aristotle already observed this, and, if tradition can be trusted^ Orete
a0tuaUy held that position for more than three thousand years. During that time
it " ruled the waves ; " the Cyclades acknowledged the sway of Milos, its king ;
Cretan colonists established themselves in Sicily ; and Cretan vessels found their
'way to every part of the Mediterranean. But the island unfortimately became
divided into innumerable small republics jealous of each othw, and was thereforo
uoable to maintain this commercial supremacy in the face of Dorian and other
Greeks, . At a subsequent period the Romans ^ibjected the idand^ and it never
rocov6red its independence. Byzantines, Arabs, Venetians, and Turks have held
it in tarn, and by each of them it has been laid waste and impoverished.

The elongated shape of ,the island, and the range of mounteins whioh
runs thro]agh it from one extremity to the other, enable us to understand how
it was that at a time when most Greeks looked upon the walls of their cities
as synonynioiis with the limits of their ^therland, Orete became divided into
a ntultitude of small republics, and how every attempt at federation (" synoretiun ")
miserably failed. The inhabitants, in fact, were more e£Eectttally separated
from each other than if they had inhabited a number of small islandB forming
an archipelago. Most of the coast valleys are enclosed by high mountaina,
the only easy access to them being from the sea, and communioati<»u between
the towns occupying their centres are possible only by orossmg difficult mountain
paths easily defended. In all Crete there exists but one plain deserving the
name, viz. that of Messara, to the south of the central mass of mountains. It
is the granary of the island, uid the leropotamo, or "holy river," which traverses
it, has a little water even in the middle of summer.

wiiiwinnwiwt

atMtmtaingiHpi

CBETE AND THE ISLANDS OP THE ABCHIPELAOO.

towns and
9 exclusion
le Balkans,

is a natural
■ the people
ily because
its soUt its
r deep seas,
Ijthera and

I climate is
tlie waters
1 sheltered;
of Crete, at
ms to have
part of the
sted^ Orete
g that time
s, its king ;
found their
ely beoame
M therefofe
and oiher
ad iiiieirer
I hare held

Bins whidi
rstand how
their cities
ivided into
noretinn ")
r separated
ids forming
mountain^
ns between
It mountain
serving the
mtains. It
sh traverses

The contour of Orete corresponds in a remarkable manner with the height
of its mountains. Where these are high, the island is broad ; where they sink
down, it is narrow. In the centre of the island rises Mount Ida (Psiloriti), where
Jupiter was educated by the Corybantes, and where his tomb was shown. Its
lofty summit, covered with snow almost throughout the year, its gigantic
buttresses, and the verdant valleys at its base render it one of the most imposing
mountains in the world ; but it was still more magnificent in the time of the

Fig. 28.— Thi Oobob ow Haoio Bvmbu.

ancient Greeks, when forests covered its slopes, and justified its being called Mount
Ida, or "the wooded." On the summit of this mountain the whole idand lies
Bpnad. out beneath our feet ; the horizon towards the north, from Mount Taygetus
to the shores of Asia, is dotted with islands and peninsulas; and in the south a
wide expanse of water extends beyond the barren and inhoapitable island of Gaudo.
The Leuca-Ori, or " White Mountains," in the western extremity of the island,
are thus called on account of the snow which covers their summits, or because

TURKEY IN EUROPE.

of their white limestone cliffs. They are exceedingly steep, and perfectly bare,
hardly any verdure being met with even in the valleys at their foot. They are
known, also, as the Mountains of the Sphakiotes, the descendants of the ancient
Dorians, who have retired into thnr fastnesses, where they are protected by
nature against every attack. Some of their villages are accessible only by
following the stony bed of mountain torrents leaping down from the heights
in small oascadee. During the rains the water rushes down these ravines in
mighty torrents. The " gat«8 are closed " then, as it is said. One of these gates,
or pharynghi, is that of Hagio Bumeli, on the southern slope of the Leuoa-Ori.
When rain threatens it is dangerous to enter these gorges, for the waters rush
down and carry everything before them. During the war of independence
the Turks vainly endeavoured to force this " gate " of the strong mountain oitadel.
The level pieces of ground on these heights are sufficiently extensive to support
a considerable population, if it were not for the cold. The villages of Askyfo
occupy one of these plains, which is surrounded on all sides by an amphitheatre
of mountains. In former times this cavity was occupied by a lake. This is
proved by ancient beaches and by other evidence. But the waters of the lake
found an outlet through some katavothras {khonos, "sinks") and discharged
themselves into the sea.

The remaining mountains of the island are less elevated and far less sterile
than the White Mountains. The most remarkable amongst them are the Lasithi,
and, still farther west, those of Dicte, or Sitia, a sort of pendant to the Mountains of
the Sphakiotes. Raised sea-beachos have been traced along their northern slopes,
covered with shells of living species, and they prove that that portion of the
island has been upheaved more than sixty feet during a recent geological epoch.
The northern coast, between the White Mountains and Mount Dicte, offers a
greater variety of contour than does the south coast. Its capes, or acroteria,
project far into the sea, and thence are gulfs, bays, and secure anchorages. For
these reasons most commercial cities have been built upon that side of the island,
which faces the Archipelago and presents a picture of life, whilst the south coast,
facing Africa, is comparatively deserted. All the modem cities on the northern
coasts have been built upon the »tes of ancient ones. Megalokastron, better
known by its Italian name of Oandia, is the Heraoleum of the ancients, tibe
famous haven of Onossus. Retimo, on the western front of Mount Ida, is easily
identified with the ancient Rithymna; whilst Ehanea (Canea), whose white
houses are almost confounded with the arid slopes of the White Mountains,
represents the Cydonia of the Greeks, famous for its forests of quince-trees.
Canea is the actual capital, and although not the most populous, it is never-
theless the most important and the busiest city of the island. It has a
second haven to the east, Azizirge, on Suda Bay, one of the best sheltered on the
island, and promises to become one of tlie principal maritime stations on the
Mediterranean.*

* Heights of principal mountnini :— Aapn Vuna (White Mountain of Leuoa-Ori), 8,100 feet ; Pnloriti,
or Ida, 8,000 feet; Laaitlii, or Diote, 7,100 feet. Town* :— Canea, 12,000 inhabitant!; Megalokastron,
12,000 ; Betimo, 9,000. ToUil population of the island, 210,000.

■l).iii,Wi,.Mj<».«.ai}i«(9i!iijjj,,iSJa«W.WM.MMHISI«l!*J*

tt§mmm

tly bare,
rhey are
) ancient
acted by
only by
) beigbts
Avines in
ese gates,
leuca-Ori.
ten rusb

n citadel.
support
»f Askyfo
}bitbeatre
Tbis is
tbe lake
lisobarged

[ess sterile
ke Lasitbi,
luntains of
)m slopes,
on of tbe
cal epocb.
offers a
aeroteria,
ges. For
le island,
utb coast,
nortbem
on, better
ients, tbe
is easily
ose wbite
£ountainB,
inoe- trees,
is never-
It bas a
redonibe
on tbe

«t;Pnloriti,
igalokattron,

OBETE AND THE ISLANDS OF THE ABOHiPELAOO. M

Orete bas certainly lost mucb in population and wealtb, and tbe epitbet of
tbe " isle of a bundred cities," wbicb it received from tbe ancient Greeks, no longer
ap.lies to it. Miserable villages occupy tbe sites of tbe ancient cities, tbeir
boudes built from tbe materials of a single ruined wall, wbilst immense quarries
bad to be opened in order to supply tbe building materials required in former
times. Tbe famous "labyrintb" is one of tbe most considerable of tbese ancient
quarries. Orete, in spite of its great fertility, exports merely a few agricultural
products, and notbing now reminds us of tbe fruitful island upon wbicb Geres
gave birtb to Plutus. Tbe peasants are tbe reputed owners of tbe land, but tbey
take little beed of its cultivation. Tbeir olives yield only an inferior oil, and
tbougb tbe wine tbey make is good in spite of tbem, it is no longer tbe Malvoisie
so bigbly prized by tbe Venetians. Tbe cultivation of cotton, tobacco, and of
fruit of all sorts Is neglected. Tbe only progress in agriculture wbicb can be
recorded during tbe present century consists in tbe introduction of orange-trees.

Fig. 29.— Ckri, or Candu.

Bmle 1:8470,000.
The dtotriot InhaUted bf MolwmiMdHii to i

iTOriloidlr.

wbose delicious fruit is bigbly appreciated tbrougbout tbe East. M. (Georges
Perrot bas drawn attention to tbe singular fact tbat, witb tbe exception of tbe
olive-trees and tbe vine, tbe cultivated trees of tbe idand a,n confined to
particular localities. Tbus cbe^tnuts are met witb only at tbe western extremity
of tbe island ; vigorous oaks and cypresses are confined to tbe elevated valleys of
tbe SpbaUotes ; tbe valonia oaks are met witb only in tbe province of Retimo ;
Mount Dicte alone supports stone-pines and carob-trees; and a promontory in
Soutb-eastem Crete, jutting out towards Africa, is surmounted by a grove of
date-trees — ^the finest tbrougbout tbe Arobipelago.

Tbe inbabitants of Crete and tbe neigbbouring islets are still Greek, in spite of
successive invasions, and tbey still speak a Greek dialect, recognised as a corrupted
Dorifin. Tbe Slavs, wbo invaded tbe island during tbe Middle Agesy bave left
no trace except tbe names of a few villages. Tbe Arabs and Venetians, too, bave
been assimilated by tbe aboriginal Cretans ; but tbere still exist a considerable

Hs^

TURKEY IN EUROPE.

number of Albanians, the desoendanta of soldiers, who have retained their
language and their customs. As to the Mohammedans or pretended Turks, who
constitute about one-fifth of the total population, they are, for the most part, the
descendants of Cretans who embraced Islamism in order to escape persecution.
They are the only Hellenes throughout the East who have embraced, in a body,
the religion of their conquerors ; but since religious persecution has subsided
several of those Mohammedan Greeks have returned to the religion of their
ancestors. The Greeks of Crete are thus not only vastly in the majority, but
they hold the first place also in industry, commerce, and wealth ; it is they who
buy up the land, and the Mohammedan gradually retires before them. All
Cretans, with the exception of the Albanians, speak Greek, and only in the capital
and in a portion of Messara, where the Mohammedans live in compact masses, has
the Turkish language made any progress.

We need not be surprised, therefore, if the Greeks lay claim to a country in
which their preponderance is so marked. But, in spite of their valour, they were
no match against the Turkish and Egyptian armies which were brought
against them.

The Cretans are said to resemble their ancestors in the eagerness with which
they do business, and in their disregard of truth. They may possibly be " Greeks
amongst Greeks — liars amongst liars ; " but they certainly cannot be reproached
with being bad patriots. On the contrary, they have suffered much for the sake
of their fatherland, and during the war of independence their blood was shed in
torrents on many a battle-field. The vast cavern of Melidhoni, on the western
slope of Mount Ida, was the scene of one of the terrible events of this war.
In 1822 more than three hundred Hellenes, most of them women, children,
and old men, had sought refuge in this oavem. The Turks lit a fire at its
mouth, and the smoke, penetrating to its farthest extremity, suffocated the unfortu-
nate beings who had hoped to find shelter there.

The profound " Sea of Minos," to the north of Crete, separates that island
firom the Archipelago. All the islands of the latter have been assigned to tho
kingdom of Greece — Astypaleea, Vulgarly called Astropalssa or Stampalia, alone
excepted, which still belongs to the Turks. The ancients called this island the
" Table of the Gods," although it is only a barren rock. It clearly belongs to
the eastern chain of the Cyolades, as far as geological formation and the
configuration of the sea-bottom go ; but the diplomats allowed its fifteen hundred
inhabitants to remain under the dominion of Turkey.

Amongst the other islands inhabited by Greeks, but belonging to Turkey,
Thasos is that which lies nearest to the coast of Europe. The strait which
separates it from Macedoniti is hardly four miles across, and in its centre there is
an island (Thasopulo), as well as several sand-banks, which interfere much with
navigation. Though a natural dependency of Macedonia, this island is goyemed
by a mudir of the Viceroy of Egypt, to whom the Porte made a present of it.
When Mohanmied II. put an end to the Byzantine empire, Thasoa and the neigh-

' ■'■" - ' -lW"W ^> g»Kd ?' < ! p !

lined fheir
Turks, who
8t part, the
periecution.
, in a body,
aa subsided
on of their
ajority, but
is they who
them. All
I the capital
masses, has

% country in
r, they were
re brought

with which
be " Greeks
I reproached
for the sake
was shed in
the western
}f ' this war.
in, children,
Ei fire at its
the unfortu-

I that island
gned to tho
apalia, alone
is island the
y belongs to
on and the
»en hundred

f to Turkey,
strait which
mtre there is
e much with
lisgoyemed
ireseat of it.
id the neigh-

CRETE AND THE ISLANDS OP THE ARCIIII'ELAOO.

oTtllu^.L'^"''*^' ^"'"""^ " P"««il«"ty. the property of the Italian family of th.

ThaM« is one of those countries of the ancient world the presert condition of

Fig. SO.-Thii iEo«AN 8iA.
AeonrdlnfftoUobiqiMt floUe, 1 : B,l70.00a

»'

K^r*.

!»•

«•

>m»pbilM4«dto

SfisriSiS!s::i-t£&«'.te^^M

ikMuv^r! ..I T.yT'"^"."^."^? '» ntlioiiM i tbe next Unt

— 100 MUm.

Which contrasts most unfavourably with former times. Thasos, an ancient Phca-
mcum colony, was once the rival, and subsequently the wealthy and powerful ally
of Athens : its hundred thousand inhabitants worked the gold and iron mines of

TURKEY IN EUROPB.

the island; they quurriml its beautiful white marble; cultivated vineyarda yielding
a famous wine ; and extended their commoroial expedition! to every part of the
iflgean Sea. But now there are neither niinoi nor quarries, the vines yield only
an inferior product, the agricultural produce hardly suffices for the six thousand
inhabitants of the island, and the ancient haven of Thasos is frequented only by
the tiniest of veuels. The island has recovered very slowly from the blow
inflicted upon it by Mohammed II., who carried nearly the whole of its inhabitants
to Constantinople. Thasos after this became a haunt of pirates, and its inha-
bitants sought shelter within the mountains of the interior. They are Hellenes,
but their dialect is very much mixed with Turkish words. Unlike other Hellenes,
they are not anxious to improve their minds. They are degenerate Greeks, and
they know it. " We are sheep and beasts of burden/' they repeatedly told the
French traveller, Perrot.

Thasos, however, is the only island of the Archipelago where wooded moun-
tains and verdant landscapes survive. Rains are abundant, and its vegetation
luxuriant. Running streams of water murmur in every valley ; large trees throw
their shade over the hill-sides; the villages near the foot of the mountain are
hidden by cypresses, walnut, and olive-trees; the valleys which radiate in all
directions fVom the centre of the island abound in planes, laureln, yoke-elms, and
vigorous oaks; and dark pine forests cover the higher slopes of the hills, the
glittering barren summits of Mount St. Elias and of other high mountains alone
rising above them.

Samothrace, though smaller than Thasos, is much more elevated. Its moun-
tains are composed o£ granite, schists, limestones, and trachyte, and form a sort
of pendant to Monnt Athos, on the other side of the ^gean Sea. If we approach
Samothrace from the north or the south, it presents the appearance of a auge
coffin floating upon the waters; from the east or west its profile resembles a
pyramid rising from the waves. From its sunmiit Neptune watched the fight
of the Qreeks before Troy. In the dark oak forests of the Black Mountains
were carried on the mysteries of Oybele and her Ocrybantes, as well as the Oabirio
worship, which was intimately connected with them, and Samothrace was to the
ancient Greeks what Mount Athos is to the modems — a saored land. Numerous
ruins and inscriptions remain to bear witness to the zeal of devout travellers
from all parts of the world. But with the downfall of the heathen temples the
pilgrims disappeared. There is only one village on the island now. Its inha-
bitants lead a secluded life, and the only strange faces they see are those of the
sponge-fishers who frequent the island during summer. The entire absence of
harbours, and the dangerous current which separates Samothrace from Imbro,
keep off the mariner, and though the valleys are extremely fertile, they have
not hitherto attracted a single immigrant from the neighbouring continent.

Imbro and Lemnos are separated f^m Samothrace by a deep sea, and appear
to continue the range of the Thracian Chersonesus. Imbro, which is nearest
to the continent, is the more elevated of the two islands, but its St. Elias does not
attain half the height of the mountains of Samothrace. There are no forests

•^^'mmmimmmmmmi'ms

CRETE AND THE ISLANDS OP THE ABCnirnr,A(JO.

I yielding
iirt of the
yie\A only

thouMnd
d only by

the blow
nhabitanto

iU inha>
I Hellenes,
> Hellenes,
Greeks, and
iy told the

led moun-
vegetation
trees throw
>untain are
Hate in all
e-elms, and
e hills, the
itains alone

Its moun-

brm a sort
re approach
) of a huge
•esembles a
d the fight
Mountains
the Oabirio
was to the
Numerous
travellers
temples the
Its inha>
hose of the
absence of
rom Imbro,
they have
aent.

and appear
is nearest
lias does not
no forests

upon the slopes of this mountain, the valleys are covered with store's, and hardly
un eighth of the surface of the island is capable of cultivation. Still, the position
of Imbro, close to the mouth of the DurdunuUvs and upon an international ocean
highway, will always secure to it a certain degree of importance. The majority
of the inhabitants live in a small valley in the north-uostom portion of the
island, and though the rivultet which flows through this valley regularly dries
up in summer, it is nevertheless oalM emphatically the Megalos Potumos, or
"big river."

Lemnos, or Lironi, in the largest islnnd of Thrucia, uud at the same time the
least elevated and the moHt Iwrren. You mny walk for hours there without
seeing a tree. Even olive-trees ar« not met with in tbn Belds, and the village
gardens can boast but of few fruit trees. Timber has to be procured from Thasos
or the continent. Lemnos, in spite of all this, is exoetdingly fertile ; it produces
barley and other cereals in plenty, and the pastures amongst its hills sustain
40,000 sheep. The island consists of several distinct mountain groups of volcanic
origin, 1,200 to 1,600 feet in height, and separated by low plains covered with
aoorisD, or by gulfs penetrating far inland. In the time of the ancient Greeks
the volcanoes of Lemuos had not yet quenched their fires, for it was in one of
them that Vulcan, when hurled fVom heaven, established his smithy, and, with
the assistance of the Cyclops, forged his thunderbolts for Jupiter. About the
beginning of our era Mount Mosychlos and the promontory of Chryse were
swallowed up by the sea, and the vast shoals which extend from the eastern part
of the island in the direction of Imbro probably mark their site. Since the disap-
pearance of Mount Mosychlos, Lemnos has not again suffered from volcanic erup-
tions or earthquakes. The majority of the inhabitants are Greeks, and the Turks
who have settled amongst them are being evicted by the conquered race,' which is
superior to them in intelligence and industry. Commerce is entirely in the hands
of the Greeks. Its principal seat is at Eastro— the ancient Myrhina — ^which
occupies a headland between two roadsteads. Sealed earth is one of the articles
exported, and is found in the mountains. In ancient times it was much prised
as an astringent, and is so still throughout the East. It is not considered to possess
its healing qualities unless it has been collected before sunrise on Corpus Christi
day.

The small island of Stratio (Hagios Eustrathios) depends politically and
commercially upon Lemnos. It, too, is inhabited by Greeks. As to the islands
along the coast of Asia Minor, they form a portion of Turkey in Europe as
hx as their political administration is concerned, but geographically they belong
to Asia.*

• Thsislsndsof Thrsok:—

Tbuot 74

SMnottirMe .... 66

taibn M

LeninM . > • • 1*0

teUtenU.

HiyhntUoaataina.

»Mt

10,000

Mount Ipwrio .

. 8,000

200

Mount Phengari .

. 6,240

4,000

Monnt St Elias .

. 1,060

22,000

Uonnt Skopi* .

. 1,410

"W^

TURKEY IN EUEOPB.

III. — Turkey of the Oreeks (Thracia, Macedonia, and Tiiessaly).

The whole of the ^gean seaboard of European Turkey is occupied by Qreeks,
and this proves the great influence which the sea has exercised upon the migra-
tions of the Mediterranean nations. Thessaly, Macedonia, Chalcis, and Thrace
are mere or less Greek countries, and even Constantinople lies within Greece,
as defined by ethnological boundaries. The geographical distribution of race
there does not, in fact, coincide with the physical features of the country — ^its
mountains, rivers, and climate. The Turkey of the Greeks is, in reality, no
geographical unit, and the only tie which imites it are the waters of the Archi-
pelago, which wash all its shores.

Nowhere else does the Balkan peninsula exhibit such varied features as on the
shores of the j^gean Sea, and of the adjoining basin of the Sea of Marmara.
Blufis, hills, and mountain masses rise abruptly from the plain ; arms of the
sea extend far inland ; and ramified peninsulas project into the deep waters of the
ocean. It appears almost as if nature were making an eflfort to create an archipelago
similar to that in the south.

The tongue of land upon which Constantinople has been built offers a
remarkable example of the features which characterize the coast lands of this
portion of Europe. Goulogically the whole of this peninsula belongs to Asia.
Its hollow hills are separated from the granitic mountains of Europe by a wide
plain covered with recent formations, and the wall of Athanasius, now in ruins,
which was built as a defence to the city, approximately marks the true boundary
between Europe and Asia. The rocks on both sidetf of the Bosphorus belong
to the Devonian formation. They contain the same fossils, exhibit the same
outward aspects, and date from the same epoch. A patch of volcanic rocks at
the northern entrsnoe to the Bosphorus likewise exhibitd the same oharacteristics
on both sides of the strait, and there cannot be the least doubt that this European
peninsula at a former epoch constituted a portion of Asia Minor, but was severed
from it by an irruption of the waters.

Apollo himself, it is said, pointed out the site where to build the city
which is now known as Constantinople, and no better could have been found.
In fact, the city occupies the most favoured spot on the Bosphorus. It stands on
a peninsula of gently undulating hills, bounded by the Sea of Marmara and by
the curved inlet called, from its shape, its beauty, and the valuable cargoes
floating upon its waters, the "Golden Horn." The swift current of the Bosphorus
penetrates into this inlet, and sweeps it clean of all the refuse of the city^ It then
passes into the open sea at the extreme angle of the peninsula, and sailing vessels
are thus able to reach their anchorage without having to struggle against a
contrary current. This haven not only affords a secure anchorage to a multitude
of vessels, but it likewise abounds^ in flsh ; for, in spite of the constant agitation
of its waters by the oars of caiques and the paddles or screws of steamers, it
is visited annually by shoals of tunnies and other fish. The haven of Con-
stantinople, though easy of access to peaceable merchantmen, oan readUy be

^.' ■' v -> 'i:r-.« Hi! ar 4^5 t|lJifi li M

■ii

■Hiilll

rESSALY).

by Qreeks,
a the migra-
and Thrace
bhin Greece,
tion of race
BOimtry — iU
1 reality, no
i the Archi-

res as on the
of Marmara,
arms of the
vaters of the
1 archipelago

tiilt offers a
lands of this
Dgs to Asia.
[>e by a wide
low in ruins,
rue boundary
horus belong
tit the same
anio rocks at
haracteristius
lis European
t was severed

did the city
been found.
It stands on
■maraand by
lable cargoes
he Bosphorus
sity. It then
tailing vessels
^le against a
o a multitude
tant agitation
f steamers, it
ven of Oon-
in readily be

•s- M & ij i MiSu, -'

TUBKEY OF THE GREEKS.

closed in case of war. The surrounding heights command every upproach lo
it, and a chain has more than once been drawn across the narrow entrance to
its roadstead when the city was besieged. The latter, too, can be defended
easily, for it is built upon hills, bounded on the land side by an extensive
plain. An assailant, to insure success, must dispose not only of un army, but

Fig, 31.— Obolooioal Map ok thh Pininrula or Conrtantinopi,!.
Aeaordiny to V. tod Hochitettar. Seale 1 : 1,870,000.

^■•ternavy

Tertiary

CFjrstelUiw

Vokania

Lcwor Davonian

also of a powerful navy. In addition to all these natural advantages of its
site, Constantinople is in the enjoyment of a climate far superior to that of
the citiee of the Black Sea, for it is screened by hills from cold northerly
winds.

In the dawn of history, when migration and commerce marched only at a
slow pace, a site as favoured as that of Byzantium was capable only of attracting
the dwellers in its immediate neighbourhood. But after commerce had become
developed, the blind alone — so said the oracle of Apollo— could fail to appreciate
the great advantages held out by the Golden Horn. Indeed, Constantinople
lies not. only on the ocean highway which connects the world of the Mediter-
ranean with the Black Sea, but also on the high-road which leads from Asia
into Europe. Geographically it may be described as occupying a position at

tore

'^mmmmm

100

TUEKEY IN EUKOPE.

the moutbB of the Danube, Dniester, Dnieper, Don, Rion, and Eizil Irmak, whose
common outlet is the Bosphorus. When Constantino the Great constituted
it the metropolis of the Roman empire, it grew rapidly in population and wealth ;
it soon became the city of cities ; and its Turkish appellation, Stamboul, is
nothing but a corruption of the expression es tarn poHn, used by the inhabitants
to denote their going into the city. Amongst the distant tribes of Asia it repre-
sents Rome. They know it by no other name than that oi " Rum," and the
country of which it is the capital they call " Rumelia."

Constantinople is one of the most beautiful cities in the world: it is the
" paradisiacal city " of Eastern nations. It may compare with Naples or Rio de
Janeiro, and many travellers accord it the palm. As we approach the entrance
of the Golden Horn, seated in a caique more graceful than the gondolas of
Venice, the vast and varied panorama around us changes with every stroke
of the oars. Beyond the white walls of the Seraglio and its masses of verdure
rise here, amphitheatrically on the seven hills of the peninsula, the houses of
Stamboul — its towers, the vast domes of its mosques, with their circlets of smaller
domes, and its elegant minarets, with their balconies. On the other side of the
haven, which is crossed by bridges of boats, there Are more mosques and towers,
seen through a forest of masts and rigging, an«^ covering the slope of a hill whose
summit is crowned by regularly built houses ana the palatial residences of Pera.
On the north vast villa-cities extend along both shores of the Bosphorus.
Towards the east, on a promontory of Asia, there is still another city, cradled
amidst gardens and trees. This is Scutari, the Asiatic suburb of Constantinople,
with its pink houses and vast cemetery shaded by beautiful cypress groves.
Farther in the distance we perceive Eadi-koei, the ancient Chalcedon, and the
small town of Frinkipo, on one of the Princes' Islands, whose yellow rocks and
verdant groves are reflected in the blue waters of the Sea of Marmara. The sheet
of water connecting these various portions of the huge city is alive with vessek
and boats, whose movements impart animation, to the magnificent picture. The
prospect from the heights above the town is still more magnificent. The coasts of
Europe and Asia are beneath our feet, the eye can trace the sinuosities of the
Bosphorus, and far away in the distance looms the snow-capped pyramidal summit
of Mount Olympus, in Bithynia.

But this enchantment vanishes as soon as we penetrate into the streets of
Constantinople. There are many parts of the town with narrow and filthy streets,
which a stranger hesitates to enter. It is, perhaps, a blessing, from a sanitary
point of view, that conflagrations so frequently lay waste and scour larg^ portions
of the city. Scarcely a night passes without the watchman on the tower of the
Seraskieriate giving the alarm of fire, and thousands of houses are devoured
by that element every year. The city thus renews itself by degrees. It rises
from its ashes purified by the flames. But formerly, before the Turks had built
their city of stone on the height^ of Pera, the quarters destroyed by fire were
rebuilt as wretchedly as they were bef jre. It is different now. The use of stone
has become more general ; wooden structures are being replaced by houses built

limmmm

TUnXKY OF THE GREEKS.

101

wboae
tituted
realth ;
>oul, it
tbitants
t repre-
ind the

is the

Riode
intranoe
iolas of
r stroke
verdure
Quaes of

smaller
,e of the
. towers,
U whose
of Fera.
MphoruB.
, cradled
ntinople,

groves.

and the
jcks and

le sheet
vessels
The

coasts of

IS of the
summit

of a fossiliferous white limestone, which is quarried at the very gates of the city ; and
fVee use is made of the blue and grey marbles of Marmara, and of the flesh-coloured
ones of the Gulf of Oysica, in Asia Minor, in decorating the palaces of the great.

Nearly every vestige of the monuments of ancient Byzantium has been swept
awuy by fires or sieges. There only exists now the precious tripod of bronze, with
its three serpents, which the Plateoans had placed in the teip'^^e of Delphi in
commemoration of their victory over the Persians. The reh- of the epoch
of the Byzantine emperors are limited to columns, obelisks, arches of aqueducts,
tho breached walls of the city, the remains of the palace of Justinian, only
discovered recently, and the two churches of Santa Sophia, which have been
converted into mosques. The grand church of Santa Sophia, close to the
Seraglio, is no longer the most magnificent edifice in the universe, as it was
in the time of Justinian, for even the neighbouring mosque of Sultan Ahmed
far exceeds it in beauty and elegance. It is a clumsy building, supported by
buttresses added at various times to keep it from falling. The character of the
interior has been changed by the Turks, who have introduced additional pillars,
and the once bright mosaics have been covered over ; but the dome never fails to
strike the beholder : it is a marvel of strength and lightness.

The Seraglio, or Serai, near Garden Point, may boast of fine pavilions and shady
walks, but the dark memories of crime will always cling to it. The spot from
which sacks containing the bodies of living sultanas or odalisks were hurled into
the dark waters of the Bosphorus is still pointed out to the traveller. Far more
attractive than this ancient residence of the sultans are the marvellous structures
in the Arab or Persian style which line the shores of the Bosphorus, and which
impart to the suburbs of Constantinople an aspect of oriental splendour.

The bazaars are amongst the most curious places in the city, not so much
because of the rich merchandise which is displayed in them, but because they are
frequented by a variety of nations such as cannot be met with in any other city
of the world. The capital of the Ottoman empire is a centre of attraction not only
to the inhabitants of the Balkan peninsula, but also to those of Anatolia,
Syria, Arabia, Egypt, Tunis, and even of the oases. There are " Franks " from
every country of Europe, drawn thither by a desire to share in the profits of the
ever-increasing commerce of the' Bosphorub. This mixture of races is rendered
still greater by the surreptitious importation of slaves ; for, whatever diplomatists
may assert, there can be no doubt that the " honourable guild of slave-dealers "
still does an excellent business in negresses, Circassians, and white and black
eunuchs. Nor is anything else to be expected amongst a people who look upon
a well-stocked harem as a sign of respectability. Dr. Millingen estimates the
number of slaves at Constantinople at 30,000 souls, most of whom have been
imported from Africa. From an anthropological point of view it is certainly very
remarkable that the negro should not have taken root in Constantinople. In the
course of the last four centuries a million of negroes at least have been imported,
and yet, owing to difficulties of acclimation, ill-usage, and want, they would die
out but for fresh importations.

K^j^' ■Ti^^flfsf^ti^*^^-^ Wv^fVi^^'^ *

102

TURKEY IN KUKOPE.

Our atatiatics do not enable ua to claasify the 000,000 inhabitants of Constan-
tinople and its Huburba according to race.* One of the principal sources of error
in eNtimates of this kind consists in our confounding Mussulmans with Turks. In
the provinces it is generally possible to avoid this error, for Bosnians, Bulgarians,
and Albanians recognise each other as members of the same race, whatever religious
difTcrencea may exist between them. But in the turmoil of a great city this
distinction is no longer made, and, in the end, all those who frequent the mosquct
are lumped together as if they were members of the same race. Of the supposed
Osraanli of Conatantinople a third, perhaps, consists of Turks, whilst the remaining
two-thirds are made up of Arnauts, Bulgarians, Asiatics, and Africans of various
races. Amongst the boatmen there are many LeNghiiins from the Caucasus. The
Mohammedans, if not in the minority already, will bo so very soon, for they lose
ground almost visibly. In old Stumboul, in which a Frank hardly dared to enter
some twenty years ago, they still enjoy a numerical preponderance, but in the
" agglomeration of cities " known as Constantinople, and extending from Prinkipo
to Therapia, they are outnumbered by Greeks, Armenians, and Franks, and
certain quarters of the town have been given up to the Christians altogether.

The Oreeks are the most influential, and perhaps most numerous, element
amongst the rayas. Their head-quarters, like those of the Turks, are at Stamboul,
where they occupy a quarter of the town called Phanar, from an oM lighthouse.
The Greek patriarch and the wealthiest Greek families reside there. These
Phanariotes, in former times, almost monopolized the government of iihe Christian
provinces of Turkey, but they fell into disfavour after the Greek war of liberation.
The religious influence, too, which they exercised until quite recently, has been
destroyed in consequence of the separation of the Servian, Bumanian, and
Bulgarian Churches from the orthodox Greek Church — a separation brought about
almost entirely through the rapacity of the Greek patriarch and his satellites.
If the Greeks would continue to preserve their pre-earvence amongst the races of
Constantinople, they must trust, in the future, to their superior intelligence, their
commercial habits, education, patriotism, and unanimity. To the Turks the
members of the orthodox Church are known as the " Roman nation," and they
enjoy a certain amount of self-government, exercised through their bishops,
which extends to marriage, schools, hospitals, and a few other matters.

The "nation" of the Armenians is likewise very strong at Constantinople, and,
like that of the "Romans," it governs itself through an elective Executive
Council. Much of the commerce of Constantinople passes through the hands of
Armenians, who, though they came to that city almost simultaneously with the
Turks, have down to the present day preserved their peculiar manners. They are
cold and reserved, and full of self-respect, differing widely from their rivals in
trade, the Jews, who slink furtively to their poor suburb of Balata, at the upper

* Conanl Sax (1873) mtimates the populatiQn as followi :— Stamboul, 210,000 ; Pen, 130,000 ; European
aaburbs, 150,000; AsiHtic suburb*, 110,000; total, 600,000 souls, including 200,000 Mohammedans.
Dr. Yakshity, on the other hand, estimates the population of Constantinople (exclusive of its Asiatic
suburbs) at 358,000 souls, of whom 103,540 are MohammedRnt, 144,210 oriental Christians, and 80,000
Franks.

TUHKEY OF THE GREEKS.

108

Gonstun-
I of error
nrk». In
iilgarians,
r religious
city this
B mosquci
I supposed
remaining
jf various
,8u«. The
r they lose
)d to enter
)ut in the
1 Prinkipo
ttuks, and
ither.

IS, element
Stamboul,
lighthouse,
ire. These
e Christian
liberation.
', has been
raian, and
ught about

satellites.
)he races of
i;ence, their

!urka the
" and they
ir bishops,

nople, and,
Executive
le hands of
y with the
They are
lir rivals in
the upper

)00 ; Europwn
lohammedaiu.
of its Asiatic
I, and 80,000

extremity of the Oolden Horn. The Armenians are claaai*) in th* *»trem«, they
readily ussist ouch other, and, like the Parsees of Bamhn dolij^ht i actft ot
munificence. Dut, unlike the Greeks, thoy are not suBtaiin «) their und' takings
by an ardent belief in the destinies of their race. Most oi them arf i ■* v\ n
able to speak their native language freely, and prefer to converse in Turkish or
Greek.

The Franks are much inferior in number to either of the races named, but
their influence is nevertheless far more decisive. It is through them that Constan-
tinople is attached to the civilisation of Western Europe, and their institutions are
by degreet> getting the better of the fatalism of the East. It is thoy who built
the manufacturing suburbs to the west of Constantinople and near IScutari, and
who introduced railways. Every civilised nation of the world is represented
amongst them — Italians and French most numerously ; and to the Americans is
due the credit of having established the first geological museum in Turkey,
in connection with Robert Colleg.

Constantinople, owing to the influx of strangers, is steadily increasing in popu-
lation, and one by one the villages in its vicinity are being swallowed up by the
city. The whole of the Golden Horn is surrounded by houses now, and they
extend far up the valleys of the Cydaris and Barbyzes, which fall into it.
Industrial establishments extend along the shores of the Sea of Marmara, from the
ancient fort of the Seven Towels far to the west, and from Ohalcedon to the
south-east, in the direction of the Gulf of Nicomedia. Both banks of the
Bosphorus are lined with villas, palaces, kiosks, caf^s, and hotels. This remarkable
channel extends for nineteen miles between the shores of Europe and of Asia.
Like a hug^ mountain valley it winds between steep promontories, now contract-
ing and then expanding, until it finally opens out into the vast expanse of the
Black Sea. When northern winds hurl the agitated waters of the latter against
the sombre clifis which guard the entrance to the Bosphorus, the contrast between
this savage sea and the placid waters of the strait and its charming scenery is
striking indeed. At every turn we are arrested by unexpected charms. Rocks,
palaces, woods, vessels of every description, and the curious scaffoldings of
Bulgarian fishermen succeed each other in infinite variety.

Amongst the innumerable country residences which nestle on the shores of the
Bosphorus, those of Balta-Liman, Therapia, and Biiyukdere are the best known,
for they have been the scenes of historical events ; but there is no spot throughout
this marine valley which does not excite admiration. These marvels of nature
will, before long, have added to them a marvel of human ingenuity. The width
of the channel between the castles of Rumili and Anadoli is only 600 yards.
It was here Mandroclun of Samos constructed the bridge of boats across which
Darius marched his army of 700,000 men when he made war upon the Scythians,
and on this identical spot it is proposed now to construct a railway bridge which
will join the railways of Europe to those of Asia. A current runs through the
Bosphorus, from the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara, at a rate of from two to six
miles an hour ; and although several geographers conclude f^m this that the level

mmsssm^smmss

104

TUllKKY IN EUUOPfc.

of tho fonru'r is higher than that of thu htttcr, thin miiat by no ineunn be lookinl
upon UH an estubliithufl fuct. W« huvo already noticud the exchungo between tlic
wuterH of tho Medit«'rruncun und of the open Athintic, which takes pluco through
the Strait of Gibraltar. A similar exchange im going on here, and the outflowing
■urfaeu current ih conipensutcd for by an inflowing under-eurront.

Tho outlying hou8i>H and villua of ConHtantinoplo extend northwards along tho
BosphoruH aH far ua tho two Genoese castles of Rumili-kavnk and Anadoli-kavuk.
This extension coincides with tho geological features of the ground, for no sooner
have we turned our backs upon the houses than we find ourselves shut in between
cliff's of dolerite and |K)rphyry, which extend as fur as tho Dlack Sea, where they
terminate in tho precipices of tho Cyanetc, or Symplegades, the famous rocks which
opened und shut, crushing the vessels that ventured to pusa through the strait,
until Minerva fixed them for ever. These volcanic rocks are barren, but the
Devonian strutu to the south of them are beuutifully wooded. The Turks, unlike
the Spaniards and other Southern nations, love and respect nature ; plane-trees,
cypresses, and pines still shade the shores of the Boaphorus ; and tho vast forest of
Belgrade covers the hills to the east of Oonstantinople, from which the city draws
its supply of water. Birda, too, are better protected than in many a Ohristian
land. The pluintivo cooing of doves is heard wherever we turn, flights of
■wallowB and aquatic birds akim over the surface of tho BosphoruM, and now and
then we encounter a grave stork perched upon the top of a tree or of ii minaret.

The whole aspect of the place is southerly, yet the climate of Ooi>-<tantinople
has its rigour. The cold winds of the steppes of Russia freely penetrato through
the strait, and the thermometer has been known to fall four degreea below zero in
the winter. The neighbouring aeu rendera the climate more equable than it would
otherwise be ; but as the winds, from whatever direction they blow, meet with no
obstacle, sudden changes of temperature are frequent. The average temperature
varies very considerably in different years. Sometimes it sinks to the level of
that of Pekin or Baltimore, at others it is as high as that of Toulon or of Nice. In
exceptional cases the Bosphorus has become covered with ice, but thaws always set
in rapidly, and then may be witnessed the magnificent spectacle of masses of ice
striking against the walls of the Seraglio, and floating away across the Sea of
Marmara. In a.d. 762 these masses of ice were so stupendous that they became
wedged in the Dardanelles, and the tepid waters of the ^gean Sea then assumed
the aspect of a bay of the Arctic Ocean.

The geological features of the coast region of the Sea of Marmara differ
essentially from those of the rest of Turkey. Low ranges of hills rise close to the
coast, increasing in height towards the west, until Ihey attain an elevation of
2,930 feet in the Tekir Dagh, or " holy mountains," the grey slopes of which,
covered here and there with patches of shrubs or pasturage, are visible from afar.

A narrow neck of land joins the peninsula of Gallipoli — ^the Thraoian

* Length of the Bosphorus, 98,600 feet, or 18-6 miles ; aventge width, 6,260 feet ; average depth,
90 feet; greatest depth, 170 foet.

-"aM

TURKEY OF THE GREEKS.

105

lonkod
Bcn the
hrou^h
flowing

nng tho
i-ktivuk.
HOoncr
between
ere they
CB which
e Htrait,
but the
9, unlike
ne-treea,
forest of
ty dmws
DhriHtian
lights of
now and
inaret.
antinople

ChornonoHUH of the anuiunta — tu thia count rtiii^e. Thin iMJiiinNulu it compomHl of
quutermiry rockN, which differ in no roHjwct Irom those met with on the nhoro
of AhIu oppimite. Anciently a huge frerih-wiiter hike covered u {Mtrtion of Thnicia
and mure than half the area now occupied by tlie vKgean Huu. When the land
first emerged above tho waters, the CherHonosua fonned an integral portion of
Aaia. SubHe<|iit<ntly the waters of the lUuck Sen, which had forced themsolven a
passage throitgli the Hosphorus, likewise found their way through the Hellespont
into tho .Kgeun Soa. The geological formation of tho country and tho configura*
tion of tho MtNi-bottom prove this to have boon tho case, and this irruption of tho
waters was utteiuied, probubly, by volcanic eruptions, tracoa of which still exist on

Wig. 3U. — The IIkllmi'ont, oh nAHiMXKi,i,u, and ths Ovlk up Haros.

H«^ I : i,no,i)<n.

lyfco

Tho dark ahading expreatea a depth exceeding 66 fathoms.

^^_— ^_.^__^_.^_ 80 Statute MUM.

lira differ
to tlie

Ivation of
pf which,
om afar.
iThracian

Lrage depth.

the islands of the Sea of Marmara and near the mcath of the Maritza, the former
to the east, the latter to the west of the peninsula.

If the statements of Pliny and Strabo may be relied upon, the Hellespont must
have been much narrower in former times than it is now. At Abydos — the
modem Naghai-a — the width is said to have amounted to seven stadia, or less than
a mile, anciently, whilst at the present time it is 6,500 feet. It was here Xerxes
constructed his double bridge of boats. The strait is deep at that spot, and its
current strong, but no wooden ship ^ould hope tu force a passage if covered by the
g;unB in the batteries on both coasts. The Hellespont, like the Bosphorus, has two

im^rne

me.

wTriBBi

lii

ill

106

TURKEY IN EUBOPE.

currents flowing through it. In winter, when the rivers which flow i'lto the
Black Sea are frozen up, and the Sea of Marmara is no longer fed by the waters
of the Bosphorus, a highly saline under-current penetrates from the iEgean Sea
into the Dardanelles, whilst a feebler current of comparatively fresh water flows in
a contrary direction on the surface.*

Gallipoli, the Con^tantiuople of the Hellespont, stands near the western
extremity of the Sea of Marmara. It is the first city which the Turks captured
upon the soil of Europe ; but though they settled down there nearly a hundred
years earlier than they did at Constantinople, they are no more in the majority
here than they are in the capital. Gallipoli, like Rodosto and other towns on the
Sea of Marmara, is inhabited by Mohammedans of various races, by Greeks,
Armenians, and Jews, forming separate communities dwelling within the walls of
the eame town. The country population consists almost exclusively of Greeks,
who are the proprietors and cultivators of the land ; and in sight of the coasts of
Asia, and within that portion of the Balkan peninsula which has been longest
under the rule of the Turk, the Greek is stronger numerically than anywhere else
to the north of Mount Pindus. He does not there confine himself to the coast,
and, if we except a few Bulgarian villages and the larger towns, the whole of
Eastern Thracia belongs to him.

The lowlands of this region form a vast triangular plain, bounded by the Tekir
Dagh and the coast range on the south, by offshoots from the Ilhodope on the west,
and by the granitic mountains of Stranja on the east. This is one of the dreariest
districts of all Turkey. Swampy depressions and untilled land recall the steppes
of Russia ; and in summer, when the wind raises clouds of dust, we can imagine
ourselves in the midst of a desert. The dreary monotony of this plain is relieved
oidy by the pale contours of distant mountains, and by innumerable artificial
mounds of unknown origin. So numerous are these tumuli that they form an
essential feature of the landscape, and no artist could convey a just idea of it
without introducing into his picture one or more of them.

Near the northern extremity of this imattractive plain, at the confluence of
Maritza and Tunja, lies the city of Adrianople, enveloped in trees, whose sight
delights the eye of the weary traveller. Adrianople, in reality, consists of a
number of villages, separated from each other by orchards, poplars, and cypresses,
above which peep out the minarets of some hundred and fifty mosques. The
sparkling waters of the Maritza and Tunja, of rivulets and of aqueducts, lend
animation to the picture, and render Adrianople one of the most delightful places.
But it is more than this. It is the great centre of population in the interior
of Turkey, and its favourable geographical position has always secured to the city
a certain amount of importance. The ancient city of Orestis, the capital of the
Kings of Thracia, stood on this site, and was succeeded by the Hadrianopolis of the
Romans, which the Turks changed into Edimeh, and mode f^eir capital until
Constantinople fell into their power» The old palace of the Sultan, built in the

* Dimensions of the Dardanelles: — Length, 42-3 miles; average width, 2*7 miles, or 18,100 feet;
minimum width, 0,400 feet ; average depth, 180 feet ; greatest depth, 320 feet

mmm

tjjte.

TURKEY OP THE GREEKS.

107

i'tto the
•e waters
gean Sea
r flows in

western

captured

hundred

majority

as on the

' Greeks,

B walls of

f Greeks,

i coasts of

in longest

irhere else

the coast,

whole of

the Tekir
1 the west,
e dreariest
he steppes
a. imagine
is relieved
artificial
y form an

idea of it

ifluenoe of
hose sight
isists of a
cypresses,
ues. The
lucts, lend
ful places,
le interior
to the city
tal of the
tolls of the
tital until
lilt in the

18,100 feet;

Persian style towards the close of the fourteenth century, still remains, though in
a dilapidated condition. But here, likewise, the Osmanli are in the minority.
The Greeks are their equals in numbers, and far surpass them in intelligence,
whilst the Bulgarians, too, muster strongly, and, as in other towns of the East, we
meet with a strange mixture of races, from Persian merchants down to gipsy
musicians. The Jews are proportionately more numerous in Adrianople than in
any other town of Turkey, and, strange to relate, t^^rfy differ from their co-reli-
gionists in every other part of the world by a lack of smartness in business
transactions. A local proverb says that " it requires ten Jews to hold their own
against one Greek ; " and not Greeks alone, for Wallachians, and even Bulgarians,
are able to impose upon the poor Israelite at Adrianople.

The communications between Adrianople and Midea, the ancient Greek colony,
famous for its subterranean temples, and with other cities on the Black Sea, are
difiicult. Its natural outlets are towards the south— on the one hand to Rodosto,
on the Sea of Marmara ; on the other, down 'the Maritza valley to the Gulf of Saros.
The railway follows the latter, and the Rumelian Railway Company has constructed
an artificial harbour at Dede Aghach, enabling merchantmen to lie alongside
a pier. The allurements of commerce, however, have not hitherto induced the
inhabitants of Enos to exchange their walled and turreted acropolis for the marshy
tract on the Lower Maritza, with its deadly atmosphere.

The zone occupied by the Greeks grows narrower as we go west of the Maritza,
where the Rhodope Mountains form a kind of international barrier. Only the
coast is occupied there by Greek mariners and fishermen, whilst the hills in sight
of it are held almost exclusively by Turkish and Bulgarian peasants and herdsmen.
The marshy littoral districts, the small valleys on the southern slopes of the
mountains, and a few isolated hills of volcanic or crystalline formation constitute
a narrow band which connects the Greeks of Thracia with their compatriots of
Chaloidice and Thessaly. The Yuruks, or " "Wanderers," a Turkish tribe which
has retained its nomadic habits down to the present day, sometimes even extend
their excursions to the sea-coast. Their principal seat is in the Pilav Tepe, a
mountain mass to the north-west of Thasos, famous in the time of the Macedonian
kings for its mines of gold and silver. A wide plain extends immediately to the
west of these mountains, watered by the Strymon, or Earasu^ and is of marvellous
fertility. Seres, a considerable city, occupies its centre, and hundreds of villages,
surrounded by orchards, rice, and cotton fields are scattered over it. Looked at
from the heights of the Rhodope, this plain assumes the appearance of a huge
garden-city. IJnfortimately many parts of it are very insalubrious.

The triple peninsula of Ghalcidice has no connection whatever with the
Rhodope, and is attached to the mainland by an isthmus covered with lakes,
swamps, and alluvial plains. It extends far into the sea like a huge hand spread
out upon the waters. Chalcidice is a Greece in miniature, with coasts of fantastic
contours, deep bays, bold promontories, and mountains rising in the midst of
plains, like islands in an archipelago. One of these mountain masses rises in the
trunk of the peninsula, and culminates in Mount Eortaoh, whilst each of its three

108

TURKEY IN EUROPE.

ramifications possesses its own system of scarped hills. Greek in aspect, this
curious appendage to the continent is Greek, too, in its population ; and, a rare
thing in Turkey, all its inhabitants are of the same race, if we except the Turks
in the town of Nisvoro and the Slav monks of Mount Athos.

The easternmost of the three tongues of land of Chalcidice, which jut out
far into the waters of the ^gean, is almost entirely detached. Only a low and
narrow neck of land connects it with the mainland, and it was across this
isthmus that Xerxes dug a canal, 3,950 feet in length, either to enable his fleet to
avoid the dangerous promontory of Mount Athos, or to g^ve the awe-struck
inhabitants a proof of his power. This is the peninsula of Hagion Oros, the
Monte Santo of the Italians. At its extremity rises a limestone mountain, one of
the most beautiful in the Eastern Mediterranean. This is the famous Mount

Fig. 83. — The Peninsula op Mount Athos.
Scale 1 : 1,080,000.

SSlOlflt.

Athos, which an ancient sculptor proposed to convert into a statue of Alexander,
holding a city in one hand and a spring in* the other, and which Eastern legends
point out as the " exceeding high mountain " to which the devil took Jesus, to
show him "all the kingdoms of the world." But whatever old legends may say,
the panorama is not as vast as this, though the shores of Chalcidice, Macedonia,
and Thracia lie spread out beneath our feet, and the eye can range across the blue
waters of the iEgean Sea from Mount 01]rmpus, in Thessaly, to Mount Ida, in
Asia Minor. The bold outlines of the fortified monasteries which appear here and
there, in the midst of chestnuts, oaks, or pines, on the slope of the mountain,
contrast most happily with the faint outline of the coasts on the distant horizon.*
This peninsula, which a traveller has compared to a sphinx crouching upon
the bosom of the sea, is the property of a republic of monks, who govern them-

• Altitudes :— Mount Pilar Tepe, 6,183 feet ; KorUwb, 3,893 feet ; Athos, 6,786 feet.

'tjIMHaiiM

MHH

_ -M-.

TUBEET OF THE OBEEKS.

100

3ct, this
I, a rare
le Turks

jut out
low and
P0S8 this
is fleet to
«re-Btruck
Oros, the
in, one of
18 Mount

teet.

selves according to their own fancy. In return for a tribute, which they pay to
the Porte, they alone have the right to live there, and strangers require theii*
permission before they are allowed to enter. A company of Christian soldiers is
stationed at the neck of the pt i insula to prevent the sacred soil being desecrated
by the footsteps of a woman. Even the Turkish governor cannot gain admittance
without leaving his harem behind him. For fourteen himdred centuries, we are told
in the chronicles of Mount Athos, no female has set foot upon this sacred soil, and
this prohibition extends to animals as well as to human beings. Even the presence
of poultry would profane the monasteries, and the eggs eaten by the monks are
imported from Lemnos. With the exception of a few purveyors, who reside at
the village of Earyes, the 6,000 inhabitants of the peninsula are monks, or
their servants, and they live in the monasteries, or in the hermitages attached to
the 935 churches of the island. Nearly all the monks are Greeks, but amongst
the twenty large monasteries there are two which were built by the ancient
sovereigns of Servia, and one which was founded by Russia. Most of these
edifices occupy promontories, and, with their high walls and strong towers, they are
exceedingly picturesque. One amongst them, that of Simopetra, appears to be
almost inaccessible. It is in these retreats the good fathers of the order of St.
Basil spend their lives in contemplative inaction. They are bound to pray eight
hours in the day and two in the night, and during the whole of that time they
are not allowed to sit. They have, therefore, neither time nor strength for study
or manual labour. The books in their libraries are incomprehensible mysteries
to them, and, in spite of their sobriety, they might die of starvation if there were
not lay-brothers to work for them, and numerous farms on the mainland which
are their properly. A few shiploads of hazel nuts is all this fertile peninsula
produces.

The ancient cities of Olynthus and Potidssa, on the neck of the western
peninsula of Ohalcidice, have dwindled down into insignificant villages ; but the
city of Therma, called afterwards Thessalonica, and now known as Saloniki, still
exists, for its geographical position is most favourable, and after every siege and
every conflagration it again rose from its ashes. Vestiges of every epoch of
history may still be seen there : Cyclopean and Hellenic walls, triumphal arches,
and remains of Roman temples, Byzantine -structures, and Venetian castles. Its
harbour is excellent, its roadstead well sheltered ; and the high-roads into Fpper
Macedonia and Epirus lead from it along the valleys of the Vardai and Inje
Earasu. These favourable circumstances have not been without their influence,
and Saloniki, next to Constantinople and Adrianople, is the most important city
of European Turkey. Its population is mixed, like that of other cities in the East,
and Jews are exceptionally numerous. Most of them are the descendants of
Spanish Jews, expelled by the Inquisition, and they still talk Spanish. Many
have outwardly embraced Mohammedanism to escape persecution, but the true
Mussulman spurns these converts with disdain. They are generally known as
" Mamins."

The commerce of Saloniki is important even now, but greater things are

TURKEY IN EUBOPE.

expected of the future. Like Marseilles, Trieste, and Brindisi, Saloniki aspires to
become a connecting link in the trade between England and the East. It actually
lies on the most direct road between the Ohannel and the Suez Oanal, and once
connected by railways with the rest of Europe, it is sure to take a large share
in the world's commerce. This emporium of Macedonia is interesting, too, from
an ethnological point of view, for, with the exception of Burgaz, on the Black
Sea, it is the only place where the Bulgarians, the most numerous race of
European Turkey, have reached the sea-coast. Everywhere else they are cut off
from it by alien races, but Saloniki brings them into direct contact with the

Fig. 34.— Mount Olympus.

remainder of Europe. Saloniki, however, not only suffers from bad government,
but also from the marshes which surround it, and in summer many of its inha-
bitants flock to the healthier town of Kalameria, to the west. Miastoatic swamps
unfortunately occupy a large portion of the northern coast of the ^gean, and
they separate the interior of Macedonia more effectively from the coast than do its
mountains. There is hardly any commerce except at Saloniki.

On the western shores of the Gulf of Saloniki, beyond the ever-changing
mouths of the Yardar and the briny waters of the Inje Earasu, or Haliaomon, the
land gradually rises. Hills are succeeded by mountains, until bold precipices

^^^mm

.*-

ispires to
, actually
and once
*ge share
too, from
he Black
I race of
re out off
with the

.asi^

TUEKEY OF THE OBEEKS.

approach dose to the coast, and summit rises beyond summit, up to the triple peak of
Mount Olympus. Amongst the many mountains which have borne this name, this
is the highest and the most beautiful, and the Greeks placed upon it the court of
Jupiter and the residence of the gods. It was in the plains of Thessaly, in the
shadow of this famous mountain, that the Greeks lived in the springtide of their
history, and their most cherished traditions attach themselves to this beautiful
country. The mountains which had sheltered the cradle of their race remained
to them for ever afterwards the seat of their protecting deities. But Jupiter,
Bacchus, and the other great gods of antiquity have disappeared now, and

Fig. 86. — Mount Oltmpvb and tmb Vallbt or Turi.
▲eoordinfftoHeiiMyaiidKiepwt. Scale 1 : eao^OOO.

MlOte

avemment,

Lf its inha-

Itic swamps

Sgean, and

I than do its

Lr-changing

lacmon, the

precipices

monasteries have been built in the woods which witnessed the revels of the
Bacchantes.

Until recently the upper valleys of Mount Olympus were inhabited only by
monks, and by kleplite8,or bandits, who sought shelter there from the Arnaut
soldiers sent in their pursuit. The mountain, in fact, constitutes a world apart,
surroimded on all sides by formidable declivities. Forty^two peaks form the
battlements of this mountain citadel, fifty-two springs rise within it, and the
bold klepht is secure within its fastnesses from the abhorred Turk. Magnificent
forests of laurel-trees, planes, and oaks cover its lower maritime slopes, and in
times of trouble they have served as a refiige to entire populations. But Italian

^^133

ji^wA^M^'4.yigyiiyiMg*j^

Ill

TUSKEY IN EUBOPE.

apeculatort have purohMed these forests, and the time is not, perhaps, very distant
when Mount Olympus, deprived of its verdure, will be reduced to a barren mass of
rook, like most of the mountains of the Archipelago. Wild oats abound on the
lower slopes of Olympus, chamois still climb its rugged pinnacles, but bears are no
longer met with : St. Denys, who dwelt upon the mountain, required beasts to ride
upon, and changed them into horses !

Xenagoras, an ancient geometrician, was the first to measure the height of
Mount Olympus, but his result, 6,200 feet, is far from the truth, for the highest
summit attains an elevation of 9,760 feet.* It may possibly be the culminating
point of the Balkan peninsula. Snow remains in some of its crevices throughout
the year, and no human being hitherto appears to have succeeded in ascending its
highest pinnacle. According to the Greek legend, even Pelion heaped upon Ossa
did not enable the Titans to reach the abode of the gods, and, in reality, the
combined height of these two mountains hardly exceeds that of Olympus. But,
in spite of this inferior height, "pointed" Ossa and "long-stretched" Pelion,
known to us modems as Kisovo and Zagora, impress the beholder, because of
their savage valleys, their precipitous walls of rock, and cliffy promontories.

These mountains continue southward through the hook-shaped peninsula of
Magnesia, and terminate opposite the island of Euboja. They formed a strong
bulwark of defence in the time of ancient Greece. The hordes of the barbarians
stopped in front of this insurmountable barrier. They were compelled to seek a
practicable road to the west of it, through the valley of the Peneus, which is rightly
looked upon as the natural frontier of Hellas. Hence the great strategical impor-
tance of Pharsalus, in Southern Thessaly, which protects the gorges of the Othrys
and the only access to the plains of the Sperohius. The pass of Petra, at the
northern extremity of Olympus, was carefully guarded for similar reasons.

A larg^ portion of the area bounded by the crystalline rocks of Olympus and
Ossa, and by the cretaceous range of the Pindus, running parallel with the former,
consists of plains originally covered by vast lakes. The Gulf of Yolo approaches close
to the shrunken remains of one of these lakes — ^that of Earla, or Boebeis — into which
the waters of the swampy plain of Larissa discharge themselves. The dwellers on
the shores of this lake say that a dull rumbling noise may now and then be heard
at its bottom, which they ascribe to the bellowing of some invisible animal,
but which is more probably the gurgling sound of the water penetrating into a
sink-hole. Other lake basins are met with at the foot of Olympus towards the
west and north-west, and some of the valleys of the upper tributaries of the Peneus
are covered with alluvium left behind by the receding waters. Hercules, according
to some — Neptune, according to others — drained all these lakes of Thessaly into
the ^gean, by opening the narrow gorge between Olympus and Ossa, known to
the ancients as the Valley of Tempe. This narrow valley is due, no doubt, to the
slow erosive action of water. To the Hellenes it realised their ideals of refreshing
coolness and beauty, and once every nine years an embassy arrived from Delphi
to pluck the laurel-leaves destined for the victors in the Pythian games. The
* Mount Olympoi, 9,760 feet ; Mount Omu, 5,260 feet ; Mount Pelion, 6,130 feet

TUBKET OF THE 0BEEK8.

118

Valley of Tempo is indeed most beautiful ; the transparent and rapid waters of the
Peneus, the foliage of the planes, the shrubberies of laurel-roses, and the red-hued
cliffs — these combine frequently, and form pictures which delight the senses and
impress the mind. But, taken as a whole, this narrow and sombre valley fairly
deserves its modem name of Lykostomo, or " wolfs gorge." Even in Thessaly,
and, above all, in the Findus, there are localities more smiling and more beautiful
than this famous Valley of Tempe.

The upper valleys of the Peneus, or Salembria, abound in natural curiosities,
such as defiles, sinks, and caverns. To the north-west of Mount Olympus, the
turbid Titaresiufl flows through the narrow gorge of Saranta Poros, or of the
Four Fords, which was looked upon in former times as one of the gates of hell.

To the west, on the Upper Peneus, are the limestone hills of Ehassia, rising
to a height of 5,000 feet, and the elevated spurs of Mount Pindus, which have
become celebrated through the " works of the gods," or theoktista, which surmount
them. These " works" consist of isolated towers, crags, and pillars, the most famous
amongst them being those on the banks of the Peneus, not far from Trikala.
Zealous followers of Simeon the Stylite conceived the idea of building their
monasteries on the tops of some of the larger of these natural columns or pedestals.
Perched on these heights, and condemned never to leave them, they receive their
provisions and visitors in a basket attached to the end of a long rope, and hoisted
aloft by means of a windlass. An aerial voyage of no less than 220 feet has
to be performed in order to reach in this manner the monastery of Barlaam, and
visitors are at liberty to effect this ascent by means of ladders fastened against
the rocky precipices. The religious zeal, however, whid. led monks to select
these eyries for their habitations is gradually dying out. Out of twenty
monasteries which existed formerly, there remain now but seven, and only one of
these, that of Meteora, is inhabited by as many as twenty monks.

Of all the Greek countries which still remain under the dominion of the Turks,
there is none which has so frequently sought to regain its independence, none which
is claimed by the Hellenes with equal ardour as a portion of their common father-
land and the cradle of their race. Thessaly is, in truth, a portion of Qreece. as far
as the traditions of the past, a common language, and the general aspects of the
country can make it so. But it is a more iertile country, its vegetation is more
luxuriant, its landscapes are more smiling and delightful. We may not frequently
meet with tiie deep blue sky which calls forth our admiration in Southern Greece,
for the vapours rising from the ^gean Sea are attracted by Olympus and other
mountains ; but this moisture imparts a charm to distant views, and, by protecting
the earth against the scorching rays of the sun in summer, it contributes largely
towards th j fertility of the soil.

The Greek population of Thessaly is strongly mixed with foreign elements,
which it has gradually assimilated. Neither Serbs nor Bulgarians remain now in
the country, although the Upper Titaresius is known as Vurgari, or " river of the
Bulgarians." The Zinzares, or Macedo-Walakhs, who were so numerous in the
Middle Ages, now only occupy a few villages. Though proud of their Boman

;.-■.., V-s-.-.-e^i^!'

". I JIU.1 W

■ -:^-T-»T,'<«!«l»r-i7-.— ■■■

1 , ='i;'.-'V.»Ji-i'..''W" ■ :--y~-

SEEssaassas

33S

114

TURKEY IN EUROPE.

!( I

dewent, they g^radually become Hellenized. Most of tbo words by which they
designate objects of civilised life are Greek, their priests and schoolmasters preach
or teach in Greek, and they themselves speak Greek in addition to their native
language. They lose ground, moreover, through an excessive emigration. Even
the cultivators of the soil amongst them have not quite given up their nomadic
habits, and the roving life of a herdsman or of a pedlar exercises an irresistible
attraction upon them. The Turks inhabit in compact masses the lowlands around
Larissa, and that town itself is Mussulman to a large extent. The hilly tracts to
the north, between the Inje Earasu and the Lakes of Eastoria and Ostrovo, are
likewise inhabited by Turks, who differ from the Osmanli of the rest of the
empire, and are known as Eoniarides. Turks also occupy a portion of Mount
Ossa. It is easy to tell from a distance whether a village is inhabited by Turks
or by Greeks. M. M^zidres has observed that " the Turks plant trees for the
sake of shade, the Greeks for the sake of profit." Near the villages of the former
we find cypresses and plane-trees, near those of the latter orchards and vineyards.
The Eoniarides are believed by some authors to have come to Thessaly and
Macedonia as colonists in the eleventh century, by invitation of the Eastern
emperor. They govern themselves through democratic representative bodies, and
are respected by all, because of their probity, their hospitality, and their rustic
virtues.

The Greeks are morally inferior to the Turkish peasantry, but they surpass
them in intelligence and industry. In the seventeenth century there took place
amongst them even a sort of revival similar to the Renaissance of Western Europe,
and the love of art was developed sufficiently far to give rise to a school of
painters in the villages of Olympus. Faithful to their national traditions and the
instincts of their race, the Greeks of Thessaly have sought to organize themselves
into self-governing commonwealths. In their free towns, or kephalokhori, they are
permitted to elect their town councils, establish schools, and appoint what teachers
they like. They know how to get the Turkish pasha not to meddle in their local
affairs. They pay the taxes demanded by the Turks, as their ancestors paid them
to Athens or some other Greek city, but in every other respect they are free
citizens governing themselves. The contrast between these independent common-
wealths and the chiflika of Mussulman proprietors cultivated by Greek farmers is
most striking. The land of the free proprietors is, as a rule, far less fertile than
that included within these chifliks; yet it produces more, and its cultivators live in
comparative ease.

The Greeks of Thessaly bestow much care upon the education of gprowing
generations. Even the most miserable Greek village in the Pindus can boast of
a school, which is visited by the young people up to the age of fifteen. As an
instance of the commercial spirit of the Thessalians we may mention the Weavers'
Co-operative Association, formed in the last century in the town of Ambelakia,
delightfully situated amongst orchards and vineyards on th^ southern slopes of the
Valley of Tempd. This powerful association wisely limi^ its dividends to six
per cent., and expended the surplus profits upon an extension of its business. For

of their I

"n ' • '^-iSWM tdiiinmitmimiim

ALBANIA AND EPIBUS.

116

lioh they
rs preftob
air native
n. Even
r nomadic
rresistible
ds around
y tracts to
jtrovo, are
est of tbe
of Mount
by Turks
368 for the
the former
vineyards,
esaaly and
he Eastern
bodies, and
their rustic

bey surpass
a took place
lem Europe,
a school of
ions and the
B themselves
lori, they are
'bat teachers
n their local
rs paid them
bey are free
ant common-
)k farmers is
fertile than
vators live in

L of growing
can boast of
leen. As an
the Weavers'
f Ambelakia,
slopes of the
idends to six
msiness. For

many years it enjoyed the greatest prosperity, but the wars of the empire, which
closed the markets of Oormany against it, brought about its ruin. Co-operution
likewise partly accounts for the flourishing cloth manufacture of the twenty-lour
wealthy Greek villages on the peninsula of Magnesia, to the north of the Oulf
of Yolo. This district, together with that of Verria, to the north of the Inje
Earasu, is probably the most prosperous in all the Greek provinces of Turkey,
and it is at least partly indebted for this prosperity to its happy geographical
position, being far away from great strategical high-roads.*

IV. — Aluania and Epirus.

The name of S/ikt'peri, which the Albanians give to the country they inhabit, is
supposed to meun " land of rocks," and no designation could be more appropriate.
Stuny mountains occupy the whole of the country, from the frontiers of Monte-
negro to those of Greece. The only plum of any extent is that of Scutari
(Shkodra), to the south of the Montenegrin plateau, which forms the natural fron-
tier of Albania towards the north. The bottom of this depression is occupied by
the Luke of Scutari ; and the Drin, the only river of the Balkan peninsula which is
navigable for a considerable distance from the sea, debouches upon it. The Drin
is formed by the junction of the White and the Black Drin, and in former times
it only discharged a portion of its waters temporarily into the Boyana River, which
drains the Lake of Scutari. But in 1858 it opened itself a new channel opposite to
the village of Miet, about twenty miles above its mouth, and since that time the
greater volume of its waters flows in the direction of Scutari, frequently inundating
tbe lower quarters of that town. The marshy tracts on the Lower Drin are
dangerous to cross during the boat of summer, and the fevers of the Boyana are
tbe most dreaded along the whole of that coast.

Most of the southern ramifications of the Bosnian Alps aro inhabited by
Albanians, but they are separated from their kinsmen in Albania proper by the
deep valley of the Drin, a kind of canon similar to those of the Rocky Mountains,
enclosed between precipitous walls several thousand feet in height, and hardly ever
trodden by the foot of a wanderer. The mountain systems of Bosnia and Albania
are only indirectly connected by a series of raqges and plateaux stretching from the
moimtain of Glieb in a south-easterly direction as fur as the Skhar, or Scardus of
the ancients. The crest of this latter runs at right angles to most of the ranges
of Western Turkey, and although its culminating point is inferior in height to
those of Slav Turkey, it is the point of junction between the Balkan and the

* The following are the principHl town* of the Greek provinces of Turkey, together with the number
of their inhabitants : —

Adrianople (Edimeh)
Saloniki (Salonica) .
Serea . . . .
Lariaaa .

Rodoato

110,000
80,000
30,000
25,000
20,000

Oallipoli (Oeliboli)
Trikala (Tirhala)
Demotika . .
Verria
Eno«

20,000
11,000
10,000
10,000
7,000

110

TUBKE f IN EUBOPH.

mountain •yiteran ot Bosnia and Albania. The Skbar it of g^reat importance,
too, in the hydrography of Turkey ; for two great rivers, the Bulgarian Moraya
a?d the Vardar, descend from its flanks, one flowing to the Danube, the other
to the Gulf of Salom'ki. Chamois and wild goats are still met with in the
Skbar, as in the Pindus and Rbcdope, and M. Wiet mentions an animal known
to the Mirdits as a lueet '>al, which appears to be a species of leopard.

A mountain region, hardly 3,000 feet in elevation, but exceedingly di£Bcult of
access, rises to the west of the Skbar, on the other side of the Black Drin : this
is the citadel of Upper Albania, the country of the Mirdits and Dukajins.
Enormous masses of serpentine have orupted there through the chalk, the valleys
are hemmed in by bold precipices, and the torrents rapidly run down the
hollowed-out beds on the exterior si opt- 9. As a rule, the direction of the tortuous
ranges of this mountain country is the same oa that of the southern spurs of
the Skbar. They gradually decrease m height, enclosing fine upland valleys,
where the waters are able to accumulate. The Lake of Okhrida, the largest sheet
of water in Upper Albania, has not inaptly been likened to the Lake of Geneva.
Its waters are bluer even than those of its Swiss rival, and more transparent, and
fish may be seen chasing each other at a depth of sixty feet beneath its surface :
hence its ancient Greek name of Lychnidos. The delightful little town of
Okhrida and Mouni Pieria, with its old Roman castle, guard its shores, and the
white houses of numerous villages peep out amongst the chestnut forests which
cover the slopes of the surrounding hills. This lake is drained towards the
north through the narrow valley of the Black Drin. If the statements of the
inhabitants may be credited, the waters of the double basin of Lake Presba reach
Lake Okhrida through subterranean channels.

'The isolated peak of x'omor commands this lake region on the west. To the
south of it commences the chain of the Pindus, locally known as Grammos. At
first of moderate height, and crossed by numerous mountain roads affording easy
communication between Albania and Macedonia, these mountains gradually
increase in height as we proceed south, and exactly to the east of Tanina they
form the mountain mass of Metzovo, with which the Pindus, properly so called,
takes its rise. This mountain mass is inferior in altitude to the peaks of Bosnia or
Northern Albania, but it is far more picturesque than either, its slopes being
covered with forests of conifers and beech-trees, and the plains extending along its
foot having a more soutiiem aspect. Mount Zygos, or Lachmon, which rises in the
centre of this mountain mass, does not afford a very extended panorama, but if we
climb the craggy peaks of the Peristera-Yuna, or Smolika, near it, we are able to
look at the same time upon the waters of the ^gean and Ionian Seas, and even
the shore of Greece may be descried beyond the Gulf of Arta.

A famous lake occupies the bottom of the limestone basin at the western foot
of the mountain mass of Metzovo. This is the Lake of Yanina, and nowhere else
throughout Epirus do we meet with an equal number of natural curiosities as on
the shores of this lake. Its ^epth is inconsiderable, nowhere exceeding forty feet,
and it is fed only by numerous springs rising at the foot of the rooks. There is no

%i.

-r

ALBANIA AND EP1RU9.

117

importano«i
irian Morava
be, the other

with in the
aimal known

;ly difficult of
)k Drin: this
nd Dukajins.
Ik, the valleys
>un down the
if the tortuous
them spurs of
ipland yalleys,
le largest sheet
lake of Gsneva.
ransparent, and
ath its surface :
little town of
shores, and the
at forests which
ted towards the
atements of the
ke Presba reach

west. To the
Qrammos. At
affording easy
itains gradually
of Yanina they
jperly so oaUed,
iks of Bosnia or
its slopes heing
[tending along its
rhich rises in the
lorama, but if we
I it, we are able to
Seas, and even

; the western foot
[and nowhere else

L curiosities as on
iing forty feet,

oks. There is no

visible outlet ; but Colonel Leake assures us that each of the two basins into which
it is divided is drained by a suhterrunoun channel. The northern lake pouri its
waters into a sink, or voinikoea, and reappears towards the south-west as a
considerable river, which flows into the Ionian Sea. This is the Thyumis of the
ancients, our modern Kalanias. Further to the south the ancient Acheron bursts
from the rooks, and having received the nauseous waters of the equally famous
CooytuB, throws itself into the " bay of sweet waters," thus called on account of
the large volume of water discharged into it by rivers.

When the waters of the bouthern and larger basins of Lake Yanina are low, there
is but a single effluent, which plunges down into an abyss, and in doing so turns

Fig. 3A.— SODTHKRN EptllVI.

AMordiBff to Kiq^wt. Betl* t : 1,400,00a

asMilM.

K. KaUvoUus.

the wheels of a mill. The Cyclopean ruins of the Peiasgic city of Hellas command
this huge chasm with its roaring waters. The subterranean river reappears far to
the south, and flows into the Oulf of Arta. But when the level of the law 3 is high,
four other sinks swallow up its superabundant waters, and convey them into
the main channel, the direction of which is indicated by a few small lakes. The
important part played in the mythology of ancient Greece by these subterranean
effluents, and particularly by the infernal Acheron and the Cocytus, amply proves
the influence exercised by the Pelasgians upon the civilisation of the Hellenes.
The myths of the Hellopians became the common property of all Greece, and

^i]

118

TURKEY IN EUHOI'B.

thore wo* no templo in all IIcllui more veuerated than their sanctuary at Dodona,
where the fubU<*« might be foretold by liatening to the ruatliitg of the leaven of
wicred oaks. This aacred grove existed, probably, near one of the Cyclopean
towns so numerous in the country, if not on the shore of the lake itself. fck>me,
erroneously no doubt, have looked for it near the oaatle inhabited in the beginning
of this century by Ali Tepeleni, the terrible Paaha of Epirui, who boasted of being
a " lighted torch, devouring man."

The mountains of 8uli, to the west of the basin of Tanina, attain an altitude
of 3,500 feet, but the neighbouring hills are of moderate height, though abrupt and
difficult of access, and near the coast they sink down into small rooky promontories,
scantily clothed with shrubs and overrun by jackals. Swamps abound near the
shore, and during summer their miasmatic air spreads over the neighbouring
viMnges. To the north of the swamps of Butrinto and of the channel of Corfu,
and to the west of the isolated peak of Eundusi, however, the coast rises again, and
the austere chain of the Chimnra Mala, or Aorooeraunii, extends along it. It was
dreaded by the ancients on account of its tempests, and the torrents which poured
down its sides. Squalls and changes of wind are frequent near the " Tongue
(Linguetta) of Rooks," the most advanced promontory of this coast, at the entrance
to the Adriatic Sea. These are the " in&mous rocks " referred to by the Roman
poet, upon which many a vessel suffered shipwreck. The channel which separates
Turkey at that place from Italy has a width of only 46 miles ; it is less than 100
fathoms in depth, and at some former period an isthmus may have united the two
countries.*

The Shkipetars, or Albanians, are subdivided into two leading tribes or nations,
the Tosks and the Gheges, both of whom are no doubt descended ft-om the ancient
Pelasgians, but have in many places become mixed with Slavs, Bulgarians, and
Rumanians, and perhaps even with other nations ; for whilst in some tribes we
meet with the purest Hellenic types, there are others the members of which are
repulsively ugly. The Gheges are the purest of their race, and they occupy,
under various tribal names, the whole of Northern Albania as far as the river
Shkumbi. The territory of the Tosks extends from that river southward. The
dialects of these two nations differ much, and it is not easy for an Aorooeraunian
to understand a Mirdit or other Albanian from the north. Gheges and Tosks
detest each other. In the Turkish army they are kept separated for ibar of their
coming to blows, and, when an insurrection has t^ be suppressed amongst them,
the Turkish Government always avails itself of these tribal jealousies, and is certain
of being served with the zeal and fury which hatred inspires.

Up to the period of the migration of the barbarians, the whole of Eastern
Turkey, as far as the Danube, was held by Albanians. But they were then
pushed back, and Albania was entirely occupied by Servians and Bulgarians.

* Altitudes in Albania : —
Skhar ....

ItMt.

4s 8,200

Tomor 9,413

ZygM (Lachmoii) . • . . 6,000

Bmolika <,«70

Tmk

Knndiui 0,270

Acrocersnnian Mountain . . 6,700
UkeOkhrid* .... 2,270
LdMofTsnina .... 1,700

ALBANIA AND EPIBTTS.

119

The names of numerous localities throughout the country recall that period of
obscuration, during which the name of an indigenous race was not even mentioned
by the historian. But when the Osmanli had broken the power of the Serb, the
Albanians again raised their heads, and ever since they have kept encroaching
upon their Slav neighbours. In the north they have gradually descended into
the valley of the Bulgarian Morava, and one of their colonies has even penetrated
into independent Servia. Like the waters of a rising ocean, they overwhelm
the detached tracts of territory still occupied by Servians. This progress of the
Albanians is explained, to a great extent, by the voluntary expatriation of the
Servians. Thousands of them, headed by their patriarchs, fled to Hungary, in
order to escape the dominion of the Turks, and the Albanians occupied the wastes
they left behind. The Servians still hold their ground near Acrooeraunia, on the
shores of Lake Okhrida, and in the hills looking down upon the fatal plain of
Kosovo, where their ancestors were massacred; but they gradually become
Albanians in lang^g^, religion, and customs. They speak of themselves as
Turks, as do the Amauts, and apply the name of Servian only to the Chris-
tians dwelling beyond the frontier. On the other hand, many of the customs
of the Gheges agree in a remarkable manner with those of their Slav neigh-
bours, and this proves that there has taken place a thorough blending of the two
races.

But whilst the Albanians are gaining ground in the north, they are losing it
in the south. A large portion of the inhabitants of Southern Albania, though
undoubtedly of Pelasgio origin, ar6 Greek by language. Arta, Tanina, and Prevesa
are Hellenized towns, and only a few Mohammedan families there still speak
Albanian. Nearly the whole of the tract between the Pindus and the Adriatic
coast ranges has become Greek as far as language goes, and throughout the
mountain region extending westward to the sea the inhabitants are " bilingual ; "
that is to say, they speak two languages. The fiunous Suliotes, for instance, who
talk Tosk within the bosom of their family, make use of Greek in their intercourse
with strangers. Wherever the two races come into coniaot, it is always the
Albanian who takes the trouble to learn Greek.

This influence of the Hellenes is all the more powerful as it meets with
support amongst the Zinzares, known also as Macedo-Walakhs, "Limping"
Walakhs, or Southern Rumanians, who are met wiih throughout the country.
These Zinsares are the kinsmen of the Rumanians of Wallachia and Moldavia, and
live in a compact body only on the two slopes of the Pindus, to the south and east
of the Lake of Tanina. Like the Rumanians of the Danube, they are most
probably Latinised Daoians. They resemble the Walakhs in features, character,
and disposition, and speak a neo*Latin tongue much mixed with Greek. The
Zinzares in the valleys of the Pindus are, for the most part, herdsmen, and wander
away from their villages sometimes for months. Others carry on trades, exhi-
biting much manual skill and intelligence. Nearly all the bricklayers of Turkey,
those of the large towns excepted, are Zinzares; and the same individual sometimes
erects an entire house, doing in turn the work of architect, carpenter, joiner.

• 'mmm!^xM,mM"^

190

TUBKEY IN EUROPE.

and locksmith. The Rumanians of the Findus are likewise esteemed as clever
goldsmiths.

Their capacity for business is great, and the commerce of the interior of
Turkey is almost entirely in their hands, as is that of the maiitime districts in
those of the Greeks. The Walakhs of Metzovo are said to have stood formerly
under the direct protection of the Porte, and every traveller, whether Mussulman
or Christian, was bound to unshoe his horses before he left their territory, for fear
" of his carrying away a clod of earth which did not belong to him." Commercial
houses conducted by Walakhs of the Pindus are met with in every town of the
Orient, and even at Vienna one of the most influential banks has been founded by
one of them. Abroad they are generally taken for Greeks, and the wealthier
amongst them send their children to Athens to be educated. Surrounded by
Mussulmans, the Zinzares of the Pindus feel the necessity of attaching themselves
to some country through which they might obtain their freedom, and they hope
for a nnion with Greece. It is only quite recently that they have learnt to look
upon the Rumanians of the North and the Italians as their kinsmen. They do
not, however, set much store upon their nationality, and have no aspirations as
a distinct race. There can be no doubt that in the course of ages many of these
Macedo- Walakhs have become Hellenized. Nearly all Thessaly was inhabited
by Zinzares in the Middle Ages, and Byzantine authors speak of that country as
"Great Wallachia." Whether these Zinzares have emigrated to Rumania, as
some think, or have become assimilated with the Greeks, the fact remains that at
the present day they are not very numerous on the eastern slopes of the Pindus.
Thousands of Rumanian families have settled in the coast towns, at Avlona, Berat,
and Tirana, embracing Mohammedanism, but still retaining their native idiom.

If we exclude these Zinzares, the Greeks of Epirus, the Servians, and the few
Osmanli dwelling in the large towns, there remain only the semi-barbarous Gheges
and Tosks, whose social condition has hardly undergone any change in the course
of three thousand years. In their manners and modes of thought these modem
Albanians are the true successors of the ancient Pelasgians, and many a scene that
a i!-aveller may witness amongst them carries him back to the days of the Odyssey.
G. von Hahn, who has most thoroughly studied the Shkipetars, looks upon them
as veritable Dorians, whose ancestors, led by the Heraclides, burst forth from the
forests of Epirus to conquer the Peloponnesus. They are as courageous, as war>
like, as fond of dominion, and as clannish as were their ancestors. Their dress,
likewise, is nearly the same, and the white tunio {Juatanelle) neatly fastened
round the waist fairly represents the ancient ehlamyt. The Gheges, like the
Dorians of old, are addicted to that mysterious passion which the historians of
antiquity have confounded, unfortunately, with a nameless vice, and which links
men to children by a pure and ideal love, in which the senses have no part.

There is no modem people respecting whom more asfAunding acts of bravery
are recorded than of the Albanians. In the fifteenth century they had their
Scauderbeg, who, though the theatre of his glory was more circumscribed than
that of his namesake of Macedonia, was hardly inferior to him in genius, and

ALBANIA AND EPIBUS.

121

as clever

aterioT of
istricts in
1 formerly
Mussulman
ry, for fear
Jommeroial
own of the
founded by
B 'Wealthier
rounded by
themselves
d they hope
Brnt to look
I. They do
spirations as
any of these
ras inhabited
,t country as
Rvimania, as
mains that at
f the Pindus.
Lvlona, Berat,
ive idiom.
, and the few

trouB Gheges
in the course
jthese modem
a scene that

the Odyssey.

Ls upon thetn
[brth from the
lus, as war-
Their dress,
itly fastened

)ges, like the
historians of

[d which links

10 part.

icts of bravery

[hey had their

Lscribed than

genius, and

certainly surpassed him in justness and goodness of heart. Or what nation has
ever exceeded in courage the Suliote mountaineers, amongst whom not an aged
man, a woman, or a child was found to beg for mercy from Ali Pasha's executioners?
The heroism of these Suliote women, who set fire to the ammunition waggons, and
then hand in hand precipitated themselves from the rocks, or sought death in the
mountain torrents, chanting their own funeral song, will at all times stand forth
in history as an astounding fact.

This valour, unfortunately, is associated amongst many tribes with a fearful
amount of savageness. Human life is held cheap amongst these warlike popula-
tions ; blood calls for blood, and victim for victim. They believe in vampires and
phantoms, and occasionally an old man has been burnt alive, on suspicion of his
being able to kill by the breath of his mouth. Slavery does not exist, but woman
is held in a state of servitude ; she is looked upon as an inferior being, having no
rights or mind of her own. Custom raises a more formidable barrier between the
sexes than do walls and locked doors, elsewhere. A young girl is not permitted to
Rpcak to a young man ; such an act is looked upon as a crime, which her father or
brother may feel called upon to punish by a deed of blood. The parents sometimes
consult the wishes of their son when about to marry him, but never those of their
daughter. The latter is frequently affianced in her cradle, and, whon twelve years
of age, she is handed over to a young man on his presenting a wedding outfit and
a sum of money fixed by custom, and averaging twenty shillings. From that
moment he becomes the absolute master of his bride, though not without first
going through the farce of an abduction, as is customary amongst nearly all
ancient -nations. The poor woman, thus sold like a slave, is bound to work for her
:v.uid. She is his housekeeper as well as his labourer, and the national poets
'^ ' ^re her to the "ever-active shuttle," whilst the father of the family is
likened to the "majestic ram marching at the head of the flock." Tet woman,
scorned though she be, and brutalised by heavy work, nuy traverse the whole
country without fear of being insulted, and the life of an unfortunate who place*
himself under her protection is held sacred.

Family ties are very powerful amongst the Albanians. The father retains the
rights of sovereign lord up to an advanced age, and as long as he lives the
<9aming8 of his children and grandchildren are his own. Frequently this com-
ninnism continues after his death, the' eldest son taking his place. The loss of a
member of the family, and particularly of a young man, gives rise to fearful
lamentations amongst the women, who frequently swoon away, and even lose their
senses. But the death of persons who have reached the natural limits of human
life is hardly mourned at all. The descendants of the same ancestor never lose
sight of their parentage. They form clans, called phis or pharos, which are
bound firmly together for purposes of defence or attack, or in the pursuit of their
common interests. Brotherhood by election is known amongst the Albanians, as
well a« amongst the Servians and other ancient nations, and its ties are as strong
as those of blood. Toung men desirous of becoming brothers bind themselves by
solemn vows in the presence of their families, and, having opened a vein, they

128

TUBKEY IN EUROPE.

drink each other's blood. The need of these family bonds is felt bo strongly in
Albania, that young people brought up together frequently remain united during
the remainder of their lives, forming a regular community, having its days of
meetings, its festivals, and a common purse.

But in spite of these family associations and clans, in spite of the enthusiastic
love which the Albanian bears his native land, there exists no political cohesion
amongst the various tribes. The physical conditions of the country, no less than
an unhappy passion for war, have scattered their forces, and rendered them
imable, consequently, to maintain their independence. The religious animositie.s
between Mussulman and Christian, Greek and Roman Oatholic, have contributed
to the like result.

It is generally supposed that the majority of the A Ibanians are Mohammedans.
When the Turks became masters of the country the most valiant amongst them
fled to Italy, and the greater part of the tribes tliat remained behind were compelled
to embrace Islamism. Many of the chiefs, moreover, turned Mussulmans, in order
that they might continue their life of brigandage, on pretence of carrying on a
holy war. This accounts for the fact of the aristocracy of the country being for
the most part Mohammedan, and in possession of the land. The Christian peasant
who tills it is nominally a free man, but in reality he is at the mercy of his lord,
who keeps him at the point of starvation. These Albanian Mussulmans, however,
are fanatic warriors rather than religious zealots, and many of their ceremonies,
particularly those connected with their native land, differ in nothing from those
of their Christian compatriots. They have been converted, but not convinced, and
cynically they say of themselves that their " sword is wherever their faith is."

In many districts the conversion has been nominal only, and xealous Christians
have continued to conduct their worship in secret. Many Mohammedans of this
class returned to the faith of their fathers as soon as the tolerance of Oovemment
permitted them to do so. As to the warlike mountain dans, the Mirdits, Suliotes,
and Acroceraunians, they had no need to bend to the will of the Turks, and
remained Greek or Roman Christians. The boundary between Gheges and Tosks
coincides approximately with the boundary between these two denominations,
the Roman Catholics living to the north of the Shkumbi, the orthodox Greeks to
the south of the river. The Hellenes and Zinzares in Southern Albania are
orthodox Greeks. The hatred between these two denominations of Christians is
intense, and this is the principal reason why the Albanians have not succeeded in
regaining their independence, as have the Servians.

Southern Albania and £pirus had feudal institutions up to the close of last
century. The chiefs of the clans and ths semi-independent Turkish pashas lived
in strong castles perched upon the rocks, from which they descended from time
to time, followed by bands of servitors. War existed in permanency and property
changed hands continuously, according to the fortunes of the sword. Ali the
Terrible, of Tanina, put a stop to this state of afiairs. He reduced high and
low to the same level of servitude, and the central Government now wields the
power formerly exercised by lords and heads of families.

ALBANIA AND EPIBUS.

128

rongly in
d during
I days of

thuBiastio
. cohesion
less than
ired them
inimosities
ontrihuted

ammedans.
tngst them
3 compelled
18, in order
rying on a
•y heing for
dan peasant
of his lord,
[j8, however,
ceremonies,
r from those
Qvlnced, and
aith is."
IS Christians
dans of this
Government
lita, Suliotes,
Turks, and
andTosks
Lominations,
»x Greeks to
Albania are
I Christians is
succeeded in

close of last

pashas lived

from time

. property

Ali the

Led high and

• wields the

If we would become acquainted with a social condition recalling the Middle
Ages, we must go amongst the independent tribes of Northern Albania. On
crossing the Matis we at once perceive a change. Every one goes armed ;
shepherds and labourers carry a carbine on the shoulder ; and even women and
children place a pistol in their belts. Families, clans, and tribes have a military
organization, and at a moment's notice are ready to take the field. A sheep
missing in a flock, an insult offered in the heat of passion, may lead to war. Not
long since the Montenegrin was the most frequent distui ber of the peace, for, shut
up iu his sterile mountains, he was often oblig^ to turn brigand in order to
sustain life, and laid under contribution the fields of his neighbours. The Turks
have at all times nourished this hatred between Albanians and Montenegrins.
They recompense the warlike services of the tribes of the border clans by
exempting them firom taxation, and allowing them to govern themselves according
to their own laws. Let these immunities be touched, and they will make common
cause with their hereditary foes of the Black Mountains.

The Mirdita are typical of the independent tribes of Northern Albania. They
inhabit the high valleys to the south of the gorge of the Drin, and, though
hardly numbering 12,000 souls, they exercise, in consequence of their warlike
valour, a most important influence in all Eastern Turkey. Their country is
accessible only through three difficult defiles, and they hold command of the roads
which the Turkish troops must follow when operating against the Montenegrins.
The Sublime Porte, well aware how difficult it would be to subdue these redoubt-
able mountaineers, has endeavoured to attach them, showering honours upon them,
and granting them the most complete self-government. The Mirdits, on their
side, though Christians, have at all times fought most valiantly in the ranks of the
Turkish army, in Greece and the Morea, as well as against their fellow-Ohristians
of Montenegro. They are formed into three " banners " of the mountains and
two of the plains, and in time of war are joined by the five banners of Lesh,
or Alessio. The banner of the renowned dan of Orosh takes precedence of all
others.

The country of the Mirdits is governed by an oligarchy, of which the Prince
or Pasha of Orosh is the hereditary head. His power, however, is merely
nominal, for in reality the country is governed by a council consisting of the
elders (veeehiardi) of the villages, the delegates of the banners, and the heads of
dans. The proceedings of this council are regulated by ancient traditions.
Wives are taken by force from the enemy, for the members of the five banners
look upon each other as relatives, and the Mohammedan girls in the lowland
villages look forward with little fear to their being carried off by Mirdit warriors.
The vendetta is exerdsed in an inexorable manner, and blood cries for blood. A
violation of hospitality is punished with death. Thr adulieress is buried beneath
aheap of stones, and her nearest relative is bound to deliver the head of her
accomplice to the injured husband. It need hardly be said that education is at
a very low ebb amongst these savages. There are no schools, and in 1860 hardly
fifty Christians of the Mirdit country and of the district of Lesh were able to

^'tmmmm

TitMiJ-iliriiftii lit

WBSKSsssi^

TURKEY IN EUROPE.

read. Agriculture, nevertheless, is in a relatively advanced state. The valleys of
the sterile mountains are cultivated with a certain amount of care, and they
produce finer crops than do the fertile plains, inhabited by an indolent population.

By a strange contrast, these direct descendants of the ancient Pelasgians, to
whom we are indebted for the beginning of civilisation in Europe, still number
amongst the most savage populationsi of our continent. But they, too, must yield
in time to the influence of their surroundings. Until recently the Epirotes and
southern Shkipetars left their country only in order to lead the easy but degrading
life of mercenaries. In the last century the young men of Acroceraunia uold
themselves to the King of Naples, to be embodied in his regiment of " Royal
Maoedonians ; " and even in our own days not only Mohammedans, but also Christian
Tosks, enter the service of pashas and beys. These men, known as Amauts, may
be met with in the most remote parts of the empire— ;in Armenia, at Bagdad, and
in Arabia. On the expiration of their term of service, the majority of these
veterans retire to estates granted them by Government, and this accounts for
the large number of Arnaut villages met with in all parts of the empire.

But wars are less frequent now, the life of a mercenary offers fewer advantages,
and increasing numbers of Albanians leave their country annually in order to gain
a living abroad by honest labour. Like the Swiss of the canton of Orisons, many
Shkipetars descend from their mountains at the commencement of winter in order
to work for wages in the plains. Most of these return to their moimtain^homea in
spring, enriched by their earnings ; but there are others who remain abroad for
years, or who never return. The advantages of a division of labour appear to be well
understood by these mountaineers of Epirus and Southern Albania, and each moun-
tain valley is noted for the exercise of some special craft. One valley sends forth
butchers, another bakers, a third gardeners. A village near Argyrokastro supplies
Constantinople with most of its welUsinkers. The district of Zagori, perhaps the
home of the ancient Asclepiads, sends its doctors, or rather " bone-setters," into
every town of Turkey. Many of these emigrants, when they become wealthy,
return to their native land, where they build themselves fine houses in the midst
of sterile mountains, and these take the places of the old seigneurial towers, which
were erected only for purposes of defence.

The Albanians are thus being carried along by a general movement of progress,
and if once they enter into the common life of Europe, we may expect them to play
a prominent part, for they possess a penetrating mind and much strength of
character. The Albanians enjoy the advantage of having ready access to the sea,
but hitherto they have derived only small benefit from it, not only owing to the
disturbed state of the country and the absence of roads, but also because of the
alluvial deposits formed by the rivers and the malaria of the marshes. Still,
making every allowance for these disadvantages, they hardly account for the
almost entire absence of maritime enterprise. One would scarcely fancy these
Epirotes and Gheges to be of the same raoe as those Hydriote corsairs who launched
whole fleets upon the waters of the Archipelago at the time of the war for Hellenic
independence, and who still maintain the foremost place amongst the mariners of

'' '^-iTiV-'^^M

mmifmmiimmmmfm'^mimmimimmf'

tJ^Smm

ALBANIA AND EPIR';\

126

Greece. The ports of Albania — Antivari, Porto Medua (one of the safest on the
Adriatic), Duruziio, Avlona, Purga (lost in a forest of citron-trees), and even strong
Prevesa, surrounded by more than a hundred thousand olive-trees — can boost but
of a trifling commerce, and two-thirds of that arc carried on in Austrian vessels
from Trieste. With the exception of the Aoroceraunians and the inhabitants of
Duloigno, which is the port of Scutari, no Mohammedan Albanian ventures upon
the sea, not even as a fisherman. In spite of the fertility of the soil, there are
hardly any articles to export. The mines of he country arc unexplored, agricul-
ture is in a most backward state, and in Epirus hardly any industry is known
except the rearing of sheep and goats.

At the time of the Romans these countries were equally forsaken. There was
one magnificent city, Nicopolis, built by Augustus on a promontory to the north
of the modem Prevesa to commemorate his victory at Aotium. The only other
town of importance was Dyrrhachium, called Durazzo by the Italians. It formed
the terminus of the Via Egnatia, which traversed the whole of the Ikan penin-
sula from west to east, and constituted the great highway between Italy and the
Orient. Avlona may aspire one day to take the place of ancient Dyrrhachium.
Its geographical positic. is superior to that of Durazzo, for it is nearer to Italy,
and its deep and secure harbour enjoys the shelter of the island of Suseno and of
the Linguetta of Acroceraunia.

In the meantime all the commerce of the country is concentrated in Scutari
and Yanina, and in some other towns of the interior. The most considerable
amongst the latter are Prisrend, at the foot of the Skhar, whose nobles boast of
their magnificent dresses and fine weapons; Ipek (Pech), Prishtina, Jakovitza
(Takova), in the north-eastern portion of the country, and on rr«ads which lead
from Macedonia into Bosnia. Nearer the coast are Tirana, Berat, and Elbasan,
the ancient Albanon, whose name recalls that of the entire country. Gyoroha
(Eoritza), to the south of the Lake of Okhrida, is likewise a place of much trade,
thanks to its position on a road joining the Adriatic to the Jigean Sea. Scutari
and Yanina occupy sites at the foot of thc> mountains, whose natural advantages
could not fail to attract a numerous population. Yanina, the capital of Epirus, is
the more picturesque of these two cities. It is situated on the shore of a fine
lake, opposite the somewhat heavy masses of the Pindus, but in sight of the
mountains of Greece, which are of a " himinouii grey, jittering like a tissue of
silk." At the timo of Ali Pasha, Yanina became the capital of an empire, and its
population then exceeded that of Scutari. But the latter has now regained its
pre-eminence. It is admirably situated, and the roads from the Danube and the
.^gean, horn the Lower Drin and the Adriatic, converge upon it. Scutari, or
Shkodra, is the first oriental city which a traveller coming from Italy meets
with, and the first impression made by its numerous gardens enclosed by high
walls, its deserted streets and irregular buildings, is sufficiently curious. Long
after he has entered the town, the traveller will remain imcertain as to its
whereabouts. But let him climb to the summit of the limestone rock surmsunted
by the old Yenetian castle of Rosapha, and the most magnificent panorama will

126

TURKEY IN EUROPB.

unfold itself before his eyes. The domes of Scutari, its twenty niinareta, the
emerald verdure of the plain, the surrounding amphitheatre of fantastically shaped
mountains, the winding waters of the Boyana and Drin, and the placid surface of
the lake glittering in the tun — these all combine to produce a spectacle of rare
magnificence. The sea alone is wanting to render this picture perfect, but, though
near, it is not within sight.*

y. — The Illyrian Alps, Bosnia, and Herzroovina.

Bosnia, in the north-western comer of Turkey, is the Switsserland of the
European Orient, but it is a Switzerland whose mountains do not reach the
zone of perennial snow and ice. In many respects the mountoip ranges of Bosnia,
and of its southern province, the Herzegovina, resemble those o. the Jura. They,
too, are composed principally of limestone, and rise in parallel ridges, surmounted
here and there by sharp crests. Like the successive ridgett of the Jura, they are
of unequal height, and, taken as a whole, assume the appearance of a plateau
traversed by parallel furrows, and gently sloping in one direction. The most
elevated chain of Northern Bosnia is that which separates it from the coast of
Dalmatia, and the less elevated ridges running parallel with it gradually decrease
in height towards the north«east, in the direction of the plains of the Save.,

Bocks not belonging to the Jurassic system, such as crystalline slates, dolo-
mites, tertiary deposits, and serpentine, are met with in various localities, and
impart some variety to the orographioal features of Bosnia. Several crater-shaped
depressions in the east and south-east separate the mountains of Bosnia from the
mountain masses of Sorvia. The most remarkable amongst these plains is that
of Novibazar, into which numerous torrents discharge themselves, and which
commands roads diverging in various directions. This is the strategical key of
the country, and is destined on this account to become an important railway
junction.

Nearly all the mountain ranges which pass from Oamiola and Austrian Croatia
into Bosnia increase in height as we advance towards the centre of the peninsula.
The bleached pyramid of the Durmitor, dose to the northern frontier of
Montenegro, attains an elevation of nearly 8,000 feet, and the plateau surrounding
it is cut up by deep cavities, some of which, like the troughs of the Herzegovina,
open out in one direction, whilst others are completely shut in by declivities. The
Prokletya, or " cursed " mountain, still farther to the south-east, rises to a height
even more considerable, and constitutes one of the most formidable mountain
masses of all Turkey. A huge depression occupies its centre, the bottom of which
is covered by the Lake of Plava. Even in summer patches of snow may be seen
on some of the mountains which surround this abyss. But Mount Eom, the

• Population of the principal oitiei of Albania :— Primrmd, 3fi,000 ; Ssutari (Shkodra), 3fi,000 ; Tanins,
26,000; Jakovitn (Yakova), 17,000; Ipek (Pech), 16,000; Elbaaan, 12,004; Bent, 11,000; FriihtiiM,
11,000; Tirana, 10,000; Koritsa, 10,000; Argyrokaatro, 8,000; Praveaa, 7,000 Duloigno, 7,000;
Dnnuio, 6,000.

inareta, the
jttUy shaped
id aurface of
Aole of rare
but, though

and of the
Dt reach the
B8 of Bosnia,
ura. They,

surmounted
lira, they are
}f a phiteau
, The most

the coast of
ally decrease
Save.,

slates, dolo-
Ksalities, and
irater-shaped
nia from the
lains is that
\, and which
9gical key of
tant railway

itrian Croatia

lie peninsula.

frontier of

surrounding

Herzegovina,

iivities. The

IS to a height

>le mountain

torn of which

may be seen

at Eom, the

, 3fi,000 ; Yuiiiu,
1,000; Pxiahtiiia,
)aloigno, 7,000;

iU^'J . l('iCla)l-;..iat^^PJti«.'l'» ' >''lW.»'l > rrf i t i T -jtlJ M

TIIK TLI.YRIAN Alii*. ItOHNlA. AND HRR/KOOVINA.

highont of all, never retains iU cap of iinow during the whole of the year, for it
roelta away before the hot Aft-ican winda to which it ia oxpoaod. Mount Kora
may poaaibly turn out to be the nulminating point of the Balkan peninsula. It ia
certainly one of the highoat auinmitH, and it* doublo ponk, riaing above tho plateau
of Montenegro, ia deaoried from afar by tho mariner navigating tho Adriatic. It
haa been anoended by aeveral travellera, for ita nlopea are gentle.*

The rivera of Hoania, like thoae of the Jura, flow Iwtween parallel mountain
range* towards the north-east, along the Airrowa traced out for them by nature.
But theae oalcareoua mountain ramparts of Boania, like thoae of the Jura, are
broken up by narrow gorgea, or cltuet, through which the pent up watcra find
a way fVom furrow to furrow. Inatead of taking a aerpentine course, aa do moat
rivera flowing through a plain, those rivers of Boania ohango from valley to valley
by abrupt bends. Gentle and furious in turns, they gradually roach the lower
regions, and are finally swallowed up by the Save. Only one river, the Narenta,
finds its way into the Adriatic ; all others, in accordance with the general slope of
the country, flow in the direction of the Danube. These river valleys, with their
audden turnings, would be available aa natural roads for reachin;^ the plateau, if
most of the gorges were not exceedingly diflioult of access ; and un' A regular roads
have been constructed, as in the cluses of the «i Vra, travellers are obliged to scale
steep heights in order to pass from valley to valley. It is this want of practicable
roads which renders military operations in Boania so difiioult and perilous.

Great armies have at all times remained to the east ci the mo ./i tain at a sa oa
referred to, passing from the valley of the Vardar into that of tbr Iv.o.-ava, whose
springs almost intermingle their waters. In that locality we meet with the
bed of an ancient lake, through which flows the Sit?; it.it ^■, one of the ■ ;->per
tributaries of the Servian Morava : this is the plain of Ki aovo, i)x9 " field of black
birds," which reminds all southern Slavs of painful events. It was there the
power of the Servians succumbed in 1380, and, if we may credit ancient heroic
songs, more than 100,000 men perished in a single day. Fiv(> hundred years have
passed away ainoe this great disaster, but the Slavs have never oeased to hope for
a day of vengeance, and they look forward to the time when on this very field
they may reconquer the independence they have lost.

The similarity between the mountains of Boania and of the Jura is rendered
complete by the existence of grottoes, sink-holes, and subterranean rivers. Sink-
holes from 60 to 100 feet in diameter, and shaped like funnels, are met with
in many localities. Several rivers appear a.rllonly at the foot of a hill, and,
after flowing on for a few miles, disappear agai.i beneath some portal in the rocks.
The table-land of the Heraegovina especially abounds in phenomena of this kind.
The ground there is pierced by "sinks" or ponors, which swallow up the water
derived from precipitation. " Blind vt Ueys " and " troughs " present everywhere
the traces of currents of water and of temporary lakes, and after heavy rains the
subterranean basins sometimes rise to the surface, and a river then flows for
a time along the valley. Aa a rule, however, the inhabitants are compelled to
• AlUtndM :— Mount Kom, 9,360 feet ; Uonat Durmitor, 8,860 feat ; GUeb, 6,77S feet

-^—mmmmm

■M

*8! Mgs;;ife>b .< V fc<-w »3t"?Jt

128

TURKEY IN EUROPE.

collect the water they require in cisterns, or to fetch it from long distances.
Elsewhere the hydrography of the country is suhject to annual changes. Lakes
which still iigurc upon our maps are drained through subterranean passages only
recently opened ; other lakes are formed in consequence of some passage, which
formerly carried off the surface water, having become choked with alluvium.
No more curious river probably exists in the world than the Trebinishtitza, in the
Western Herzegovina. It appears and disappears many times. One of its branches,
flowing at one time on the surface, at others underground, crosses the plains of
Eotesi, in turns a parched champaign country or a lake abounding in fish, and

Fig. 37.— SUBTBKRANEAN BbD8 OF THB AFFLUENTS OF THI NaRBNTA.
Scale 1 : l,92fi,00a

U'Cr.

• rfajy

--^^vl^v''

raviua!

.,: 4>^

P.^^'^Hs

'^^

"^:af^v.v^^-

lUa

IIjaboviU!H\[^

^"<'>"51,TJi^'

i.-.v«?<

L Plana

?«Hi

IONTCNC61V0

SubterraneHa Bedt.
jWMllea.

enters the Narenta. Other branches pass beneath the mountains, and gush out
near the shores of the Adriatic. One of the most famous of these springs is that
of Ombra, which pours its waters into the Bay of Gravosa, to the north of
Ragusa.

"Where the rockp finish and the trees appear, there begins Bosnia." So said
the Dalmatians formerly. But many parts of Bosnia have now lost their clothing
of verdure. The table-lands of the Herzegovina and Montenegro, no less than
Dalmatia, have been deqrailed of their forests, but Bosnia proper still remains a
country of woods. Nearly one-half its area is covered with forests. In the
valleys trees have almost disappeared, for the peasant is allowed to wield his axe

gp distances,
iges. Lakes
tassages only
asage, which
bh alluvium,
btitza, in the
' its branches,
the plains of
^ in fish, and

and guflh out

I springs is that

the north of

bsnia." So said
; their clothing
b, no less than
Ltill remains a
Irests. In the
I wield his axe

THE ILLYRIAN ALPS, BOSNIA. AND HERZEGOVINA.

199

without hindrance, but in the virgin forests of the mountains trees still abound.
The principal trees of Europe are met with in these magnificent woods : walnut-
trees, chestnut-trees, limes, maples, oaks, beeches, ash-trees, birches, pines, firs,
and larches. Austrian speculators, unfortun.'itely, avail themselves of the roads
which begin to open up the interior of the country to devastate these forests,
which ought to be preserved with the greatest care. The song of birds is but
rarely heard in these sombre woods, but wild animals abound in them. They
shelter bears, wild boars, and deer, and th<<) number of wolves is so large that their
skins form one of the most important articles of Bosnian commerce. Taken as a
whole, Bosnia ranks among the most fertile countries of Europe, and few regions
surpass it in the beauty of its rural scenery. In some parts of the country, and
particularly near the Save, large herds of hogs, almost wild, roam through the
oak forests. Hence the epithet of " country of hogs " which the Turks have
derisively given to Bosnia.

With the exception of the Jews, the gipsies, and the few Osmanli officials,
soldiers, and merchants in the principal towns, the entire population of the country
is of Slav race. The inhabitants of Kraina, near the Austrian frontier, call
themselves Croats, but they scarcely differ from the Bosnian Servians and
Raitzes of ancient Bascia, now known as the sandjak of Novibazar. On the
classical soil of Rascia originated most of those cherished piestnm, or popular
songr>, in which the Southern Slavs have deposited their national traditions. The
Herzegovinians, in some respects, differ from their Bosnian kinsmen. They are
the descendants of immigrants who came from the banks of the Vistula in the
seventh century. Like their neighbours the Montenegrins, they are more voluble
in their speech than the Servians proper, and make use of numerous peculiar
turns of expression and a few words of Italian which have glided into their
language.

Although most of the Bosnians are of the same race, they are divided by
religious animosities, and these account for their state of political servitude. At
the first glance it may cause surprise that the Slavs of Bosnia should not have
succeeded in throwing off the Turkish yoke, like their kinsmen of Servia. Their
country is more remote f^m the capital, and far less accessible than Servia. A
conquering army coming from the south has not only to force numerous defiles,
but has to contend, too, with the climate, which is liu"inore severe than that of
the remainder of the Balkan peninsula. But, in spite of these great natural
advantages from a defensive point of view, every revolt has hitherto failed
lamentably. We need not seek far for the cause of this : Christian and Moham*
medan Bosnians are at enmity, and the Christians themselves are split up into
Greeks, who are led by their popes, and Romans, who follow blindly their
Franciscan priests. In their divided state they fall an easy prey to their
oppressors, and servitude has degraded their character.

The Mussulmans of Bosnia call themselves Turks, but they are Slavs never-
theless, like their Christian compatriots, and, like them, speak Servian with a large
admixture of Turkish words. They are the Jpscendants of the nobles who, in

■-mmmm

HMH

warn

imii nuiiiiwiii'lni

180

TUBKEY IN EUBOPB.

the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, embraced Islamism in order to save their
feudal privileges. ' They also number amongst their ranks the descendants of
brigands, who chang^ their religion in order to be able to continue their trade
without fear of punishment. This apostaoy gave to the lords even greater power
over their wretched dependants than they had formerly possessed. The hatred of
caste was augmented by religious animosity, and they soon surpassed in fanaticism
the Mohammedan Turks, and reduced the Ohristian peasantry to a condition of
veritable slavery. A wild pear-tree is still pointed out near one of the gates of
Sarayevo, upon which the notables occasionally suspended some unfortunate raya
for their amusement. Whether beys or spahis, these Mohammedan Bosnians are
the most retrograde element of old Turkey, and on several occasions, as in 1851,
they even rose up in rebellion in order to maintain intact their ancient feudal
privileges. Sarayevo, as a Mussulman city, stood imder the special protection of
the Sultan's mother, and possessed most extravagant privilege, which converted
it into a state in the state more hostile to Christianity than the Sublime Forte
itself.

Even in our own days the Bosnian Mussulmans possess far more than their
proper share of the land. The country is divided into spahiliks, or Mussulman fiefs,
which are transmitted, in accordance with the custom of the Slavs, indivisibly to
all the members of the family. The latter choose the most aged or most
valorous of their members as their head. The Christian peasants are compelled to
work for these Mussulman communities ; and, although no longer serfs, they are
called upon to bear the chief burden of taxation and of other expenses. It is
natural, under those circumstances, that the Christians of Bosnia should shun
agriculture in order to devote themselves to trade, and nearly the whole of the
commerce is in the hands of the Christians of the Herzegovina and of their
co-religionists from Slavonian Austria. The Spanish Jews form communities in
the principal towns, where they carry on their usual commercial pursuits and
money-lending on tangible securities. They still talk Spanish amongst themselves,
and never mention without emotion the name of the country which sent them into
exile.

The number of Mussulmans hardly exceeds one-third of the total population of
Bosnia, and they are .said to remain stationary, or even to diminish, whilst the
more fecund Christians increase in numbers.* ;

For the rest, the Bosnians, in spite of the differences in their religious belief,
possess the same natural gifhs as their Servian kinsmen, and, whatever destinies
may be in store for them, they will in the end rise to the same level of intelli-
gence. They are frank and hospitable, brave in battle, industrious, thrifty, of a
poetical turn, fast n friends, and true as lovers. The marital ties are respected.

* According to Blau (1872), Bosnia, including the Hersegorina and Ba8oia,has 1,1<}0,000 inhabitant!,
oompriaing 690,000 Greek Catholics, 164,000 Roman Catholioa, 378,000 MuMulnutna, 12,300 gipsies, and
6,700 Jews. The same author states the population for 1866 to have amounted to 893,384 souls, including
286,000 Mussulmans. According to an English Consular Report (1873), the population is 1,084,162,
including 461,048 Mussulmans; and according to Professor Yakshity, 1,367,984 souls, including 474,000
Mussulmans.

mmm

BULGARIA.

181

save their
endants of
their trade
jater power
le hatred of
1 fanaticism
sondition of
the gates of
tunate raya
Bosnians are
, as in 1851,
icient feudal
protection of
)h converted
iblime Porte

•e than their
Bsulman fiefs,
indivisibly to
ged or most
compelled to
lerfs, they are
penses. It is
should shun
whole of the
and of their
Immunities in
pursuits and
)t themselves,
intthem into

population <£
I, whilst the

LligiouB belief,

9ver destinies

ivel of intelli-

B, thrifty, of a

are respected,

lo,000 inluLbitante,
p,a00 gipsiei, «>d
B4 aoula, indading
Ltion ia 1,084,162,
Findudiiig 474,000

and even the Mussulmans reject the polygamy permitted by the Koran. In the
Herzegovina the women enjoy much liberty, and in many villages there are even
back doors to the houses, in order that they may be able to gossip with their neigh-
bours without going into the street. In Northern Bosnia, however, the Mussulmau
women are wrapped up closely in white linen sheets, and are hardly able to see
a few steps before them. But, in spite of these good qualities, there exists an
amount of barbirity, ignorance, superstition, and fanaticism, amongst Christians
and Mohammeaaap alike, which is truly astounding. Incessant wars, tyranny on
the one side, ana servitude on the other, have brutolised their manners. The want
of roads, the extensive forests, and the precipitous mountains have placed them
beyond the reach of civilising influences. There are hardly any schools, and the few
monasteries which supply their places are of little use, for the monks themselves
are steeped in ignorance, and their pupils at most learn to chant a few hymns.
Besides this, the immense consumption of alibovitza ondermines the health of
the people and demoralises them, and it has been estimated that every Bosnian-
man, woman, or child — drinks annually no less than thirty-four pints of this
detestable plum-brandy.

It may be matter for surprise that bustling towns should exist in so rude a
country, but the natural resources of Bosnia are so great that a certain amount of
local trade was sure to spring up. Isolated as they are, the Bosnians are thrown
upon their own resources. Thoy grind their own flour, manufacture their arms,
stufis, and iron implements, and the exchange of these commodities has given
to commerce in the cities most &vourably situated as entrepots, the

nse

principal amongst which are Sarayevo, or Bosna Serai, and Travnik, the ancient
capital of the country, picturesquely situated at the foot of an ancient castle.
Banyaluka, which is connected with Austria by a railway, has some trade with
Croatia; Tuzla extracts salt from its abundant brine springs; Zvomik, which
guards the frontier of Servia, also carries on, some trade with that country ; Novi-
bazar has commercial relations with Albania ; Mostar and Trebinye import a few
articles from Dalmatia. The populations of these towns have not, however, been
solely attracted by trade and industry, for the insecurity of the country has also
contributed to that result. Thnre is no part of Europe, the neighbouring Albania
and the polar regions of Scandinavia and Russia excepted, which is so rarely
visited by strangers, and this isolation will only cease 'when the proposed inter-
national railway shall have joined it to Saloniki and Constantinople.*

VI. — Bulgaria.

Thb centre plateau of Turkey is still amongst the least-known countries of
the Balkan peninsula, although it is intersected by the great highways which
connect Thracia with Bosnia, and Macedonia with the Danube. This plateau,

* Prinoipal town* of Bosnia : — Sarayevo, 60,000 inhabitanta ; Banyaluka, 18,000 inhabitants •
Zvoraik, 14,000 inhabitanta; TraTnik, 12,000 inhabitanta; Xovibaaar, 9,000 inhabitants; Tiebinje',
0,000 inhabitants ; Mostar, 9,000 inhabitants ; Tuala, 7,000 inhabitants.

:t;.

' '°«<milMMMHMMaMMSn

iiimimmmmtmaiimimimmtiiiiii^

182

TUEKEY IN EUROPE.

known to the ancients as Upper Moesia, consists of a vast granitic table-land, rising
to an average height of 2,000 feet. Its surface is diversified by several planinas,
or mountain chains, of small relative height, and by domes of trachyte, the
remains of ancient volcanoes. Its numer'>us depressions were formerly filled with
water, and the contours of the ancient lakes can still be traced. They have
been gradually filled up by alluvium, or drained by rivers. The most remarkable
amongst these ancient lacustrine basins are now represented by the fertile plains
of Nish, Sofia, and Ikhtiman.

The superb syenitic and pw»rphyritio mountain group of Vitosh forms the

Fig. 38.— Mount Vitosh and its £nv:hon8.
Aooording to F. tod Hoohrtetter. SoU* 1 : 1,006,000.

SOMilM.

eastern bastion of the Moesian plateau. Immediately to the east of it the deep
valley of the Isker pierces the whole of the Balkan Mountains, and, crossing the
plain of Sofia, takes its course in the direction of the Danube. The upper valley
of this river and the plain mentioned form the true gpeographical centre of
European Turkey. From Sofia diverge some of the most important roads of the
peninsula, one leading through the valley of the Tsker to the Lower Danube, another
along the Morava valley into Servia, a third by the way of Maritza into Thracia,
and a fourth down the Struma into Macedonia. It is said that Constantino the
Great, struck by these important natural advantages of Sofia, then called Sardioa,
thought of making it the capital of his empire.

"■-■^mWiiiiiaii

fiULQABIA.

The Turks apply the name of Balkans to all the mountain ranges of the
peninsula, but geographers restrict that term to the Hromus of the ancients. This
mountain rampart begins to the east of the basin of Sofia. It does not form a
regular chain, but rather an elevated terrace sloping down gently in the direction
of the Danube, whilst towards the south it presents an abrupt slope, it appearing
almost as if the plateau on that side had suddenly sunk to a lower level. The
Balkan consequently presents the appearance of a chain only when looked at
from the south. But its contours even there are only slightly undulating ; there
are neither abrupt projections nor rocky pyramids, and the prevailing character is
that of long-stretched mountain ridges. The porphyritic mountain group of
Ohatal, which rises to the south of the principal chain, constitutes the only
exception to this gentleness of contour. Though inferior in height to the summits
of the Balkan, its steep precipices, slashed crests, and chaotic rook masses strike
the beholder, and the contrast between this mass of erupted rook and the gentle
slopes of the calcareous hills which surround it is very great.

The uniformity of the northern slopes of the Balkan is such that, in many
places, a traveller is able to reach the crest without having come in sight of
mountains. When the woods have disappeared from the Balkan, these undulating
slopes will be deprived of their greatest charm ; but, as long as the forests ornament '
them as now, the country will remain one of the most delightful in Turkey. Run*
ning streams flow through each valley, bordered by pastures as brilliantly green
as are those of the Alps ; the villages are built in the shade of beech-trees and
oaks ; and nature everywhere wears a smiling aspect. But the plains which extend
to the Danube are barren, and sometimes not a single tree is visible. The
inhabitants, deprived of wood, are dependent upon cow-dung dried in the sun
for their fuel, and they dig for themselves holes in the ground, where they seek
protection from the cold of winter.

The core of the Balkan, between the basin of Sofia and that of Slivno, consista of
granite, but the terraces which descend towards the Danube present every geological
formation, firom the metamorphic to the most recent rocks. The cretaceous formation
occupies the largest area in Bulgaria, and the rivers rising in the mountains, in
traversing it, form picturesque valleys and defiles. Ancient fortresses defend each
of these valleys, and the towns hare been built where they debouch upon the
plain. Timova, the ancient capital of the tsars of Bulgaria, is the most remark-
able of these old bulwarks of defence. The Tantra, on debouching there from, the
mountains, winds about curiously ; steep oli£b form an amphitheatre, in the centre
of which rise two precipitous isolated rooks, crowned formerly by walls and towers.
The houses of the town are built on the slopes, and its suburbs extend along the
footofiheoIiilB.

A singular parallelism has been noticed on <3ie northern slopes of Balkan. The
elevated mountain saddles, orosts of secondary chains, geological formations, the
faults which give rise to the meandering of the rivers, and even the Danube itself,
all follow the same direction, from west to east. As a consequence, each ol the
parallel valleys descending from the Balkans offers similar features ; the pcqpnla-

"vmmmsim)^

r- tmemmiti it l miimitm

184

TURKEY IN EUBOPH

tion is distributed in the same manner ; and the towns occupy analogous positions.
The valley of the Lom offers the only exception to the rule, for its direction is
towards the north-west. It debouches upon the Danube at Rustohuk, and its
green orchards and gardens are hemmed in by dazzling white cliffs of ohulk rising
to a height of about 100 feet.

The symmetry would be almost complete in Northern Turkey if it were not
for the detached arid hills of the Dobruja, which force the Danube to make a wide
detour to the north. Rising in the low and swampy delta of the Danube, these hills
appear to be much higher than they are. In reality they do not exceed 1,650 feet
in height. It is possible that during some very remote geological epoch the
Danube took its course to the south of these hills, through the depression which
has been utilised for the construction of the first Turkish railway. Trajan, who
feared that the Goths might obtain a footing in this remote comer of the Roman
empire, constructed one of those lines of fortifications here which are known
throughout the countries of the Lower Danube at Trajan's Walls. Remains of
walls, ditches, and forts may still be traced along the banks of the marshes, and on
the heights commanding them. This country of the Dobruja is the " savage
hyperborean region " where Ovid, exiled from Rome, wept for the splendours
of the capital. The port of Tomi, the place of his banishment, is the modem
Kustenje.

To the north of the Gulf of Burgas, which is the westernmost extremity of the
Black Sea, rise the fine porphyry mountains which terminate in the superb Gape of
Emineh. They are sometimes described as an eastern prolongation of the Balkan,
but erroneously, for the ancibnt lacustrine basin of Eamabat, now traversed by a
railway, separates them from the system of the Hsemus. The granitic plateaux and
mountains of Tunja and Stranja, which command the wide plain Of Thraoia on the
north, are likewise separate mountain ranges. The Southern Balkan is, in reality,
without ramifications or spurs, except in the west, where the mountains of
Ikhtiman and of Samakov, so rich in iron ore and thermal springs, and other
transverse chains, connect it with the mountain mass of the Khodopa The upper
basin of the Maritza River, enclosed between the Balkan and the Rhodope, has the
shape of an elongated triangle, whose apex, directed towards the plain of Sofia,
indicates the point of junction between the two systems. The whole of this
triangular depression, with its lateral ramifications, was formerly occupied by
lakes, now converted into bottom-lands of marvellous fertility. The passes near
the apex of this triangle are naturally points of the highest strategical and com-
mercial importance. Through one of them, still marked by ancient fortifications,
and known as Trajan's Chite, passed the old Roman highway, and there, too, the
railway now in course of construction will cross the summit between the two slopes
of the peninsula. This is the true "gateway of Gonstantinople," and from
the most remote times nations have fought for its possession. The numerous
tumuli scattered over the neighbpuring plains bear witness to many a bloody
struggle.

The spurs of the Rhodope intermingle with those of the Balkan, and the lowest

BULGARIA.

188

loritions.
«otion ia
, and its
ik rising

were not
ce a wide
hese hills
L,650 feet
)pooh the
ion which
ujan, who
lie Roman
jre known
lemains of
Les, and on
B "savage
splendours
he modem

mity of the
erh Gape of
the Balkan,
reraed by a
ateaux and
racia on the
I, in reality,
)antaini of
and other
The upper
ope, has the
of Sofia,
■ole of this
ocupied by
passes near
X and com-
trtifioations,
), too, the
two slopes
and from
numerous
ly a bloody

the lowest

pass whioh separates the two still exceeds 3,000 feet in elevation. The Rilo Dugh,
the most elevated mountain mass of the Rhodope, boldly rises at its northern
extremity, and, to use the expression of Burth, forms the shoulder*bla(1e of junc-
tion. Its height is 9,580 feet. It risea far beyond the region of forests, and its
jagged summita, pyramids, and platforms contrast strikingly with the rounded
outlines of the Balkan. But the lower heights, surrounded by this imposing
amphitheatre of grand summits, are covered with vegetation. Forests of pines,
larches, and beech-trees, the haunts of bears and chamois, alternate with clumps of
trees and cultivated fielda, and the villages in the valleys are surrounded by
meadows, vineyards, and oaks. Picturesque cupolas of numerous monasteries
peep out amongst the verdure : to their exiatence the mountain owea ita Turkiah
name of Deapoto Bagh, i.e. " mountain of the paraona." The Rilo Dagh, likewiae
famous on account of its monasteries, has altogether the aspect of thn Swiss Alps.
The moist winds of the Mediterranean convey to it much snow in winter and
spring, but in summer the clouds discharge only torrenti of rain, and the snow
rapidly disappears from the flanks of the mountains. Those sudden rain-storms
are amongst the most remarkable spectacles to be witnessed. In the forenoon the
mist whioh hides the tops of the mountains grows dense by degrees, and heavy
copper-coloured clouds collect on the slopes. About three in the afternoon the
rain begins to pour down, the clouds grow visibly smaller, first one, then another
summit is seen through a rent in the watery vapours, until at last the air has
become purified, and the mountains are lit up in the sunset.

To the south of the Rilo Dagh rises the mountain mass of Ferim, hardly
inferior to it in height. This is the Orbelos of the ancient Greeks, and the rings
to which Noah made fast his ark when the waters subsided after the deluge are
still shown there, and even Mussulman pilgrims pay their devotions at this
venerated spot. It is the last high summit of the Rhodopes. The mountains to
the south rapidly decrease in elevation, though the granitic formation to which
they belong is spread over a vast extent of country from the plains of Thracia to
Albania. The extent of the hilly region connected with the Rhodope is still
further increased by numwous groups of extinct volcanoes, whioh have poured
forth vast sheets of trachytio lava. The rivers whioh flow from the central plateau
of Turkey into the ^gean Sea have out for themselves deep passages through these
granites and lavas, the most famous amongst whioh is the " Iron Ghite " of the
Yardar, or Demir Eapu, whioh formerly figured on our maps of Turkey as a large
town.

The aspect of the crystalline mountain masses to the west of the Yardar is
altogether of an Alpine character, for the peaks not only attain a high elevation,
but snow remain.'* upon them during the greater portion of the year. The
Gomichova, or Nije, to the noi ih of Thessaly, rises to a height of 6,560 feet ; and
the Peristeri, whose triple summit and snow-clad shoulders have been likened to
the spread-out wings of a bird, and whioh rises close to the city of Bitolia, or
Monastir, is more elevated stiU. The mountains of ancient Dardania enclose
extensive circular or elliptical plains, and the most remarkable amongst these,

"?3

TURKEY IN EUROPB.

namely, that of Monnatir, ha« been compared by Oriaeboob, the geologist, to one of
tboM huge orater lakes which the telescope has rovealed to us on the surface
of the moon. In most of these plains we meet with Hwamps or small lakes,
the only remains of the sheets of water which at one time covered them.
The most extensive of these lakes is that of Ostrovo. The Lake of Kastoria
resembles the filled-up crater of a volcano. In its centre rises a limestone
hill joined to the shore by an isthmus, upon which is built a picturesque Greek
towu.

According to Viquesnel and Hochstetter, traces of glaciers do not exist in
any of these ancient lacustrine basins, or on the flanks of the mountains. It is
certainly remarkable that whilst other European mountains — as, for instance, the
Vosges and the mountains of Auvergne — have passed through a glacial epoch, the
far more elevated Peristeri, Rilo Dagh, and Balkan, under about the same latitude
as the Pyrenees, should never have had their valleys filled by moving rivers
of ice.*

All the large rivers of European Turkey belong to the Bulgarian regions of
the Balkan or Haomus. In Bosnia there are merely small parallel rivers flowing to
the Save ; Albania has only turbulent torrents forcing their way through wild
gorges, like the Drin ; but the Maritza, the Strymon or Earasu, the Yardar, and
the Inje Earasu, which descend from the southern flanks of the Balkans, or
originate in the crystalline mountain massee of the Rhodope, are large rivers,
which bear comparison with the tranquil streams of Western Europe. As yet we
know but little about their mode of action. The volume of water discharged by
them has never been mesAured, and they are hardly made use of for purposes of
navigation or irrigation. They all traverse ancient lake basins, which they have
filleid up gradually with alluvium, and converted into fertile plains. Thia work of
filling up still goes on in the lower portions of these fluvial valleys, where
extensive marshes, and even gradually shrinking lakes, abound. One of these
lakes, the Takhino, through which the Strymon flows before it enters the ^gean
Sea, is said to be the Prasias of Herodotus, and its aquatic villages were no doubt
similar to the pile dwellings discovered in nearly all the lakes of Oentral
Europe.

The Danube, to the north of the Dobruja, performs an amount of geological
work, in comparison with which that of the Maritza, the Strymon, and Yardar
sinks into insignificance. That mighty river annually conveys to the Black Sea
a volume of water far in excess of that which is carried down the rivers of all
France, and the solids which it holds in suspension are sufficient to cover an area
of ten square miles to a depth of nine feet. This enormous mass of sand and clay
is annually deposited in the swamps and on the banks of the delta, and the slow
but steady growth of the latter is thus sufficiently explained. Even the ancients

* Altitudes in Bclgoria, according to Hochatetter, ViquMnel, Bout, Buih, and othen :— Vitoab,
^,080 feet ; Balkan, mean height, 6,600 feet ; Ohatal, 3,600 feet ; hills of the Dobn^a, 1,660 feet ;
Tnyan's Gate, 2,626 feet; Paw of Dubnitia, 3,660 feet ; Rilo Dagh. 0,600 (bet ; Ferim Dagh, 7,876 feet;
OomiohoTa, or Nije, 6,660 feet ; Peristeri, 7,700 feet ; basin of Soils, 1,710 feet ; basin of Monaatir, l^SO
feet i Lake of Oitrovo, 1.680 feet ; Lake of Kastoria, 2,060 feet

.-. -'iib^r-iistsj'-:

lit, to one of

the surface
■mall lakes,
vered them.

of Kastoria

a limestone

«8que Greek

not exist in
itains. It is
instance, the
ial epoch, the
same latitude
noving rivers

an regions of
rers flowing to
through wild
,e Yardar, and
e Balkans, or
i large rivers,
le. As yet we
discharged hy
)r purposes of
iich they have

This work of
ralleya, where

One of these
)rs the ^gean
were no douht
of Central

of geological
n, and Yardar
the Black Sea
( rivers of all
cover an area
sand and clay
and the slow
in the ancients

1 otheM :— Vitoih,
tbriqa, 1,060 feet (

Dagh, 7,876 feet;

of MooMtir, 1,880

BULGABIA.

187

anticipated a time when the Black Sea would he converted into a shallow pond
abounding in sand-banks, and it must, therefore, afford some consolation to our
mariners to be told that six million yuurs must puss before the alluvium carried
down the river will fill the whole of the Black Sea.

The large triangular plain which the Danube has conquered from the sea has
not yet fully emerged from the waters. Lakes, und the remains of ancient bays,
half-obliterated branches of the Danube, and the ever-changing beds of rivulets,
have converted this delta into a domain, half land, half sea. More elevated tracts,
consolidated by the attack of the waves, rise hero and there above the melancholy
mire and reeds, and bear a dense vegetation of oaks, olives, and beeches. Willows

Fig. 89.— Thi Dblta or thi Danvbi.

fringe most of the branches of the river which take their winding course through
the delta. Eighteen years ago the Danube had six mouths ; it haa now only
three.

After the Crimean war the Western powers determined that the Eilia branch,
which conveys to the Black Sea more than half the volume of the Danube, should
thenceforth form the boundary between Bumania and Turkey. The Sultan thus
posseMes not only the whole of tho delta, which has an area of about 4,000 square
miles, but also the only mouth of the river which makes the possession of that
territory of any value to him. The mouth of the Eilia is closed by a bar of sand,
which does not even permit small vessels to enter it.

MWBMMiialaMi

SM TlJItKKY IN EUBOPE.

The Knithern mouth, that of Khidrillii, or Ht. Ooorge, is likewiM intoocMible.
The centre branch, that of the Silina, which hM served the purposes of oommeroe
from time immemorial, can alone be entered by vessels. Uut oven this channel
would not be practicable, in the oaN«i of large vessel*, if our engfneerb had
not improved its facilities of access. Formerly the depth r? wf\ter on the bar
hardly exceeded a fathom during April, June, and Jul; , 'U uven at timjs of
flood was at most two or three fathoms. But by build. i . ^rg at jetties,
which guide the waters of the river into the deep sea, the depth of water has
been increased to the extent of ten feet, and vessels drawing twenty feet can
enter. Sulina is now one of the most important commercial ports of Europe, and
a highly prized harbour of refuge on the Block Sea, which is so much dreaded by
mariners on account of its squalls. We are indebted for this great public work
to an international commission, which enjoys almost soveriegn rights over the
Danube as high up as Isukcha.*

The Bulgarians inhabit the country to the south of the Danube as far as the
slopes of Mount Pindus, excepting only certain detached territories in the occu-
pation of Turks, Wttllachians, Zinaares, or Greeks. In the Middle Ages their

Fig. 40.— CoMVAaATiTB DiimHAiini or thi Movnia or ths DAmria.

KUi» Mouth.

Buliim Mouth.

b(> Qsoiga'i Month.

kingdom was even more extensive, for it included the whole of Albania, and had
Okhrida for its capital.

The origin of the Bulgarians has been a theme of frequent discussion. The
Bulgarians of the Byzantines, who laid waste the plains of Thracia about the
close of the fifth century, and whose name became a term of opprobrium, probably
were a TTgrian race, like the Huns, and spoke a language akin to that of the
Samoyds. The name of these savage conquerors is sometimes derived from the
Volga, on the banks of which they formerly dwelt ; but their manners and
appearance have undergone a singular change, and nothing now indicates their
origin. Originally Turanians, they have been converted into Slavs, like their
neighbours the Servians and Russians.

This rapid conversion of the Bulgarians into Slavs is one of the most remark-
able ethnological phenomena of the Middle Ages. Even in the ninth century the
Bulgarians had adopted the Servian language, and soon afterwards they ceased
to speak their own. Their idiom is less polished than that- of the Servians, and,
possessing no literature, has not become fixed. The purest Bulgarian, it is said,
may be heard in the district of Ealofer, to the south of the Balkan. The gradual
transformation of the Bulgarians into Slavs is ascribed by some authoni to the
• aeued from Snlink (1873), 1,870 xtumHa of £38,000 tons. Yaliui of oensk ezportad, i8,000/KIO.

-ir

e inMO«Mible.
« of oommeroo
a this ohannel
mgmeerb had
or on the btr
31) at timvs of
^rg .at jettiea,
of water hM
enty feet can
)f Europe, and
;h dreaded by
it public work
ghtu oyer the

aa far as the
I in the oocu-
Ue Agee their

(•'I Month.

•ania, and had

ouuion. The
oia about the
ium, probably
that of the
ved from the
manners and
ndicates their
vs, like their

m'im

most remark*
h century the
is they ceased
Seryians, and,
ian, it is said,
The gradual
uthoni to the

id, M.000,000.

iflwnVMllB. CMUkaUUmtnm

vnoAMum.

I TIMIa. A Htlra of KopOtft,

WMwuM*.

f *i iw i nr* ii n iiii>iii n *i Tu

,*j

BULGAMA.

189

prodigiouH facility for imitation possessed by that people ; but it is simpler to
assume that, in course of time, the conquering Bulgarians and the conquered
Servians became amalgamated, and that, whilst the former gave a name to tho
new nation, the latter contributed their language, their manners, and physical
features. Thus much is oertain, that the inhabitants of Bulgaria must now be
looked upon as membci'3 of the Slavonian family of nations. Together with the
Servians, Croats, and Herzegovinians, they are the most numerous people of
European Turkey ; and, if the succession to the dominion of the Turks is to be
decided by numbers alone, it belongs to the Servo-Bulgarians, and not to the
Greeks. .

The Bulgarians, as a rule, are not so tall as their neighbours the Servians ;
they are squat, strongly built, with a large head on broad shoulders. Lejean,
himself a Breton, and others, consider that they bear a striking resemblance to
the peasants of Brittany. In several districts, and notably in the environs of
Fhilippopoli, they shave the head, a tuft of hair alone excepted, which they
cultivate and dress into a tail as carefully as the Chinese. Oreeks and Wallachiana
ridicule them, and many proverbial expressions refer to their want of intelligence
and polish. This ridicule, however, they hardly deserve. Less vivacious than
the Wallaohian, or less supple than the Greek, the Bulgarian is certainly not
deficient in intelligence. But bondage has borne heavily upon him ; and in the
south, where he is oppressed by the Turk and fleeced by the Greek, he looks
unhappy and sad ; but in the plains of the north and the secluded mountain
villages, where he has beeu exposed to less suffering, he is jovial, fond of
pleasure, fluent of speech, and quick at repartee. The inhabitants of the northern
slopes of the Balkan, perhaps owing to a greater infusion of Servian blood, are
better-looking, too, than other Bulgarians, and dress in better taste. A still
finer race of men are the Fomaris, in the high valleys of the Bhodope, to the
south of Fhilippopoli. Their speech is Bulgarian, but in no other respect do
they resemble their compatriots. They ore a fine race of men, with auburn
hair, full of energy, and of a poetical temperament. We almost feel tempted
to look upon them as the lineal descendants of the ancient Thraoians, especially
if it should turn out to be true that in their songs thev celebrate Orpheus, the
divine musician.

The Bulgarians, and especially those of the plaiys, are a peaceable people,
recalling in no respect the fierce hordes who devastated the Byzantine empire.
They are not warlike, like their neighbonrs the Servians, and do not keep alive
in their national poetry the memory of former struggles. Their songs relate to
the events of every-day life, or to the sufferings of the oppressed ; and the "gentle
zaptieh," as the representative of authority, is one of the characters most
frequently represented in them. The average Bulgarian is a quiet, hard-working
peasant, a good husband and father ; he is fond of home comforts, and practises
every domestic virtue. Nearly all the agricultural produce exported from Turkey
results from the labour of Bulgarian husbandmen. It is they who have converted
certain portions of the plain to the south of the Danube into huge fields of

•^

ii ii»i ii i u.iMjij i m- ii . i M i i <ii »f i / i ii i >< * ii<ii [' «> ia i r i i >i» n i i iii»MiaaMiMiaiii>lfe^^

HMM

" ' ^"i Jli-. ' -x ' I ' i ^' ji"^ i ' i ' " ' r i ' " M I '^^" '' B ffli'flB

140

TURKEY INEUROPB.

maize and corn, rivalling those of Rumania. It is they, likewise, who, at
Eski-Za'ara, at the south of the Balkan, produce the best silk and the best
wheat in all Turkey, from which latter alone the bread and cakes placed upon the
Sultan's table are prepared. Other Bulgarians have converted the noble plain
of Kezanlik, at the foot of the Balkan, into the finest agricultural district of
Turkey, the town itself being surrounded by magnificent walnut-trees and by
rosarioM, which furnish the famous attar of roses, constituting so important an
article of commerce throughout the E^st. Amongst the Bulgarians between
Pirot and Tumov (Tirnova), oii the northern slope of the Balkan, there exist
flourishing manufactures. Each village there is noted for a particular branch of
industry. Knives •are made at one, metal ornaments at another, earthenware at
a third, stuffs or carpets elsewhere ; and even common workmen exhibit much
manual dexterity and purity of taste. An equally remarkable spirit of enterprise
is manifested amongst the Bidgarians and Zinzares of the district of Bitolia, or
Monastir. The town itself, as well as Eurshova, Fiorina, and others in its
vicinity, are manufacturing centres.

The Bulgarians, peaceable, patient, and industrious as they are, are beginning
to grow tired of the subjection in which they are held. They certainly do not as
yet dream of a national rising, for the isolated revolts which have taken place
amongst them were confined to a few mountaineers, or brought about by young
men whom a residence in Servia or Rumania had imbued with an enthusiasm
for liberty. But though docile subjects still, the Bulgarians begin to raise
their heads. They have learnt to look upon each other as members of the same
nation, and are organizing themselves for the defence of their nationality. The
first step in this direction was taken on a question of religion. When the Turks
conquered the country a certain number amongst them turned Mohammedan to
escape oppression ; but though they visit the mosques, they nevertheless still
cling to the &ith of their forefathers, veni^rate the same springy, and put their
trust in the same talismans. A few joined the Roman Church, but a great
majority remained Greek Catholics. Greek monks and priests, not long since,
enjoyed the g^entest influence, for during centuries of oppression they had
upheld the ancient faith. Their presence vagualy recalled the times of inde-
pendence, and their churches were the only sanctuaries open to the persecuted
peasant. But the Bulgarians, in the nnd, grew discontented with a priesthood
who did not even take the trouble to acquire the language of its congregations, and
openly sought to subject them to an alien nation like the Greeks. Nothing
was further from their thoughts than a religioue schism, lliey merely desired
to withdraw from the authority of the Paticiarch of Constantinople, and to found
a National Church of their own, as had been done by the Servians, and even by
the Greeks of the new Hellenic kingdom. The Yatioan of Coustantinopie
protested, the Turkish Government proved anything but &vourable to this
movement of emancipation, but in the end the Greek priests were forced to
retire' — precipitately in some instances — and the new National Church was
established.

•w

I, who, at
I the best
1 upon the
,oble plain
district of
es and by
portant an
Ls between
there exist
r branch of
henware at
liibit much
: enterprise
Bitolia, or
biers in its

B beginning
ly do not as
taken place
it by young
enthusiasm
^in to raise
of the samo
lality. The
a the Turks
ammedan to
■theless still
id put their
)ut a great
long since,
they had
LOS of inde-
persecuted
priesthood
gations, and
Nothing
irely desired
id to found
id even by
istantinopie
ible to this
forced to
lurch was

BULGABIA.

141

This pacific revolution, though directed against the Greeks, cannot fail to
influence the relations between Bulgarians and Turks. The former have
combined, for the first time since many centuries, for the accomplishment of a
common national object, and this reawakening of a feeling of nationality cannot
but prove detrimental to the rule of the Osmauli. The latter are not very
numerous in the country districts of Western Bulgaria, where they are mot
with chiefly in the towns, and particularly in those which are of strategical
importance. Eastern Bulgaria, however, is for the most part peopled by Turks,
or at all events by Bulgarians who have adopted the language, dress, manners,
and modes of thought of their conquerors. No Christian monastery exists in l^his
stronghold of Turkish power, though there are several Mohammedan places of
pilgrimage held in high repute for their sanctity.

The Greeks, next to the Turks, are the most important element of the
population of Bulgaria. They are not very numerous to the north of the Balkan,
where their influence hardly exceeds that of the Germans and Armenians esta-
blished in the towns. To the south of the Balkan, though not numerous relatively,
they are much more widely distributed. One or two Greeks aro met with in
every village, carrying on trade or exercising some handicraft. They make
themselves indispensable to the locality, their adArice is sought for by all, and they
impart their own spirit to the whole of the population. Where two or three of
these Greeks meet they at once constitute themselves into a sort of community,
and throughout the country they form a kind of masonic brotherhood. Their
influence is thus far greater than could be expected from their numbers. There
are a few important Greek colonies amongst the Bulgarians, as at Fhilippopoli and
Bazarjik, and in a valley of the Bhodope they occupy the populous town of
Stanimako, to the exclusion of Turks and Bulgarians. The ruins of ancient
buildings, as well as the dialect of the inhabitants, which contains over two
hundred Greek words not known to modem Greek, prove that Stanimako has
existed as a Greek town for upwards of twenty centuries, and M. Dumont thinks
that it is one of the old colonies of Euboea.

The initiatory part played by the Greeks in Southern Bulgaria is played
in the north by the Bumanians. The right bank of the Danube, from Oher-
novada to the Black Sea, is for the most part inhabited by Wallachians, who
are gradually gaining upon the Turks. Other colonists are attracted by
the fertility of the plains at the northern foot of the Balkan. The Bulgarians
are careful cultivators of the soil themselves, but the Bumanians never-
theless gain a footing amongst them, as they do with the Servians, the
Magyars, and the Germans. They are more active and intelligent than the
Bulgarians, their families are more numerou-*. and in the course of a genera-
tion they g^crally succeed in "Rumanising" a village in which they have
settled.

Bulgarians and Turks, Greeks and Wallachians, isolated colonies of Servians
and Albanians, communities of Armenians and of Sp.:<nish Jews, colonies of
Zinzares and wandering tribes of Mohammedan Tsigani, have converted the

gj^...,,.

TBT

142

TUEKET IN EUROPE.

countries of the Balkan into a veritable ethnological chaos ; but the confusion is
greater still in the small district of Dobruja, between the Lower Danube and the
Black Sea. In addition to the races enume^'ated, we there meet with Noga
Tartars, who are of purer blood than their kinsmen the Osmanli, and exhibit the
Asiatic type in greater purity. Although they cultivate the soil, they have not
altogether abandoned their nomad habits, for they wander with their herds over
hill and dale. They are governed by an hereditary khan, as at the time when they
dwelt in tents.

After the Crimean war several thousand Nogai Tartars, compromised by the
aid which they had rendered the Allies, joined their compatriots in the Dobruja.
On the other hand, about 10,000 Bulgarians, terrified at the approach of
these much-maligned immigrants, fled the Dobruja, and sought an asylum in
Russia, where they were assigned the lands abandoned by the Crimean Tartars.
This exchange proved disastrous to both nations, for sickness and grief carried o£f
many victims. More deplorable still was the lot of the Circassians and other
Caucasian tribes, who, to the number of 400,000, sought a refuge in Turkey in
1864. It was by no m'^ans easy to provide accommodation for so large a host.
The pasha intrusted with the installation of these immigrants sent many of them
to Western Bulgaria, in the vain hope that they would cut off all contact
between Servians and Bulgarians. The rayas were compelled to surrender to
them their best lands, to build houses for them, and to supply them with cattle
and seed-corn. This hospitable reception, compulsory though it was, would have
enabled these immigrants to start in their adopted country with a fair chance of
success, had they but deigned to work. This, however, they declined. Hunger,
sickness, and a climate very different from that of their mountains, caused them
to perish in thousands, and in less than a year about one-third of these refugees
had perished. Toung girb and children were sold to procure bread, and this
infamoiis traffic became a source of wealth to certain pashas. The harems
became filled with young Circassians, who were a drug in the market at that
time, and the human merchandise not saleable at Constantinople was exported
to Syria and Egypt. These Circassians, after thus mffering from sickness and
their own improvident laziness, have now accommodated themselves to the
conditions of their new homes. Though of *^' : ^me religion as the Osmanli, they
readily assimilate with the Bulgarians amongt^> whom they dwell, and adopt their
language.

Other refugees, more kindly treated by fate, have found an asylum in the
Dobruja. They are Russian Cossacks, Ruthenians, and Muscovites of the " Old
Faith," who left their steppes towards the close of last century in order to escape
persecution. The Padisha, more tolerant than the Christian Empress of Russia,
generously received them, and granted them land in various parts of his
dominions. The Russian colonies in the Dobruja and in the delta of the Danube
have prospered, and one of their settlements on the St. George's branch of the
river is known as the " Cossacks' Paradise." Most of these Russians are
engaged in the sturgeon fishery and the preparation of caviare. They have

BULOABIA.

tnfusion is
te and the
ith Noga
(bibit tbe
f have not
iierds over
when tbey

jed by tbe
9 Dobruja.
>proacb of
asylum in
m Tartars,
earned off
and other
Turkey in
rge a host,
ly of tbem
all contact
.rrender to
with cattle
would have
[r cbanoe of
^ Hunger,
lused tbem
se refugees
id, and this
le barems
ket at tbat
M exported
Lckness and
yes to the
manli, they
adopt their

urn in the
tbe " Old
ar to escape
of KuBsia,
rts of his
)be Danube
Ach of tbe
uasians are
Tbey have

proved grateful for tbe hospitality extended to them, and have always fought
valiantly in defence of tb-^ir adopted country. They retain their national
dress, their language, and their religion, and do not mix with the surrounding
populations.

In addition to the above, we meet in the Dobruja with colonies of Germans,
Arabs, and Poles, and, in the new port of the Sulina, with representatives of
many nations of Europe and Asia.

There are few countries where the great international high-roads are as plainly
traced by nature as in Bulgaria. The first of these roads is formed by the
Danube. The Turkish towns along its banks — Yiddin, Sbishtova, Rustchuk, and
Silistria — are taking an increasiag share in European commerce. This highway
is continued along the shores of the Black Sea, where there are several commercial
harbours, tbe most important being Burgas, a great grain port. This natural
highway, however, has become too circuitous for purposes of commerce. A railway
has therefore been built across the isthmus of the Dobruja, from Chemavoda to
Eustenje, and a second line connects Bustchuk, on the Danube, with Yama, on tbe
Black Sea, the latter line crossing the whole of Eastern Bulgaria, and touching
tbe towns of Razgrad and Shumna. A third line, now in course of construction,
will cross the Balkans by a depression to the south of Shumna, and traversing the
plain in which the towns of Yamboly and Adrianople are built, will connect the
Lower Danube with the ^gean Sea. A third route, still farther to the west,
passes Tumov, or Timova — the ancient capital of the tsars of Bulgaria — Eezanlik,
and Eski-Za'ara.

These railways, already opened for traffic or approaching completion, certainly
shorten the journey between Western Europe and Oonstantinople ; but it is
proposed now to avoid the circuitous navigation of the Lower Danube altogether,
by joining the railway system of Europe to that of Turkey. One of these pro-
posed railways will pass through Bosnia, and down the valley of the Yardar to
Saloniki ; another will follow the ancient Boman road, which connected Pannonia
with Byzantium, and which was pnved in the sixteenth century as far as Belgrad.
The principal cities along this great highway are Nish, on a tributary of the
Morava, close to the frontier of Servia ; Sofia, the ancient Sardioa, on the Isker,
a tributary of tbe Danube; Bazar jik, or "tbe market;" and the fine town of
Phtlippopoli, with its triple mountain communding the passage of the Maritza.
These towns, on the completion of the railway, cannot fail to become of great com-
mercial importance. A hideous monument near Nish wiU, perhaps, be pointed out
to tourists attracted thither on the opening of the railway. It was erected to remind
future generations of a deed of " glory." Thic trophy of Kele-kalesi consists of a
tower built of the skulls of Servians, who, rather than fall alive into the hands of
their enemies, blew themselves up together with the redoubt which they defended.
A governor of Nish, more humane than his predecessors, desired to remove this
abominable piece of masonry, which no raya passes without a shudder, but
Mussulman fanaticism forbade it.

144

TUBKEY IN EUROPE.

Tho influence of commerce cannot fail to modify largely the manners and
customs of a nation as supple and pliable as are the Bulgarians. War has
brutalieed the Albanians, and slavery degraded the Bulgarians. In the towns,
more particularly, they have sunk very low. The insults heaped upon them by
Mussulmans, and the contemptuous manner in which they were treated, rendered
them abject and despicable in their own oyes. Demoralised by servitude and
misery, given up to the mercy of their rich compatriots, the chorhcy'is, or " givers
of soup," they became shameless and low-minded helots. The Bulgarian women,
in the towns more particularly, presented a spectacle of the most shameful
corruption, and their want of modesty, their coarseness, and ignorance fully
justified the contempt in which they were held by their Mohammedan sisters.
Even as regards education the Turks were in advance of them : not long ago their
schools relatively ^ere more numerous, and the instruction given in them was of a
superior order. Christian villages, moreover, were never so clean or pleasant as
those of the Tui'lis. i i

But, whatever may have been the case in the past, things have already begun
to mend. The Turks, as a body, may still be the superiors of the Bulgarians, as
regards probity and a respect for truth, but they work leas, and become
iiii^^overished by degrees. In the country the land gradually passes into the
hands of the rayas, in the towns the latter monopoli^itt nearly all the trade. The
Bulgarians, moreover, have learnt to appreciate the importatioe of education ;
they have founded schools and colleges, have set up printing presses, and send
uheir young men to be educated at the universities of Europe. The young
Bulgarians in the mixed colleges of Constantinople invariably make tho most
sutiolactory progress in their studies. This revival of learning is a m6st hopeful
sign cf vitality. If persevered in, f\ie Bulgarian race, which has been dead, as ii
wei J, for BO many ceuturies, may again play its part in the world's history. The
atrocities of which Bulgaria has recently been the scene may retard this regene-
ration, but they certainly cannot stop it.*

* The following are the principal towns of Bulgaria, with the nuaiber of their inhabitants : —

Shuinna (Shumla)

60,000

Rustchuk ....

60,000

Philippopoli (Felibp; .

40,000

Bitolia (Monastir,'

40,000

Skoplie (UskuV.^ .

28,000

Kalkandelen

22,000

Sofia

20,000

Vidin

20,000

SilJBtr'i ....

20,000

8hu"V.tOTO ....

20,000

Vr.na ....

20,000

Foki-Za'ara

UMO

Bazarjik
Nish .
Velece (Koprili)
RaiBgrad

Tumov (Timova)
Sliven (Slivno)
Pril.p .
Kezanlik
Stanimako .
Fiorina
Karahora
Solina

18,000
16,000
16,000
16,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
10,000
10,000
10,00C
9,000
6,000

PRESENT POSITION AND PROSPECTS OP TURKEY.

14»

men and
War has
lie towns,
them by
rendered
itude and
,r " givers
ji women,
shameful
ince fnlly
m sisters.
; ago their
a was of a
tleasant as

ady begun
garians, as
id become
B into the
rade. The
education ;
, and send
Dhe young
I tho most
58t hopeful

dead, as it
tory. The

is regene-

18.000
16,000
16,000
1S,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
10,000
10,000
lO.OOC

9,000

6,000

VII. — Present Position and Prospects of Turkey.

The prophecies respecting the " sick man " have not yet been fulfilled, and his
heritage divided amongst the surrounding powers. To a great extent he in
indebted for this continued existence to the jealousies of the European powers, and
to the fact of Russia having her hands full in Central Asia. Still, Turkey has
recently exhibited a wonderful amount of vitality. Fresh provinces have been
incorporated with the empire in Arabia, at a distance of 1,800 miles from the
capital ; and a rebellion in the north-western portion of European Turkey, originat-
ing in the misgovemment of the country, but aided and abetted by Russia, has
been suppressed with a strong hand. The Turkish empire remains not only
intact, but will actually be found to have considerably increased in extent, if we
include within it the territories of the Khedive of Egypt, whose arms have been
carried to the Upper Nile and into Bar Fur.

We must guard ourselves, at the same time, against the assumption that
Turkey has entered upon a path of normal progress. On the contrary, Turkey is
a mediaeval country still, and will have to pass through many intestine revolutions
before it can rank with the civilised states of Europe or America. The country is
in the occupation of hostile niC6S, who would fall upon each other were they not
restrained by force. The Servian would take up arms against the Albanian, the
Bulgarian against the Greek, and all the subject races would combine against the
Turk. National jealousies are augmented by religious animosities. The Catholic
Bosnians hate other Slavs, and the Tosks detest the Oheges, although they speak
the same language. The Osmanli oppress these various populations without com-
punction, their art of government consisting in playing them off against each
other.

Nor can better things be expected in an empire in which caprice reigns
supreme. The Padishah is lord of the souls a^d bodies of his subjects ; he is
commander-in-chief of the army, supreme judge, and sovereign pontiff. In former
times his power was practically limited by semi-independent feudatories, but since
the fall of ,Ali Pasha and the massacre of the janissaries he is restrained only by
customs, traditions, and the demands of the Governments of Europe. He is the
most despotic sovereign of Europe, and his civil list the heaviest in proportion to
the revenues of the country. The household of the late Sultan and of the
members of his family was exceedingly numerous. There lived in the Seraglio
an army of 6,000 servants and slaves of both sexes, of whom 600 were cooks.
These servants, in turn, were surrounded by an army of hangers-on, who were fed
from the imperial kitchens, to which no less than 1,200 sheep were supplied daily
by the contractors.

Current expenses were sufficiently heavy, but more considerable still was the
extraordinary expenditure incurred in the construction of palaces and kiosks, the
purchase of articles de luxe and of curiosities, and for all kinds of prodigalities.
The present Sultan, driven thereto by the precarious position of his empire, has
limited his expenditure. But will this last ?

146

TURKEY IN EUROPE.

Minister!, valis, and other high officials of the empire faithfully follow in the
footsteps of their sovereign, and their expenditure always exceeds their salary,
though the latter is fixed on a most liberal scale. As to the lower officials, their
salaries are small and irregularly paid ; but it is understood that they may recoup
themselves at the expense of the ratepayers. Everything can be purchased in
Turkey, and, above all, jusdce. The state of the finances is most lamentable ;
loans are raised at usurious interest ; and so badly is the country governed that it
has been seriously proposed to intrust the management of its finances to a syndicate
of the European powers ! *

Agriculture and industry progress but slowly under such misgovemment.
Vast tracts of the most fertile land are allowed to lie fallow ; they appear to be
no one's property, and any one may settle upon and cultivate them. But woe to
him if he conducts his operations with profit to himself; for no sooner is he
observed to become wealthy than his land is laid claim to on behalf of the clergy
or of some pasha, and he may consider himself lucky if he escapes a bastinado.
The peasants, in many districts, are careful not to produce more than they abso-
lutely require to live upon, for an abimdant harvest would impoverish them — would
merely lead to a permanent increase of taxation. The tradesmen in the smaller
towns are equally careful to conceal their wealth, if they possess any.

Many Mussulman families have ceded, to the mosques their proprietary rights.
They thus enjoy merely thie usufruct of their lands, but are freed, on the other
hand, from the payment of taxes, and the land remains in the possession of their
families until they become extinct. These lands are known as vaku/s, and they
form about one-third of the aren of the whole empii«. They contribute actually
nothing towards the revenues of the State. In the end they aggrandise the last
estates of the Mohammedan clergy. Taxation weighs almost exclusively upon the
lands cultivated by the unfortunate Christians ; and in proportion as the vakufs
increase, ro does the produce of taxation diminish. This must in the end neoes-
sarily lead to a secularisation of the estates of the clergy ; and even now, to the
great horror of the old Turks, the Ottoman Government is timidly extending its
hands towards the estates belonging to the mosques of Constantinople.

Th'j SerA'ian, Albanian, and Bulgarian peasants actually cultivate their land
in spite of their masters. A single fact will show this. Certain collectors of
tithes, in order to prevent fraud, insist upon the peasants leaving the whole of the
harvest upon the fields until they have withdrawn their tenth part. Maize, rice,
and com are exposed there to the inclemencies of the weather and other destruc-
tive agencies ; tmd it frequently happens that the harvest has deteriorated to the
extent of one-hulf in value before the Qovemment impost is levied. Sometimes
the peasants allow their grapes or fruit to rot rather than pay the tithes. But it
is not the tax-gatherer alone of whose conduct the peasant may complain ; for he
is exposed likewise to exactions by the middlemen with whom he comes into
contact when selling his produce. " The Bulgarian works, but the Greek hold»
the plough." So nays an ancient proverb ; and this is still true at least of the

• Iteoeipta for 1874. £20,400,000 ; debte in 1875, £220,000,000.

bllow in the
ibeir salary,
fioials, their
may recoup
urohased in
lamentable ;
rned that it
} a syndicate

l^vemment.
ppear to be
But woe to
ooner is he
f the clergy
I bastinado.
L they abso-
lem — would
the smaller

)tary rights,
a the other
ion of their
% and they
ite actually
lise the vast
ly upon the
I the vakufs
) end neces-
now, to the
^tending its

) their land
iollectors of
rhole of the
Maize, rice,
her destruc-
ated to the

Sometimes
les. But it
ain ; for he

comes into
3reek holds
least of the

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PBE8ENT I'OSITION AND PROSPECTS OF TUBKEY.

147

countries to the nouth of the Balkan, where the Bulgarian peasant is not always
the propriutor of the land he tills. But where ho does not directly work for a
Greek or Mussulman proprietor, his harvest, even before it in cut, is frequently
the property of a usurer ; but he works on from day to day, a wretched slave, in
the vain hope of becoming one day a free man.

The fertility of the soil on both slopes of the Balkans, in Macedonia, and in
Thessaly in, however, such that in spite of mosques and tax-collectors, in spite of
usurers and thieves, agriculture supplies commerce with a large quantity of
produce. Maize, or " Turkish corn," and all cereals are grown in abundance.
The valleys of the Karasu and Vardar produce cotton, tobacco, and dye stuffs ;
the coast districts and islands yield wine and oil, whose quality would leave nought
to be desired, were a little more oare bestowed upon their cultivation ; and forests
of mulberry-trees are met with in certain parts of Thracia and Kumelia, and the
export of cocoons to Italy and France is increasing from year to year. Turkey,
with its fertile soil, is sure to take a prominent part amongst the European states
for the variety and superiority of its products. As to its manufactures, they will
no doubt be gradually displaced on the opeTiing of new roads of commerce. The
manufacturers of arms, stuffs, carpets, av wellery in the cities of the interior
will suffer considerably from foreign co. Jtition, and many amongst them will
succumb to it, unless they pass into the hands of foreigners. The great fairs,
too, which are now held annually at Slivno and other places, and at which
merchants from the whole of the empire meet to transact business — as many as a
hundred thousand strangers being attracted occasionally to a single spot — will
gradually give place to a regular commercial intercourse.

It is certain that the commerce of Turkey has increased of late years, thanks
to the efforts of Greeks, Armenians, and Franks of all nations.. The annual
value of the exports and imports of the whole of the Ottoman empire in Europe
and Asia is estimated at £40,000,000 — a very small sum, if we bear in mind the
resources of these countries, their many excellent harbours, and their favourable
geographical position.

The Turks themselves perform but a very small share of the work that is done
in their empire. Various causes combine to render them less active than the other
races. They are the governing class, and their ambition naturally aspires to the
honours and the luxury of kiqf; that is to say, of sweet idleness. Despising every-
thing not Mohanunedan, and being, besides, heedless and of a sluggish mind, they
but rarely learn foreign language, and are thus in a certain measure at the mercy
of the other races, most of whom speak two or more idioms. Moreover, the
fatalism taught in the Koran has deprived the Turk of all enterprise, and once
thrown out of his ordinary routine, he is helpless. Polygamy and slavery are
likewise two causes of demoralisation. It is true that the rich alone can permit
themselves the luxury of a harem, but the poor learn from their superiors to
despise ^omen, they become debased, and take a share in that traffic in human
flesh which is a necessary sequence of polygamy. Yet, in spite of the innumerable
slaves imported in the course of four centuries from all the regions bordering upon

':i

i
ii

14R

TURKEY IN EUROPE.

the Turkish empire ; in spite uf the millioni of CircaMian, Greek, and other girls
transplanted into the harems, the Osmanli are numerically infer'^r to the other races
of the peninsula. This dominant race — if the term race be ; < piioable to the product
of so many crossings — hardly numbers ten per cent, of tl < population of European
Turkey. And this numerical inferiority is on the increase, for, owing to polygamy,
the number of children surviving in Mohammedan families is less than in Ohriitian
families. We are not in possession of precise figures, but there can be no doubt that
the Turks are on the decrease. The conscription, to which they alone are subject,
has contributed towards this result, and becomes more difficult A:om year to year.
It has often been repeated since Ohateaubriand that the Turks have but camped
in Europe, and expect to return to the steppes whence they came. It would thus
be a feeling of presentiment which induces the Turks of Stambul to seek burial in
the cemetery of Scutari, hoping thus to save th "h bones from the profanation of
the Qiaour's tread on his return, as master, to Cur Nt>anttnople. In many placet the
living follow the examples of the dead, and a feeble current of emigration seta from
the Archipelago and the coast districts of Thracia in the direction of Asia, carry-
ing along many an old Turk discontented with the stir of European life. This
migratioju, however, is but of. very small importance, and does not affect the
Osmanli of the interior. Nothing is further from the minds of the Turks of
Bulgaria, the Yuruks of Macedonia, or the Koniarides, who have inhabited the moun-
tains of Ruraelia since the eleventh century, thar: ^o quit the land which has become
their second home. The Turkish element in the Balkan peninsula can be got rid of
only by exterminating it ; that i.*, by treating the Turks more ferociously than they
treated the nat ' re populations at the time of the conquest. We ought not to for-
get, at the same time, that the Turks, though far inferior in numbers to the other
races, are nevertheless able to reckon upon the support of millions of Mohammedan
Albanians, Bosnians, BulgariiDS, Cr. . assians, and Nogai Tartars. The Mussulmans
constitute more than a thi. d > ' thi ,' tpulation of European Turkey, and, in spite
of differences of race, they .la firmly together. Nor must it be forgotten that
they are backcvi up by a i r Lred and fifty millioni of co-religionists in other parts
of the world.*

* RaoM and religioi^o of Turkey in Eorope (Serris, Ifontenegro, and Rnnania excluded) :—

Slavs

TotaL

iSerrians . 1,114,000
Bulgarians 2,861,000
RuMians, &o. 10,000

Greco- Latins

Albanians
Turks . . .

Semite* . .

Armenians .
Circassiaus ■
Tsiganea (Gipsies)
Franks.

1 Greeks
I Rumanians
( Zincares.

\Tot\u i
j Osmanli .
1 Tartars
(Arabs
t Jews

1,176,000
fiO,000
IfiO.OOO

1,031,000

l,8fi2,000

40,000

3,000

72,000

100,000

144,000

104,000

60,000

442,000
790.000

38,000

773,000

1,852,000

40,000

8,000

144,000
«2,000

GtMkCstbolias.
492,000
2,061.000

1,188,000

60,000

160,000

178,000

oniaa CaUmUos.
180,000
20,000
2,000

80,000

Otlwr Ohristisai,

8,000

62,000

10,000

60,000

10,000

Total

8,267,000 3,684,000 4,111,000

342,000

108,000

d other girli
e other raocA
i the product
of Kuropean
polygamy,
in Ohriitiun

doubt that
are subject,

Bar to year.
> but camped
t would thus
eek burial in
■ofanation of
ly places the
ion seta from
Asia, carry-

1 life. This
>t affect the
he Turks of
ed the moun-
1 has become
be got rid of
sly than they
It not to for-
I to the other
lohammedan

Mussulmans
and, in spite
•rgotten that
n other parts

ed):-
OtlNrOhtMm,

8,000

10,000
108,000

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"OiMdl

PBESENT POSITION AND PBOSPEOrS OF TURKEY.

149

Let ua hope that the future may not give birth to a struggle of extermination
between the races of the peninsula, but rather to institutions enabling these diverse
and pui ' ially hostile elements to develop themselves in peace and liberty. The
Turks tLumselves begin to see the necessity of such institutions, and, in theory at
least, have abandoned their policy of violence and oppression. All the nation-
alities of the empire, without reference to race or religion, are supposed to be
equal before the law, and Christians are admitted to Government offices on the same
terms as Mussulmans. No doubt these fine laws have for the most part hitherto
remained a dead letter, but it would nevertheless be unjust if we denied that much
progress towards an equalisation of the various races has been made.

Fortunately the despotism of the Turks is not the despotism of learning, based
upon a knowledge of human nature, and directed to its debasement. The Osmanli
ignore the art of "oppressing wisely," which the Dutch governors of the Sunda
Islands were required to practice in former times, and which is not quite unknown
in other countries. The pashas allow things to take their course as long as they
are able to enrich themselves and their favourites, to sell justice and their favours
at a fair price, and to bastinade now and then some unlucky wight. They do not
inquire into the private concerns of their subjects, and do not call for confidential
reports on families and individuals. Their Government, no doubt, is frequently
violent and oppressive ; but all this only touches externals. Such a government
may not be favourable to the development of public spirit, but it does not interfere
with individuals, and powerful national institutions, such as the Greek commune,
the Mirdit tribe, and the Slav community, have been able to survive under it. Self-
government is, in fact, more widely practised in Turkey than in the most advanced
countries of Western Europe. It would have been difficult to force these various
national elements under a uniform discipline, and the lazy Turkish functionaries
generally leave things alone. The Frankish officials in the pay of the Turkish
Government, in fact, more frequently interfere with the prejudices and privileges
of the governed than do the Mussulman pashas of the old school.

It cannot be doubted for a moment that, in a time not very far distant, the
non-Mohammedan races of Turkey will take the lead in politics, as they do already in
commerce, industry, and education. The Osmanli of the olden school, who still
wear the green turban of their ancestors, look forward towards this inevitable
result with despair. They struggle against every measure calculated to accelerate
the emancipation of the despised raya, and European inventions, in their eyes, are
working a great social transformation to their injury ; and, indeed, it is the raya
who profits most from roads, railways, harbours, agricultural and other machines.
Bosnians, Bulgarians, and Servians have learnt to look upon each other as
brothers ; Albanians and Rumanians are drawn towards the Greeks ; all alike
feel themselves as Europeans ; and thus the way is being paved for the Danubian
Confederation of the future.

The approaching completion of the railway from Vienna to Constantinople
cannot fail to work a commercial revolution as far as the trade of a considerable
portion of Eastern Europe is concerned. It will form a link in the direct line
11

150

TURKEY IN EUROPE.

between England and India, and to travellers and merchandise will afford the
shortest route from the centre of Europe to the Bosporus. On its opening, Con-
stantinople will be enabled to avail itself to the fullest extent of the highways of
commerce which converge upon it. Still greater must be the political conse-
quences of opening this line, for it will bring the populations of the Balkan peuin-
sula into more direct and active contact with those of Austro-Hungary and the
rest of Europe.

Fig. 41.— COMMRRCIAL HIGHWAYS COMVBROINO CPON CoNHTANTINOPLK.
Seal* 1 : 17,100,000.

SBOMUm

^ VIII. — Government and Administration.

The Turkish empire occupies a vast area, the greater portion of which is governed
by vassals, almost independent of the Sultan at Stambul. The vast territories of
Egypt and Tunis are in that position. The interior of Arabia is in possession of
the Wahabites ; the coast of Hadramaut is inhabited partly by tribes acknowledg-
ing the suzerainty of England ; and even between Syria and the Euphrates there

8BSBBSBSSS

utmtttmmimiim

GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION.

161

afford the
ening, Con-
lighways of
ticul conse-
Ikan penin-
iry and the

l*«*

h is governed
territories of
possession of
; acknowledg-
iphrates there

are numerous districts only nominally under the government of Turkish pashas,
but in reality in the possession of predatory Bedwins. The Ottoman empire,
properly so called, includes the European provinces, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine,
the basins of Tigris and Euphrates, Hejaz and Yemen in Arabia, and Tripoli, with
Fezzan, in Africa. These territories, with their dependent islands, cover an area,
of no less than 210,156 square miles ; but their population, being far less dense
than that of Western Europe, hardly numbers 47,000,000 souls.

Fig. 42.— Thi Tvhkiiik Emfiri.
Scale 1 : aA,0OO,0OO.

■lOOOMilM.

The area of Turkey in Europe, exclusive of Rumania, Servia, and Montenegro,
is about equal to that of the British Islands. Constantanople, with the surround-
ing country, forms a district under the immediate supervision of the Ministry of
Police. The remainder of the country is divided into eight vilayets, or provinces ;
the vilayets are subdivided into muteaariflika, cjr aary'aka; these latter into kazaa, or
cantons ; and the kazas into rahi^s, or parishes. Lemnos, Imbros, Samothrace, and
Astypalsea, with Rhodes and the islands along the coast of Anatolia, fonn a

108 TURKEY IN EUBOPE.

aeparato vilayet. Tbeso political diviaions, however, are lubjeot to frequent
changes.*

The Sultan, or PadUhah, concentrates all powers within hia person. He is Emir
el mumenin, or head of the faithful, and his conduct is guided solely by the pre'
scriptions of the Koran and the traditions of his ancestors. The two most influen-
tiul persons in the empire, next to him, are the Sheik-el-Inlam, or Great Mufti, who
superintends public worship and the administration of justice, and the Sadratam,
or Grand Vizier, who is at the head of the general administration, and is assisted
by a council of ten ministers, or mmhira. The Kislar Agaai, or chief of the black
eunuchs, to whom is confided the management of the imperial harem, is likewise
one of the great dignitaries of the empire, and frequently enjoys the very highest
influence. The legal advisers of the various ministries are known as mufti.
Ilfemli, bey, and aga are honorary titles bestowed upon certain Government
ofHoials and persons of consideration. The title of patha, which signifies " grand
chief," is given to certain high civil or military functionaries. This title is
symbolized by one, two, or three horse-tails attached to the top of a lance, a
usage recalling the time when the nomad Turks roamed over the steppes of
Central Asia.

The work of the various ministries is done by councils, and there thiu exist
a council of state, or ahurdi devlet, councils of accounts, of war, of the navy, of
public education, of police, &c. These various councils, in their totality, con-
stitute the divan, or government chancery. There is also a supreme court of
justice, with sections for civil and criminal cases. The members of these various
official bodies are appointed by Government. Each of the subject "nations"
is represented on the Council of State by two members, carefully selected by the
Sadrazam.

The vilayet is governed by a vali, the sanjak by a mutetartf, the kaza by a

* Area and population of the Turkish Empire : —

S<iaar*liilM. Fojolattoo. p«8ti

ConRtantinople (including Army, Ac.) 1,040 631,000 M
VilawU :—

Edimeh, or Adrianople (Thrada) . 26,160 1,307,000 39

Tuna (Danube), or Bulgaria 34,120 2,308,000 40

Saloniki (Macedonia) .... 12,960 409,000 AO

Priirend (Upper Macedonia) 18,820 1,392,000 67

Shkodra, or Scutari (Upper Albania) . 6,310 171,000 48

Boana Serai, or Serayevo (Boania) . 17,000 940,000 42

Hersegovina 6,720 144,000 41

Yanina (Epirua and Themaly) 18,320 711,000 86

Orete, or Candia 8,326 210,000 18

European Islands 400 60,000 7

Turkey in Eoropo .... 143,666 8,267,000 44

Turkey in Alia .... 746,000 13,176,000 86

. Tripoli, &c 344,000 1,160,000 90

Total Ottoman Empire . . I,231,/i66 22,693,000 71

{Rumania .... 46,710 6,180,000 —

Servia . ^ . . 16,820 1,377,000 —

Egypt . . . . 869,360 17,000,000 70

Tunis .... 46,700 2,000,000 99

Total Turkish Empire . . 2.210,166 48,160,000 68

■ ,iff ! uisimt mimmmiimmm

GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION.

10S

it to frequent

n. He is Emir
ily by the pre*
n moat influen-
eat Mufti, who
the Sadrazam,
and is assisted
lef of the black
'em, is likewise
e very highest
lown as mtifti.
a Govemment
gnifies " grand
This title is
I of a lance, a
the steppes of

here thus exist
of the navy, of
p totality, con-
[>reme court of
)f these variouB
jeot "nations"
selected by the

the kaza by a

MblwmiiwkUiw

pwomt.

67
48
42
41

M .
18
7

44
88
99

70
99

kaimakan, the pariHh by a mudir. Each of tliewj is suppoHed to act by tidvico of
a council coiiipoBcd of the leading roligiong and civilian functionuriuB, Molmniniu-
dan and non-Moluunmodan. In reality, however, the vali appoints all those
councils, and they aro popularly known as the " Councils of the Ayes."

The rules laid down by the supreme Government for its own guidance are
embodied in the hatti^herif oi Gulhano, promulgated in 1839, and in the hatti-
humayum of 1856. These hatts promise equal rights to all the inhabitants of the
empire, but have been carried out hitherto only very partially. A " constitution "
was promulgated in December, 1876, on the assembling of the European Con-
ference at Constantinople. It provides representative institutions, local self-gov-
ernment, and various improvements, but is likely to remain a dead letter.

The religious and judicial organization of the country is jealously watched
over by the Sheik-el-Islam and the priests, and cannot possibly be changed. The
imams are specially charged with the conduct of public worship. They include
aheiJeSy or preachers ; khatiba, who recite the official prayers ; and the imana prop-
erly so called, who celebrate marriages and conduct interments. Judges and imans
form a body knovim as vlenuu, at whoso head is placed a kazi-atker, or chief judge,
and who are divided hierarchically into moUahs, kazia (kadis), and naihs.

The Greek Patriarch of Constantinople, as head of the Church in Turkey and
civil director of the Greek communities, wields a considerable influence. He is
elected by a synod of eighteen members, which administers the religious budget,
and whose decisions in matters of faith are final. The heads of the Latin rite
are a patriarch at Constantinople and the two Archbishops of Antivari and
Burazzo. The two Armenian Churches have each a patriarch at Constantinople.

Tbeaties of San Stetakto Aim Berlin.

It will be noticed that the preceding description of Turkey in Europe, and the
succeeding accounts of Bnmania, Servia, and Montraegro, present the conditions
existing immediately prior to the late war with Russia, in which the Turks were
completely overpowered in a few months. The Congress of European powers
sitting at Berlin in the summer of 1878, to consider the provisional treaty of San
Stefano (March 2) between Russia and Turkey, materially modified its provisions
in the joint treaty signed July 13, disposing of European Turkey in the following
manner : 1. The tributary principality of Bulgaria is created (with less than half
the dimensions assigned to it by the treaty of San Stefano), to be governed by a
prince (who shall not be a member of any ruling dynasty) chosen by the people
within nine months, and confirmed by the Porte and the otiier powers, and in the
mean time by Russian commissioners assisted by delegated European consuls. 2.
South of the Balkans is formed the autonomous province of Eastern Roumelia,
under a Christian governor-general, appointed for five years by the Porte with the
assent of the powers, which are to determine within three years the administrative
requirements of the province. 3. Bosnia and Herzegovina to be occupied and

TURKEY IN EUROI'E.

adtniniHtcrod by AuMtria-TInngury, excepting ^'ovi-Hazar and a flinall mirrounding
diHtrict. Tliitt proviMion, uiiliiuitud um to tinu', practicuUy annuxcH thoHu provincuH
to the AiiHtro-HunguHuii Enipiri>, and ha« alruu<ly (OctolHjr, lH7^i) Ihsvii uxecutod,
aftur M'riuuH ariiiud ruHiMtaneo hy their M<wlen> inlmbitatita. 4., liiunania, Bervia,
and Montenegro are made independent, with the enlarged boundaricH Hhown by
the annexed map. Uumaniu receivoa tho Dobnija from Itufuiia, to which it waH
ceded by the treaty of 8an Stefano, with tho undentanding that it was to be ex-
changed for tlio Htrip of l^emarabia tranHterred from KubhIu to Itumania by the
tn^aty of l*aris of 1H56, whicli haH accordingly been restored. The additions to
Montenegro include the port of Antivari, which is closed to war-ships of all
nations ; and Montenegro is to have no national Hag nor ships of war, its merchant
flag to be protected by Austrian consuls. 6. Austrian Dalmatia receives from
Albania the small port of Spitza. 6. The services of the powers are offered
for *.he rectiilcation of the northern frontier of Greece. 7. Entire religious liberty
and political equality are provided for in all the territories affected by the treaty.

Map aHowiNO Ciiamokr in Eukopian Tvrkit and Amunia, am pboposed by the Tmeatt or Sam
Htkpano, and am drirmimbd bt thb TauTT or Biblih.

NOTE Tkt Tnriliirflmktn/nim 7Wptf|ltr<'< Tr—li 1/ Bn m^amutii mkirMl Iti lur if iJtt Cimtrm rf BtrliK U liuud Hmt.

mlti

WiiittWrH

1 Hurroundinft
lOMu provinouH
et'u uxecuted,
nunia, Hurvia,
ioH Hhown by
> which it wuH
was to be ox-
ti mania by the
le additions to
ir-ehips of all
r, its merchant
receivuB from
re are offered
)ligiouB liberty
)y the treaty.

riiKATT or San

?ilB?!

ui««n^

VHM

(■(Ml lit. .

RUMANIA/

HE Kuraanians are certainly one of the most ourioua amongst
European nationi. The descendants of the conquerors of the
ancient world, they live detached from, and far to the north-
eaat of, the other nations of (he Oreoo-Latin family, and not
many years ago they were hardly known by name. The grave
events of which the Lower Danube haa been the scene since the middle of this
century have brought these Rumanians prominently to the fore, and we know
now that they differ essentially from their neighbours, bo they Slav, Turk, or
Magyar. They constitute, in fact, one of the most important elements amongst
the populations of Eastern Europe, and numerically they are the strongest nation
on the Lower Danube, the Bulgarians alone excepted.

The ethnological boundaries of Rumania are far wider than are the political
ones, for they embrace not only Wallachia and Moldavia beyond the Carpathians,
but also Russian Bessarabia, a portion of the Bukovina, the greater portion of
Transylvania, as well as extensive tracts in the Banat and Eastern Hungary.
The Rumanians have likewise crossed the Danube, and established themselves in
portions of Serviaand Bulgaria; and the settlements of their kinsmen, the Zinzares,
sporadically extend far south to the hills of Thessaly and Greece. Rumania
proper has an area of only 46,709 square miles, but the countries of the Rumanians
occupy at least twice that extent, and their n imbers exceed 8,000,000, most
of whom dwell in a compact mass on the Lower Danube and the adjoining
portions of Hungary and Russia.!

The Roman territories on the Lower Danube almost encircle the mountain

* 0£Bcia1Iy called Romania, and frequently spelt Roumania: in French it is Sooouuiie.
t Wallachia and Moldavia 4,460,000

Austro-Hungary ....
Bessarabia and other parts ot Russia
Serria .....

Tnrkey

Oreace . .

Total

2,806,000

600,000

108,000

200,000

4,000

8,310,000

166

TUEKEY IN EUEOPE.

masses of the Eastern Carpathians, as will be seen by a glance at our map, but
only about one-half of this territory has been formed into an autonomous state, the
remainder belonging to Hungary and Russia. If the national ambition of the
Rumanians were to be realised, the natural centre of their country would not lie
within the actual limits of the territory, but at Hermannstadt (called Sibiu by the
Wallachians), or elsewhere on the northern slope of the Carpathians. Thrust
beyond the Carpathians, and extending from the Iron Gate to the upper affluents
of the Pruth, the independent Rumanians occupy a country of most irregular
shape, and separated into two distinct portions by the river Sereth and one of its
tributaries, which join the most advanced spur of the Eastern Carpathians to the
great bend of the Lower Danube. To the north of this boundary lies Moldavia,
thus named after a tributary of the Sereth ; to the south-west and west is Wallachia,
or the " Plain of the Wolsh," i.e. of the Latins. This plain, the tzara Rumaneatca,

Fig. 43. — ^Tmb Rumanians.

inUiu

Bal)(aruii*

I C m i u i ih

, Tnrki
< Ikrura

or Roman-land proper, is intersected by numerous parallel water-courses, forming
as many secondary boundaries, and the river Olto separates it into Great
Wallachia to the east, and Little Wallachia to the west. The Danube forms the
political boundary down to its mouth. It is a wide and sinuous river ; below the
Iron Gate, lakes, forests, and swamps render access to its banks almost impossible
in many places; and migratory nations and conquerors, instead of crossing it, as
they could easily have done in Austria and Bavaria, rather sought to avoid it by
seeking for a passage through the mountains to the north. The abrupt bend of the
Lower Danube and its extensive swampy delta still further shielded the plains of
Wallachia, and invaders not provided with vessels were thus turned to the north,
in the direction of the Carpathians. The lowlands of Moldavia were protected,
though in a less degree, by the rivers Dnieper, Bug, Dniester, and Pruth running
parallel with each other.

l l ipli L»ft « li ii uT l II» » «

RUMANIA.

167

our map, but
I0U8 state, the
.bition of the
KTould not lie
[ Sibiu by the
ans. Thrust
pper affluents
Lost irregular
ind one of its
ithians to the
ies Moldavia,
is Wallachia,
I Eumaneofca,

aa*

SEA

»f w

irses, forming
t into Great
ube forms the
)r; below the
ast impossible
crossing it, as
o avoid it by
)t bend of the
the plains of
to the north,
}re protected,
ruth running

But, in spite of these natural bulwarks, it remains matter for surprise, and
proves the singular tenacity of the Rumanians, that they preserved their tradi-
tions, their language, and nationality, in spite of the numerous onslaughts from
invaders of every race to which they were exposed. Ever since the retreat of
the Roman legions, the peaceable cultivators of these plains were preyed upon so
frequently by Goths, Huns, and Pecheneges, by Slavs, Bulgars, and Turks, that
their extinction as a race appeared to be inevitable. But they have emerged
from every deluge which threatened to destroy them, thanks, no doubt, to the
superior culture for which they were indebted to their ancestors, and again claim
a place amongst independent nations. They have fully justified their old proverb,
which says, Rotnun no pere ! — •' the Roman perishes not."

The Transylvanian Alps lie within the territory of the Rumanians, who
occupy both slopes. Their upper valleys, however, are but thinly inhabited, and
we may travel for days without meeting with any habitations excepting the rude
huts of shepherds. The political boundary traced along the crest of the moun-
tains is merely an imaginary line, passing through the forest solitudes of vast
extent. Excepting near the only high-road, and the paths which join Transyl-
vania to the plains of Wallachia, these mountains remain in a state of nature.
The chamois is still hunted there, and not long since even bisons were met with.
The Tsigani penetrates these mountains in search of the brown or black bears
which he exhibits in the villages. He places a jar filled with brandy and honey
near the beast's haunt, and, as soon as the bear and his family have become help-
lessly intoxicated, they are seized and placed in chains.

The physical configuration of Rumania is extremely simplo. In Moldavia low
ridges running parallel with the high mountain chain extend from the north-west
to the south-east, being separated from each other by the valleys of the Bistritza,
Moldava, and Sereth, and sinking down gradually into the plains of the Danube.
In Wallachia the southern spurs of the Transylvanian Alps ramify with remark-
able regularity, and the torrents which descend from them all run in the same
direction. The rivers, whether they rise at the foot of the hills or traverse the
entire width of the mountains, such as the Sil, Shil, or Jiul, the Olto or Aluta,
and the Buseo, turn towards the east before their waters mingle with those of the
Danube.

The slope of the hiUs is pretty uniform flrom the crest of the mountains to the
plain of the Danube, and the zones of temperature and vegetation succeed each
other with singular regularity. Summits covered with forests of conifers and
birch, and clad with snow during winter, rise near the frontiers of Transylvania.
These are succeeded by mountains of inferior height, where beeches and chestnuts
predominate, and all the picturesque beauties of European fwest scenery are met
with. Lower still we come upon gentle hills, with groves of oaks and maples,
and their sunny sides covered with vines.. Finally, we enter the wide plains of the
Danube, with their fruit trees, poplars, and willows. The zone lying between the
high mountains and the plain abounds in localities rendered delightful by pic-
turesque rocks, luxuriant and varied verdure, and limpid streams. In this " happy

188

TURKEY IN EUROPE.

Arcadiu " we meet with most of the large monasteries, magnificent castles with
domes and towers, standing in the midst of parks and gardens. As to the plains,
they are no doubt barren and monotonous in many places, but the villagers,
though their habitations are half buried in the ground, enjoy the magnificent

Fig. 44.— Thb Rivers 8hil and Olto.
SciUe 1 : 1,400^000

;i3*Kdc(.r

S6MIIM.

prospect of the blue mountains which bound the horizon. The most oharaoteristic
objects in these lowlands are the huge hay-ricks already figured upon Trajan's
column at Borne.

jHIHiiirirmiiiaii'triiniiiniium

— mt i ttH > jft<ciw! iii I

BUMANIA.

180

I; castles with
to the plains,
the villagers,
B magnificent

L*>.-^.

>st charaoteristio
1 upon Trajan's

The Rumanian campagna is a second Lombardy, not because of the high state
of its agriculture, but because of the fertility of its soil, the beauty of the sky, and
of the distant views. Unfortunately there are no mountain barriers to protect it
against the cold north-easterly winds which predominate throughout the year.
Extremes of cold and heat have to be encountered.* The vines have to be covered
with earth to protect them against the colds of winter; and in South-eastern
Wallachia, which ia most exposed to the violence of the winds, it happens some-
times that herds of cattle and horses, flying before a snow-storm, precipitate
themselves into the floods of the Danube. Several districts su£Per from want of
rain, and are veritable steppes. Amongst these are the plains of the Baragan,
between the Danube and Yalomitza, where bustards abound, and a tree is not met
with for miles.

Geologically we meet with a regular succession of formations, from the granite
on the mountain sxmimits to the alluvial deposits along the banks of the Danube.
The rooks encountered on these southern slopes of the Carpathians are of the same
kind as those found in Oalicia on their northern slopes, and they yield the same
mineral products, such as rock-salt, gypsum, lithographic stones, and petroleum.
Tertiary strata predominate in the plains, but to the east of Ploiesti and Bucharest
only quaternary deposits of day and pebbles are met with, in which are found
the bones of mammoths, elephants, and mastodons. The muddy rivers which
traverse these plains have excavated themselves sinuous beds, and resemble large
ditches.

The plain of Rumania, like that of Lombardy, is an ancient gulf of the sea
filled up by the debris washed down from the mountain sides. But though the sea
has retired, the Danube remains, pouring out vast volumes of water, and oflfering
g^reat advantages to navigation. At the famous defile of the Iron Qate, where
this river enters the plain, its bed has a depth of 155 feet, its surface lies
66 feet above the level of the Black Sea, and its volume exceeds that of the com-
bined rivers of Western Europe, from the Rhone to the Rhine. The Romans, in
spite of this, had thrown a bridge across the river, immediately below the Iron
Oate, which was justly looked upon as one of the wonders of the world. This work
of architecture, which Apollodorus of Damas had erected in honour of Trajan, was
pulled down by order of the Emperor Hadrian, who was anxious to save the
expenses of the garrison required for its protection. There only remain now the
two abutments, and when the waters are low the foimdations of sixteen out of the
twenty piers which supported the bridge may still be seen. A Roman tower, which
has given name to the little town of Tumu Sevenn, marks the spot where the
Romans first placed their foot upon the soil of Dacia. The passage from Servia
to Rumania is as important as it was of yore, but modem industry has not yet
replaced Trajan's bridge.

The Danube, like most rivers of our northern hemisphere, presses upon its
right bank, and this accounts for the difierenoe between its Wallachian and Bul-
garian banks. The latter, gnawed by the floods, rises steeply into little hills and

* Meu temperature at Bnohareit, 46' F. ; maximum, 113° F. ; minimum, - 22° F. ; diffiwenoa, 186" F.

L1 II1 IMI W WH I ,,.' -r—TO'-' .t.— .UK-i i "

160

TURKEY IN EUROPE.

terraces, whilst the former rises gently, and merges almost imperceptibly in the
plains of Wallachia. Swamps, lakes, creeks, and the remains of ancient river beds
form a riverine network, enclosing numerous islands and sand-banks. These
channels are subject to continual change, and to the south of the Yalomitza
may still be seen a line of swamps and lagoons, which marks the course of an
ancient river no longer existing. The lowlands on the Wallachian side of the
Danube are constantly increasing in extent, whilst Bulgaria continuously suffers
losses of territory. The latter, however, is amply compensatea for this by the
salubrity of its soil and the fine sites for commercial emporiums which it offers.
It is said that the beaver, which has been exterminated almost in every
other part of Europe, is still common in these half-drowned lands of Wallachia.

At a distance of thirty-eight miles from the sea, in a straight line, the Danube
strikes against the granitic heights of the Dobruja, and abruptly turns to the
north, subsequently to spread out into a delta. In the course of this detour it
receives its last tributaries of importance, viz. the Moldavian Sereth and the
Fruth. Thirty miles below the mouth of the latter the Danube bifurcates. Its
main branch, known as that of Eilia, conveys about two-thirds of the entire
volume of its waters to the Black Sea, and forms the frontier between Rumania
and Turkish Bulgaria. The southern branch, or that of Tulcha, flows entirely
through Turkish territory It separates into two branches, of which that of Sulina
is the main artery of navigation.

The main branch of the river is of the utmost importance when considering
the changes wrought upon the surface of the earth through aqueous agencies.
Below Ismail it ramifies into a multitude of channels, which change continuously,
new channels being excavated, whilst others become choked with alluvial deposits
carried down by the floods. Twice the waters of the river are reunited into a
single channel before they finally spread out into a secondary delta jutting into
the Black Sea. The exterior development of this new land amounts to about
twelve miles, and supposing the sea to be of a uniform depth of thirty-three feet, it
would advance annually at the rate of 660 feet. Yet, in spite of this rapid increase,
the coast, at the Eilia mouth, juts out far less to the east than it does in the
southern portion of the delta, and we may conclude from this that the ancient
gulf of the sea, now filled up by the alluvial deposits brought down by the KiUa
branch, was far larger and deeper than those to the south.* On examining a map
of the Danubian delta, it will be found that, by prolonging the coast-line of
Bessarabia towards the south, it crosses the delta. This is the ancient coast. It
rises above the half-drowned plains like an embankment, through which the
branches of the river forced themselves a passage tx> the sea. The aUuvium
brought down by the Sulina and St. George's mouths has been spread over a vast
plain lying outside this embankment, whilst that carried down through what is at
present the main branch forms only a small archipelago of ill-defined islands

* Mean volumo of the Danube (according to C. Hartley), 2,000,000 gallona per second ; nmximniii
Tolume, 6,160,000 gallons ; mean volume of Kilia mouth, 1,276,')00 ^lons , mean of St. Oeorge'a mouth,
672,000 gallons; mean of Sulina mouth, 176,000 gallons per second. Mean alluvial deposit! of Danube,
2,119 cubic feet per annum.

II IV'ii n il"iliiiiil '* iJ M « HJ i ]. i ..

#■

BUMANIA.

161

>tibly in the
it river beds
iks. These
e Yalomitza
course of an
, side of the
ously suffers
this by the
lich it offers,
it in every
iTallaohia.
, the Danube
turns to the
;hi8 detour it
'eth and the
urcates. Its
the entire
ten Rumania
owB entirely
hat of Sulina

considering
bus agencies,
continuously,
uvial deposits
united into a
i jutting into
ints to about
-three feet, it
apid increase,
i does in the
,t the ancient

by the Eilia
mining a map

ooast-line of
ent coast. It
fh which the
rhe alluvium
iA. over a vast
igh what is at
efined islands

Boond; muximnm
, Oeorge'a mouth,
posiUof Dannbe,

beyond it. We may conclude from this that the latter is of more recent orig^
than the other arms.

In the course of its gradual encroachment upon the sea, the river has out off several
lakes of considerable extent. On the coast between the mouth of the Dniester and
the delta of the Danube there are .several lagoons, or limam, of inconsiderable
depth, the water of which evaporates during the heat of summer, depositing a thin
crust of salt. In their general coittiguration, the nature of the surrounding land,
and parallelism of the rivers which flow unto them, these sheets of water are very
much like the lakes met with more'-tb the west, as far as the mouth of the
Pruth. These latter, however, are filled with fresh water, and the sandy barners at

Fig. 46.— Tai Danvbb and Yalomitsa.
Soals 1 : 1,448,000.

1«^ CT

•8*

,<6MflM.

their lower ends separate them not from the Black Sea, but from the Danube.
There can be no doubt that these lakes were anciently gulfs of the sea, similar in all
respects to the lagoons still existing along the coast. The Danube, by converting
its ancient gulf into a delta, separated them from the sea, and thi ir saline water
waa replaced by fireeh water carried down by the rivers. The existing saline
lagoons will undergo the same metamorphosis, in proportion as the delta of the
Danube gains upon the sea.

The plains of Wallaohia were defended formerly by an ancient line of fortifi-
cations passing to the north of these Danubian lakes and lagoons, and known as
"Trajan's Wall," like the ditches, walls, and entrenched camps in the Southern
Dobruja. The inhabitants ascribe their construction to Cassar, although they are of

162

TUEKEY IN EUROPE.

much later date, having been erected by Trajan as a protection against the Visigoths.
This ancient barrier of defence coincided pretty nearly with the political boundary
between Russian and Rumanian Bessarabia, and extended probably to the west of
the Pruth, across the whole of Moldavia and Wallachia. Vestiges of it still met
with there are known as the "Road of the Avares." A second wall, still traceable
between Leova and Bender, defended the approaches to the valley of the Danube.

In spite of the diverse races which have overrun, conquered, or devastated
their territory, the inhabitants of Rumania, more fortunate than their neighbours,
have preserved their unity of race and language. Wallaohians and Moldavians
form one people, and not only have they kept intact their national territory, but
they have actually encroached upon the territories of their neighbours. Through-
out Rumania, with the exception of that portion of Bessarabia ceded by the
Western powers after the Crimean war, the inhabitants belonging to alien races
are in the minority.

The origin of this Latin-speaking nation is still shrouded in mystery. Are
they the descendants of Getsa and Latinised Dacians, or does the blood of Italian
colonists brought thither by Trajan, of legionaries and Roman soldiers, predomi-
nate amongst them P To what extent have they become amalgamated with their
neighbours, the Slavs and Illyrians P What share had the Celts in the formation
of their nationality P Are the " Little " Wallachians, the " men with the eighty
teeth," — so called on account of their bravery, — ^the descendants of Celts P We
cannot say with certainty, for men of learning like Shafarik and Mikloaioh differ
on all these points. The vast plains at present inhabited by the Rumanians
became a wilderness in the third century, when the Emperor Aurelian compelled
their inhabitants to migrate to the right bank of the Danube. If it is true that
the descendants of these emigrants ever returned to the seats of their ancestors, in
the meantime occupied by Slavs, Magyars, and Feoheneges, when did they do so P
Miklosioh presumes that they did so towards the close of the fifth century;
Roesler thinks in the fourteenth, although ancient chroniclers of the eleventh
century mention Rumanians as dwelling in the Carpathians. Other authorities
deny that there was any re-immigration; they maintain that the residue of
the Latinised population sufficed for reconstituting the nationality. Thus much
is certain, that this small people has increased wonderfully, and has become now
the preponderating race on the Lower Danube and in Transylvania.

Even in the seventeenth century the language spoken by the Rumanians
was treated as a rural dialect, and Slavonian was used in ohurohes and courts
of justice. At the present day, on the contrary, Rumanian patriots are anxious
to purge their language of all Servian words, and of Greek and Turkish
expressions introduced during the dominion of the Osmanli. The "Romans"
of the Danube are endeavouring to polish their tongpie, so that it may rank
with Italian and French. They have abandoned the Russian characters,
and their vocabulary is being continually enriched by new words derived
from the Latin. The idiom spoken in the towns, which was the most impure

liHH

JummM.!'-!

iie Yisigotha.
sal boundary
I the west of
I it still met
till traceable
he Danube.

r devastated
' neighbours,
I Moldavians
erritory, but
I. Through-
ded by the
> alien races

irstery. Are
)d of Italian
irs, predomi-
id with their
lie formation
li the eighty
Celts P We
kloaich differ
I Bumanians
in compelled

is true that
ancestors, in
I they do so P
fth century;
the eleventh
sr authorities
9 residue of

Thus much
I become now

) Bumanians
IS and courts
B are anxious
and Turkish
9 "Romans"
it may rank
a characters,
rords derived
most impure

•*

. - •■'( |g | | | |)|||| |) g | |t1|i|(j||ji|^i ii lii i j^ ii^ i i i ii i ii i i i i frt>NiH i ii i i'»iilll i i l i n iii ii mill If

rr.

WateBinfit*iiwiimifiiiiiili>iiMi>;iiiiTtrnir.: —

' k'^.jsj^4irara-fe!S^:-ii(iiigtena^^

RUMANIA.

168

formerly, in consequence of the influx of Btrangers, has now become more I^atin
than that spoken in the country. There are, however, about two hundred
words not traceable to any knovm tongue, and these are supposed to be a remnant
of the ancient Ducian spoken at the period of the Roman invasion. The Wal-
laohian differs, moreover, from the Latin tongues of Western Europe by always
placing the article and the demonstrative pronoun after the noun. The same rule
obtains in Albanian and Bulgarian, and Miklosich is probably right when he
looks upon this as a feature of the ancient language of the aborigines.

These niceties, however, are altogether unnoticed by the mass of the people.
The Rumanian peasant is proud of the ancient conquerors of his country, and
looks upon himself as the descendant of the patricians of Rome. Several of his
customs, at the birth of children, betrothals, or burials, recall those observed by
the Romans, and the dance of the Calmharea, it is said, may be traced back to
the earliest Italian settlers. The Wallaohian is fond of talking about Father
Trajan, to whom he attributes all ■ those feats which in other coimtries are
associated with Hercules, Fingal, or Ossion. Many a mountain valley has been
rent asunder by Trajan's powerful hand ; and the avalanches descending from the
hills are spoken of as Trajan's thunder. The Rumanian completely ignores
OetsB, Dacians, or Goths, though in the hills we still meet with tall men having
blue eyes and long flaxen hair, who are probably descended from the aboriginal
inhabitants of the country.

The Rumanians have generally fine sunburnt features, fair hair, expressive
eyes, a mouth finely shaped, and beautiful teeth. They allow their hair to grow
long, and sometimes even prefer to expatriate themselves to sacrificing it to the
exigencies of military service. They exhibit grace in all their moyements, are
indefatigable on the march, and support the heaviest labour without complaining.
Even the Wallaohian herdsman, with his sheepskin cap, or caahula, his wide
leather belt used as a pocket, a sheepskin thrown over his shoulders, and drawers
which recall those of the Dacians sculptured on Trajan's Oolumn, is noble in his
bearing. In the large towns, where much intermixture' has taken place with
Greeks, Southern Russians, and Magyars, the brown complexion predominates.
The Rumanian women are grace itself. They always charm us by taste and
neatness, whether they have adopted a modem dress or still patronise the
national costume, consisting of an embroidered chemisette, a floating vest, a party-
coloured apron, a golden net, and golden sequins placed in the hair. These
external advantages are combined in the Rtmianian with quickness of appre-
hension, a gay spirit, and the gift of repartee, which entitle them to be called the
Parisians of the Orient.

In the midst of this homogeneous Rumanian population we meet with
Bulgarian colonisto, whose number has increased recently in consequence of
the persecutions of Turks and Greeks. The character of the Bulgarians bom in
the country has undergone considerable modifications. They are at present the
most industrious tillers of the soil, and in the vicinity of large towns they occupy
themselves principally with horticulture. Many of these Bulgarians live in that

TUBKEY IN BUBOPE.

portion of Beararabia which was ceded by Ruuia in 1855. They settled there in
1829, more particularly in the But/zak, or southern " comer " of Bessarabia, and
their fields are better tilled, their roads in bettor condition, thun those of their
Moldavian neighbours. Their villages still bear Tartar names, from the time
when their country was occupied by Nogai Tartars, and they contrast favourably
with the villages of the surrounding peoples. Bolgrad, the capital of this colony,
is a small bustling town, the schools of which enjoy a high reputation. These
Bulgarians, so distinguished for industry, sobriety, and thrift, have more or less
amalgamated with Russians, Greeks, and gipsies, and they talk- almost every
language of the East.

The Russians of Moldavian Bessarabia have their settlements on the banks of
the Danube, to the east of these Bulgarian colonies. They, too, are good
agriculturists. The Russians met with in the towns are generally engaged in

Fig. 46.— ErHNOLontcAL Map op Moldavian BmsAmAVU.
1 1 : 1,800,000.

BdfwiMM

ViiUiaVito4

commerce, and enjoy a high reputation for honesty. Most of them belong to the
old sect of the Lipovani, and fled from Russia about a century ago to escape religious
persecution. They nearly all speak Rumanian. Yilkof, a village near the
mouth of the Danube, is almost exclusively occupied by these Lipovani, who are
expert fishermen, and share the produce of their labour in common. Others
amongst the Russians belong to the sect of the Skoptzi, or " mutilated," which
is said to recruit itself by stealing children. These Skoptzi are recognised by
their portliness and smooth faces, and at Bucharest they are reputed to be excel-
lent coachmen.

Magyar Szeklers from Transylvania, known in the country as Changhei, are
the only other foreign element of the population occupying distinct settlements.
These Changhei, who first came into the country when the Kings of Hungary
were masters of the valley of the Sereth, are gradually becoming RumanianB

ittled there in
tcRsarabia, and
those of their
Tom the time
ist favourably
of this colony,
tation. These
9 more or less
almost every

1 the banks of
too, are good
y engaged in

belong to the
)8cape religious
lage near the
ovani, who are
imon. Others
tilated," which

recognised by
ed to be excel-

I Changhei, are
ict settlements.
{8 of Hungary
ng Rumanians

BUMANIA.

166

in dress and language, and would have become so long ago were they not Roman
Oatholics, whilst the people among whom they live are Greeks. They are joined
annually by a few compatriots from Transylvania, attracted by the mild climate
and the fertility of the soil. In spring and autumn large bands of Hungarian
reapers and labourers descend into the plains of Moldavia.

The Hellenic element was strongly represented last century, when the
government of the country was farmed out by the Sultan to Greek merchants
of Oonstantinople. At the present time the Greeks are not numerous — not
exceeding, perhaps, 10,000 souls, even if we include amongst them Hellenized
Zinzarea — but they occupy influential positions as managers of estates or
merchants, and the export of com is almost exclusively in their hands. Traces
of the ancient government of these Phanariotes still exist in the language of
the country, and in the relationships resulting from intermarriages between
seignorial families. Far more numerous than these Greeks, and of greater
importance, are the members of thope homeless nations — the Jews and Tsigani
(or gipsies). A few Spanish Jews are met with in the large towns, but the
majority are " German " Jews, who have come hither from Poland, Little Russia,
Galicia, and Hungary. As publicans and middlemen they come into close
contact with the poor people, and they are universally detested, not on accoimt
of their religion, but because of the wonderfid skill with which they manage to
secure the savings of the people. Imaginary crimes of all kinds are attributed
to them, and they have repeatedly been exposed to maltreatment on the
frivolous charge of having eaten little children at their Passover. The Ruma-
nians, however, can hardly manage without these detested Jews, and their laws,
by preventing the Jews fV*om acquiring land, fortify their commercial monopoly.
The Jews, if certain estimates may be credited, constitute one-fifth of the total
population of Moldavia. The Armenians, the other great commercial people of
the Orient, are represented by a few flourishing colonies, more especially in
Moldavia. These Haikanes are the descendants of immigrants who settled in the
country at various epochs between the eleventh and seventeenth centuries. They
live amongst themselves, and, though not exactly liked by the people, they have
known how to avoid becoming objects of hatred. A few Armenians from Con-
stantinople, and speaking Turkish, are met with on the Lower Danube.

The Tsigani, or gipsies^ so despised formerly, become merged by degrees in
the rest of the population. Not long ago they were slaves, the property of the
State, of boyards, or monasteries. They led a wandering life— working, trafficking,
or stealing for the benefit of their masters. They were divided into castes, the
principal of which were the lingurari, or spoon-makers ; uraari, or bear-leaders ;
ferrari, or smiths ; aurari, or collectors of gold dust ; and lautari, or musicians.
These latter were the most polished of all, and were employed to celebrate the
glory and the virtues of the boyards. They are now the minstrels of the country
and ihe muuoians of the town. Very few in number are the Neiotzi, a degraded
caste who live in woods or tents, subsist upon the foulest food, and do not buty
their dead. The Tsigani were assimilated in 1837 with the peasantry, nnd since
12

■WKSSWMIW1S

II. J, .III 'iia,

TURKEY IN BUROPB.

their ciiiunoipution nearly all of them load a nettled life, oultiTating the soil with
great oare, or exeroiHing lomo handicraft. The Aition between Tsigani and
Rumanians ia making rupid progrom, for both racea have the lamo religion and
■peak the same language. Intermarriagen between the two are fh)quont, and in
a time not far off the Tsigani of Rumania will be a thing of the pait. Th«y are
•uppoeed itill to number between 100,000 and 300,000 souls.*

The Rumanian nation is still in a state of transition from a feudal to a
modem epoch. The revolution of 1848 shook the anoient system to its founda-
tion, but did not destroy it. As recently as 1856 the peasants weio attached to
the soil. They had no rights, but were at the mercy of the boyards and monas-
teries whose soil they were doomed to till, and lived in miserable hovels. The
whole of the country and its inhabitants belonged to five or six thousand boyards,
who wore either the descendants of the anoient " braves," or had purchased their
patents of nobility. Most of these boyards were only small proprietors, and nearly
the whole of the land belonged to seventy feudatories in Wallaohia, and three
hundred in Moldavia.

This state of affitirs led to the most ftightful demoralisation amongst masters
and serfs, and even the good qualitiea of the Rumanian — his energy, his gene-
rosity, and fHendliness — were turned into evil. The nobles lived far away from
their estates, spending the income forwarded by their Ghreek bailiffs in debauchery
and gambling. The peasants worked but little, for they had no share in the
produce of the soil ; they were mistrustful and Aill of deceit, as arc all slaves ;
they were ignorant and superstitious, for they depended for their education upon
illiterate and fanatical priests. Their popea were magicians, and cured maladies
by incantations and holy philtres. As to the monks, some of them were rich
proprietors, as rapacious as the temporal lords ; others lived on alms, having
exchanged a life of slavery for mendicity.

Not long ago the Rumanians, deprived of all education except that sup-
plied by their doinat, or anoient songs, were lost almost in mediaeval darkness.
Even now some of the ancient onatoms of their ancestors survive in the rural
diatriots. Funerals are attended by hired weeping women, whose shrieks
accompany the farewell of relatives. Into the co£Bn they place a stick upon
which to rest when crossing the Jordan, a piece of cloth to serve as a garment,
and a coin as a bribe to St. Peter for opening the gate of heaven. Nor are wine
and bread forgotten for the journey. Red-haired people are suspected of
returning to earth in the guise of a dog, a frog, or a flea, and to penetrate into
houses in order to suok the blood of good-looking young girU In their case it is
as well to dose the coffin-lid tightly, or, still better, to pierce the throat of the
defunct with a stick.

The peasantry will doubtless no longer be haunted by these hallucinations, for the

• Approziinate population of Ramuia in 187A, ff,332,A00 lonls, of whom 8,260,000 ware in WallaoUa,
and 1,673,500 in Moldavia. There weie 4,460,000 Rumaniana, 00,000 Bolgariana, 40,000 RoMiami and
other Slave, 50,000 Magyara, 130,000 Tiigiuii, 400,000 Jewa, 10,000 Aimeniaai, and 52,MO foreigiMrs
80,000 Auteiana, 10,000 Qreeka, 6,000 Oormau, 1,600 Fraaoh).

NN^MMliilliii

rnKssfttsrsmmm

-r

BUlfAKIA.

167

tho ioil with

Tiigant and

religion and

quent, and in

■t. They are

\ tbudal to a
to ita founda-
attaohed to
8 and monaa-
hovela. The
■and boyardi,
rohaaed their
•ra, and nearly
lia, and three

longit maatera
•gy, hia gene-
far away from
in debauchery

share in the
^rc all slayea ;
duoati'on upon
lured maladies
em were rich

alms, having

ept that sup-

aval darkneaa.

I in the rural

irhoae shrieks

a stick upon

as a garment,

Nor are wine

suspected of

penetrate into

their case it ia

throat of the

lations, for the

veninWalkohk,
,000 RuHiuui and
(2,600 fwaigiMn

moral and intelleotuui progress of the nation has kept pace with its material pros«
parity since the peasant has cultivated his own land. Officially made a freeman
in 18d6, but hold for several years afterwards in a kind of limited bondage, the
peasant now owns at leaat a portion of the land. By a law pawed in 1802, each
head of a family is entitled to a plot of land from seven to sixty -Hovon acres in
extent, and evnr Nin^^e that time the peasants have gained immonnely in self-
respect. His land, thouf^h still cultivated with the ancient Roman plough, and
deprived of manure, produces immense quantities of cereals, the sale of which
brings wealth into the <»untry and encourages progress. Rumania is now one
of the great corn-f-xporting < r>untries of Europe, and in favourable years, when
the crops are neither oaten up by locusts nor destroyed by frosts, ita exports exceed
those of Hungary. In less than ten years the export of wheat, maize, barley, and
oats has doubled, and the sum annually realised varies between £4,000,000 and
£8,000,000 sterling.

Unfortunately the peasants eat but little of the com they grow. They are
content with the maiae, from which they prepare their mamaligo and the detestable
spirits which cheer their hearts on a hundred and ninety-four annual ftte days. The
cultivation of the vine, which was altogether neglected formerly, is likewise making
progress, and the produce of the foot-hills of the Carpathians is justly esteemed.
The time is past now when "Wallachian" and "herdsman" were synonyms
throughout the East. Still, nearly one-fourth of the area of the country remains
uncultivated, and the soil is allowed to lie fallow every third year. Moldavia is
better cultivated, upon the whole, than Wallaohia, and this is principally owing
to the fact of the Moldavian boyards residing upon their estates, and taking a pride
in their management. Progress, however, is apparent throughout the country, and
ihere is hardly a large estate without its steam threshing-machine. Even the
small proprietors are gradually introducing improved methods of cultivation, and
in many villages they have formed co-operative associations for the cultivation of
extensive tracts of country.*

Rumania is essentially an agricultural country. The. ores of the Oarpathians
are not utilised, for there are no roads which give access to them. The petroleum
wells only supplied 3,810,000 gallons in 1873. Four of the principal salt-works
are carried on by Qovemment, partly with the aid of convict labour, and yield
aunnally 80,000 tons of salt. The fisheries are of some importance. The inha-
bitants on the Lower Danube salt the fish which abound in the river and
the neighbouring lakes, and prepare caviare from sturgeons. There are no
manufactories excepting near the large towns, and the country is noted only for
its carpets, embroidered cloth and leather, and pottery. The housewives are
famed for their confectionery.

Oommeroe is annually on the inoreascf Its only outlet in former times was

* Of tlie total MM of BuiimbU 6,000,000 aons are ooro-Undi, 600,000 aorea prodnce wine, tobacco,
Ac., 6,000,000 oonaiat of Ibraata, O^MO.OOO of paakues and meadowa, and 8,000,000 are uncultiTated. In
1874 then ware 600,000 hoisea, 3,900,000 head of OHttle, 100,000 bafffJoM, 6,000,000 aheep, 1,200,000
pjgi, and 600,000 goata.

t Bxporto, average of 1866—76, £6,700,000 ; import*, £4,300,000.

■il.u.,,U.8!iU..-Jmw

iijj i mi ii i. .

jjtWSS-;

giaaa»fli'f»fer(yg?^ifri|iiiiri^

168

TUEKEY IN EUROPE.

I I

) ^

the Danube. Nearly the whole produce of the country was carried to Galatz,
at the bend of the river, upon which the principal routes of the country con-
verge. For many years to come the Danube will remain the g^reat commercial
highway of the country ; the Pruth, too, is navigable for small steamers as far as
Sculeni, to the north of Yassy ; whilst the numerous rivers descending from the
Carpathians will always prove useful for the conveyance of timber. New outlets
have been created by the construction of railways. Rumania is now joined to
the railway systems of Austria and Hungary, and the proposed bridge across the
Danube will T)lace it in direct communication with Varna, on the Black Sea.
The level nature of the country facilitates the construction of railways, but its
inhabitants look upon their extension with a feeling of apprehension, for they
fancy that a commercial invasion may bring in its train a military one.*

The Rumanians complain much about the left bank of the Sulina branch of
the Danube not having been ceded to them by the treaty of Paris. In former
times the whole of the delta of the Danube belonged to Moldavia, as is proved
by the ruins of a town built by the Rumanians on the southern bank of the
river, opposite to Eilia. Tip to the close of last century the jurisdiction of
the Moldavian governor of Ismail extended to the port of Sulina, and he was
charged with keeping the mouth of the river free from obstructions. The
Western powers, in spite of this, allowed Turkey to occupy the whole of the
delta, whilst they confined the Rumanians to the left bank of the Kilia branch.
The country, consequently, has no direct access to the Black Sea, except by means
of small vessels, for the mouth of the Eilia branch is obstructed by a bar.
M. Desjardins and other engineers who have devoted some attention to the
subject propose to construct a ship canal, about eight miles in length, which will
connect the Duiube with the Bay of Sibriani. In the meantime Rumania is at
liberty to make use of the Sulina mouth, which is kept open at the expense
of the Western powers, and a canal, therefore, hardly appears to be called for.

Bucharest (or Bucuresci, pron. Bukureshti), the capital of Wallaohia and of the
whole of Rumania, already numbers unongst the great cities of Europe. Next to
Oonstantinople and Buda-Pest, it is the most populous town of South-eastern
Europe, and its inhabitants fondly speak of it as the " Paris of the Orient."
The town not very long since .was hardly more than a collection of villages,
very picturesque from a distance on account of numerous towers and glittering
domes rising above the surrounding verdure, but very unpleasant within. But
Bucharest has been transformed rapidly with the increasing wealth of its
inhabitants, It may boast now of wide and clean" streets, bounded by fine
houses, of public squares full of animation, and of well-kept parks, and fully
deserves now its sobriquet of the " joyful city."

Yassy (Jasi, or Yashi), which became the capital of Moldavia when Suchova
was annexed by Austria, occupies a position far less central than does Bucharest,
but the fertility of the surrounding country, the proximity of the navigable

* RaOroada, 1,800 miles ; high-roadi, 2,650 maw ; telegrapha, 2,600 mflei ; atesman on the Daanba,
20, of 7,620 tona burden.

■m^wflNPNMMMNM^^

yss«m

BUMANIA.

169

ed to Galatz,

country con-

jat commercial

ners as far as

ding from the

New outlets

now joined to

ge aorom the

Black Sea.

ilways, but its

ision, for they

me.*

Una branch of
is. In former
1, as is proved
a. bank of the
jurisdiction of
%, and he was
uctions. The
whole of the
Kilia branch,
coept by means
ted by a bar.
ention to the
;th, which will
Rumania is at
%t the expense
I called for.
Dhia and of the
!ope. Next to
South-eastern
f the Orient."
m of villages,
and glittering
within. But
wealth of its
mded by fine
rks, and fully

when Sttchova
oes Bucharest,
the navigable

m Ob the DaaulM,

Pruth and of Russia, with which it maintains a brisk commerce, and its position
on the high-road joining the Baltic to the Black Sea, have caused it to increase
rapidly in population. It is a flourishing town now, though no longer the seat
of an independent government. Built upon the foot-hills of the Carpathians,
the city presents itself magnificently from afar, and its exterior is not belied by
its finer quarters. Jews, Armenians, Russians, Tsigani, Tartars, and Magyars
are numerously represented amongst its population, which is semi-Oriental in
type. We may almost fancy ourselves standing upon the threshold of Asia.

Fig. 47. — Vnw or BpeHAUHX.

nr-^'^ 1

The church of the Three Saints is distinguished for its originality, and is a master-
piece of ornamentation in the Moorish style.

All the other towns of Rumania are indebted for their importance to their
position on commercial high-roads. Botosani, in Northern Moldavia, lies on the
road to Ghdicia and Poland, and the same may be said of Falticeni, whose inter-
national fiurs are always well attended. Commerce causes the towns on the
Danube to flourish. Yilkof is a great mart for fish and caviare; EiUa, the
ancient Achillea, or city of Achilles ; Ismail, where the Russian Lipovani are
nnmorous ; Reni ; Galata, said to be an ancient colony of the Gblatians, now the

imk

.-•(

170

TUBEEY IN EUBOFE.

moat important commercial emporium on the Lower Danube, and Mat of tlie
European commissioners for its regulation ; Braila, a poor village as long as the
Turks held it, but now important on account of its grain trade, and the literary
centre of the Bulgarians. All these ton^ns, though situated on the banks of the
Danube, may be looked upon almost as ports of the Black Sea, through which the
produce of the country, and especially its grain, finds an outlet to foreign
markets. Giurgiu (Jurjevo) is the port of Bucharest ou the Danube ; Turnu-
Severinu is the gateway of Wallachia, below the great narrows of the river ;
Craiova, Fitesci, Ploiesti, Buzeu, and Focsani form the terminal points of the
roads descending from the high valleys of Transylvania. Alecsandria, a town
recently built in the centre of the plain which extends from Bucharest to the Olto,
has become a dep6t for agricultural produce.

Formerly, when incessant wars rendered a strong strategical position of
greater importance than commercial advantages^ the capital of the country was
established in the very heart of the Carpathians. In the thirteenth century it
was at Campu-Lungu, in the midst of the mountains, and subsequently it was
transferred to Curtea d'Argesia, founded by Prince Negoze Bessaraba in the
beginning of the sixteenth century. Of this ancient capital there remain now
only a monastery and a wonderful church : the walls, cornices, and towers are
covered with sculptures, like the work of a jeweller. Targu-Yestea, or Tirgovist,
on the Talomitza, was the third capital, but of the fine palace built there by the
domni there remain now only blackened walls.*

Rumania includes the two ancient principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia,
and forms a semi-independent stato under the protection of the great powers,
and paying an annual tribute of about £40,000 to the Porto. The country
has placed a member of the Hohenzollem family at the head of the State. The
constitution of 1866 confers upon this prince the right of appointing all public
functionaries and the officers of the army, of coining money, and of pardoning.
All laws require his signature b^ore they can be enforced. He enjoys a civil list
of £48,000.

The legislative powers, are vested in two chambers, the members of which are
elected by a process designed to favour the interests of the rich. All Bamanians
above twenty •one years of age, except servanto in receipt of wages, are inscribed in
the electoral lists. They are divided into four " colleges," or classes, having widely
different privileges. The first college includes all those electors of a district
whose income from landed property amounts to £132 a year ; electors having an
income of between £44 and £132 form a second college; merchants and

* Kamber of inhaUtsnti of the principal towni of BnouuiiA (olBoial ■paUing ; vnlgar or phooetio ipaO-
ing in parentheiii) : —

iralkuihia.—BvumnaA (Bncharat), 221,800; Floieiti (PloMhti), M,000; Bnik, 28,270; Oniova,
22,764 ; GKorgin (JnrjoTO, or OiurgaTo), 20,866 ; Baaen (Biuan), 11,100 ; Aleoaandria, 11,000 ; Gampnlnng,
9,900; Piteaci (Piteahti), 8,600; Cancalu, 8,600.

jr«UMM.— Jaii (Yawy), 90,000; Oalati (Oalats), 80,000; BotoHuu, 89,000; Barlada (Bjrlat),
26,600; Smaila (Innail), 21,000; Focaani, 20,800; Peatra, 20,000; Hnd, 18,600; Boman, 16,000;
Faltioeni, 16,000; Bacaa, 18,000; Dorohoi, 10,000; Bolgrado, 9,600; Ohilie (KiUa), 8,900; Rani,
7,600.

!I HW.!M. B I

ai> ! ",!. ' M] i 'i41 ' j

■■Wlte*

>.w <. ■■TMii!.^m\m i \mmjm\'MM&MW ii*'^

BUMANIA.

171

id seat of tlie
as long aa the
nd the literary
te banks of the
>ugh which the
det to foreign
nube ; Turnu-

of the river;

points of the
landria, a town
rest to the Olto,

cal position of
he country was
anth century it
equently it was
issaraba in the
sre remain now
and towers are
aa, or Tirgovist,
lit there by the

and Moldavia,
e great powers,
). The country
the State. The
inting all public
d of pardoning,
njoys a civil list

)rs of which are
All Rumanians
are inscribed in
8, having widely
rs of a district
stors having an
merchants and

fu or phonetio ipall-

a, 28,370; OraioTS,
11,000; Ounpalong,

Burladn (Byrkt),
I; Soman, 16,000;
^ilia), S,000; Bad,

tradesmen of the towns paying a tax of 23«. annually, Oovemment pensioners,
half-pay officers, professors anC graduates of universities, form the third college ;
and the remainder of the electors belong to the fourth college. The first two
colleges elect a deputy each for their district ; the third college elects from
one to six deputies for each town, according to its size ; the fourth college elects
delegates by whom the representatives are chosen.

The Senate represents more especially the large landed proprietors. Senators
must have an income of £352, and are elected by the landed proprietors whose
income amounts to at least £132 a year. The universities of Bucharest and
Tassy are represented by a senator each, elected by the professors, and the crown
prince, the metropolitan, and the diocesan bishops are ex-offieio members of the
Senate. Senators are elected for eight, and deputies for four years.

The Rumanian cor.stitutioii grants all those rights and privileges usually set
forth in documents of that kind. The right of meeting is guaranteed ; there is
liberty of the press ; the muuicipal pfficers and mayors are elected, but the Prince
may intervene in the case of towns inhabited by more than a thousand families ;
the punishment of death is abolished, except in time of war ; and education is free
and compulsory "wherever there are schools." There is liberty of religion,
though there is a State Ohuroh, and Christians alone can be naturalised. No
marriage is legal imless it has been consecrated by a priest. The Rumanian
Ohuroh, as far as dogmas are concerned, is that of the Greeks, but it is altogether
independent of the Greek patriarch residing at Oonstantinople, and is governed
by its own Synod. Most of the monasteries have been secularised.

The country is divided into four judicial districts, each having a court of
appeal, whilst a supreme court sits at Bucharest. The French codes, slightly
modified, were introduced in 1865.

The army is partly modelled upon that of Prussia. All citizens are called
upon to serve sixteen years, eight of which are passed in the standing army or its
reserve, and eight in the militia. The National Guard includes all men up to
fifty not belonging to either of the other categories. By calling out all its men,
Rumania can easily send an army of 100,000 men mto the field. There are like-
wise a few gunboats on the Danube.

The finances of Rumania are in a more satis&ctory condition than those of
most other states of Europe. The Gbvemment has certainly been living upon
loans, for which eight per cent, have to be paid, and nearly the whole of the annual
income is spent upon the payment of interest, the army, and the revenue senrices.
The credit of Rumania is, however, good, for the loans are secured upon vast
domains, the property of the secularised monasteries, several thousand acres of
which are sold every year. The sale of salt and the manu&cture of tobacco are
Government monopolies.*

Rumania is divided for administrative purposes into 3d departments and 164
districts, or pUui. There are 62 towns and 3,020 rural communes.

• Average umnalezpenditan, 1871—76, )e3,6«0,00O ; pnblio debt, £1»,A00.000, indadiag £11,000,000
eoq^nded upon raUwaya ; eatimatad valae of the domaina, £20,000,000.

SERVIA AND MONTENEGRO/

Sbrvia.

pEBYIA, like Rumania, was until recently a semi-independent state,
paying a tribute of £25,000 a year to the Porte, and submitting to
the presence of a Turkish garrison at Mali-Zvomik, on the Bosnian
frontier. But even these vestiges of ancient oppression irritated
the national pride to an inconceivable degree, and the moment
when a blow might be struck on behalf of Servia and the neighbouring countries
inhabited by Slavs still groaning under the Turkish yoke was looked forward to
with impatience. The blow has been struck, and were it not for the support
extended to it by the great powers, Servia would ere this have ceased to exist as a
semi-independent state.

Servia, within its actual limits, includes only a small portion of the northern
slope of the mountains rising in the centre of the Balkan peninsula. It is
separated from Austro-Hungary l^ the Save and the Danube, but no natural
boundary divides it from Turkey ; and the valleys of the Morava, the Drina, and
the Timok, the former in the centre, the others on the eastern and western
frontiers of the country, a£ford easy access to a foreign invader. The difficulties
to be surmounted by the latter would begin only after he had entered the vast
forests, the narrow valleys, and unfathomable kluurtu amongst the mountains.

The only plains of any extent are on the banks of the Save. Every whwe else
the country is hilly, rocky, or mountainous. The most prominent mountain
range is that which extends from the " Iron Gate " and the defile of Eiasan, on
the Danube, through Eastern Servia, and forms a marked continuation of the Tran-
sylvanian Alps, with which it agrees in geological structure. In the northern
portion of these Servian Carpathians, in the angle formed by the confluence of the
Danube and Morava, where masses of porphyry have burst through limestones
and schists, we find ourselves in- the great mineral region of Servia. Copp«<',

• Antlioritiw:— KaniU, "Sarbien;" TTbioini, "Lm Serbet do Toiqnie;" OypriMi Bobatt, «'Lm
Oaret de Turquia ; " Louii L6ger, " Le Monde Slave ; " Lcjeui, " YUte «a Montenegro."

"nmm

SEBTIA.

178

indent state,
ibmitting to
the Bosnian
ion irritated
the moment
ng countries
I forward to
the support
to exist as a

ihe northern
sula. It is
no natural
oDrina, and
and western
e difficulties
red the vast
untains.
rywhece else
nt mountain
>{ Kasan, on
of theTran-
)he northern
uence of the
limestones
ha. Copper*,
I Bobarti "Las

iron, and lead ores are being worked here, especially at Maidanpek and Euohaina,
but the old zino and silver mines have been abandoned. The valley of the
Timok, in the southern portion of this mountain range, is likewise rich in
minerals, and gold dust is collected from the sand of the river. There are few
valleys which can rival that of the Timok in beauty and fertility, and the basin
of Enyashevatz, where the head-streams of the river unite, is more especially
distinguished by its rural beauty, sparkling rivulets flowing through the
meadows, vines covering the hills, and forests the surrounding mountains. A
narrow defile immediately below this basin leads into the valley of Zaiohar, near
which, at Gamzigrad, there still exist ruins of a Roman fortress, its walls and
towers of porphyry in ft capital state of preservation. Looking northward from
this position we perceive the Stol (3,638 feet), whilst in the south-west there rises
a huge pyramid of chalk, which might almost be mistaken for the work of
human hands. This is the Btan (4,943 feet), at whose foot burst forth the hot
springs of Banya, the most frequented and efficacious of all Servia.

The valleys of the Morava and of its main tributary, the Bulgarian Morava,
divide Servia into two parts of unequal extent. The valley of the Morava forms
a natural highwi^ between the Danube and the interior of Turkey, passing
through the frontier town of Alexinatz. A Roman road formerly led along it.
Erushevatz, the ancient capital of the Servian empire, occupies the centre of a
plain in the valley of the Servian Morava, not far above the defile of Stalaj,
where the two Moravas unite at the foot of a promontory crowned with ruins.
The remains of the palace of the Servian tsar are still shown there, and it is stated
that Krushevatz, at the height of Servian power, had a circumference of three
leagues. It is only a poor village now.

The wildest mountain masses of Servia rise between the two Moravas, their
culminating point being the Eopaonik (6,710 feet), which attains a greater height
than any other summit between the Save and the Balkans. A wide prospect
of incomparable beauty opens from its base and rooky summit, extending south-
wards over plains and mountains to the pinnacles of the Skhar and the pyramidal
Dormitor. In itself, however, the Eopaonik is quite devoid of beauty, and where
its slopes have been deprived of the forests which once covered them, the bare
rocks of serpentine present a picture of utter desolation. Its vaUeys are far from
fertile, their inhabitants are sulky and poor, and many amongst them suffer from
goitre.

The mountains whii^h extend to the north of the Eopaonik, along both banks
of the Ibar, are for the most part still clothed with oaks, beeches, and conifers.
The broad valley of the Servian Morava, rivalling in fertility the plains of
Lombardy, penetrates into these mountain masses. But they rise again to the
north of that river, attaining a height of 3,622 feet In the mountain mass of
Rudnik. Oretaoeous rooks p^ominate, frequently surmounted by granitic
peaks. The valleys are narrow and tortuous. This is the famous Sumadia, or
" forest region " of Servia, which during the rule of the Turks offisred a safe
Myliim to the persecuted rayas, and in the war of independence became the
18

174

TUBKEY IN BXJEOPB.

citadel of Servian liberty. The little town of Emguyevatz, in one of its narrow
valleys, was ohoson to be the seat of government, and it still retains a gun
foundry, supplied with coal from the basin of Chupriya. A secluded capital like
this may have suited a people constantly engaged in war, but when Servia entered
upon a career of progress the seat of government was removed to Belgrad.
This city — the Beogr&d, or " white town," of the Servians, the Singidunum of the
Romans, and the Alba Oram of the Middle Ages — is delightfully situated upon a
hill near the confluence of the Danube and Save, and overlooks the swampy plains
of Syrmia. Belgrad, from its favourable geographical situation, has become a
place of much trade, and is likewise an important strategical position.

To the west of Belgrad we merely meet with hills, and with the fertile plains

Fig. 48.— CoNFLVRifCB or thb Danvbb and Sats.
1 1 : l.t

watered by the Eolubara. It is only towards the south-west, on nearing the
Drina, that we again find ourselves in the midst of calcareous mountains, attaining
a height of 3,630 feet, and connected with spurs of the Eopaonik in the south.
This is one of the most picturesque portions of the country. Ruins of houses
and fortresses abound, amongst which those of XTshitza are the most extensive.
These fortresses have, however, failed to protect the country, and no portion of
Servia has more fhiquently been laid waste by ruthless invaders.

In former times Servia could boast of some of the most extensive oak forest
in Europe^ " To kill a tree is to kill a Servian," says ar- jiu-en'j proverb, dating
probably from the time when ^e forests afforded shelter to the oppressed rayas.
This proverb, unfortunately, is no longer acted upon. In many parts of the
country the forests have disappeared, and the naked rook obtrudes itself as in

■■Hi

of its narrow
retains a gun
d capital like
Servia entered
i to Belgrad.
idunum of the
ituated upon a
swampy plains
has become a
1.
e fertile plains

m nearing the
ttains, attaining
k in the south,
iluins of houses
most extensive,
d no portion of

nsive oak forest
proverb, dating
>pprc<s8ed rayas.
ly parts of the
des itself as in

w*WBPW|»!«Mf^P»iP«WW!

jnji| i i fWiji^Wjiiiy^JjiIliiK

8EBVU.

176

Dalmatia and Oamiola. A peusant in need of a branch outa down an entire tree,
and the herdimen are not content to feed their bivouac firea with dry sticks, but
must needs hare an oak. The greatest enemies of the forests, next to herdsmen,
are goats and hogs, the former browsing upon small trees and leaves, the latter
laying bare the roots. An old tree, thrown down by a tempest or sacrificed to
the woodman's axe, is not replaced. Laws for the protection of the forests have
certainly been passed, but they are not enforced, and t><« wood required for fuel
has to be imported, in many instances, from Bosnia, .'he destruction of the
forests has naturally been attended by a deterioration of the climate. Mr. Edward
Brown, who travelled in Servia in the seventeenth century, tells us that the
Morava was then navigable for the greater part of its course ; but at the
present time, owing to its irregularities, it is no longer available as a navigable
channel.

Servia, by despoiling the mountains of great forests, has got rid of the wild
animak which formerly infested them. Wolves, bears, wild boars, previously so
numerous, have almost disappeared, and those still met with occasionally are
supposed to come from the forests of Syrmia, crossing the frozen Save in winter.
The fauna and flora of Servia are gradually losing their original featureit. The
introduction of the domesticated animals and cultivated plants from Austria has
given to Servia a South German aspect. Nor does the climate much ditter from
some parts of Southern Germany. Servia, though under the same latitude as
Tuscany, rejoices by no means in an Italian climate. The Daknatian or Bosnian
mountain ramparts shut out the vivifying south-westerly winds, whilst the dry
and cold vrinds from the steppes of Russia have free access over the plains of
Wallaohia. Strangers do not readily acclimatise themselves, owing to abrupt
changes of temperature.*

Servia includes within its limits but a small proportion of all the Servians of
Eastern Europe, but its inhabitants are probably not far wrong when they look
upon themselves as the purest representatives of their race. They are, as a rule,
tall, vigorous, with broad shoulders and an erect head. Their features are
marked, the nose straight and often aquiline, and the cheek-bones a trifle
prominent ; the hair is abundant and rarely black, the eyes are piercing and
cold, and a well-cultivated moustache imparta a military air to the men. The
women, without being good-looking, have a noble presence, and their semi-
oriental costume is distinguished by an admirable harmony of colours. Even
in the towns, where French fashions carry the day, Servian ladies occasionally
wear the national dress, consisting of a red vest, a belt and chemisette embroi-
dered with pearls, strings of sequins, and a little fea stuck jauntily upon the
head.

Unfortunately the custom of the country requires that a Servian woman

should have an abundance of black hair and a daezUng white complexion. Paint,

dyes, and false tresses are universal in town and country. Even in the most

remote villages the peasant women dye their hair and paint their cheeks, lips,

* Mesa tenpanton at Bdgnd, 48* F. ; exiremas, 106* and 3*; rang*, 108* F.

"3»SBS!'.;

176

TURKEY IN EUROPE.

and eyebrows, frequently making uae of poiaonou* aubitanoei injurioui to health.
Rich oountry>people are, moreover, in the habit of making an exhibition of
their wealth by meana of their clothes, which they overload with gold and silver
ornaments and gewgaws of every kind. In some districts brides and young
women wear a most extraordinary head-dress, consisting of an enormous crescent
of cardboard, to^ which are attached nosegays, leaves, peacock feathers, and
artificial roses with silver petals. This heavy head-dress may symbolise the
" burdens of matrimony ; " it certainly exposes the wearer to great incon-
venience.

The Servians are honourably distinguished amongst the people of the East
by the nobility of their character, their dignified bearing, and, in spite of recent
events, incontestable bravery. For centuries they resisted oppression, and, not-
withstanding their isolution and poverty, they conquered their independence in the
-beginning of this century. They are said to be idle and suspicious— qualities
which their former servitude accounts for — but at the same time honest and
truthflil. It is difficult to cheat them, but they themselves never cheat. Equals
when under the dominion of the Turks, they are equals still. " There are no
nobles amongst us," they say, " for we are all nobles." In their dear and
sonorous language, so well suited to oratory, they fraternally address eaoh other
in the second person singular. Even prisoners are looked :ipon as brothers, and
it is customary to permit a condemned criminal to visit hh family on his giving
his word of honour to return to prison.

The ties of family and friendship are a great power in Sorvia. It fk«quently
happens that young men who have learnt to like eaoh other take an uath of
fraternal friendship, in the manner of the brothers in anna of Scythia, and this
fraternity of heart is more saored to them than, that of blood. It is a remarkable
fact, and one which speaks favourably for the high moral tone of the Servians,
that their deep family affections and frienutuiipq do not lead to incessant acts
of retaliation and vengeance, as amongst theii neighbours the Albanians. The
Servian is brave ; he is always armed, but he is also peaceable, and does bot
demand blood for blood. Still, like other men, he is not perfect As an
agriculturist he follows the more obsolete routine. He is ignorant and luper-
stitious. The peasants firmly believe in vampires, sorcerers, and magicians, and,
in order to guard against their evil influences, they rub themselves with garlic on
Christmas-eve.

Land is held by families in common, as amongst the other Slavs of the South.
The ancient zadruga, such as it existed in the Middle Ages, is still preaerved,
and has never been interfered with by Roman or German laws, as in Dalmatia or
Slavonia. On the contrary, the law of Servia protects this ancient form of tenure,
and, in oases of a disputed will, relativea by adoption take precedence of those by
blood. Servian patriots are desirous to see these ancient customs respected, and
the members of the Skupthtina, or parliament, have never attacked this common
proprietorship in the soil, for they look upon it as one of the surest safeguards
against pauperism. Servia offers the best opportunity for studying agrioultozal

^'wmmmsmmmsm!

SEBYIA

177

ioui to health.

exhibition of
;old and riWer
es and young
rmous orescent

feathers, and
symbolise the
I great inoon-

le of the East
ipite of recent
•ion, and, not*
pendenoe in the
sioos — qualities
me honest and
cheat. Equals
"There are no
their dear and
Iress each other
M brothers, and
y on his giving

It frequently
take an uath of
loythia, and this

is a remarkable
of the Servians,
» incessant acts
Albanians. The
e, and does Hot
perfect. As an
rant and super*

magicians, and,
as with garlic on

ftvs of the South.
I still preserved,
kS in Dalmatia or
,t form of tenure,
snce of those by
OS respected, and
ced this common
surest safeguards
ying agricultural

it.iroi- '^f family life oquBlly
eveni ,sf (levored to pleoflure.

.(•)(enda of old,
zk. All thow
Tb*
the
U8eful

communities of this kind. Nowhere else ar^ tl

delightful. The heavy day's work is followe<l by t>

The children gather round their parents to \\H»x\ the ifsrlil

or the young men sing, accompanying themselvo ipon the

belonging to the association are looked upon as ni<ff*>^cra uf i e Um\\

ttaryethina, or head of thn cf^miuaaity, has charge of the edwcati<>

children, whom he is required to bring up as " good and honest citize:

to their fatherland." Yet, in spite of all these advantages, the nadruyw

from year to year. The demands of commerce and industry interfere wuh t htir

accustomed routine, and they will hardly survive much longer in their present

form.

A great portion of Eastern Servia has been occupied by Wallaohians, who
were invited to the country after the war of independence, when vast districts
had been depopulated. These new settlers, being more prolific than their
neighbours, gradually gain upon th? Servians, and already some 6f their colonies
are met with on the western bank of the Morava. Many Servian village* have
become Wallachian as fur as language can make them so. It is a strange fact
that these Rumanian colonists should prosper in Servia, whilst Servian colonists
from Hungary and Slavonia do not.

Zinsares, or Southern Wallachians, are met with in most towns, where they
work as masons, carpenters, and bricMayers.

Bulgarians have settled in the valleys of the Timok and Morava, in the south*
east. They are highly esteemed for their industry, and quickly assimilate with
the Servians. Near Alexinats there is a small colony of Albanians, whilst
Tsigani, or gipsies, are met with in all parts of the country. They profess to
be Ohristians, and one of their principal occupations is the manufacture of bricks.
The Spanish Jews, so numerous formerly at Belgrad, have most of them retired to
Semlin, their places being filled by German and Hungarian Jews.*

Taken as a whole, Servia was a prosperous country before the recent war.
The population has increased rapidly since the declaration of independence, but
is not nearly as dense yet aa in the neighbouring plains of Hungary or Wallachia.
Scarcely one-eighth of the area is under cultivation, and agricultural operations
are for the most part carried on in the rudest manner. Excepting in the most
fertile valleys, such as that of the Lower Timok, the fields are allowed to lie
fallow every second year. The exports of Servia clearly exhibit the rudimentary
condition of its agriculture, for they consist principally of lean pigs, which find
their way in thousands to the markets of Germany, and of cattle. The peasant
of Servia derives most of his revenue from the sale of these animals. Within the
last few years he has also exported some wheat to the markets of Western Europe. If
it were not for the Bulgarian labourers who annually flock to the country in search
of field-work, Servia would not produce sufiicient com for its own consumption.f

* TIm population of ServU in 1976 wu 1,877,068, of whom aboat 1,110,000 were Serriau, 160,000
WaUaohiana, 'iO.OOO Zinaarea, A0,000 Bulgarian*, 80,000 gipaiea, &a

t The exporU in 1874 were valued at £1,400,000, and included 84,104 head of oattla, 271,210 pigs
1,172,671 aheep and goat akina, wheat, laki, Ac.

TUBKIST IN RUBOPE.

I ; t

ItuluHtry throughout the country in ■till in itH infunoy. The Servian deapiie*
all manual labour excepting agriculture, and it in for this reaaoa he looka down
upon the Gorman mechanics in the towna. Young men of the leaat education
aapiro to government employment, and the bureaucratic plague, which haa
wrought such injury in the neighbouring Auatro* Hungarian empire, is thua being
developed. There are, however, others who have studied at foreign universitiea,
and who devote their energiea to the spread of education at home. The progreaa
made in this respect within the last few years has been enormous. In 1830 the
sovereign of the country could neither reitd nor write, whilst, at the preaent time,
Servia, with its numerous schools and colleges, is becoming the intellectual centre
of the Balkan peninsula.*

The Servians have used their best efforts to remove from their country
everything reminding them of the ancient dominion of the Mussulman, and they
have nearly accomplished this. The Belgrad of the Turks has been converted
by them into a Western city, like Vienna or Buda>Pest ; palaces in European
style have arisen in the place of mosques and minarets ; magnificent boulevards
intersect the old quarters of the town ; and the esplanade, where the Turks
exposed the heads of their victims stuck on poles, haa been converted into a
park. Shabatz, on the Save, has become a "little Paris;" Semendria
(Smederevo), on the Danube, which gave the signal of rebellion in 1806, haa
arisen like a phoenix from its ashes; whilst Posharevatz, known as Passaroyits
in the history of treaties, haa likewise been transformed, i 'regress is slower iu
the interior, but good roads now extend to the most remote comers of the
country.

Servia is an hereditary constitutional monarchy. The Prince, or KhioM,
governs with the aid of responsible miniaters and of a senate; he promulgates
the laws, appoints all public functionaries, commands the army, and signs the
treaties. He rejoices in a civil list of £20,000. His successor, in the case of
there being no male heir, is to be elected by universal suffrage. The Skupahtina,
or national parliament, traces back its origin to the earliest times of a Servian
monarchy. It numbers 134 members, of whom one-fourth are nominated by the
Prince, and the remainder elected by all male taxpayers. This parliament
exercises legislative functions conjointly with the Prince. In addition to it there
exist rural parliaments in each of the 1,063 ohthUnat, or parishes, and these enjoy
extended rights of local self-government The constitution provides for the
election of a Skupahtina of 536 members by universal suffirage, should extra-
ordinary events make such a meeting desirable. The affairs of the country have
hitherto been managed satisfactorily. A revenue of £554,000 sufficed for the
requirements of the State, and up to the outbreak of the war there existed no
public debt.

Religious liberty exists, but the Greek Church is declared to be that of the
State. It has been independent of the Patriarch of Oonstuitinople since 1376, and

« There are a univenity, a military academy, a Mminary, an agricultural Mhool, 11 raperior sohooli,
and 377 elementarj- Khoola, with M7 leachera, and about 10,000 pupils. .

.iia-LiiyAij

g ,W:Wg^.

-;,.i4yitty»:iyiua iiinmniiin.'HiiMiBiiH.' miii.Ui.

■•"•mmmnwim^

IIONTENKORO.

tft

irrian deipIiM
le looks down
eiut education
e, which hoi
, ia thus being
1 universitiee,
The progrets
In 1830 the
B present time,
elleotual centre

their country
Iman, and they
been converted
es in European
cent boulevards
lere the Turki>
mverted into a
Semendria
n in 1806, has

as Pflssarovita
isB is slower in
comers of the

inoe, or Knian,
he promulgates
, and signs the
', in the case of
The SkupsAtina,
les of a Servian
)minated by the
rhis parliament
lition to it there
and these enjoy
rovides for the
>, should extra-
he country have
suflSced for the
here existed no

be that of the
I since 1376, and

, 11 raperior Mhodb,

is governed by a synod consisting of the Archbishop of Delgrad und tho I)ii*hnps
of Uahit;(u, Negotin, and Hhabats. The former ii appointed by tho Prince. The
high dignitaries of tho Church are in receipt of salaries, but ordinary pricnta are
dependent upon fees and gifts. The monasteries havo been 4upprcsAod by a recent
decision of the Skujuhtina, and their revenues are to bo dovoto<l to educational
purposes.

t The military forces of the country consist of a standing army of about 4,000
men, and of a militia including all men capable of bearing arms up to fifty years
of age. The first ban of this militia is called out annually for training, the second
ban only in case of war. Servia is thus able to place an army of 160,000 men in
the field, but the efficiency of these badly trained troops leaves much to be desired,
a« has been shown by recent events.

The country is divided into seventeen okruthiat, or districts, vis. Alexinntz,
Delgrad, Ohachak, Ohupriya, Enyashevatz, Eraguyevats, Kraina (capital, Negotin),
Krushevatz, Podrinye (Loznitsa), Posharevata, Rudnik (Milanovitz), Shabutz,
Smederevo, Tserna-Reka (Zaichar), Ushitza, Yulyevo, and Yagodina. The only
towns of importance are Belgrad (27,000 inhabitanto), Posharevati (7,000 inha-
bitants), Shabatz (6,700 inhabitants), and Eraguyevatz (0,000 inhabitants).

MONTENRORO.

Thb name Montenegro is a translation of the Servian Tsrnagora, or "black
mountains." It is a curious designation for a country of white or greyish
calcareous mountains, whose colour even strikes the voyager on the Adriatic.
The name, according to some, is to be taken figuratively and is to be understood
as designating a country of " bad " or " black " men ; uthers are of opinion that
it refers to ancient pine forests which have now disappeared.

The Turks have never succeeded in subjugating the Montenegrins, who found
safety in their mountain fastnesses. Occasionally the Montenegrins placed
themselves under the protection of a foreign power, such as that of Yenice, but
they never acknowledged the Sultan as their sovereign. The mountains, how-
ever, to which they owe their independence, are at the same time their weakness,
tor they isolate them from, the rest of the world. A high range of mountains,
as well as a strip of Turkish territory, separates them from their Servian kinsmen ;
another range, held by the Austrians, cuts them off from the Gulf of Oattaro and
the Adriatic Sea. The small Lake of Scutari (Skodra) is their sea ; the Zeta and
Moracha, which feed it, are their national rivers. If the Montenegrins were
permitted to des:end into the plains without sacrificing their independence, the
and plateaux now inhabited by them would aoon be deserted by all but
shepherds.

The eastern portion of Montenegro, which is known as the Berda, and drained
by the Moracha and its tributaries, is comparatively of easy access. The mighty
dolomitic pyramids of the Dormitor (8,550 feet) command its valleys in the

SS3S

^fiSSM»>fet!^i&;i-yii.^ift^

v.;^--*.^(«»i

180

TURKEY IN BUBOPB.

north, whilst the rounded heights of Eom (9,000 feet) bound it on the east.
The Berda differs in no respect from most other mountain countries. It is only
in the western portion of the country, in Montenegro proper, that we meet with
features altogether distinct. We there find ourselves in a labyrinth of cavities,
valleys, and depressions, separated by craggy calcareous ridges, abounding in
narrow fissures, the hiding-places of adders. Only the mountaineers are able to
find their way in this inextricable labyrinth. " When Qod created the world,"
they tell you laughing, " he held in his hand a sack full of mountains. Right

Fig. 49. — MOMTBKBORO AND THI LaKI OF SkODBA.

SoOe 1 : l,mo,000.

•tbltOm.

above Montenegro the sack burst, and hence tLe fearful chaos of rooks which you
see before you."

Seen from an immense height, Montenegro resembles a vast honeycomb with
thousands of cells, and this appearance is duo to aqueous agencies. The water at
one spot has scooped out wide valleys, whilst elsewhere its long-continued action
has. merely succeeded in producing narrow rtMft'n<w, or sink-holes. After heavy rains
th: waters accumulate into lakes, covering fields and pastures, but ordinarily they
run off rapidly through sink-holes concealed by brambles, only to reappear again
near the seashore as abundant springs of bluish water. The Zeta, the principal
river of Montenegro, is fed by rivulets which are swallowed up in the valley <^

«aPqWSPp!"W!Sff

mmmmmmm

tWL^^iMwtmsss^

MONTENEOBO.

181

rooks which you

Niksioh to the north, and find their way to it through subterranean channels.
Similar phenomena have already been noticed in connection with Bosnia (p. 127).
The capital of Montenegro, Tsetinye (Cetinje), lies in the very midst of the
mountains, in the centre of an ancient lake basin. Formerly it was accessible
only by a most difficult mountain path, for the Montenegrins took care not to
construct roads, which would open their country to the g^ns of their enemies.
The requirements of commerce, however, have recently induced them to connect
it with Cattaro by means of a carriage road.

The Montenegrins are the kinsmen of the Servians of the Danube, but their
life of almost incessant warfare, the elevation and sterility of their country, as
well as the vicinity of the Albanians, have developed special features amongst
them. The quiet life of the plains is unknown to the Montenegrin ; he is violent,
and ready at all times to take up arms ; in hit belt he carries a whole arsenal
of pistols and knives, and even when working in the fields he has a carbine by
his side. Until recently the price of blood was still enacted, and a scratch even
had to be paid for. This blood vengeance was transmitted from generation to
generation, until the number of victims was equal on both sides, or a monetary
compensation, usually fixed at ten sequins, had been accepted. Cases of hereditary
veng^eance are rare now, but the ancient " custom " could be suppressed only by
a law of terrible severity, which pimishes murderers, traitors, rebels, thieves twice
convicted, incendiaries, and scofiisrs at religion alike with death. Oomparod with
the Servian of the Danube, the Montenegrin is a barbarian. Nor is his personal
appearance equally prepossessing. The women, however, have regular features,
and, though less dignified in their carriage than their kinswomen of Servia, they
possess, as a rule, more grace and elasticity of movement. They are very
prolific, and if a family increases too rapidly it is customary for a friend to
adopt one or more of the children.

Up to the invasion of the Osmanli the upper valleys of Montenegro were the
home merely of herdsmen and brigands. But the inhabitants of the \oyret valleys
were forced to retire to these austera heights ia order to escape slavery. They
cultivated the soil, bred cattle and sheep, and sometunes robbed their neighbours.
But the sterile soil yielded only a scanty harvest, and famines were by no means
nnfrequent. Bosnian Uskoches, who fled to the mountains in order to escape
Mussulman (oppression, only added to the misery by reduoiag to a minimum the
share of cultivable soil which fell to the lot of each family. The pastures are
still hdd in common, in accordance with the andent customs of the Servians.
According to a recent census, Montenegro is said to have a population of nearly
200,000 souls. This may be an' exaggeration, but the country is not even able
to support 120,000 inhabitants without drawing supplies from beyond, and the
armed incursions into neighbouring districts might thus be excused as an " econo-
mical necessity." Death from hunger or on the field of battle was often the only
alternative. The Montenegrin always prefers the latter, for he does not fear
death, and " May you never die in bed ! " is a wish universally expressed at the
cradle of a new-born infiint. If a man is unfortunate enough to die of disease,

160

TURKEY m BUBOPE.

north, whilst the rounded heights of Eom (9,000 feet) bound it on the eait.
The Berda differs in no respect from most other mountain countries. It is only
in the western portion of the country, in Montenegro proper, that we meet with
features altogether distinct. We there find ourselves in a labyrinth of cavities,
valleys, and depressions, separated by craggy calcareous ridges, abounding in
narrow fissures, the hiding-places of adders. Only the mountaineers are able to
find their way in this inextricable labyrinth. " When God created the world,"
they tell you laughing, " he held in his hand a sack full of mountains. Bight

Fig. 49. — MoifTBKBORO AND TKB liAKB OP SxODBA.
Beale 1 : 1,860,000.

•aftXilM.

above Montenegro the sack burst, and hence tLe fearful chaos of rooki which you
see before you."

Seen from an immense height, Montenegro resembles a vast honeycomb with
thousands of cells, and this appearance is duo to aqueous agencies. The water at
one spot has scooped out wide valleys, whilst elsewhere its long-continued action
has, merely succeeded in producing narrow rudinaa, or sink-holes. After heavy rains
th^'. waters accumulate into lakes, covering fields and pastures, but ordinarily they
run off rapidly through sink-holes concealed by brambles, only to reappear again
near the seashore as abundant springs of bluish water. The Zeta, the principal
riv^ oi Montenegro, is fed by rivulets which are swallowed up in the valley <^

!iw>mis.M.4.»iwtjMa.. i . i i4,,i..j»i '

.-jrrc* * v^vw.&^^*«.^

MONTENEOBO.

181

on the eaai
8. It is only
we meet with
th of cayities,
abounding in
ta are able to
d the world,"
itains. Right

HN^-

,^M

E^' ,-^

wka which you

loneycomb with
The water at
mtinued action
fiber heavy rains
ordinarily they
reappear again
i, the principal
n the valley oi

Niksich to the north, and find their way to it through subterranean channels.
Similar phenomena have already been noticed in connection with Bosnia (p. 127).
The capital of Montenegro, Tsetinye (Cetinje), lies in the very midst of the
mountains, in the centre of an ancient lake basin. Formerly it was accessible
only by a most difficult mountain path, for the Montenegrins took care not to
construct roads, which would open their country to the guns of their enemies.
The requirements of commerce, however, have recently induced them to connect
it with Gattaro by means of a carriage road.

The Montenegrins are the kinsmen of the Servians of the Danube, but their
life of almost incessant warfare, the elevation and sterility of their country, as
well as the vicinity of the Albanians, have developed special features amongst
them. The quiet life of the plains is unknown to the Montenegrin ; he is violent,
and ready at all times to take up arms ; in hii belt he carries a whole arsenal
of pistols and knives, and even when working in the fields ho has a carbine by
his side. Until recently the price of blood was still enacted, and a scratch even
had to be paid for. This blood vengeance was transmitted from generation to
generation, until the number of victims was equal on both sides, or a monetary
compensation, usually fixed at ten sequins, had been accepted. Cases of hereditary
veng^nce are rare now, but the ancient " custom " could be suppressed only by
a law of terrible severity, which punishes murderent, traitors, rebels, thieves twice
convicted, incendiaries, and scoffers at religion alike with death. Compared with
the Servian of the Danube, the Montenegrin is a barbarian. Nor is his personal
appearance equally prepossessing. The women, however, have regular features,
and, though less dignified in thdr carriage than their kinswomen of Servia, they
possess, as a rule, more grace and elasticity of movement. They are very
prolific, and if a family increases too rapidly it is customary for a friend to
adopt one or more of the children.

Up to the invasion of the Osmanli the upper valleys of Montenegro were the
home merely of herdsmen and brigands. But the iohabitants of the ^ower valleys
were forced to retire to these austerd heights in order to escape shivery. They
cultivated the soil, bred cattle and sheep, and sometunes robbed their neighbours.
But the sterile soil jridded only a scanty harvest, and &mines were by no means
nnfrequent. Bosnian Uskoohes, who fled to the mountains in order to escape
Mussulman oppression, only added to the misery by reducing to a minimum the
share of cultivable soil which fell to the lot of each fanuly. The pastures are
still held in common, in accordance with the ancient customs of the Servians.
According to a recent census, Montenegro is said to have a population of nearly
200,000 souls. This may be an' exaggeration, but the country is not even able
to support 120,000 inhabitants without drawing supplies from beyond, and the
armed incursions into neighbouring districts might thus be excused as an " econo-
mical necessity." Death from hunger or on the field of battle was often the only
alternative. The Montenegrin always prefers the latter, for he does not fear
death, and " May you never die in bed ! " is a wish universally expressed at the
cradle of a new-born infant. If a man is unfortunate enough to die of disease,

182

TUBKEY IN EUEOPB.

or from old age, his friends excuse him euphemistically by charging the " Old
Murderer " with his death.

The warlike incursions of former days have ceased now, for the boundaries
of Montenegro have been defined by an international commission, and the
mountaineers have established friendly relations with their neighbours, from
whom they are able now to purchase what they require. In summer they permit
the inhabitants of the coast to take their cattle into the hills, whilst in winter
they themselves descend to the seaboard, where they are sure now of a friendly
reception.

The Montenegrins have always been anxious to possess a port on the Adriatic,
which would enable them to import freely, and without the intervention of the
merchants of Cattaro, the powder, salt, and other articles they require, and to
export their own produce. Their commerce, even now, is of some importance.
They export smoked mutton, sheep and goats, skins, tallow, salt fish, cheese,
honey, sumach, insect powder, &c., of an estimated value of £40,000 annually.

The Montenegrins, like their neighbours the Albanians, frequently leave their
country for a time in order to seek work in the great cities of the East. Thou-
sands of them are to be met in Constantinople, where they manage to live
on friendly terms with the Turks, their " hereditary enemies." They are even to
be found in Egypt

The Tsigani are the only strangers met with in the country. They resemble
the Servians in language, dress, religion, and customs, and only differ from them
by working at a useful trade, that of smiths. Their industry, however, causes
them to be objects of disdain, and they are not permitted to intermarry with
Servians.

The government of Montenegro is a curious mixture of democratic, feudal, and
despotic institutions. The citizens fancy that they are equals, but they are not,
for certain families exercise a powerful influence. The sovereign, who appro-
priates, about, half the revenue of the country, and receives 8,000 ducats annually
from Russia in addition, appoints the members of the Senate, or Sotyet. The
Skupshtina includes the glamrs, or chiefs, of the thirty-nine tribes (pkmena), but
has hitherto limited itself to applauding the " speech from the throne." There
is a body- guard of a hundred men, and the whole of the male population is
bound to take the field under the leadership of Serdars. The country is divided
into eight tuiM^a, or districts, of which four (Bielopavliehka, Uskoohka, Morachka,
and Yaaoyevichka, with the country of the Euchi), constitute the Berda, and
four (Katunska, Liesanska, Riechka, and Tsermniohka) belong to Montenegro
proper. Each of these districts is placed under a knim. The families and
associations of families (hraatvos) are governed by hotpodara and atarahituu,
dependent upon the tribal chiefs, or glavara.

„, .,.^^,.„„..^.r^ -^■M^^'i^^ ^^-.A.^mmmmmmmi, i^.a..,..M>^.....^^^^,,,wfe!H%ajaa^^

ng the •* Old

le boundaries
on, and the
hbours, from
r they permit
ilst in winter
of a friendly

the Adriatic,
rention of the
quire, and to
,e importance.
b fish, cheese,
annually,
tly leave their
East. Thou-
lanage to live
ey are even to

They resemble
ler from them
owever, causes
itermarry with

bic, feudal, and
; they are not,
fn, who appro-
Lucats annually
>r Socyet. The
I {pktnena), but
irone." There
) population is
intry is divided
ilka, Moraohka,
she Berda, and
to Montenegro
B families and
and itarshituu,

m^vr^irff^^mmff^^r '

',i^ i^;;^triiW:m«mmthyii*ii^ ^

ITALY/

I. GSNERAL AsPBCm.

I HE limits of the Italian peninsula have been most distinctly traced
by nature. The Alps, which bound it in the north, from the
promontories of Liguria to the mountainous peninsula of Istiia,
present themselves like a huge wall, the only breaches in which
are formed by passes situated high up in the zones of pines,
pastures, or eternal snows. Italy, like its two sister peninsulas of Southen
Europe, thus constitutes a world of its own, destined by nature to become the
theatre of a special evolution of humanity Its delightful climate, beauteous
skies, and fertile fields distinguish it in a marked manner from the countries
lying beyond the Alps ; and an inhabitant of the latter who descends the sunny
southern slope of this dividing range cannot fail to perceive that everything
around him has changed, and that he has entered a " new'world."

The protecting barrier of tbe Alps and the sea which bounds it have
imparted to Italy a distinct individuality. All its countries, from the pkins of
Lombardy to the shores of Sicily, resemble each other in certain respects. There
1% a sort of family Ukeness about them ; but still what deli<thtful contrasts, what

• AvthoritiM:— ZacMwgni Orludini, "Oongnfia flaiM, itoiiM e rtstktiw ddl' IteUa e dello ma
lioto;" liamoechi, "DMoririoned'lUlk;" Anrnto Amati, "LlUlkiotto I'Mpettofinoo, ^torico, wUrtioo
e itatitlico;" Taine, - Voyi«een Italia;" Ongoroviiu. " Wandwjahrein Italien," " QeMhiohto der Stadt
Bom;" AmuiU SiauaK), "Le Alpi ohe dBgonol'Itelis;" 0»ttiu>«o • Lombaidini, " Noticia natunU •
c5wll«il»L<mibi«di»;" LombMdiiii,"HMMii» wibepeninM," «CondWoi»idi»ulHi»dislPo;" MartiBi,
Qaauadi, "Temiaa aopwAolato da la vaU«a da P« ; " Da Mo tlUat, " Anciam gkoiam du Tenant in«ri-
dkoal daa Alpea," "Mtooiraa diran;" Bertolotti, ** Lignria maritima;" Tkigioai To««|iti, " Voyaga
aa Toacana;" SalTagnoU Mardwttt, "Maremma Toaoine;" Ho«l dei Vargara, "L'Etmrie at laa
itraaanca ; " BauM, " Fonillca at d«ooavertoa ; " Oioidano, " Roma e ano tenitorio ; " Ponai, " Hiatoita
natoraDa du Latimn ; " Da P»ony, « Mania PonUna ; " Worka of D' Amptea and Btandlul, te. ; Darfaa,
•• POgrioMga of tha Tftar ; " Fnada Way, " Borne ; ' SpaUanaani, •' Voyaga dana lai Deux-Bidiea ; "
Smyth. " Sicily and ita lalaada ; " Dolomiau, " Voyaga mx lie. da Lipari ; " Do Qoatrefiigaa, " Soura-
Bin d'aa natumMata; " La Marmora, "Voyage en Sardaigna, Deacriptton atatiitiqsc, phyriqna <*
politioae de Mle;" Mantogaan, "Proffli a pae««gi ddla Saidagna ; " Von Maltaan, "Balaa auf dw
In«al Sardiaifln ; " Spano. '• Itinerario dalia Sardegna ; " Oorrenti a Maeatri. " Statiatioa deU' Italia."

jifjiijiiDiit

184

ITALY.

picturesque variety, do we not meet with ! Most of these contrasts are due to
the Apennines, which branch off from the southern extremity of the French Alps.
At first they run close to the seashore, like a huge wall supported at intervals
by powerful buttresses ; subsequently they traverse the whole of the peninsula.
At times they are reduced to a narrow ridge, at others they spread out into vast
masses, rising in plateaux or ramifying into chains and promontories. Biver
valleys and plains intersect them in all directions ; lakes and filled-up lake basins
are spread out at the foot of their cliffs ; and numerous volcanoes, rising above the
general level, contrast, by their regular form, with the rugged declivities of
the Apennines. The sea, following these sinuositiee in the relief of the ground,
forms a series of bays, arranged with a certain degree of symmetry. In the
north these bays do not much encroach upon the land, but in the south they
penetrate deeply, and almost form veritable gulfs. There once existed an Italy
of granitic rocks, but it exists no longer, for the rocks of the Apennines and of
the plains teach us that the Italy of the present is of recent origin, and that the
many islands of which it consisted formerly were imited into a single peninsula
88 recently as the Eocene epoch.

Italy, compared with G^reece, exhib.ts much sobriety in its configuration.
Its mountains are arranged in more regular ridges, its coasts are less indented, its
small archipelagos bear no comparison with the Oyclades, and its three great
dependent islands, Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, are regular in their contours.
Indeed, its contours mark its intermediate position between joyous Greece and
severe Iberia. Thus there exists a correspondence between geographical position
and contours.

Italy, as a whole, contrasts in a remarkable manner with the Balkan penin-
sula. The former &ces the iBgean, and looks towards the east, whilst in the
truly peninsular portion of Italy, to the south of the plains of Lombordy, the
westerly slopes offer most life. Secure harbours are most numerous on the shores
of the Tyrrhenian, and the largest and most fertile plains slope down towards
that sea. It results from this that the western slopes of the Apennines have
given birth to the most enterprising and intelligent populations, who have taken
the lead in the political history of their country. The west represents the light,
whilst the east, bounded as it is by the Adriatic, an inland sea almost, a simple
gulf, represents the night. True, the plains of Apulia, though on the east, are
wealthier and more populous than the mountain regions of Calabria, but the
vicinity of Sicily, nevertheless, even there insures the preponderance of the
western littoral. Whilst Greece was in the height of her glory, whilst every
initiative went forth from Athens, the cities of Asia Minor, and the islands of the
^gean, those republics which looked towards the east, such as Tarentnm, Loori,
Sybaris, Syracuse, and Catania, enjoyed a pre-eminence over the cities on the
western littoral. The physical corifiguration of Italy thus facilitated the march
of civilisation from the south-east to the north-west, from Ionia to GauL The
Gulf of Taranto and the eastern coasts of Greater Greece and Sicily were fireely
exposed to HeUenio influences, whilst further north the peninsula fiuses about to

OENBBAL ASPECTS.

I are due to
French Alps.

at intervala
le peninsula.
[>ut into vast
>ries. Biver
p lake basins
ag above tbe
leolivities of

the ground,
try. In tbe
e south they
ted an Italy
mines and of
and that the
(le peninsula

tonfiguration.
indented, its
I three great
eir contours.
I Greece and
lical position

alkan penin-
rhilst in the
ombardy, the
on the shores
lown towards
ennines have
haye taken
nts the Hght,
nost, a simple

the east, are
bria, but the
trance of the

whilst every
islands of the
'entum, Locri»

cities on the
Bd the march
o GauL The
ywere fireely
faces about to

the west as it were. There can be no doubt that these features greatly facilitated
the expansion of ideas in the direction of Western Europe, and that if it had been
otherwise civilisation would have taken another direction.

For nearly two thousand years, from the fall of Carthage to the discovery
of America, Italy remained the centre of the civilised world. It maintained its
hegemony either by conquest and organisation, as in the case of the " Eternal
Oity," or by the power of its genius, the relative liberty of its institutions, its
sciences, arts, and commerce, as in the times of Florence, Genoa, and Venice.
Two of the greatest events in history, the political imification of the Mediter-
ranean world under the laws of Rome, and at a later epoch the regeneration
of the human mind, so appropriately termed " Renaissance," originated in
Italy. It behoves us, therefore, to inquire into the geographical conditions
which may account for this preponderance during these two ages in the life of
mankind.

Mommsen and others have pointed out the favourable position of Rome as an
emporium. From the very first that city became the commercial centre of the
neighbouring populations. Built in the centre of a circus of hills, and on the
banks of a navigable river, not far from the sea, it likewise possessed the advan-
tage of lying on the frontiers of three nations — Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans.
When Rome had conquered the neighbouring territories it undoubtedly rose into
importance as a place of commerce. This local tra£Bc, however, would never have
converted Rome into a great city. Its position is not to be compared with that
of places like Alexandria, Constantinople, or Bombay, upon which the world's
commerce converges as a matter of course. On the contrary, its situation hardly
favours commerce. The Apennines, which environ the territory of Rome in a
huge semicircle, constituted a formidable obstacle until quite recently, and were
avoided by merchants ; the sea near Rome is treacherous, and even the small galleys
of the ancients could not enter the inefficient harbour at Ostia without risk.

The power of Rome, therefore, depended but in a small measure upon com-
mercial advantages resulting firom geographical position. It is its central
position to which that city is mainly indebted for its greatness, and « which
enabled it to weld the whole of the ancient world into a political whole. Three
concentric circles drawn around the oity correspond with as many phases in its
development. During their first struggles for existence the Romans enjoyed
the advantage of occupying a basin of limited extent, shielded on all sides by
mountains. When Rome had exterminated the inhabitants of these mountains
the remainder of Italy naturally gravitated towards her. The plains of Cis- and
Transpadana in the north presented no obstacles, whilst the resistance of the
uncivilised tribes of the mountun regions of the south was soon broken, for they
found no support amongst the Greek colonies scattered along an' extensive coast.
Nor were the populations of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica sufficiently imited to
offisr an effective resistance to the organised farces of the Romans, who were thus,
able to extend their power over all the countries o<nnpreh^ded within the seoond
oonoentric circle referred to. «

It6

ITALY.

It happened that the plains of Northern Italy and Sicily were hoth rieh
granaries, which enabled the Romans to push forward their conquests. The whole
world of tho Mediterrnnean gravitated towards Rome and Italy : Illyria, Greece,
and Egypt in the «iast, Libya and Mauritania in the south, Iberia in the west,
Gaul 'a the north-west, and the transalpine countries in the north.

Rome mainta*' od her power and influence as locg as the Mediterranean
constituted the world ; but, in proportion as the borders of the known world were
enlarged, so did Rome lose the advantages which a central position had conferred
upon her. Even during the latter days of the Roman empire Milan and
Ravenna usurped the position once held by Rome, and the latter became the seat

Fig. M — Rom A!«D n» Roman EMruob

A If

E A N

■SI amHn if Rmm tm Cit

paogMfrtMArffa

■v^^HKot ^^m^v^v

of the Byaantine exarch, and subsequently the capital of the empire of the Qotha.
Rome, the city of the Caesars, had fallen for evermore I True the emperors were
succeeded by the p^ pes, but the real masters of the " Holy Roman Em^re "
resided beyond the Alps, and only came to Italy to have their power consecrated.
Even in Italy itself Rome ceased to be tb<» leading town, its place being taken by
Pavia, Florence, Genoa, Milan, Venice, Bologna, and even Turin.

The unity of Italy has been realised in the course of this century, and,
excepting a few Alfane valleys^ its politioai boundaries coincide with its natural
ones. It may surprise us that this unity should not have been established long
ago, but the geographical configuration of Italy readily lends itself to the

w^^^^ m mw ^m m^mi^sm

OENEBAL ASPECTS.

'ere both rich
ts. The whole
llyria, Oreeoe,
a ia the weet,

Mediterranean
urn world were
had conferred
re Milan and
eoame the aeat

re of tile Gotiu.
I emperors were
»man Em^re"
rer oonaeorated.
being taken by

B coitary, and,
rith its natural
»tablished long
I itself to the

establishment of small itates. Its islauds, its mountain*bound plain*, and coast
districts, shut off from the interior of the country by abrupt mountains, formed as
many centres where populations of diverse origin were able to lead a life inde-
pendently of their neighbours. Now and then the whole of Italy acknowledged
a single master, but it only did so on compulsion. That spirit of nationality
which has given birth to a united Italy only animated very few oitisens of the
medinval republics. They might unite to resist a common danger, but no sooner
was it past than they went their separate ways, or, still worse, fought amongst
themselves about some trifle.

Cola di Rienii, the tribune of Rome, appealed to the cities of Italy in the
middle of the fourteenth century ; he adjured them to " throw off the yoke of the
tyrant, and to form a holy national brotherhood, whose object should be the
liberation of Rome and the whole of Italy." His messengers, carrying a silver
wand, went to every city with greetings of amity, and asked that deputies should
be sent to the Aiture parliament of the Eternal Gty. Riensi, AiU of the
memories of the past, decUured that Rome had not ceased to be the " mistress of
the world," and had a natural right to govern all nations. It was his aim to
resuscitate the past, not to evoke a new life, and his work disappeared like a
dream. Florence and Venice, the most active cities of that period, looked upon
him as a visionary. " Siamo Yeneziani, poi Orisiiani," said the proud citisens
of Venice in the fifteenth century. They, whose sons fought so valiantly for
Italian independence, never thought of calling themselves Italians. At the same
time we must bear in mind that the impulse which has made Italy one did not
originate with the masses, for there are still millions of Sicilians, Sardinians,
Oakbrians, and even Lombards who do not appreciate the vast changes which
have taken place.

If Italy no longer remains a " geographical expression," it is owing in a
large measure to frequent foreign invasions. Spaniards, French, and Germans
in turn have seised the fertile plains of Italy, and their hard oppression has
taught the Italians to look uptm each other as brothers. The Alps might be
supposed to offer an effective protection against such invasions, but they do not.
They are steepest on the Italian side, whilst their exterior slopes, towards France,
Switzerland, and German Austria, are comparatively gentle. Invaders, tempted
by the delightful climate and the wealth of Italy, were able to reach easily
the Alpine passes, whence they rushed down upon the phuns; and thus the
"barrier of the Alps" is a barrier only to the Italians, and has always bem
respected by them, excepting during tho Roman empire. Nor is there any reason
why they should cross it, for there ia no country beyond equal to their own.
French, Swiss, and Germans, on the other hand, have always looked upon Italy
as a sort of paradise. It was the country of their dreams ; they yielded frequently
to their desire to possess it, and dyed its coveted plains with blood.

Italy, exposed as it is to attacks from beyond, and no longer situated in the
centre of the known world, has definitively lost its pnmato, or foremost place
amongst nations, which some of its sons, carried away by an exclusive patriotism,

lee

ITALY.

would rMion to it. Bat tboagh no longer the most powmrfttl nation, and
eolipMd in industry, oommeroe, and even literature and loienoe, it itill remains
unrivalled in its treasure* of art. There is no other country in the world
which can boast of an equal number of cities remarkable on account of their
buildings, statues, paintings, and decorations of ererj kind. There are prorinces
where every village, every group of houses even, delights the ^e either by a
fresco painting or a work of the sculptor's chisel, a bold staircase or picturesque
balcony. The instinct for art has passed int4> the blood of the people, and we
need not wonder if an Italian peasant builds his house and plants his treea so as
to bring them into harmony with the surrounding landscape. This constitutes the
greatest charm of Italy ; everywhere art goes hand in hand with nature. How
many artists are there not in Lombardy, Venetia, or Tuscany who would have
become £imous in any other country, but whose names will never be remem-
bt>r<^, in consequence of their overwhelming numbers, or because their lot was
cast in some remote Tillage I

Italy owes the rank it has held for more than two thousand years not
merely to its monuments and works of art, which attract students from th«
extremities of the earth, but also to its historical associations. In a country which
has been inhabited for centuries by a civilised people there cannot be a town
the origin of which is not lost in the darkness of tradition. The modem cities
have r^laoed the Roman towns, and these latter rose upon the ruins of tome
Greek, Etruscan, or OalUc settlement. Every fortress, every country house,
marks the site of some ancient citadel, or of the yilla of a Roman patrician ;
churches have replaced the ancient temples, and though the religious rites have
changed, the altars of gods and saints arise anew in the spots consecrated of old.
An examination of these relics of all ages is full of interest, and only the most
obtuse can resist the influence of the historical reminiscences which supround him.

Italy, after a long, period of decay and foreign domination, has again taken its
place amongst the foremost modem nations. The aspect of the peninsula has
undergone many changes since it reoeiTed the nasku of Titalia, or Italia, firom the
herds of cattle which roamed over it. Its weU-oultivated plains, careftilly tended
gardens, and busy cities entitle it now to some other appellation. The passes of
the Alps, and its central position give Italy the command of all the routes which
converge firom France, Germany, and Austria upon the Gulfs of Genoa and!
Venice. Its quarries, sulphur and iron mines, its wines and agricultural produce
of every description, and its industry afford ever-growing resources. Its men of
leaming and inventors may fairly claim to be on a level with those of other
countries. The population increases rapidly. It is not only more dense than in
France, but also sends a considerable contingent of emigrants to the solitudes oi
Southern America.*

« Am of the kingdom of lUfy, 114,418 iqaaN mOw ; popaktk» in 187', 87,483,174.

will » ' »"<■ I ■gg*!

swi^^^»l^sas>^-«t*ss?^ifgs»mTt^

THB BABIN OF THE PO.

ftil nation, and
it itill remain!
f in the world
coount of their
e are prorinoet
^e either by a
) or piotureaque
people, and we
• hia treea lo aa
I oonatitutea the
I nature. How
rho would hate
}Ter be remem-
■e their lot waa

■and yeara not
lenta from tha
A country whioh
nnot he a town
e modem oitiea
e ruin* of tome
country honte,
>man patrician;
^oua ritea hare
iMorated of old.
1 only the moat
li Bunound him.
I again taken ita
B peninaula haa
Italia, firom the
oareftilly tended
The paeaeaof
^he routea which
of Oenoa att^
jultnral produce
lea. Ita men of
I thoae of other
■e dense than in
the Bolitudea ci

37,489,174.

II. — Thi Bamn or THi Po.

PiBMONT,* LOMHARDY. VrNKTIA, AND EmILIA.

Tm raUey of the Po it frequently ipoken of aa Upper Italy, beoauae it oooupiea
the northern portion of the peninaula, but might more appropriately be termed
the Italian Nekherhmda, for ita elevation is less than that of any other group of
prorincea. It ia a river valley now, but during the Pliuoene epoch it still formed

Fif. Al.— MoMTC Vno AM IT ArriAW raoa Oaurnuoo.

a gulf of the sea. Thia gulf waa gradually Med up by the alluvium brought
down by the rivers, and upheaved by ftubterranean f orcea above the aurfaoe of the
waters, the erosive action of the mountain torrenta continuing all the while ;
and thus, in the course of ages, the baain of the Po aasumed its gentle and
regular alope towarda the sea. As long aa the wata« of the Adriatic penetrated
the valleya between Monte Bosa and Monte Yiso, Italy was attached to the Alpa

• Fi6 di lloBte, Fieckmont, or Pianumta, i.«. mmmtaia-fook.
14

190

ITALY.

of continental Europe only by a narrow neck of land formed by the Ligurian
Apennines.

No other region of Europe can rival the valley of the Po as regards the
magnificence of its distant prospects. The Apennines in the south raise their
heads above the region of forests, their rocks, woods, and pasturages contrasting
with the uniform plain spread out along their foot ; whilst the snow-olad Alps
rise in all their sublimity from the Ool di Tenda in the west to the passes of tstria
in the east. The isolated pyramid of Monte Yiso (thus called from the beautiful
prospect which may be obtained firom its summit, looks down upon the fields of
Saluzzo, and the small lakes in its pasturing region feed a roaring rivulet which
subsequently assumes the name of Po. Enormous buttresses to the north-west of
Turin support the ice-clad Grand Paradis, near which peeps out the Ghivola,
perhaps the most charming, the most graoefVilly chiselled of all Alpine peaks.
Bight in the bend of the Alpine chain rises the dome of Mont Blanc, like an
island above a sea of mountains. Monte Bosa, crowned with a seven-pointed
diadem, pushes its spurs far into Italy. Then come lihe Splugen, the Ortler, the
Adamello, the Marmolade, and many another summit distinguished for some
special beauty. When from the top of the dome of Milan we behold spread
out around us this magnificent amphitheatre of mountains rising above the
verctant plain, we may well rejoice that we should have lived to contemplate so
grand a scene.

Geographically the Alps belong to the countries which surround Italy. From
the south we seize at a glance the entire slope of the mountains, from the vine-
yards and plantations of mulberry-trees to the forests of beech and laxoh, the
pastures, the naked rooks, and the dazzling fields of ice. But the cultivator only
ventured into this difficult region when forced by poverty. The features of the
northern slope are quite different. There tiie land rises gradually, and tibe valleys
are less fertile, but the inhabitants can easily reach the heads of the possos,
whence they look down upon the inviting plains of Italy. It is this simotiire of
the Alps which explains the preponderance of the GerrLdnio and Gallic elements
throughout their extent, and whilst Italian is spoken only in a few isolated
localities beyond this mountain barrier, the Frendi and German elements are
largely represented on thdr inner slopes.

Italy can only daim a few Alpine mountain masses within the basin vi the
Fo, the Adige, and the rivers of Yenetia. The most important of these, alike on
account of its height, its glaciers, and springs, is the Gband Paradis, which rears
its head to the south of the Dora Baltea, between the masses of Mont Blanc and
the plains of Piemont. An Englishman, Mr. Mathews, may daim to be the first
discoverei; of this mountain giant, which even on the Sardinian staff map,
published only recently, is confounded with Mont Iseran, a &r less noble summit
twenty-five miles to the west of it.

None of the other Alpine tanunits on Italian territory can compare in height
with the Grand Paradis, for though the Italian language extends in numerous
instances to the central chain of the Alps, the political boundaries of Italy do not.

mm:

imfmammrgim,:.

■f*~

THE BASIN OF THE PO.

191

f the Ligurian

as regards the
uth raise their
ges contrasting
moW'Olad Alps
passes of tstria
a the beautiM
on the fields of
g rivulet which
i north-west of
nt the Q^ivola,

Alpine peaks.

Blanc, like an
i seven-pointed

the Ortler, the
ished for some
I behold spread
aing above the

contemplate so

id Italy. Fnnn
, from the vine-
i and laroh, the
9 cultivator only

features of the
, and the valleys
I of the passes,
this structure of
Oallic elements

a few isolated
ID elements are

the basin of the
f these, alike on
hdis, which rears
Mont Blanc and
n to be the furst
nian staff map,
Bss noble summit

npare in height
ids in numerous
i of Italy do not.

Switzerland holds possession of the valley of the Upper Ticino, whilst Austria still
possesses the Upper Adige. The only rivers rising on the southern slope of the
Alps, and belonging in their entirety, or nearly so, to Italy, are the Tagliamento
and the Piave. In consequence of this violation of the natural frontiers there
are many snow-dad Alpine summits which, though geographically belonging to
Italy, are situated on the frontiers of the present kingdom, or even within
Swiss or Austrian territory. Amongst these are the giant summits of the Ortler,
the Marmolade, and the precipitous Oimon della Pala. The Monte della Disgrasda,

Fig. 62.— OuAXD Pabash.
DMOitlw Map of the AwMh Alpine Otab. SmI* 1>IH,«I0.

howevw, to the south of the Bemina, is an Italian mountain ; such is also, for the
gre<iter part, the mountain mass of the Oamonioa, bounded on the north by the
Pass of Tonale, which plays so prominent a part in legendary history, and is
commanded by the Adamo^ or Adamello, whose glacier streams creep down to
the Upper Adige. Farther to the east, in the valley of the Piave, the obelisk
surmounting the huge pyramid of the Antelao pierces the line of perennial snow,
and there are other peaks scarcely inferior to it in height.

Most of the Alpine groups lying within Italy and betwe«ni the main chain and

jgsaBatflMaaaaBE-

192

HALT.

the plains do not exceed the Apennines in height, and only a few amongst them
are covered with perennial snow. But the prospects which may be enjoyed from
them are all the more charming for this reason, for we find ourselves between two
zones, with cultivated valleys, towns, and villages at our feet, and a panorama of
bare and snowy summits bounding the view to the north. Several of these
mountains deservedly attract large numbers of tourists. Favourites amongst
them are the hills rising above the blue lakes of Lombardy, such as the Motterone
on Lago Maggiore, the pyramidal Oeneroso rising in the midst of verdant fields
on the Lake of Lugano, the superb hills between the two arms of tiie Lake of
Oomo and the fertile plains of the Brianza, and Monte Baldo, advancing its
buttresses like lions' daws into the waters of the Lake of Gbrda. The mountains
of the Yal Telina, or the Orobia range, to the south of the valley of the Upper
Ada, being remote from towns aud customary highways, are less frequently

Fig. 58.— Thb Plaik op Dissn Birwinr thi Aim mo thb ArammnN.

▲oMnJiDttoZoUikatK.

5iC

• ;

S*a kavd

' \;"

*. iV«».- -V

"T^'WC^^^

T^^

visited than they deserve. Standing at thdr foot, we may almost &xicy being in
the Pyrenees. As to the dolomites, on the frontiers of Yeuetia and the Tyrol,
they are unique. Their fantastically shaped rooks, delioatdy tinted with pink
and other colours, contrast marvellously with the grem of beeches and firs, or
the blue waters of the lakes. Bichthofen and others look upon these isolated
mountain masses as ancient coral, islands, or atoUa, upheaved to a height varying
between 6,600 and 10,400 feet ; and, whatever liheir geological origin may be,
they certainly contribute much towards the beauty of the Alpine regions.

If we descend the Italian dope of the Alps, we pass gradually from the more
ancient to the most recent geological formation, until we finally reach the alluvial
plain. Metamorphio rocks, ternteano, dolomites, and other rodcs overlie the
granites, the gndss, and the schists of the more elevated mountain masses. These
are succeeded by beds of Triassio and Jnrassio age. Lower still we meet with

i^dJOikiaiiiiilitSiim^ilMiiii

|«*«>*>"'*I*I!IIP

THE BASIN Of' THE PO.

198

amongst them
) enjoyed from
18 between two
a panorama of
veral of iheae
irites amongst
the Motterone

verdant fields
>f the Lake of

advancing its
The mountains

of the Upper
frequently

terraces and hills composed of tertiary marls, clays, and conglomerates. Monte
Boloa, so £unoas amongst geologists on account of its fossils, belongs to this
formation.* The whole of the plain of Lombardy and Piemont, with the
exception of the isolated hillocks rising in it, and a few marine deposits near its
margin, consists of debris brought down by the rivers. The depth of this accu-
mulation is not yet known, for hitherto no borings have pierced it ; but if we
suppose the slopes of the Alps and the Apennines to continue uniformly, it would
amount to no lees than 4,130 feet The two diagrams (Fig. 53) are intended to
illustrate this feature. In the upper of these the heights are exaggerated ten-
fold ; in the lower both the horizontal and the vertical scales are the same. A
glance at this diagram reveals the astounding fact thai the volume of this debris
almost equals that of the existing mountain systems.

Fig. A4.— Si.ori of tkb Vallbt or tbb Po.
The Twtical Mala is ten timee largor tium the horiioatd.

8tMlt!9 flr .ft

DOIauern

fim<7 being in
and the Tyrol,
ited with pink
hes and firs, or
I these isolated
height varying
origin may be,
Bgions.

- from the more
laoh the alluvial
dcs overlie the
masses. These
[ we meet with

The vast plain stretching from the Adriatic to the foot of the Monte Bosa and
the Yiso may boast of its peninsulas, its islands, and even its archipelagos, as if
it were a sea. The tertiary hills of Northern Ifonlerrato, to the east of Turin,
attain a height of 1,600 to 2,000 feet, and the valley of the Tanaro completely
separates them from the Ligurian Alps and the Apennines. Even at the very
foot of the Alps, as at Oavour and elsewhere, isolated granitic or porphyritio
pyramids and domes rise in the midst of the plain sloping down towards the Po.t
The hump-baeked Boaoo Montello, to the south of the Piave, is another isolated
hill ; and on the banks of the Po may be seen a hillook of pebbles and marine
sands, abounding in foanls, which bears the village of San Oolombano and its
vineyards. Several volcanic peaks, surrounded by cretaceous formations, rise in
the midst of the plains to the east of the Lake of Garda. The craters of the
Berioi, near Yicenaa, and of the Euganean Hills, Aear Padua, have not vomited

• Priaeipd Alpine nuniiti of Italy :— Monte Yiao, l%iU feet; Oiand Pendia, 13,271 fiiet; Moine
della Diagnaia, 11,840 feet; Adamdlo, 11,877 fcet; Antelao, 10,«80 feet; Bninotie (Otobia.iange),
10,S70 feet ; OeneiMO, 6,S70 feet ; Monte Baldo, 7,810 feet ; Mtmte Botaa, 8,148 feet

t Aliitudeai-Souieeof the Po, 6,400 feet; Saliuao, 1,800 feet; Twin, 7«« feet; Pavia (nonih of
Tidno), 880 feet; Piaoenn, 217 tjet; Onniona, 160 feet; Maatna, 89 feet; Peirtan, 20 feat

mjaumnimiiM

... .. .^ .aJsiiliii'ri i rMiWM i fcJjftiWi^

ITALY.

flamet within the hittorioal epoch, but the hot and the gas springa which israe
from clefts in the traohytio and basaltic rocks prove sufficiently that volcanic
forces .are not yet quite extinct in that part of Italy. Earthquakes occur fre-
quently in the neighbouring Alps, and particularly near Belluno and Bassano.

A ■jiwilar yolcanic zone extends along the northern slope of the Apennines,
which bound the valley of the Po on the south. Hydrogen gas escapes from
fissures in the rocks to the south of Modena and Bologna, and is utilised in
several instances in the manufacture of lime, and for other purposes. These gas
springs of Pietra Mala, Porretta, and Barigazzo were known by the ancients and
during the Middle Ages as " fiery springs," and they illuminated the path of the
traveller overtaken by the night. Lower down the slope, almost on the verge of

Fig. M.— Hud Yoloaitois akd Hot Hpaiiros of tkb Nobtbibk Afwhimh.

Sank 1 : l,iaO,000.

HydtogHi Spriasi. Had VotenoM. SotSprlnfi.

the plains^ we meet with a line of mud volcanoes, or bombi, the most famous of
which are those of Sassuolo, near Modena. The largest of these, that of Mirano,
has no less than forty craters. The ancient gulf of the sea, now converted into
a plain, is thus skirted by volcanic cones, mud volcanoes, hot springs, and dqmsits
of sulphur. As high up as Piemont, and notably at Acqui, we meet wiih hot
springs, attesting that volcanic activity is not yet altogether extinct.

The vaUeytf of the Alps and the plains extending along their foot weite filled,
in a former geological epoch, with huge glaciers, descending from n^t was
anciently the immense glacial region of Central Europe. Thwe is not a valley
between that of the Tanaro in the west, and that of the Isonzo descending from tiie
mountains of Oarinthia, but contains accumnlationB of debris carried down by the

Sf^lUl^mjJMIIMiUtifei

3fa««Bri£^«a<ffl«E*

ags which isaue
ly that Yoloanic
lakes occur fre-
id Bassano.
the Apennines,
as escapes from
id is utilised in
ises. These gas
;he ancients and
the path of the
on the yerge of

THE BASIN OF THE PO.

glaciers, and now covered with yegetation. Most of these ancient glaciers
exceeded those of the Monte Rosa and the Finsteraarhom in extent, and several
of them rivalled the existing glaciers of the Himalaya. If we would gain a
notion of what the Alps were like during this glacial epoch, we must go to Oreen-
land or to the Antarctic regions.

One of the smallest of these ice streams, that which descended from the
mountains of Tenda in the direction of Ouneo, had a length of thirty miles.
That which brought down the ice of Mont Oendvre, Mont Tabor, and Mont Cenis
had twice that length, and its moraines formed a veritable amphitheatre of
hUls, locally known ac regime alia pietre, or stony region. Farther north the
streams of ice descending from the Pennine Alps between the Grand Pajsdis and

Fig. M. — ^Tbb AiromfT (}laoibm or tbb Au*.

lOOl

Mont Blanc united in a single stream eighty miles in lengtii, and spread over the
idain &r beyond Ivrea. The alluvial accumulation of this ancient glacier rises
1,100 and even 2,130 feet above the ralley through which the Dora Baltea now
flows. One of its lateral moraines, known as the Serra d'lvrea, forms a regular
ran^Nurt to the east of the river, eighteen miles in extent. Its slopes are now
oovanad with ohestnnts. The western ravine (Odle di Brossa) is less prominent,
because it is inferior in height ; but the frontal ravine, forming a complete demi-
cirde^ can still be traced readily. In the debris accumulated at the foot of this
andent glacier, rooks derived from Mont Blanc are mixed with others brought
down from Mont Gervin. And yet it w but a dwarf when compared with
the ancient twin glacier of the Ticino au che Adda, which extended from the
Simplon to the Stelrio, filled up the oavitiee now occupied by the Lago Maggiow

'ife

196

ITALY.

and the Lake of Oomo, sent a lateral branch to the tortnons bed of the lAke of
Lugano, and finaUy, after a eonne of from 100 to 120 mUes, debouched upon the
pUin of Lombardy. The ghwier of the Oglio was small in comparison with it,
but it was exceeded by that of the Adige, the most considerable of all on the
southern slope of the Alps. This river of ice, from the mountains of the
Oetsthal, where it originated, to ito terminal moraine to the north of Mantua,
had a length of 176 miles. One of its branches descended towards the east, down

Fig. 47.— Thb Smba or ImiA ahb thb Amoiimt Olaohb Lakm of tbb Doa*.
VkDmtteBMdiaiMtBteClUp. SMdtttMMWk

]»M'

i*«,«r 6.

-:- V'^.

^ "*>-."■

Sir*

jthes^d

/"^

«•«*

SMUm.

the yalley of the Drau, as far as where the town of Elagenfiirt now stands. Its
main stream filled up the cavity of the Lake of Garda, pushing along a formidable
rampart of elevated moraines.

The hand of man is scarcely able to make an impression upon the vast aconmu-
lations heaped up by the action of the glaciers. The hills of Solferino, of Cavriana,
and Somma Campagna, so often named In connection with battles, are nothing but
debris brought down from the flanks of the Alps, and they were much higher
formerly than thqr are now.

W^f*

THF B.\8IN or 1'*^ PO.

197

the lioke of
3d upon the
iion with it,

all on the
ains of the

of Mantua,
e eaat, down

[)OKA.

r stands. Its
a fonnidaUe

Tastaoonmu-
), of Cavriana,
e nothing but
mudh higher

Some of the erratic blocks were as large as houses, but, being used as quarries,
they are fast disappearing. One of them at Pianeaaa, at the mouth of the
Snsa Talley, is 80/eet long, 40 feet broad, and 46 feet high, and a chapel has
been built upon it. The huge erratic blooko in the hills between the two arms of
the Lake of Oomo have supplied materials for the monolithic columns of the
churches and palaces in the environs. The slopes of the hills of Turin facing the
Alps are likewise covered with erratic blocks.

When the ghwiers retired into the upper valleys of the Alps, the soil which
they covered was left bare, and the depressions now occupied by the beautifiil

Fig. 58.— AKOinn Laxm or Vbbbako.

hikes of Lombardy were revealed. These depressions, whose bottom even now
rinks down below the level of the ocean, were formerly arms of the sea, in
character very much like the fiords of Norway. That such was the case is proved
by the presence, in every one of the Lombard kkes. of a sardine (the agime),
which naturalists consider to be a sea fish. In Garda Lake, moreover, there stiU
dwell two marine fishes which have adapted themedves to their new condition of
life, as well as a small marine shell-fish.

The number of these Alpine kkes was much burger formerly, and those
which stai exist shrink from year to year. In Upper Piemom alluvial deposita
have long ago filled up the hikes, and there now only remain a few pools of

rPALT.

water tu indicate their nte. The fint sheeta of water to which the term " lake "
may fairly be applied are met with on both banks of the Dora Baltea (see
Fig. 57). The little basin of Candia and the shallow Lake of ^leglio, to the west
and east of the river, are the only remains of Laeut Clwua, which covered an area
of several hundred square miles until its waters broke through the semioiroular
terminal moraine which bounded it on the south. The Dora Baltea formerly
escaped from this lake in the south-erst, its present course only dating from the
fourteenth century.

Fig. 69.— Thb Ufnb Extbimitt or thi Imlp or Como.
1 1 : 1«B/X)0.

The dotted tnust has become dry knd dnoe IBM.

Since this reservoir has been drained, tbe first lake of importance in the west
is that of Yerbano, very inappropriately called Lago Maggiore, or the " principal
lake," as that of Oarda exceeds it in extent. Ancient beaobes, at an elevation of
1,800 feet above the sea, prove that the waters of the lake have considerably
subsided, and that its area was muob larger formerly ; and it curiously ramified
with neighbouring lake basins, now merely copneoted with it by rivers. The
ancient moraine at the foot of this lake, and through which the Tioino haa iiMk
vated itself a passage, still rises to a height of 980 feet

THE BASIN OF THB PO.

term "lake"
Baltea (aee
o, to the weat
vered a& area
e lemioiroular
tltea formerly
ing from the

Oenturiea elapsed before the ohangea which we now peroeivo were aocom*
plished. Still they proceeded at a miffioiently rapid rate. Even now the allu-
tium carried down by the Tioino and the Maggia continually encroachea upon
the Lago Maggiore. Seven hundred yean ago the village of Qordola stood on
the shore of the lake : it is now nearly a mile away from it. The landing-plaoee
of Magadino, at the mouth of the Ticiuo, hare to be continually shifted, for the
lake retires steadily. Only sixty years ago barges were able to receive their
cargoee at a wharf nearly half a mile higher up than the present one. The Ghilf

fig. 00. — Smtioh or m NoBTHnw PoKnoN or Lam Oomo.

Fig. 61.— SacTioH or nu Laxi or Lmoo, kbav. nu BirvBOAnoM.

i J

Fig. da.— LowairrDniAL BienoN or losa Gomo.

ice in the west
the " principal
an elevation of
e considetaUy
iously ramified
y rivers. The
ioino haaii^Mac

of Locarno is gradually being separated from the main sheet of water by alluvial
deposits brought down by the Maggia.

The Lario, or Ijake of Oomo, which rivals the Maggiore by its beauty, is
likewise being gradually silted up. In the time of the Bomans the navigation
extended as fiur as Summolaoua (lake-head), the modem Samolaco. But the
tomnt of Mera gradually converted most of the upper extremity of the lake into
an alluvial plain, whilst the alluvial deposits carried down by the Adda out off
the xemainder from the main body of water. There now remains only the Laeut

mm^'

mtm

9SStm

i m..MimuiiUimiJ»ii

mmmmti

900

ITALY.

Dimuliatut, or Lake of MesBola, which ii ihrinking from yew to yeur. and will
finally disappear altogether. The miasmata rising from the swamps at the mouth
of the Adda have frequently depopulated the environs, and the ruined fort of
Fuentes, at the mouth of the river, built to defend the Val Tellina, was hardly
ever more than a hospital for its fever-strioken garrison.

The south-eastern arm of the lake, that of Leooo, through which the Adda
makes its escape to the south, has likewise been divided into a series of separate
basins. Nature, which would convert these lakes into bottom-lands at no distant
date, is being aided here by the works of man. The barrier which obstructed the
free egress of the Adda has been cleared away, the structures of fishermen have
been removed, and, in consequence of these and other engineering measures, the
once-dreaded rises of the lake have been reduced to a minimum, and the southern-
most of the lake basins, that of Brivio, has been converted into dry land. The
large Lake of Brianxa, which extended formerly fta to the south-west, has like-
wise been partially drained, and there now remain only a few lakeleta of small
extent.

We know sufficient of the bottom of the Lake of Oomo to enable us to judge
of the manner in which it is becoming gradually filled up with alluvium. The
mud deposited in its northern portion has filled up all .the original inequalities of
the soil, and even in the centre of the lake, and in its south-eastern arm, the
bottom is almost a perfect level. In the Oomo arm, hov ever, which reoeivea no
tributary river of any importance, the bottom is still full of inequalities. These
differences amply prove to us the geological agency of the rivers, which must
terminate in the lake being converted into a bottom-land, with a river flowing
through its centre. The third of our diagrams (Fig. 62) shows that the greateat
depth now hardly exceeds 1,300 feet, whilst, if we may judge from the slopes <^
the hills which bound it, the depth in former times cannot have been less than
2,300 feet.

The Sebino, or Lake of Iseo, and the lakelet /i Idro, which are fed by the
glacier streams of the Adamello, exhibit the same features as the lakes fiurtker to
the west. The Benaco, or Lake of Garda, however, the moBt extensive of these
Alpine lakes, is very stable a« regards its outline and the configuration of its
bottom, a fact sufficiently explained by the snull size of its tributary streams as
compared with its vast area. The old Alpine lakes of the Venetian Alps have
disappeared long ago, and there remain only a few ponds, filling cavities in the
dolomitio rooka and peat bogs, to indicate their ancient sites.*

* Italian Alpim lakes having an ana of mora than At* K|nBn nilaa : —

▲WM* Ana. Aranfi AMItade. Ut/Ot, Met

Oapatttr.

Kmm.

8q.]UlM.

VMt.

Mas.

Avani*.

mntsaeocadta.

LakeofOrta

6-4

1,132

830 (P)

490 (P)

463,000

Verbano, or Ltgo Ifaggiora

81H

646

1,380

690

9,680,000

«-3

771

86,300

Ceresio, or Lake of Lugano

19>S

88S

960

490

1,M4,000

Lario, or liike of Como

. - 608

668

1,803

810

7,700,000

Sebino, or Lake of Iieo

390

646

080

490

1.980.000

Lake of Idro . .

«•«

1,240

400 (P)

(?)

ff)

Benaco, Or Lake of Oaida .

llA-8

236

•60(f)

490

9,900,000

:,i,'-|Si;iiSs#S4iWi'»'w»i*;->"«k»a!:i'a'

~~f

THE BASIN OF THE PO.

801

year, and will
■ at the mouth

ruined fort of
BM, WM hardly

hioh the Adda
rieaof aeparate
la at no distant
obatruoted the
fishermen have
f measures, the
d the southern-
iry land. The
•west, has like-
kelets of small

ble us to judge
alluyium. The
i inequalities of
istem arm, the
ioh reoeiyes no
oalities. These
in, which most
a riyer flowing
lat the greatest
im the slopes of
been less than

These lacustrine basins, like all other reseryoirs of the same kind, regulate the
outflow of the torrents which empty into them. During the f^hets they itore
up the superabundant waters, and only part with them in the dry season, and
upon their difi'erenoe of leyel in difl'erent seasons depend the osoiMations of the
emissary riyers which issue from them. In the case of the Lake of Oarda, which
drains but a small area in proportion to its sise, ibis difference is small, and
throughout the year the pellucid waters of the Mincio flow tranquilly beneath the

Flu. «8.— VitiA HiMnuoKi, aw tmi Pimimivla or Billaoio, Laki or Oomo.

"ttiiillJ,

ri^mm^''

W^tUdbb

.-. A Asm. KT.M

are fed by the
lakes fiurther to
tensiye of ihese
iguration of its
itary streams as
liian Alps haye

cayitiea in the

^?=>»r.

;y-^.

OqpMttf.
HflUgMoCChAk
463,000
9,680,000

u,no

1,M4,000
7,700,000
1.980.000

9,900,000

blackened ramparts of PesoWoTa. Such is not the case as regards either the Lago
Maggiore or the Lake of Oomo, for the yolume of water discharged into them
is BO considerable that their leyel in summer and winter yariee to the extent
of seyeral yart^a, and corresponding differences may be obseryed in the nyers
issuing from them. Lake Oomo rises no less than 12 feet, and mcreases
70 square miles in area, whilst the Lago Maggiore sometimes rises 22 feet, and

f.iiwa ii KiW ^ iii''-"'*'**''''^"*

igj"

aoB

ITALY.

increases to the extent of one-fifth. The volume of the Tioino, when at its highest,
ahnost equals the average volume of the Nile, and if it were not for the regulating
influence of the lake from which it issues, it would altemateij convert the plains
of Lombardy into a sheet of water and leave them an arid tract of land.'*

The Alpine lakes of Italy thus play an important part in the economy of
the country They render the climate more equable, serve as high-roads of
commerce, and, being the centres of animal life, attract a dense population. But
it is not this which has rendered these lakes famous, which has attracted thou-
sands of wanderers ever since the time of the Romans, and caused villas and
palaces to rise on their shores : it is their incomparable beauty. And, indeed,
there are few spots in Europe which bear comparison with the delightful Gulf of
Pallanza, over which are scattered the Borromean Islands, or with the peninsula
of Bellagio, which may be likened to a hang^g garden suspended within sight
of the snow-clad Alp«, and affording a prospect of the rook-bound shores of the
Oomo Lake, cultivated fields, and numerous villM. ' Perhaps even more delightful
is the peninsula of Sermione, jutting out into the azure waters of the Qarda Lake,
like the tender stalk of a flower developing into a many-coloured petal.

Most of the lakes in the plain have beon drained into the neighbouring rivers.
The Lake of Gerondo, mentioned in mediseval records, has dwindled down into a
smaU swamp, or mosi, now, and its populous island of Fulcheria has become merged
in the plain of Lombardy. The lakes on the southern bank of the Po, above
Guastalla, have likewise been drained; and if the two shallow lakes of Mantua
still exist, this is entirei^y due to the embankments raised in the twelfth century.
It would have been much better, and would have saved the city the horrors of
many a siege, if these lakes had been allowed to disappear likewise.

t! ■■'

3 ^■'

The lagoons along the Adriatic have decreased in extent in the course of
centuries, and whilst new lagoons are being formed, the old ones are gradually
being converted into dry land. The old maps of the Venetian littoral difier
essentially from our modem ones, and yet all the vast changes they indicate have
been wrought in the con^ of a few centuries. The swamps of Oaorle, between
the Piave and the Gulf of Trieste, have changed to an extent which prev^its ns
from restoring the ancient topography of the country ; and i^ Hhe lagoons of Yenioe
and Ohioggia exhibit a certain permuuenoe of contour, this is only on aocoont ttf
the incessant interference of man. The ancient lagoon of Brondolo has bean dry
land since the middle of the sixteenth century. The large lagoon of Oomaeohio^
to the south of the Po, has been cut up into separate portions by alluvial embank-
ments formed by the agency of rivers and torrents. For the most part it oonrists
now of valli, or alluvial deposits, tat there still remain a few profound cavities* or
ehiari, which the rivers have not yet succeeded in filling up. Formerly these

* Volume of AdcU and l^dno it thair point of agreat flrom the Alpfaie lakes, aoooiding to Lon-
budini: —

Adda. — Average 6,600, minimnin Ml, maximum 29,000 cubio feet per Moond. 2\Mm.— ATmga
11,400, minimum 1,770, maximam 77,400 cbUo fset per minnte.

;,^u..

:<^tS2^r."SS

THE BASIN OF THE PO.

208

m at its lughest,
ir the regrdating
ivert the plains
land.'*

the economy of
m high-roads of
)opiilation. But
I attracted thou-
siised villas and
And, indeed,
.Ughtful GuU of
l;h the peninsula
led -within sight
nd shores of the
1 more delightful
the Garda Lake,
petal.

iphbouring rivers,
[led down into a
a become merged
[>f the Po, above
lakes of Mantua
twelfth century.
by the horrors of
le.

in the ootirse of
les are gradually
an littoral di£EiBr
iiey indicate have
f Oaorle, between
rhioh prevoits vs
lagoons of Yenioe
mly on account of
idolo has been dry
ion of Oomasehio^
' alluvial embank-
Mt part it consists
of ound cavities* or
. Formerly these

kcs, accordbg to lioa-
ond. SMm.— Avmge

12*|>b'E'*<>

lagoons extended far to the south in the direction of Ravenna, and, according to

Strabo and other ancient writers,

. i .... _ ^— ,„;«J . Fkf. 64.— BmoM ahd Pim Woods o» RATiwif a.

that ancient city once occupied a "« b<«16 1:m»o*ooo.

site very much like that of Venice
or Ohiogg^a in our own days.

There can be no doubt that these
lagoons were anciently separated
from the Adriatic by a narrow strip
of land over 120 miles in length,
and similar to what we still meet
with on the coasts of Carolina and
of the Brazils. This ancient barrier
still exists in the lidi of Venice and
Gomacchio, which aro pieroed at
intervals, admitting the vivifying
floods of the open sea. Elsewhero
the traces of this ancient beach
must be looked for on the mainland.
The low delta of the Fo is traversed
from north to south by a range of
dimes constituting the continuation
of the lidi of Venice, and extend-
ing into the swamps of Comaochio,
whdro they form a natural embank-
ment running parallel with the
coast. These dunes, between the
Adige and Cervia, aro covered with
sombre pine woods, replaced hero
and there by oaks. The underwood
mainly consists of hawthorns and
juniper-trees, and wild boars still
haunt it.

No sooner have the lagoons pro-
tected by these barriers been con-
verted into dry land than the sea
seizes upon the sand, and forms it
into new curvilinear barriers similar
to the former ones. The principal
range of dunes to the east of
Bavenna, which is about 20 miles
in length, and varies in width
between 60 and 3,300 yards, has
thus two othor ranges of dunes

B«ii&'

pgB gjggi flSS ^^

BiMKfldd*. ItaaWoodi. Bminp*. Baeeh.
______ SMflM

running parallel with it, one of them being stiU in course of formation . Signer

ITALT.

Pareto has estimated the annual advance of the land at 7| feet, and at mnoh more
near the mouths of riyers.

The sea thus marks by a series of barriers its successive recoils. Sometimes,
however, the sea gains upon the land in consequence of a gradual subsidence of the
Venetian shore, the cause of which has not yet been elucidated. Thus the gravel
bank of Oortellazax), opposite the swamps of Oaorle, appears to have anciently
been a Mo which has sunk nearly 70 feet below the level of the sea. The islands
which fringed the littoral of Aquileja during the Middle Ages have almost wholly
disappeared. In the time of the Romans these islands were populous; there
were forests and fields upon them, and the inhabitants built ships. The chronicles
of the Middle Ages tell us that the Doge of Yenice and the Patriarch of Aquileja
hunted stags and wild boars upon them, much to the scandal of the inhabitants.
At the present day the dunes which of yore protected these islands have almost
wholly disappeared, the forests have been supplanted by reeds, and Qrado is
the only place on the littoral which may still boast of a certain number of inha>
bitants. Piers, walls, mosaic pavements, and even stones bearing inscriptions,
which are found occasionally at the bottom of the sea or of swamps, prove that
the mainland was formerly more extensive there. Farther to the west the
littoral of Venice bears evidence of a similar subsidence. Artesian wells sunk in
the city of the lagoons have led to the discovery of four beds of turf, the deepest
no less than 420 feet below the level of the sea. The subterranean church of
St. Mark has within historical times been converted into a submarine church, and
streets and buildings are gradually sinking beneath the waters of the lagoons.
If it were not for the alluvium brought down by the rivers, the sea would con-
tinually encroach upon the land. Bavenna, too, participates in this subsidence,
which Signer Pareto estimates to amount to 0*60 inches in the course of a oentnry.

Amongst the geological agents constantly at work to modify ihe surface of the
earth, the rivers and torrents irrigating the plain lying at the foot of the Alps are
the most active, and no other country of Europe, Hdland alone excepted, can
compare in this respect with Northern Italy.

The torrent of Isonzo offers one of the most striking instances of these geo-
logical revolutions. It is said to have formerly communicated through subter-
ranean channels with the Istrian Timavo, and that its existence as a separate river
does not date very &r back. Ancient writers do not enumerate the Isonao amuongst
the rivers flowing into the Adri tic. It is first mentioned in a document of the
sixth centur^r as a river irrigating fnomB inland valley. On Pentinger's Table we
meet with a station, Ponte Sonf i, tax oo the east of Aquibja, and near tiie sources
of the Timavo. The chronicles are siloit with respect to the peripatetics of this
river, but a careful examination of the surrounding Mils justifies the assumption
that the valley of Tolmdn, on the Upper Isonao, was formerly a lake which over*
flowed towards the north-west through the narrows of Oaporetto, and that its
pent-up waters found their way through the Natisone into the Adriatic. Subse-
quenUy ^ey opened themselves a passage to the south, and another lake was

! T'» g ," ^ J T ' » "-)m, »' X » f l | l' M ' i^rfUy.. ' ."l

THE BASIN OF THE PO.

iof

at muoli more

I. Sometimes,
ibsidenoe of the
rhus the gravel

have anoiently
The islands

almost wholly
opulous ; there

The chronicles
irch of Aquileja
the inhabitants,
ids have almost
, and Qrado is
umber of inha-
ng inscriptions,
nps, prove that
> the west the
n wells sunk in
urf, the deepest
mean church of
ine diurch, and
of the lagoons,
sea would con-
this subsidence,
rse of a oentnry.

le surface of the
t of the Alps are
le ejEoepted, can

as of these geo-
throngh subter-

a separate river
I Isonao amongst
looument of the
Lttger's TaUe we
near tito souroee
ipatetios of thia

the assumption
ake which over*
to, and that its
driatic Sobse-
nother lake was

formed at the confluence of Isonao and Wippaoh. This lake communicated by
subterranean channels with the Timavo, but it has now disappeared, and the Isouzo
flows directly into the sea, iti bed wandering continuously towards the east. The
alluvium carried down by this river has formed the peninsula of Sdobba, and
joined several old islands to the mainland.

The Tagliamento is even a more active geological Agent than its neighbour just
beyond tV'^ firontier. The debris deposited at the mouth of the narrow gorge in
which i; r;.j covers many square miles of a once fertile plain. In summer its
waters trickle through these accumulations of shingle, but after heavy rain the
river is converted into a powerful torrent several milea in width, and all the more
formidable as its bed lies higher than many parts of the surrounding ooimtry.
The Meduna and ZoUine, to the west of the Tagliamento, are equally destructive^

Fig. M.— SBiireui Bum or ns Taoluuhto, thb

tfroUITA, AND ZlLLINB.

AiMtlwA*

■WMkBtaCMiV 8«d»l:mMN».

■WEJri,ff _*•

. ' 4l|- jU 1 *■ 1

i lif -'

V "^-

f Jtir'^'' t

4m^-^ ^

x.\^:m wan' "#ii

t^^

^(BB^-IJMg^^KJV M^^HB^M^ w

rVjjMI^^^ «^TZ^HKl

^^kk^ ^^ ^Xj

k ^^^fyT-^ M. '^'^ffl^H^^B

^^Mik ^ » _ 1 '^^^^MH^rtWfcMfc^a

2 ^^^^^^^ ^K^^'rv'^'-v^a ' T ^BK- j^^^^^^^^^^^^H

■Mf /Vtom. Jkf 1(

9 jjr tif'

i^- Ifi V

Shingle Beds, Meedona. FUtans.

and an estourve traot at tiieir confluence is covered with shingles. Lower down,
in the lagoana, these torrents have tihrown up huge embankments of sand on eitbeir
side of their ancient beds. The alluvium Immght down by these torrents to the
Bea is in every instsiaoe deposited to the west, a droomstanoe aooounted for by the
direction of the coast current.

The Piave, the most oonsiderable river to the east of the Adige^ is likewise a
most active geological agent, o(niverting fertile fields into sterile shingle traota^
filling njp swamps, and carrying large quantities of matter into the tea. At iki

'^S^SS^tl^

vM\m\\ • liiii-iiftiiiiiiii!iiiimiiii' 'm\m

wmmmm

*invip>

ITALY.

mouth the land gains rapidly upon the aea, and Heraolea of the Yeneti, now
known as Cittanova, which was a seaport once, at the present time lies far inland.
The Piave was formerly supposed to have changed its bed in the same manner
as the Isonzo. Below the Oapo di Ponte, a wild defile in the Dolomite Alps, the
Piave flows towards the south-west, past Belluno, and lower down is joined by the
Cordevole. It was, however, supposed that the river originally flowed through the
valley of Rai, immediately to the south of the Oapo di Ponte, and that the Meschio
and Livenzo constituted its lower course. Earthquakes or landslips were supposed
to have created a barrier across that valley, and the small lakes still seen there were
looked upon as remains of the ancient river bed. But M. de Mortillet has shown

Fig. 66. — ^Thb mrppMBD Old Bid op thb Puti.
VMrntteAnataiui Staff Map. S«d« 1 : HO^OOOi

that this hypothesis is tmtenable, for the barrier referred to is merely the moraine of
an ancient glacier, and there exist no traoes whatever of landslips.

At the same time it cannot be doubted that extensive changes have taken place
|in the basin of the Piave. Thus in 1771 the course of the Oordevole, its most
important tributary, was obstructed f r a time by a landslip which carried the
verdant terraces of Pezza down into the valley. Two villages were destroyed, and
two others overwhelmed by the rising floods of the river.

The Brenta, which rises in the beautiful Sugana valley of the Tyrol, has at aU
times been a source of anxiety to the Venetians on account of its irregularities.
Formerly it entered the lagoons at Fiudna, and its alluvium filled up tiie canals

le Yeneti, now
ies far inland,
e same manner
omite Alps, the
s joined by the
'ed through the
lat the Mesohio
B were suppoeed
seen there were
illet has shown

THE BASIK OF THE PO. 907

and infected the air. The Faduana and other inhabitants of the lowlands were
anxious to divert it by the most direct course into the lagoons, so a^ to
avoid inundations, whilst the Venetians were solicitous to get rid of a river which
threatened to fill up their lagoons and render them insalubrious. These conflict-
ing interests gave rise to numerous wars. The possession of the coast became a
question of existence to the Venetians, and no sooner had they obtained it than

thqr Bet about *'reg?ilating" the Lower BrmJtai. By means of two canals, the
Brttita Nuova, or Brentone, anid the Brenta Nuovissima, the river was conducted
right rouind the lagoons to the port of Brondolo, a few miles to the north of the
Adige. But tiie river, whose course had thus been considerably lengthened*
gradually filled up the bed in its u^per course, and it w«a found impossible to

808

rPALT.

confine it within its lateral embankments. They were broken through by the
floods no less than twenty times between 1811 and 1850, and, as the channel of
the river became more and more choked, a more frequent recurrence of such
disasters was naturally expected. It was then resolved to shorten the course of the
river to the extent of ten miles, by diverting it into a portion of the lagoon of
Chioggia. The danger of irruptions has thus been averted for a time, but the
fisheries of Chioggia have been completely destroyed, and fever is a frequent visitor
in the towns of the littoral.

There can be no doubt that but for the efforts of the Venetian engineers the
lagoons of the Lido, Molamocco, and Ohioggia would long ago have been con-
verted into dry land. Venice has at all times been alive to the necessity of
preserving its precious inland sea. The Venetian engineers were not content with
turning aside the torrents which formerly poured their waters into the lagoons ;
they have also, by means of canals, moved the mouths of the Sile and Piave to the
east, thus securing the ports of the Lido from the dreaded alluvium of the rivers.
They even conceived the gigantic project of a huge encircling canal for the
interception of all the Alpine torrents between Brenta and Lwnzo. This project,
however, has never been carried out. The debris carried southward by the coast
current has silted up the port of the Lido, which was abandoned towards the close
of the fifteenth century, when a new military port was constructed eight miles
fiurther south, at the canal of Malamocco, and it is now protected by a pier
extending 7,200 feet into the sea.

The torrents which descend from the slopes of the Apennines to the south
of the delta of the Adige and Po are as erratic in their course as those of
Venetia. The Trebbia, the Taro, and other rivers irrigating the districts of
Piaoenza and Parma only cross a narrow plain between the mountains and the Po,
and do not much modify the topography of the country. But this cannot be said
of the rivers flowing through the vast plains of Modena, Bologna, Ferrara, and
Lnola. They are constantly changing their beds, and the remains of embank-
ments met with all over the country prove that all effi>rts to confine them perma-
nently have proved abortive. Modena itself was once destroyed by the floods of the
Seochia. The Tanaro, the Beno, and other rivers flowing towards the north-west,
either into the canal encircling the lagoons of Gomaochio or direct into the
sea, all have a history attached to them ; they are blessed for their lartilisihg
alluvium, cursed on account of their destructive floods. On» of them, probably
the Fiumioino, is the famous Rubicon which bounded the Italy of the Bcwians,
and which was crossed by Os6sar when he pronounced the &tal words, "Alea
jaota est."

The Beno is the most erratic, tiie most dangerous of all these Apennine rivers.
The .bed of debris deposited by it in the plain measures 20 miles across ftom east
io yest. Its volume varies between 30 and 49,500 cubic feet a second, aooording
to the season, and its bed is in places no less than 30 fbet above the adjoining
oountiy. The destruction of the forests has augmented the danger of its inunda-
tions. The engineers, puzzled by its jlrregular floods, have proposed the most

THE BASIN OF THE PO.

900

rough by the
he channel of
renoe of raoh
e coune of the
the lagoon of
time, bat the
requent visitor

engineers the
tave been oon-
le necessity of
lot content with
to the lagoons ;
nd Piaye to the
m of the rivers.

canal for the
This project,
vti by the coast
awards the dose
ted eight miles
Mted by a pier

les to the south
irse as those of
the districts of
ains and the Po,
Is cannot be said
^na, Ferrara, and
lains of embank*
ne them perma-
^ the floods of the
s the north-west,
direct into the
iheir fertilisihg
t them, probably
rof the Romans,
tal words, "Alea

Apennine rivers,
s across firom east
second, according
ove the adjoining
HBt of its inunda-
foposed tiio most

opposite plans for subduing this terrible scourge. The river has been turned
into the Po ; then eastward, direct into the sea. Recently it has been proposed to
divert it to the lagoons of Oomacohio. But all these diversions are attended
with disadvantages, and whilst the inhabitants of one district congratulate them-
selves upon having got rid of sc troublesome a neighbour, those of another complain
of its inundations, see their fii^heries destroyed, and their navigation interfered
with.

Lombardini, the fkmous hydraulic engineer, has shown how we may discover
the places to which the soil of the lowlands of Emilia has been conveyed by the
torronts, and trace the ancient shoros of the lagoon of Padua, now converted into
dry land. A traveller following the Emilian causeway f^rom Cesena to Bologna

Fiff. 68.--CoLOinis or nn Romak YmwrnAjn.

•mill.

can hardly help noticing the quadrangular fields on his right, all of them of the
same site. Looked at from the spurs of the Apennines, the plain resembles a huge
dranght-boazd, the squares of which aro covered alternately with verduro and
ripening crops. We learn from the topographical maps that these fields an
exactly of the same sise^ and thero can be no doubt that we have hero beforo us the
fields which, according to Livy, wero taken firom the Ghuils and distributed amongst
Roman military settlers. A sinuous line marks, in the direction of the Bo, the
shoro of an ancient lake. The rectangular fields, laid out by the cadastral sur-
veyors of ancient Rome, cease thero, and we find ourselves again amidst the uqual
labyrinth of ditches and tortuous roads. This lake has been filled up long ago by
the debris brought down by the torrents.

ttO

HALT.

The Po, proportionately to the area it drains and it* length, haa undergone
fewer '.hangea than either the Piave or the Reno, but looking to the populoui
cities which line its banks, and to the fertility of its fields, the least of these is of
some importance.

The torrent fed by the snows of Monte Yiso is usually looked upon as the head
stream of Father Po, as the ancient Romans called the rirer ; but the Mastra,
Varaita, and Olusone are quite equal to it in Tolume, and feed as many canals of
irrigation. Indeed, these canals would quickly drain the Po if it were not for a
bountiful supply of snow-water brought down by the Dora Riparia, the Stura, the
Oroa, and the Dora Baltea from the glaciers of the Alps. Lower down, the Po
receives the Sesia from the north, and the Tanaro, which is fed by streams rising
in the Apennines and the Alps. Then comes the Ticino, by far the most.impor-
tant tributary of the Po, " without which," as the river fishermen say, " il Po non
•arebbe Po."

The Po, after its junction with the Ticino, exhibits no longer the features of a
mountain torrent ; the pebbles have hem triturated into the finest dust, and no
piled* up masses of debris are met with along its banks. If it were not for its
dykes, or argini, it might spread itself freely over the plain. These artificial
embankments rival those of the Netherlands, and date back to the most remote
ages. Lucian refers to them as if they had existed ttwa. time immemorial
During the great migration of peoples they were allowed to decay, and only in the
course of the ninth century were measures taken to restore them. In 1480 the
great work had been achieved. Its importance may be judged from the fact that
these embankments protect 3,000,000 acres of the most fertile land, jrielding
annually more than £8,000,000 sterling's worth of agricultural produce. Most
of the towns have been built upon artificial platfomu or terraces, and up to the
beginning of this century they have never been known to suffer from floods ; but
whether owing to the devastation of the forests or to the closing up of all breaches
in the dykes, the floods rise higher now than ihey did of yore, and it has been
found necessary to throw up embankments around Revere, Sermide, Ostiglia,
Oovemolo, Borgoforte, and other places.

Oontinuous embankments begin at Oremona, and ihey extend not only along
both banks of the Po, but also along the lower course of its tributaries. 1 he main
dykes have a length of nearly 650 miles. In addition to these thoe are nmaller
dykes traversing the space between these Jivldi, or main dykes, in all dirMtions,
and enclosing willow plantations, fields, and even vineyards. In &ot, the river
extends to the foot of the main dykes only in a few localities. It is ordinarily
only 650 to 1,600 feet wide, whilst the dykos are several miles apart, to allow the
river to' spread during the inundations. The land thus lying within the dykes has
been cKvided by the villagers into g^lene, and is protected by smaller dykes against
ordinary floods. The rules laid down for the construction of embankments have
been drawn up in the general interest, and are sufficiently precise, but they are not
always observed. The old syrtem, embodied in the dreadfbl proverb, *' Yita mia,
morte tua," is not yet quite extinct. Formerly the peasants were in the habit of

teit*!'!

i-ntiii

M undergone
the populoua
of theae ii of

m ae the head
: the Maetra,
lany canalaof
ere not for a
the Stura, the
down, the Po
Btreami rising
) moit.impor-
y, " il Po non

B features of a
I duat, and no
>re not for its
lieie artificial
) moat remote
) immemorial,
md only in the
In 1480 the
K the fact that
land, yielding
irodttoe. Moat
and up to the
Dm floods; hut
of all breaohea
id it haa been
mide, Oatiglia,

not only along
tea. 1 he main
lere are smaller
L all direotifms,
fkot, the riyer
!t ia ordinarily
irt, to allow the
1 the dykes haa
r dykea againat
lankmenta have
i)ut they are not
erb, "Yitamia,
) in the habit of

- ■ ii^ ^ O"Si ^ ii MlJTM^ *» iUWt^u^ '^

■I

NEW YORK, D

W.ETON fcC?.

'^1

miWftmi^m^

ipipiiMqPiPippPiP!#ii^^

THE BASm OF THE PO.

211

crosBing over to the other bank, and deliberately cutting through the embankments
there, thus saving their own crops by ruining their neighbours'.

The width of the bed of inundation enclosed between thesr eknbankments
grows less in proportion as we descend the river, and in the case ' of the arms of
the delta does not exceed 900 to 1,600 feet. This is not sufficient to enable the
waters to escape during extraordinary floods, when they sometimes rise 25 and
even 30 feet. Besides, it frequently happens that the villagers fail to keep the
embankments in thorough repair, and sometimes entire districts are ruined because
the mole-tracks were not stopped up. • A breach in the embankment, unless

Fig. 69.— Trb Po rarwmr Piacbiisa akd Gbbkona.
n«mtlwAiutriaaSUfflCap. Seale 1 : 8Mt,aOO.

»»

CI3' gS3 S?3 §=5!

ICMdom. Swunpi. Wood*. IUs»4alda. CuMlaad

DykM.

SIfilM.

quickly filled up, produces unttdd misery. The ocop$ are destroyed, the villages
levelled with the ground, the soil is torn up and carried off, and the inhabitants
are sw^t away by famine and its fearful attendant, typhus fever. These great
floods ol the Po and the eartiiquakes of Oalabria are the two plagues of Italy. In
1872 1,200 square miles between the Seoohia and the sea were converted into a
lake. Two years afterwa?^ there still remained pools of water.

In these great disasters the inhabitants are afforded an opportunity of exhibiting
their valour, and it is always the most energetic whp succeed in protecting their
prq^Mrigr from beii^ washed amy by the floods. During the flood just referred

• ',

imifiViiil^lirKlniiii"**!!!

iiwi M i i .ii.ii i i wwr i ii iM n i i i^i inw i ' tr'i if 'i ' ' rrr-^^-'n

I ihii- fallWI

. iw'!1*3t^4-.-=-^S»«i!8**.*P».

NUM|>

rfmm

sia

ITALY.

to, the inhabitantfl of the little town of Oitiglia fought suooesafully with the
rising waters, whilst many of their neighbours succumbed. The town stands dose
to the froldo, and there is no second line of dykes to protect it. The dyke
threatened to give way. The inhabitants at (moe set about throwing up a second
barrier. All the able-bodied men of the place, 4,000 in number, turned out to
work^ headed by their mayor. They worked day and night, and, as the floods
carried away the old dyke, the new one rose in its rear. The victory was won ; the
floods retired, and their houses were safe.

Some of these breaches in the dykes have led to permanent changes in the
course of the river, and these divagations have been most considerable in the delta.
During the time of the Romans, ond up to the thirteenth century, the Po di Yolano
was the principal branch of the river, whilst now it has dwindled down to an
insignificant ditch which can hardly be traced through the swamps of Comacchio.
Two other branches, farther to the south, are used now as carriage roads. In the
eighth century the Po di Primaro, which enters the sea to the north of Baveima,
took the place of these old channels. Another bifurcation ensued in 1152,
when the embankment at Ficcarolo was destroyed, it is said, by the people living
above that town, and the main channel of the river, the Maestra, deserted the
walls of Ferrara in the midst of its swamps, and united, itself with the channels of
the Adige. Breaches in the embankments usually take place in October or
November, and generally at the same places. The danger is always greatest at
Oorbola, where the Po di Maestra bifurcates.

The Adige is quite as great a wwderer as the Po. Scarcely has that river left
its defile, or ehiusa, of calcareous mountains and the fortifications of Venice than it
begins its erratic course over the plain. In the time of the Romans the Adige
flowed much farther to the north, along the foot of the Euganean Hills, and entered
the sea at Brondolo. In 587 the river brcke tiirough its embankments, and its main
branch took the direction which it maintains up to the present day, entering the
sea at Frssone. But new channeb opened repeatedly towards the south, until the
Adige and Po conjointly formed but one delta. The Polesina of Rovigo, between
the two rivers, and that (^ Ferrara, are low tracts of alluvial land. The courtyard
of the Oastle of Ferrara, which occupies one of the most elevated sites in these pkdns,
is nine feet lower than the highest level of the Po when flooded.

The frequent inundations caused by the Po and the numerous changes of its bed,
by spreading the alluvium all over the country, have nimd the whole of the plains
to about the same level. But non , v. hen all the arms of the Po are confined within
embankments, most of the alluviom brought down by the floods is deposited on the
coast of the Adriatic. The land, therefore, gains mnoh ir.ore rapidly npon the
sea than it did formerly. The series of dunes marking the ancient shore now lies
fifteen miles inland, and the new land formed annually is estimated at 280 acres.
In exceptional years the quantity of solid matter carried by the river into the sea
amounts to 3,631,000,000 cubic feet; o;. an average it is 1,623,000,000 oubio feet,
sufficient to form an island ten square miles in area in ten feet of water. The Po,
next to the xianube, is the most active geological agent amongst all the rivws

'SKt^ssfc**-,:!!.,:

■<P!iV>lWM

THE BASIN OF THE PO.

218

follj with the
wn stands dose
t. The dyke
ng up a second
turned out to
d, as the floods
y was won; the

changes in the
)le in the delta.
;he Po di Y oUmo
led down to an
M of Comacchio.
roads. In the
rth of Bayenna,
insued in lld^i,
le people living
bra, deserted the
1 the channels of
) in October or
ways greatest at

las that river left
}f Venice than it
Amans the Adige
Hills, and entered
ents, and its main
day, entering the
e south, until the
Rovigo, between
L The courtyard
OS in these plains,

hanges of its bed,
hole of the plains
re confined within
i deposited on the
rapidly upon the
But shore now lies
ited at 280 acres,
river into the sea
00,000 cubic feet,
r water. ThePo,
gsi all the rivers

entering the Mediterranean.* The Rhone is inferior to it, and so is the Nile. At
^0 present rate of progress, the Po, in the course of a thousand years, will throw a
tongue of land six miles wide across the Adriatic, converting the Oulf of Trieste
into an inland sea.

Northern Italy, in addition to these numerous rivers, possesses one of the most
extensive systems of canals in the world, which has served as a pattern to all the
rest of Europe. Lombardy, portions of Piemont, the Campagna of Turin, the
Lomellina on the Tidno, and the Polesinas of Ferrara and Bovigo possess a
wonderful ramification of irrigation, which carries fertile alluvium to the exhausted
fields. In the Middle Ages, when the remainder of Europe was still shrouded in
darkness, the Lombard republics already practised the art of irrigation on the
vastest scale, and drained their low-lying plain's. MilfUQ, alter she had thrown off
the yoke of her Gh^rman oppressors, towards the dose of the twdfth century, con-
structed the NavigKo Orande, a ship canal derived from the Tidno, thirty miles
distant — ^probably the first great engineering work of the kind in Europe. In the
beginning of the thirteenth centuiy the superabimdant watcirs of the Adda were
utilised in filling the Muzza Canal. The same river, at a subsequent period, was
made to feed another canal, the Martesana, which was constructed by the great
Leonardo da Vinci. The art of surmounting elevations of the ground by means of
locks had been discovered by Milanese engineers about a century before that time,
and was applied to the v onstruction of secondary canals. Amongst works of more
recent date are the navigUo ftoxa. Milan to Pavia ; the Cavour Canal, fed by the Po,
below Turin ; and the Canal of Verona, derived from the Adige.t

Not only the rivers of Northern Italy, but also the springs, or fontaneUe, however
small, which burst forth at the foot of the Alps, are utilised for purposes of
irrigation. Virgil alludes to these springs in his Bucolics, where he says,
"Children, stop the water; the meadows have drunk enough." Lombardy
is indebted to these springs for her fine prairies, or mareit$, which sometimes
yield eight crops a year. The great AdtiAtic plain !ia« indeed undwgone vast
changes through the work of man. Originidly it was a swamp surrounded by
forests and beathA ^ut is now one of the best-cultivated countries of Europe.
One of its great features consists in plantations of mulberries, the uniformity of
which is relieved in many districts — and especially in the Brianza of Como, that

* Principal riven of Northera lUlj- :—

LwcUi.

AiwofBulii.

V<AimMiiiCBUeXtot]
XMrtmnm. lOnimiiin.

AvanB*

launto .... 80

1,2S«

—

4,240 P

TagUunimto

lOfi

800

—

6,300 r

liveiua .

7»

70«

28,400

—

1,400 P

Pkve .

134

2,010

—

11,300

SOe. .

»7

840

1,880

380

700 P

Brantft

106

1,810

80,000

187

1,980

BaochigUone

. 74

187

820

—

1,270

Adiga .

248

8,848

88.000

16,960

Po .

416

25.790

182,800

880

60,700

Rano

i;2

l,fc?0

83,800

8,300

t Avaiage toIuom of the OMiala nf the Tallajr of tha Po (oubio fbet par aaoond) :->Maan, 2,16S ;
TSta^i^ Otanda, 1,800 ; Canal Oaronr, 1,482 ; Haitenma, 918 cxbic ftet.

214

ITALT.

garden of Italy — hy groups of tall trees, little lakes, and sinuous valleys. There
still remain extensive heaths covering the moraines of ancient glaciers, which
become more and more sterile from year to year ; but the engineers are consider-
ing schemes for irrigating them by means of the fertilising waters of the Alpine
lakes.

The irrigated area in the valley of the Po nearly amounts to 5,000 square
miles, and the water it absorbs every second is estimated at 36,000,000 cubic
feet, equal to about one-third of the volume of the Po. If the proposed works
of irrigation are carried out, the Po, which now plays so important a part in the
economy of the country by its floods and alluvial deposits, will be reduced to
the dimensions of a small river.

The evaporation from the nimierous rivers and canals of the country fills the
air with moisture. Rains are less frequent than on the Atlantic coasts of England
and France, but the clouds, driven by southerly winds against the cool slopes of
the Alps, discharge themselves in torrents. The quantity of rain that &Us in the
upper Alpine valleys equals that of the most humid districts of Portugal, the
Hebrides, and Norway, and the rainfall in the plains of Lombardy is equal to that
of Ireland. The annual rainfall in the basin of the Piave is estimated at five feet,
exclusive of what may evaporate or be absorbed by plants. These rains are not
confined to certain seasons, though it has been observed that they are most
abundant in May and October, and least so in February and July.*

'As regards the direction of the winds, the great plain bounded by the Apen-
nines and the Alps resembles an Alpine valley, the winds either blowing up it
from east to west, or in an inverse direction. The winds descending from the
Alps rarely bring rain, for they have deposited their moisture on the western
slopes, but those coming from the Adriatic are generally charged with moisture.
Nevertheless, owing to the great extent of the plains and the numerous breaks in
the mountain chains, this rule is fireqnently interfered with. In the Alpine valleys
the ascending and descending currents are f*"^ more regular, and the navigators on
the lakes fully avail themsdves of ...U circumstance.

The forty-fifth degree of north latitude intersects the valley of the Po, but the
dimate, nevertheless, ia not as mild as luight be expeoted from this circumstance,
and the range of temperature is great. In th<) Yal TeUina the temperature some-
times rises above 90^, and frequently fitUs halow freezing point. In the plain the
climate is less austere, but it is notwithstanding continental in its character ; and
Turin, Milan, and Bologna are for this reason the least pleasant cities of Italy to live
in. A few favoured spots on the Alpine lakes, such as the Borromean Islands, are
an exception to this rule, and enjoy an equable climate, thanks to the moderating
influences of a vast expanse of water. In the Gulf of Pallanza the thermometer
never falls below 40" F., and we must go as far as Naples if we would meet witii
a cb'mate equally &vourable to vegetation. Venice too, is a privileged spot,
thanks to the vicinity of the Adriatic, and is healthy, too, in spite of the lagoons

• Humidity of the air at Milan, 74*6 per cent. ; aaanal ninfiJl at Milan, 88-8 in. ; at Tniin, 31-8 in.;
at Tolmean, on the Upper Taglianunto, 82-8 in.

m^^mmsi^-

THE BASIN OF THE FO.

21S

Ueys. There

aoiers, which

are consider-

of the Alpine

6,000 square
000,000 cubic
roposed works
a part in the
be reduced to

>untry fills the
Bts of England

cool sbpes of
lat M\a in the

Portugal, the
is equal to that
ted at five feet,
le rains are not
they are most

L by the Apen-
blowing up it
iding from the
on the western
. with moisture,
erous breaks in
B Alpine yalleys
le nayigaton on

the Fo, but the
is circumstance,
ap^rature some-
En the plain the
character; and
B of Italy to live
ean Islands, are
the moderating
he thermometer
vould meet with
privileged spot,
le of the lagoons

; a(Taiiii.31-8iii.;

which surround it. It is remarkable that these brackish lakes and swamps of
Northern Italy do not give rise to the dreaded malarial fevers. Yenice undoubtedly
owes its healthiness to the tides, which are higher there than in the Tyrrhenian
Sea, and perhaps, also, to the cold winds descending from the Alps. Comacchio, too,
is a healthy place, and young natives of the Polesina sufiering from consumption
are sent there to recover their health. Wherever the engineers have cut up the
connection between the lagoons and the open sea, marsh fever has made its
appearance. The swamps of Ravenna and Cervia breed malignant fevers, especially
where avaricious landowners have cut down the protecting rows of pines and oaks.
A heavy miasmal air hang^ likewise over the environs of Ferrara and Malalbergo,
at the head of the Paduan delta.

The Alpine valleys are the most imhealthy spots of Northern Italy, for they
are deprived of sunlight. Gottre and idiotoy are frequent there, and in the valley
of Aosta nearly all the women are a£9icted with the former, owing, perhaps, to the
water which flows over magnesian rocks. The inhabitants of districts traversed
by numerous canals su£fer from diseases traceable to miasmal effluvia. The food of
the peasantry is not sufficiently nourishing or varied to counteract these deleterious
influences, and many die of pellagre, an incurable skin disease, only known in coun-
tries where the flour of maize, in the diluted form oi polenta, constitutes the principal
article of food. In the province of Oremona one in every twenty-four inha-
bitants is afflicted with this malady. The sanitary condition of the people is even
worse in the rice-fields of Milan and the Polesina. The women there frequendy
stand for hours in tepid putrefying water, and are obliged from time to time to
pick off the leeches which creep up their legs.*

But in spite of maladies, misery, and fiunines, always following in the train of
the inundations, the fertile plain of the Po is one of the most densely peopled
portions of Europe. Every plot of ground there has been utilised. The forests,
very much reduced in size, harbour no game, except, perhaps, on the Alpine slopes,
and even small birds are rare. Not only snipes, quails, and thrushes are shot or
trapped, but also nightingales and swallows. Tschudi estimates the number of
singing birds annually killed on the shores of the Lftgo Maggiore at 60,000 ; and
at Bergsiuo, Verona, Ohiaeenna, and Brescia they are slain by millions, the nets
being spread in the hedges of eveiy hiU.

The population of the vaUey of the Po is composed of the most diverse
elements. Amongst its ancestors were Ligurians, probably the kinsmen of our
Basks ; Etruscans, famous for their works of irrigatbn ; Gallic tribes, whose
peculiar intonation is still traceable In the rural Latin spoken in Northern Italy ;
and Celtic Ombrians, the most remote of dll, and looked upon by historians as the
aboriginal inhabitants of the country.

The German invasions during the first centuries of our era have left a perma-

* Kean anaual tempeiature of Tario, 6S-10*F.; hottest monih (April), TS-IS"; cotdMt month
(Jasauy), SS-10*. Milan : meiai, H-Oi* ; July, H'W ; January, 23-26°. Venice : mean, K'iT F. ; July,
2«0«>; Jannary,3fi-28°.

816

ITALT.

nent mark upon the population of Northern Italy. The many tall men met with
in the valley of the Po are proofs of this Transalpine influence. The Goths and
Vandals, Herulians and Longobards, or Lombards, soon became merged in the
Latinised masses, but their position as conquerors and feudal lords gave them an
influence which their mere numbers would not have insured them. The ancient
history of Lombardy is a continual struggle between the towns and these feudal
lords, and as soon as the latter had been defeated — that is to say, about the
beginning of the tenth century — German was superseded everywhere by Italian.

Fig. 70.— Tbi OimiAir GoMMtmu or Nobtkuin Italy.
8<al«l: 680,000.

.10

Family and ti lOgra'obrcal names of Lombard origin are very common on &e left
bank of the Fa. and as far as ^be foot of the Apeninnes. Marer^fo, for instance, is
a corruption .-^f the German MeKring.

This German influence upon manners and language ha* been most enduring in
the Friul, or Furlanei, a district bounded by the Adriatic, the Camiolian Alps, and
the plateau of the Karst, or Carso. The Friulians were even looked upon as a
distinct race, though their ancestors, like those of most Italians of the north, were
Latinised Oelts. Frequent intermarriages with their Slovenian neighbours con-

.1 "W"

THE BASIN OP THE PO.

217

men met with
rhe Goths and
merged in the
gave them an
The ancient
d these feudal
say, ahout the
lere hy Italian.

BMSANQ

mmon on ttie left
[O, for instance, is

most enduring in
miolion Alps, and
looked upon as a
>f the north, were
L neighbours con-

tributed in some measure to produce a type distinct from that of Venice orTreviso.
The number of these Friulians still speaking their own dialect does not now exceed

60,000 souls.

Amongst the numerous German colonies of which traces hare been found in
the plains of Northern Italy and on the southern slopes of the Alps, the " Thirteen
Communes" to the north of Verona, and the "Seven Communes" in the deep
valleys to the north-west of Bassano, are the most considerable. The homines

Fig. 71.— HoMTi BosA, AS ■■» rmoM Oaicoho.

Teutonm of these two districts are supposed to be the descendants of the Cimbrians
defeated by Marine, and blue eyes and fair hair still prevail amongst them, but in
all other respects they resemble the Italians of the plains, and only a few old
women amongst them still talk the language of their ancestors, which is said to
resemble the dialect spoken on the Tegern Lake, in Bavaiia. Nor were chey
the champions of German authority on Italian soa. On the contrary, they were
charged by the Republic of Venice with the defence of the northern frontier, and

■,:;«»

818

ITALY.

have always valiantly acquitted themselveii of this duty. In return, they were
granted self-government and exemption from military service. But neither the
Republic of Venice nor Austria was able to protect these German colonies against an
invasion of the " Welsh " or Italian element, and there do not now exist any non-
Italian communities to the east of the great lakes. To the north of Piemont, however,
in the valleys descending from Monte Rosa and in the valley 3f Pdmmat, where the
Tooe forms one of the most beautiful waterfalls, Oerman colonies still maintain'
their ground. They, too, would long ago have lost their language were it not for
the support they receive fh>m the Germans occupying the Swiss valleys on the
northern slopes of the Alps. Alagna, or Olen, one of these German villages,
preserved its ancient customs until quite recently. For centuries there bad been
no lawsuit there ; contracts, testaments, and other legal documents were unknown ;
and everything was regulated by " custom ; " that is, by the absolute authority of
the heads of families.

The French element is far more numerous on the Italian slope of the Alps than
the German. The inhabitants of the valley of Aosta, between the Grand Paradis
and the Monte Rosa, of the upper valleys of the Dora Riparia, Oluson, Pelioe,
and Yaraita, speak French, and are of the same origin as the Savoyards and
Dauphinois on the western slope of the Alps. The configuration of the ground
has facilitated this pacific invasion of the western Celts, numbering about 120,000
souls. They descended from the passes, and occupied the whole of the forest and
pastoral region down to the foot of the hills, the last mountain defile, in many
instances, forming their boundary. But the French language is steadily losing
ground, for the official language is Italian, and every village has already two
names, of which the modem Italian one is used by preference. The Yaudois, or
Waldenses, in the valleys of Pelice (Fellis) and Oluson, above Pinerolo (Pignerol),
alone resist this Italianisation with a certain amount of success, for they have a
literature and history, and are held together by strong religious ties. Their sect
was persecuted as early as the thirteenth century, long before the Reformation, raid
ever since, until their final emancipation in 1848, they have struggled against
adversity. Many times it was thought they had been exterminated, but they
always rose again, and in history they occupy a rank iax out of proportion to their
small numbers.

The bulk of the population are engaged in agriculture, which need not be
wondered at if we bear in mind the fertility of the soil, the abundant supply of
water, and the improvements effected in bygone ages. The labour invested in
every kind of agrioultund improvement, such as canals, embankments, terraces, or
ronchi, biiilt up like steps on the slope of every hill, has been immense, and defies
computation. The mode of cultivation, moreover, entails a vast amount of labour,
for the peasant knows not the iron plough, but tills his field with the spade : he is
a gardener rather than an agriculturist. The agricultural produce is inunense ;
its annual value is estimated at £80,000,000 sterling, and it furnishes large quan-
tities for exportation. Cereals, forage, mulberry leaves and cocoons, vegetables
and fruit, and cheese, including the famous Paimesan, are the principal products.

THE BASIN OF THE PO.

819

urn, they were

ut neither the

oniee against an

exist any non-

nnont, however,

rimat, where the

B still maintain'

were it not for

valleys on the

erman villages,

there had heen

were unknown ;

ute authority of

of the Alps than
> Grand Paradis
, OluBon, Felice,

Savoyards and
1 of the ground
g about 120,000
if the forest and

defile, in many
is steadily losing
ha« already two

The Yaudois, or
[orolo (Pignerol),
, for they have a
ties. Their sect
Reformation, raid
struggled against
kinated, hut they
roportion to their

liioh need not he
undant supply of
ibour invested in
lents, terraces, or
mense, and defies
imount of labour,
the spade : he is
uce is immense;
ishes large quan-
ooons, vegetables
incipal products.

Lombardy and Piemont occupy the first rank in the world for certain kinds of
agricultural produce, and they are almost the only countries in Europe in wfiToh
rice, introduced in the beginning of the sixteenth century, is extensively grown.
The vineyards, on the othor hand, are not as carefully tended as they might be,
and the wines, with the exception of those of Asti, Monferrato, San Colombano,
and Udine (the picoiito), are of small repute.

The valley of the Po divides itself into several well-marked agricultural
provinces. In the Alpine valleys, between Col di Tenda and Monte Tricomo, the
greater portion of the forests and pastures is held in common, but nearly every
mountaineer is likewise the free proprietor of a bit of meadow or land, which his
labour has converted into a garden. The social condition of these mountaineers
thus resembles that of the French peasantry ; for they, likewise, enjoy the advan-
tages of a minute division of the land amongst freehold proprietors. The hilly tracts
along the foot of the mountains are divided into fanns of moderate size. The
peasant no longer owns the land, but, in accordance with old feudal customs, he
shares in its produce. In the plain, where it is necessary to keep up a complicated
system of canals, nearly all the land belongs to rich capitalists, who cut it up into
numerous small farms, and for the most part reside in the towns. These small
farmers have no resources of their own, and are hardly above the rank of agricul-
tural labourers. Though they cultivate the most fertile region of Northern Italy,
they are miserably fed, frequently decimated by disease, and least alive to the
advantages of education. The contrast between these miserable peasants and the
mountaineers of Yaudois and the Yal Tellina is great indeed.

Periodically many of the mountaineers migrate to the towns and neighbouring
countries in search of work, and a proverb tells us that there is no country In the
world " without sparrows or Bergamosks." But though the natives of the hills of
Bergamo furnish a numerous contingent of these migrants, they are outnumbered
by Friulians, inhabitants of the shores of the Lago Maggiore', and Piemontese.
The latter cross the passes of the Western Alps in large numbers in search of
work at Marseilles and other towns of Southern Franoe, and, small wages sufficing
for their frugal wants, they are not particularly liked by their French fellow-
workmen.

The metallic wealth of Northern Italy is but small. The only mines of note
are those which formerly supplied the famous armourers of Brescia with iron, and
the gold diggings of Anzasca, at the foot of Monte Re a, where 5,000 slaves were
kept at work by the Romans, and which are not yet quite exhausted. Marble,
gneiss, granite, potters' clay, and kaolin are, however, found abundantly. In
former times silks, velvets, carpets, glass, porcelain, metal-work, and other art
productions of the workmen of Yenice and Lombardy enjoyed a very high reputa-
tion. These ancient industries decayed with the downfall of the old republics,
but there are signs now of their revival. The want of coal or other fuel for setting
in motion the machinery of modem fiustories is compensated for, to some extent,
by an abundant water power, and this explains why nearly all the important
manufactories are met with at the debouchures of the Alpine valleys.

;aiewa»>«i«'''''""'-

,-_J

ITALY.

Amongst the ancient induatriea of the country not yet extinct, the fiaheriet of
the lagooni of Comaochio occupy a foremoat place. The Canal of Magnavaoca,
now hardly navigable, admits the wateri of the aea into the Oanal Palotta, which
may be described as the great artery of these lagoons. It was constructed in
1631 — 34, and, by an ingeniously designed system of ramifying canals, carries the
vivifying floods to the most remote parts of ine lagoons. The various basins,
or valli, of the lagoons are thus filled with sea-wator, and constitute as many

breeding beds, v/here the fish come from the sea multiply abundantly. A labyrinth
of canab provided with flood-gates cuts off their retreat to the sea, and they are
caught in immense numbers when the fishing season arrives. Spallanzani has seen
60,000 pounds of fish taken in a single bed, or talk, within an hour ; but some-
times the dratight is even more considerable, and the fish are actually used as manure.
The fishing population of Comaochio numbers about 6,000 iudividuals, mcit of
them distinguishod by tall stature, great strength, and suppleness. Coste, the
fish-breeder, mentions it as a curious fact that this secluded colony of fishermen

, the fiiherief of

of Magnavaooa,
PalotU, which
oonstruoted in

nail, oarriM the
varioui bMini,

ititute M many

\V?r A

atly. Alabyrinih
> sea, and th^ are
tallanzani has seen.
1 hour ; but Bome-
Uy used as maaure.
dividualB, mc it of
leness. Ooste, the
)lony of fiBhermen

TUB BASIN OF THE PO.

should hare retained these characteristic features for centuries, though sustained
exclusively by fishing, and living upon mullets, eels, and acquadtllt. Unfortunately
these fishermen are not the proprietors of the ponds, for they belong to the State
or to rich private individuals. The workmen live in large barracks away from the
town, to which they return only at stated intervals, and even their wives and
relatives are not permitted to visit them in their places of exile.

Hff. 7S>— Thi Fmmieiu or Ookaoohio.
)itrs«».

aiuiMb

The enormous population of the valley of the Po, which almost equals that of
the remainder of continental Italy, is very unequally distributed ; but, except in
the high and cold Alpine valleys, the inhabitants live in towns, dozens of which
may be seen peeping out amidst the verdure if we ascend a high tower. There
are scarcely any villages or hamlets. The farmers alone live in the country,
completely isolated from each otiier, whilst the numerous landed proprietors throng
ihe towns, and impart to them an aq»ect of wealth which similar places in other
16

■A

96;
if

Ml ITALY.

{wrta of Europe cannot booat of. No other country in the world is M densely
populated, and in Lombardy the number of town is relatively larger than any-
where elio.*

Large town*, too, are numerous, and many o< ihem enjoy a desenred reputation
amongst the cities of the world on account of their monuments, art treasures, and
historical associations. Their number is partly accounted for by the density of the
population, and by the facility with which the inhabitants were able to shift their
abodes, according to the hazards of war or the vicissitudes of events. And this
accounts, too, for the large number of towns which became fomous as the capitals
of republics, or as royal and ducal residences.

Several of the towns at the base of the Alps occupy sites marked out for them
by nature. Such are the towns at the mouth of the valleys or defiles, which were
places of defence as well as staples of tMrnmerce. Arimiuum, the modern Rimini,
at the southern extremity of the great plain of thePo, was one of these, for during
the reign of the Roman it defended the narrow littoral passage between the
Adriatic and the Apennines. The Flaminian Road there reached the sea, the
Emilian Road thence departed for the north-west, as did also the littoral rood of
Ravenna. When Rome had ceased to be the capital of the world, and Italy was
divided into small hostile states, the towns in the southern part of the plain,
or near the passes over the Po, such as Ferrara and Bologna, retained iiiair
strategical importance. Piacenza, viich defends the passage of the Po between
Piemont and Emilia, remains a first-iiite fortress to the present day ; Alessandria,
net ' the confluence of Tanaro and Bormida, and in a plain famuur for many a
bloL'dy battle, was likewise destined to become a formidable fortress, though
derisively called a " city of straw." Every valley debouching from France or
Austria was locker*. At ita mouth by a strong fort ; but most of these places, such as
Yinadio, Piner >l . Vet't >vt?lla, and Susa, have become untenable, owing to the
range of moder. . .1 '.ill;'\j'.

The def( >!. ' ;.>f the road over the Brenner, ever since the down&ll of the
Roman emp^i 3, had to be looked to most carefully, for the plain between the
Minoi : and the Adige; to the south of the Lake of Garda, is the least-protected part
of Italy from a military point of view. History has proved this. Well might
tho peaceable inhabitants of the plain consecrate tKis Alpine road to the gods, and
intrust its defence to the neighbouring tribes. B it the northern barbarians were
not to be stopped by altars ; and many a time they swept down it like au avalanche,
pillaging the towns and massacring the inhabitant . No spot on the earth's surfboe
has been so frequently saturated with human bloxl. Most of the battles for the
possession of Italy, down to our own days, were fought near the mouth of the
upper vjilley of the Adige. Hardly a town or a village of this email district bat

AfiB, Bonan IQlM.

Dm. Slit, isrs.

FopnlatiaD.

IhaMr.

* Piemont .

11,308

2,896,218

266

Lombudy

. ^. 9,084

8,603,918

891

Venice .

0,060

2,733,406

802

Emilia .

. . . 7,021

2,168.881

272

Total 87,878

11,486,918

806

d is M densely
arger thui any-

erved reputation
rt treasures, and
he density of the
)le to shift their
ents. And this
M as the capitab

ked out for them
ifiles, which were
modem Kimini,
these, for daring
age between the
shed the sea, the
le littoral road of
rid, and Italy was
Mirt of the ]ilain,
[la, retained iheir
>f the Po between
day ; Alessandria,
liinuar for many a
[o fortress, though
kg from France or
bese places, such as
able, owing to the

he downfoll of the
plain between the
least-protected part
this. Well might
ysA to the gods, and
em barbarians were
it like an avalanche,
n the earth's sur&oe
if the battles for the
it the mouth of the
M email district bat

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THE BASIN OP THE PO.

228

has gained a mournful notoriety in the dark pages of human history. It is there
we must seek for the battle-fields of Castiglione, Lonato, Rivoli, Solferino, and
Oustozza. When the Austrians held Lombardy and Venice, they took care to
protect this district by the four fortresses known as the Quadilateral (Verona,
Peschiera, Mantua, and Legnago) and other works. These constituted the " key
of the house," of which Italy has now repossessed herself.

The configuration of the country which rendered these defiles of the Alps
of importance strategically, likewise insured their commercial importance. The
fortresses were placed there to defend the passes, the commercial entrep6ts to

Fig. 74.— MovTH OF THB Adiob Valley.
From the Anitrian Staff lisp. Soato t : 807,000.

intercept the trade. The rank of these places of commerce depends essentially
upon the number and the importance of the roads which converge upon them.
Turin, upon which converge all the Alpine roads from Mont Blanc to the
Apennines, naturally became one of the vital points of European commerce.
Milan, to which lead the seven great Alpine routes of the Simplon, the Gotthard,
the Bernardino, the Spliigen, the Julier, the Maloya, and the Stelvio, was marked
out by nature as a commercial emporium. Bologna, too, which was separated by
the swamps of the Po from the Alpine passes, has risen into importance since
nulwAyv have joined it to Vienna, Paris, Marseilles, and Naples.

224

ITALY.

The valley of the Po would never have attained its importance in the history
of Europe unless roads had been constructed for traversing the obstructive moun-
tains which surround it on all sides except towards the east, where it opens out
upon the Adriatic- No other district of Europe is so completely hemmed
in by natural obstacles as is this, but the construction of carriage roads and railways
has converted Northern Italy into one of the great centres of European commerce.
Venice gives it the command of the Adriatic, the Apennine railways connect it
with Genoa, Savona, the Gulf of Spezia, and the Tyrrhenian, and it thus commands
the two seas which wash the shores of Italy. Other railways cross the Alps, and
put it into communication with France and Germany. This central position,
joined to the natural fertility of the country, has converted Northern Italy into one

Fig. 75. — Tub Pabbaoeh ovsr thx Alps.
Soile 1 : 6,000,000.

,100 Miles.

of the most flourishing portions of Europe. Human hands have conquered
original geographical disadvantages, and the true centre of Italy is in the anoieni
Cisalpine Gaul, and not at Rome. Had the Italians been guided in the choice of
their capital by actual importance, and not by historical tradition, they would
have chosen one of the great cities of their northern plain.

Turin, though an old town, seeing that it was burnt by Hannibal, is never-
theless a modem city, if we compare it with other towns of Italy. Its straight and
broad streets almost g^ve it the appearance of a town of the New World. Until
made a ducal residence, Turin was but a small provincial town. During the time of
the Romans, and even during the Middle Ages, the great high-road between Italy
and Gaul led along the coast of the Gulf of Gtenoa. The passage of the Alps
was looked upon with dread by travellers. Still some traffic went on even in these

THE BASIN OP THE PO.

226

1 the history
active moun-
I it opens out
tely hemmed
I and railways
lan commerce.
ys connect it
ms conmiands
the Alps, and
atral position,
Italy into one

have conquered

is in the anciehi

in the choice of

ion, they would

anibal, is never-
Its straight and
World. Until
uring the time of
od between Italy
lage of the Alps
on even in these

early days, and small towns sprang into existence at the foot of each Alpine
pass. Amongst these were Mondovi, the triple town built on three hills ; Ouneo,
favourably placed upon a terrace between Stura and Qesso, in which rise
the hot sulphur springs of Yaldiera ; Saluzzo, on the gentle slope of the foot-
hills of Monte Yiso ; Finerolo, with^ its ancient castle, so often converted into a
prison of state ; Susa, the Italian key of Mont Cenis ; Aosta, still abounding in
Roman antiquities ; Ivrea, built on a site formerly occupied by a glacier
descending from Monte Rosa ; and Riella, with its flourishing woollen industry.
The towns lower down in the plain, upon which several of these Alpine roads
converged, likewise attained some local importance. In Upper Fiemont there are
Fossapo, on a heap of shingle at the junction of the roads of Mondovi and Ouneo ;
Savigliano, lower down, where the roads of the Fo and Maira valleys join ; and
Carmagnola, which commands one of the principal roads over the Apennines.
Novara, the commercial outlet of the Lago Maggiore, and in the midst of one of
the most productive agricultural districts, is the most populous town of Eastern
Fiemont. Yercelli, on the Sesia, and below the confluence of the rivulets descend-
ing from Monte Rosa, enjoys natural advantages similar to those of Novara.
Casale, the ancient capital of Monferrato, defends one of the principal passages of
theFo.

But Turin, owing to its favourable position, has become the g^eat emporium
of the valley of the Upper Fo. Its commerce has grown immensely, since the
town no longer enjoys the perilous honour of being the capital of a kingdom,
and the places vacated by the court and Government officials have been filled up
quickly by immigrants carried thither by the railways. Its libraries, a fine
Diuseum, and various learned societies entitle it to rank as one of the intellectual
centres of the peninsula, whilst its manufactures of silks and woollens, of paper
and other articlen, are of great importance. The environs of Turin are delightful.
From the hill of the Superga, a few miles to the east of the city, and crowned by
a sumptuous church, may be enjoyed one of the finest panoramas of the Italian
Alps. The numerous small towns in its vicinity, such as Moiicalieri, Chieri, and
Oarignano, abound in villas and participate in the prosperity of the capital. As
to the towns in the valley of the Tanaro, in the south, they form a group apart,
and are the natural intermediaries between the valley of the Fo and the port of
Genoa. Alessandria, a strong fortress of hideous regularity, which has superseded
the old fortresses of T 'ortona and Novi, is the terminus of eight railways, and one
of the busiest places of Italy. The neighbouring cities of Asti, famous for its
sparkling wines, and Acqui, celebrated from the time of the Romans for its hot
springs, are likewise important for their commerce.*

MUan, the capital of Lombardy, is in every respect one of the leading cities of
Italy. In population it is inferior to Naples, in commerce it is outstripped only

* Popnktion of the principal towns of IHemont (1871) :— Turin. 192,442; Alesaandria, 29,102;
NoTMia, 24,1M; Yercelli, 20,626; Ouale Monfermto, 20,436; Asti, 19,466; Novi lagure, 12,162
Mondovi, 11,968; Ganeo, 1I,8«9-, Finerolo, 11,832; Biello, 11,814; Saluuo, 9,796; Savigliano, 9,644 ;
Bra, 9,196; Alba, 9,147; Chieri, 8,086; Tortona, 8,620; Acqui, 8,332; FoMano, 7,272; Carmagnola,
3,830.

916

ITALY.

by Genoa, but in industry it is the equal of both. Its scientific and literary life
entitles it, probably, to the first rank amongst the cities between the Alps and Sicily.
In the most remote times Milan was an important town of the Celts, and since
then the advantages of its position have given it the preponderance amongst all
other cities of Northern Italy. Its power during the Middle Ages gained it the
epithet of the " Second Rome." At the close of the thirteenth century it had
300,000 inhabitants, whilst London had not then a sixth of that number. Milan
stood in want of water, for it was dependent upon the feeble stream of the Olona,
und its citizens created the Naviglio Grande and the Martesana, veritable rivers,
which furnish a quantity of water double that of the Seine at Paris during
summer. They likewise erected magnificent monuments, but most of these have
perished during innumerable wars, and the aspect of Milan is now that of a
modem town of Western Europe. Its most famous building, the " Duomo," with
its prodigious crowd of statues, its finely chiselled marbles and gpranites, must be
looked upon as a marvel of architecture, though from an artistic point of view it is
hardly more than an elaborately carved trinket out of all proportion. The stones
for this edifice were quarried on the Lago Maggiore, near the mouth of the Toce.

The capital of Lombardy, proud of the past and confident of the future, boasts
of never yielding servilely to impulses given from beyond. It has its own opinions,
manners, and fashions, and anything accepted from abroad is moulded in accord-
ance with local traditions. The other tiowns of Lombardy likewise maintain their
local character, are proud of their traditions, and glory in the annals of the past.
Como, on the beautiful lake named after it, the ancient rival of Milan, gains
wealth by spinning silk, and exporting the agricultural produce of the Brianza.
Monza, surrounded by parks and villas, is the coronation city. Pavia, with its
525 towers, now in ruins, remembers the time when it was the residence of
the Lombard king^, and proudly points to the university, one of the oldest in
Europe, and to the Certosa (Chartreuse), one of the most sumptuous monasteries
of Italy. Yigevano, on the other side of the Ticino, rejoices in a fine castle. Lodi,
in the eleventh century, was the most powerful city of Italy next to Milan, and
carried on a war of extermination with the latter; it is still a busy place.
Cremona, an old republic, boasts of its torrazzo, or tower, 393 feet in height, the
loftiest in Europe until Gt>thic cathedrals were built. Bergamo, on a hill com-
manding the rich plains of Brembo and Serio, pi'oduced a larger number of great
men than any other town except Florence ; and Brescia, the armourers' town,
more haughty still, proclaims herself to be the mother of heroes.

Mantua, on the Mincio, is one of the fortresses of the Quadrilateral, and can
hardly be said to belong to LoMbardy, though included within its political bound-
aries. It is essentially a military town. It has lost much of its old commerce,
though Jews are more plentiful there than in any other inland city of Italy. Its
swamps, woods, rice-fields, ditches, and fortified canals are productive of a degree
of humidity exceptional eveii in Lombardy, and the inhabitants consequently
eschew this ancient birthplace of YirgiL Strikingly different is the character of
the towns situated in the heart of the mountains, such as Sondrio, the capital of the

^^wwEE^S

THE BASIN OP THE PO.

SfiT

d literary life
Ipg and Sicily.
jltB, and since
e amongst all

gained it tlie
entury it had
imber. Milan

of the Olona,
iritable rivers,

Paris during

of these have
low that of a
Duomo," with
mites, must be
nt of view it is
1. The stones
li of the Toce.
e future, boasts
s own opinions,
ded in accord-
I maintain their
lals of the past.
)f Milan, gains
)f the Brianza.
Pavia, with its
he residence of
if the oldest in
Dus monasteries
.6 castle. Lodi,
i to Milan, and
[ a busy place.
t in height, the
on a hill com-
lumber of g^reat
rmowtars' town,

Val Tellina, or delightful Sale, on the Lake of Garda, with its group of villas
scattered amongst groves of orange-trees.*

The ph . iognomy of the large towns of Emilia, beyond the Po, offers far fewer
peculiarities, for, as most of them are situated along the great Emilian highway,
they have been exposed for ages to the levelling influences of travelling merchants
and soldiers. Piacenza, a sorry place as a fortress, carries on an important com-

Fig. 78.— Thb Laxms and Canau of Mantua.
Vtom Um Anitrian Staff Map. Bosla 1 : 198,000.

V».atOm—m>

v^uc

ifii^

ti^:^

ITtJA

vinuM««^

.GmeiUla

S.Sa««alM\

'/.

LS-/

• *■

• «

iff

■uo

[lateral, and can
political bound-
3 old commerce,
y of Italy. Its
stive of a degree
its consequently
the character of
the capital of ihe

llMdowa. Swunpi. Wooda. Biw-flaldi.
>..—.—_ SHOW.

I and Dyke*.

meroe. Parma, an old ducal residence, has a rich library, a museum, and
wonderful frescoes by Oorreggio in its churches. Reggio, another important

• Population of the towna of Lombardy (1871):— Milan (Milano), 261,985; Brescia, 38,906 ; Bergamo,
34,656; Cremona, 30,919; Pavia, 29,618; Mantua (Mantova), 26,687; Como, 24,360; Lodi, 19,088;
Monza, 17,431; Vigevano, 14,096; Buato Ardaio, 12,909; Vareie, 12,606; Voghera, 11,903; Treviglio,

ll|Oo3a

228

ITALY.

station on the Emilian highway, is famous as the birthplace of Ariosto. Modona
has its museum, and the precious collection of books and manuscripts known as the
Biblioteca Esteme. Bologna the " Learned," which has taken the word " Libertas "
for its motto, still remains one of the most interesting of Italian cities. There are
its Etruscan cemetery, its palaces and medisDval buildings, and its two leaning
towers, which will most certainly come down in the end. Bologna is one of the
great railway centres, carries on much commerce, and increases rapidly in popula*
tion. It would have made a far better capital than Rome. Of late years the
environs of .the city have been frequently flooded by the Beno, and these disasters
have cost Bologna its ancient epithet of " the Fat."

Near this bustling place there are otherd, now stagnant, which can point only
to buildings in proof that they, too, were once flourishing. Ferrara, the ancient
capital of the Estes, has fallen from its high estate since the Po has deserted it,
but still remains a place of some importance. Ravenna has not been deserted by
the Po, but by the sea, with which it communicates now by a canal seven miles
in length, and navigable for ships drawing thirteen feet of water. The town
became the capital of Honorius and Theoderio the Gbth, on account of the protec-
tion ofiered by the surrounding marshes. To the exarchs it is indebted for its
curious Byzantine edifices, so rich in mosaics. As to the ancient Etruscan oity of
Adria, on Venetian soil, to the north of the Po, it could hardly have claimed at
any period during the last two thousand years to give a name to the neighbouring
sea. It lies now at a distance of fourteen miles from it, and even in the time of
the Romans it must have been surrounded by lagoons or swamps, for how else can
we explain its epithet of " Town of the Seven Seas P " Porto, at the foot of the
Euganean Hills, may owe its name to an ancient lake or river.

Towns famous on account of their history, and still populous, are most crowded
together in the southern angle of the plain, usually known as the Romagna. The
towers and crenellated walls of Imola rise there on the banks of the Santemo.
Lugo, the " town of the beautiful Romagnese," occupies the centre of the district
of Ravenna, and has much trade. Faenza, on the Emilian Road, is a large village
rather than a town, though it has g^ven its name to a particular kind of porcelain
(faience). Forli is, next to Bologna, the most populous oity of Romagna. Oesena
is known for the excellence of the hemp grown in the neighbourhood. Rimiui,
where the Emilian Road reaches the sea, still has a few Roman roina, including a^
triumphal arch. The inhabitants of the Romagna are (^tinguished by great
energy. Their passions are violent, and as frequently lead them into crime as to
deeds of heroism.*

In Yenetia there are several provincial towns of importance. Padua abounds
in monuments of art, possesses a university, and was formerly the rival of Yenioe.
Yicenza is embellished by the palaces erected by Palladio. Treviso and Belluno
are towns of some importance, the one on the Sile, the other in the upper valley

* FopnUtioa of the principal towns of EmilU (1871) :— Bologna, 89,104 ; Parma, 44,91fi ; Kacensa,
34,908; Feirara, 83,327; Modena, 30,8«4; Faenaa, 23,762; Ravenna, 21,774; Beggio, 19,181; Lnols,
18,189; Cewma, 17,694 ; Forli, 16,324; Rimini, 9,747; Lugo, 8,604; Oomaoohio, 7,007.

- '-■""' -rVilMni-ilMiiilisiimLL,

)to. Modona
known aa the
1 •• Libertas "
«. There are
1 two leaning
, is one of the
ily in popula-
iate years the
these disasters

san point only
a, the ancient
as deserted it,
en deserted by
lal seven miles
r. The town
of the proteo-
indebted for its
ItruBcan oity of
ave claimed at
e neighbouring
in the time of
jr how else can
the foot of the

e most crowded
lomagna. The
f the Santemo.
e of the district
9 a large village
ind of porcelain
magna. Ceaena
•hood. lUmini,
lins, including a
dished by great
into crime as to

Padua abounds

rival of Venice.

viso and Belluno

the upper valley

IS, 44,91fi ; PimoMist,
ggio, 10,131 ; ImolSt
007.

jisasw

«L„.

THE DA8IN OF THE PO.

220

Fig. 77.— I'almanoya.
Sosle 1 : m,4O0.

of the Pittvo. At Udiae ia [luinted nut u mound of ourth nuid to havo boon
thrown up by Attilu, from which ho oontomplutod tho conflugration of A<|uil«ju.
Pulmunova, on the AuBtnun frontier, ia a rugulurly built fortreaa. Vorona, ut tho
other extremity of Venotiu, haa played an important part in tho hiatory of Italy,
but ita commerce and induatry havo fallen into decay. It hardly tiUa up tho apace
eucloaed by walla and baationa, and ita pruaont |>opulation ia quite out of propor-
tion to the multitude of ita public buildinga dating from the Middle Agea, and
the dimenaiona of ita Roman amphitheatre, capable of aoating oO.UUO apectatora.
Amongat all tho oitiea of Venetia it ia Venice itaelf, tho " Queen of the Adriatic,"
which haa auffured leaat in the courae of agea.

Venice ia a very ancient city. The remaina of Roman buildinga diacovered
on the ialand of San Giorgia, far below the preaent level of the aoa, and therefore
referred to in proof of the alow subaidence of the Venetian coast, prove to ua
that the mud ialanda of the gulf aupported a population long before the invaaion
of the Barbarians. Theae haIf*drowned
lunda may have attracted the ooaat popu-
lation at an early age, for they afforded
security againat attack, and offered great
ttdvantagea for carrying on commerce.
Nevertheleaa, the Venice of our time only
dates f^om the commencement of the ninth
century, when the government of thia ma-
ritime republic was eatabliahed upon the
islands separated from the sea by the
lidi, and from the mainland by estUaries
and swamps. This unique position ren-
dered Venice almost impregnable; and
whilst the rest of Europe was being deso-
lated by war, Venice sent forth its com-
mercial and warlike expeditions to every "^
part of the Mediterranean, established factories, and built fortresses. Not with-
out arduous struggles, it became the most powerful and wealthiest of the
commercial republics of Italy. It was largely indebted for this success to its
favourable geographical position, almost' in the centre of the medisoval world. Its
commerce brought the Venetians into contact with nearly every nation, and they
had no prejudices against foreigners. The Armenians were admitted to their city,
and an alliance was made even with the Turks. At the time of the Crusades the
Venetian Republic ocoupied the foremost position amongst the states of Europe,
and its ambassadors enjoyed a vast amount of influence. This influence was sus-
tained by enormous material forces. Venice had a navy of 300 veasels, manned
by 36,000 sailors, and the riches of the world, whether obtained by legitimate
commerce or by violence, were accumulated in its 2,000 palaces and 200 churches.
Even one of the islets upon which the city is built would have purchased a
kingdom of Asia or Ainoa. One of the most sumptuous cities of the West had

280

ITALT,

arisen upon banks of mud, inhabited formerly only by poor fisliennen. The larch
forests of Dalmatia had been cut down, and converted into piles upon which to build
palaces. More than 400 bridges of marble joined island to island, and superb
embankments of granite defended this marvellous city against the encroachments
of the sea. Great achievements in the arts contributed their share in making
Venezia la Bella a city without its equal.

But geographical discoveries, in which Venice itself took a leading share,
undermined the power of the Italian Bepublic. When Africa had been circum-
navigated and the New World discovered, the Mediterranean ceased to be the
great commercial sea of the world. Yenioe was doomed to die. It no longer
monopolized the road to India, and the increasing power of the Turks crippled its
Eastern trade. Still, so great were its resources, that it maintained its inde-
pendence for more than three hundred years after it had lost its factories, and
only fell when shamefully deserted by General Bonaparte, its supposed ally.

The decadence of Venice was most remarkable during the dominion of Austria.
In 1840 the city had less than 100,000 inhabitants, hundreds of its palaces were
in ruins, the grass grew in its squares, and seaweeds encumbered its landing-
places. Since that time it has been gradually recovering. A bridge of 222 arches
and 2,000 feet in length connects it with the mainland, and its commerce, though
not equal to that of Trieste, is nevertheless of considerable importance.* The
manufacture of looking-glaasesy laoe, and other articles has imparted firesh life to
Venice, and there, as well as in other towns of the lagoons (Malamooco, Burano,
Murano, and Ohioggia), thousands of workmen are husy in the production of
those gay-looking glass beads which find their way into every part of the world,
and which in certain countries of the East and in Central Africa take the place
of coin. But Venice, though less populous and active than of yore, still rejoices
in its delightful climate and its bright skies. Its gaiety and flutes are not yet
things of the past, and its palaces, built in a style half Italian, half Moorish, still
contain the priceless masterpieces of Titian, Tintoretto, and Paul Veronese.f

III. — LlOURIA AND THE RiVIERA OF GeMOA.^

LiGUKiA is but a narrow slip of land if we compare it with the broad plain of
the Po, but it is one of the most clearly defined districts of Europe, and its inhabit-
ants have retained many original traits. The contrast between the Podane plains
and the littoral region beyond the barren Apennines is striking, but if we
travel in the direction of Provence or of Tuscany the landscape changes only
by degrees. The rampart of the Apennines surrounds the whole of the Gtilf of

* Tonnage of TMieb which entered and clewed (inelud&ig the ooaating trade) :— £88,096 tons in
1865 ; 1,070,600 tons in 187«. Value of imports by sea (1874) :— £6,960,200 ; of exports, £2,848,040.

t Population of the principal towns of Venetia (1871) :— Venice (Veneria), 128,901 ; Veroua, 66,876 ;
Phdua (PadoTa), 62,011; Vicensa, 26,^94; Udine, 22,692; Chioggia, 19,841; Tieviso 18,647; CaTarsere,
12,336; Vittoria (formerly called Oeneda), 10,633; Adria, 9,834; Rovigo, 7,974; Feltro, 6,670; Bellono,
6,770; Este, 6,713.

t Araa, 2,163 square miles ; population (1871), 843,260 ; density, 891.

LIGUBIA AND THE RIVIEBA OP GENOA.

281

en. The larch
I which to build
ad, and superb
I encroachments
lare in making

leading share,
d been oircum-
sased to be the
It no longer
irks crippled its
tained its inde-
ts factories, and
tosed ally,
inion of. Austria.

its palaces were
ired its landing-
ge of 222 arches
vmmerce, though
portanoe.* The
rted fresh life to
amocco, Burano,
le production of
art of the world,
oa take the place
ore, still rejoices
fUtes are not yet
alf Moorish, still
Veronese.t

bie broad plain of
e, and its inhabit-
he Podane plains
Iking, but if we
ipe changes only
oleof theChilfof

kde) :— {(88,096 tona in
xports, £2,848,040.
1,001 ; Verona, 66,878 ;
iso 18,647; Cavanwre,
Feltro, 6,670; Ballano,

Oenoa, and there is not a single break in it. These mountains are very different in
character from the Alps, though joined to them as the branch of a tree is united to
its trunk. It is not possible to tell where one chain ends and the other begins. If
the main direction of the mountain is to be the criterion, the Ligurian Apennines
may be said to begin at the frontier of France, near the sources of the Tinea and
Yesubio ; but if great height, pastures, and perennial snow aro considered sufficient
CO constitute an Alpine region, then the Apennines only begin to the east of the
Col di Tenda, for the fine sunomits of the Olapier, FenStre, and GK)rdale8que, to the
west of that pass, attain a height of 10,000 feet. They are quite Alpine in their
character, and may boast even of small glaciers, the most southerly in the mountains
of Central Europe. Geologists usually draw the line where cretaceous and tertiary

Fig. 78.— Thi JuKorioN of Alps and AFuamiii.
SMie 1 : 1,800,000.

■10

rocks take the place of the crystalUne rocks of the Alps. But this, too, is only a
conventional division, for tiiese crystalline rocks, which constitute the crest of the
Alps in the west, extend far to the east, and occasionally they break through the
sedimentary formations which overlie them, and rise into summits similar to those
of the Alps. Thus the granitic sunmits of the mountains of Spezia remind us of
the mountain mass near the Gol di Tenda.

The chain of the Liguiian Apennines is by no means of unifoi'm height, but, like
that of the Alps, it consists of mountain masses separated by passes. The lowest of
these passes is that to the west of Savona, named indifferently after one of the
neighbouring villages, Altare, Caicara, or Cadibona. This pass is hardly more
than 1,600 feet in height, and is popularly looked upon as constituting the boundary
between the Alps and Apennines. The possession of this pass during war has

*<4S!afiiM

Jfel'ife!ltfit ' g»'ligjJt*!'i' * 4a ' ? " * "

282

ITALY.

always been considered of great importance, for it commands the approaches to
Gbnoa and the upper valleys of Piemont, and the Tanaro and Bormido, which rise
near it, have often run with blood.

The Apennines to the east of this pass have an average height of 3,30C feet, and
beyond the Pass of Qiovi (1,538 feet), through which the road leads from Genoa to
the northern plains, many summits attain a height of 4,500 feet. Several spurs,
abounding in ravines, extend here to the north. The main chain, at the same time,
retires from the coast, and the Pass of Pontremoli, which separates the Lig^rian
from tho Tuscan Apennines, and through which leads the road from Parma to
Spezia, is no less than thirty miles from the sea. In this eastern portion of the
Qenoese Apennines a spur detaches itself from the main chain, and terminates in the
fine promontory of Porto Yenere, a magnificent rock of black marble, surmounted
formerly by a temple of Venus. This spur, which protects the Ci-ulf of Spezia
against westerly winds, has at all times constituted an obstacle to the intercourse
between neighbouring peoples, not so much on account of its height, but because
of its steepness. In some places the crest of the Apennines is hardly moi <) than
four miles from the sea. The slope, in such places, is exceedingly steep, and roads
can ascend it only in numerous windings.*

The small width of the maritime slope of the Ligurian Apennines accounts for
the absence of perennial rivers. The most considerable streams to the east of the
Roya, which runs for the greater part through French territory, such as the Taggia
or the Centa, only assume the r.ppearance of rivers when the snows melt, or . after
heavy rains. Ordinarily they are but small streams, closed at the mouth by bars
of pebbles. Between Albenga and Spezia, for a distance of 160 miles, there are
only torrents, and in order to meet again with a real river we must go beyond the
Gulf of Spezia. This river is the Magra, which separates Lig^uria firom Etruria,
and which, up to the epoch of Augustus, formed the boundary of Italy. Its
alluvium has converted an ancient bay of the sea into a lake, and formed a beach,
1,300 yards in width, in front of the ancient Tyrrhenian city of Luni, which
formerly stood on the seashore.

The want of great rivers in Liguria is compensated for to some extent by sub-
terranean water-courses. Several springs rise from the bottom of the sea, at some
distance from the shore. The springs of La Polla, in the Gulf of Spezia, are amongst
the most bountiful amongst them. They have been isolated by the Italian Govern-
ment from the surrounding salt water, and their water is supplied to ships.

Owing to the absence of rivers, the sterility of the soil, and the steep escarpments,
this portion of the Mediterranean coast region contrasts strikingly with other parts
of temperate Europe. Having reached the summit of the mountains beyond the
magnificent chestnut forests at the head-streams of the Ellero, the Tanaro, and the
Bormida, we look down upon a scene almost African in its character. Scarcely a
blade of grass is to be seen betweoi Nice and Spezia, and only the grass-plots, kept
up at great expense in some pleasure-gardens, remind us that Piemont and Lom-

• Principal altitadet in Ligaria :— Okpier do Pa^puin, 10,07S feet; Col di Tends, 6,146 feet; Ifoote
Oarsino, 8,7M feet ; Ool d'Altare, 1,600 feet ; Col di Qiovi, 1,(88 feet ; Monte Penna, 6,700 feat.

ww^^tiiwiiiiiiaiinriii^iiinfag

t.i H'<m i l» A *iMi H I B t i> n

approaches to
lido, which rise

' 3,30C feet, and
from Genoa to
Several spurs,
the same time,
s the Ligurian
from Parma to
I portion of the
srminates in the
}le, surmounted
Gulf of Spezia
the intercourse
ht, but because
rdly moi •) than
iteep, and roads

aes accounts for
the east of the
thastheXaggia
rs melt, or . after
I mouth by bars
miles, there are
t go beyond the
El from Etruna,
J of Italy. Its
Eormed a beach,
sf Luni, which

) extent by sub-
the sea, at some
)zia, are amongprt
Italian Govern-
to ships,
jep escarpments,
with other parts
tains beyond lihe
Tanaro, and the
3ter. Scarcdy a
grass-plots, kept
smont and Lorn-

[a,6,U6feet; Honte
t, i,1W Mi.

LI0T7BIA AND THE BIVIERA OP GENOA. 288

bardy are near at hand. Pines and brambles would have remained the only
verdure in these Ligurian valleys and ravines if it were not for the transformation
wrought by gardeners and agriculturists. Strange to say, trees do not ascend to
the same height on the slopes of the Apennines as in the Alps, though the mean
temperature is far higher, and at an altitude at which the beech still attains noble
proportions in Switzerland We find it here stunted in growth. Larches are hardly
ever seen.

The sea is as sterile as the land. There are neither shallows, islands, nor sea-
weeds affording shelter to fish. The cliffs descend precipitously into the sea, and
the narrow strips of beach, extending from promontory to promontory, consist only
of sand without the admixture of a single shell. The Genoese fishermen, therefore,
resort to distant coasts, those of the " Ponente," or west, going to Sicily, whilst
those of Camogli, on the Riviera di Levanto, visit the coasts of Tuscany. This
sterility of land and sea accounts for the large number of Genoese met with in
other parts of the world.

But though an unfruitful country, Liguria is exceedingly picturesque. A
traveller availing himself of the railway between Nice and (}enoa, which follows
the sinuosities of the coast and pierces the promontories in numerous tunnels, is
brought within reach of the most varied scenery. At one time the line runs close
to the beach, with the foam of the sea almost touching the track on the one side,
while tamarisks bearing pink blossoms overshadow it ^m the other. Elsewhere
we creep up the steep slope, and obtain a view of the cultivated terraces raised at
immense labour by the peasantry, whilst the bluish sea is seen afar to the right,
almost hidden by a grove of olive-trees, and stretching away until lost in the direc-
tion of Oorsica. Towns, villages, old towers, villas, ship-yards, and other industrial
establishments impart an almost infinite variety to the scenery. One town occupies
the top of a hill, and, seen from below, its old walls and towers stand out boldly
against the sky ; another is built amphitheatrically, close to the strand upon which
the fishermen have drawn their boats ; a third is hidden in a hollow, and sur-
rounded by vines, olive, orang«, and lemon trees. A date-tree here and there
imparts an oriental aspect to the landscape. Bordighera, a small place close
to the French frontier, is quite surrounded by palm-trees, whose fruit, however,
but rarely ripens.

The climate of Albenga, Loana, and some other plaoes on the Genoese coast is
&r from salubrious, on account of the miasmata exhaled by sheets of stagnant
water leAi behind by freshets. Even Genoa cannot boast of an agreeable dimate,
not because there are marshes near it, but because the southerly winds charged
with moisture are caught there by the semicircle of mountains, and are mad* to
discharge their superabundant humidity. The nimiber of rainy days at Genoa
averages 121 a year. There are, however, several towns along this coast protected
by the mountains against the north, and yet out of the usual track of the moisture-
laden southerly winds, whose climate is exceptionally delightful.* Bordighera

* Avonge tampentora of Ctonoa, 60-8* F. ; days wifh rafai, 121 ; ndnM, 46 inches. ATsrags
temperatara of San B«do, 62*6 ; days with lain, M ; tainMI, S'16 in.

284

ITALY.

and San Remo, near the French frontier, are the rivals of Mentone as regards
climate ; and Nervi, to the east of Genoa, is likewise a favourite place of resort, on
account of its clear sky and pure atmosphere. Villas and castles rise on every
promontory and in every valley of these favoured districts. For a dozen miles
on either side of Genoa the coast is lined by villas. The population of the city
has overflowed the walls which once confined it, and is establishing itself in popu-
lous suburbs, ^e long street which winds between factories and gardens, scales
promontories, and descends into valleys, will continue to grow in length imtil it
extends along the whole coast of Liguria, for the charms of the country attract
men of leisure from every quarter of Europe.

Fig. 79.— OlNOA AND ITS SUBURBS.

horn the Saidiaiaa Staff lap. 8e«le 1 : 100/100.

^ >;«Vfti :

M E D 1 X g^

* il

••^Si

is:

joe:

, SMilM.

The historical development of the ancient Ligurians, who were probably of
Iberian race, was largely influenced by the nature of the country they
inhabited. The cultivable land being only of nnall extent, the superabundant
population was forced to look to the sea for a livelihood, and engaged in navigation
and commerce. Antium, the modem Genoa, was an " emporium " of the Ligu-
rians ever since the time of the Romans, and its vessels frequented every comer of
the Tyrrhenian Sea. In the Middle Ages the Genoese flag was carried into every
part of the known world, and it was Genoa that gave birth to Christopher Oolumbus,
whose name is inscribed upon the first page of modem history as the discoverer of
America. It was a Genoese, too, Giovanni Gabotto, or Oabot, who afresh discovered
the coast of North America five centuries after its original discovery by the

LIGUBIA AND THE BIVIERA OP GENOA.

285

>ne as regards

oe of resort, on

rise on every

a dozen mileR

ion of the city

itself in popa-

g^rdens, scales

length until it

country attract

Normans. The hardy mariners of Genoa hare thus navigated the seas from the
lost remote times. Even now they almost monopolize the navigation of the great
rivers of the Argentine Repuhlio. The Genoese likewise enjoy a high reputation
as gardeners, and are met with in every large town of the Mediterranean.

As long as the Apennines were not crossed hy practicable carriage roads,
Genoa possessed no advantages whatr-'er over the other ports of Liguria, but ever
since it has been placed in easy communication with the fertile plains of
Lombardy and Fiemont, the great advantages of its geographical position have

Fig. 80.— Vuw OF Qbmoa.

^^^»srasi

, S ■ i 'y

were probably of
e country they
le superabundant
a;ed in navigation
a " of the Ligu-
d every comer of
oarried into every
itopher Oolumbus,
I the discoverer of
afresh discovered
discovery by the

told upon its development. Pisa was the only republic on the western coast of
Italy which contested this superiority of Genoa, but was defeated after a sanguinary
struggle. The Genoese possessed themselves of Corsica, the inhabitants of which
were treated most cruelly ; they took Minorca from the Moors, and even captured
several towns in Spain, which they restored only after important commercial
privileges had^ been granted them. In the ^gean Sea the nobles of Genoa
became the proprietors of Ohios, Lesbos, Lemnos, and other islands. At Oonstanti-
nople the Genoese merchants were as powerful almost as the Emperor. Eaffiij in

286

ITALY.

the Crimea, was one of their wealthy colonies. Their factories and towers were
met along every commercial high-road in Asia Minor, and even in the recesses of tho
Caucasus. The possession of the Black Sea gave them the command of the trade
with Central Asia. These distant colonies explain the use of a few Arab,
Turkish, and Greek terms by the Genoese, and though the dialect spoken by
them is decidedly Italian, the intonation is French.

Nevertheless G«noa, though more powerful than Pisa, failed in wresting the
command of the sea from the Venetians, who enjoyed immense advantages
through their connection with Germany. Her political influence has never
equalled that of Venice, nor has bhe produced as many men eminent in literature
and art as has her Adriatic rival. The Genoese had the reputation in former
times of being violent and false, fond of luxury and power, and indifferent to
everything which did not enrich them. " A sea without fish, mountains with-
out forests, men without faith, women without modesty — thus is Genoa," was a
proverb ever in the mouth of the enemies of the Ligurian city. The dissensions
amongst the noble families of G«noa were incessant, but the Bank of St. George
never allowed civil strife to interfere with business. Wealth flowed into the city
without any cessation, and enabled its citizens to construct those palaces, marble
arcades, and hanging gardens which have won for it th« epithet of la Superba. In
the end, however, ruin overtook the Bank, and that justly, for it had supplied
princes with money to enable them to wage war, and its bankruptcy in the middle
of the eighteenth century rendered Genoa politically impotent.

The capital of Liguria, in spite of its small extent, its sinuous streets, its ramparts,
stairs, and dirty narrow quays, may justly boast of palaces equally remarkable for
the splendour and orig^inality of their architecture. Many of these mag^ficent
buildings appeared to be doomed to ruin during the decay of the town, but, on the
return of more prosperous times, the citizens again devoted themselves to the
embellishment of their city. Genoa is the busiest port of Italy.* Its shipowners
possess nearly half the Italian mercantile marine, and three-fourths of the vessels
annually built in Italy are famished from its ship-yards. The harbour, though
320 acres in extent, no longer suffices for the hundreds of sailing vessels and
st«amer8 which crowd into it. Nor is it sufficiently sheltered against the winds,
and it has therefore been proposed to construct a vast breakwater &r beyond its
present limits. Genoa fancies that its interests are not sufficiently attended to by
the Central Government. A second railway across the Apennines is. urgently
demanded, in order to manage the traffic that will be created by the opening of
the direct railway through Switzerland, which will place G^oa in direct com-
munication with Western Germany.

In the meantime Genoa is expanding in all directions. Its factories of maca-
roni, paper, silks and velvets, soap, oil, jewellery, metal-work, pottery, ornamental
flowers, and other objects are ever increasing; and ovrar del Oenoes — Genoese

* Tonnage of yesiels which eniered and cleared (including coasting vesnla) :— 1861, 1,086,764 ;' 1867,
2,830,000 ; W6, 3,109,796 tons. In the laat-named year 3,144 aailing veaiela and 070 atoaman antcnd
in the coaet trade, 1,462 lailing Yeasela and 860 atcamen from abroad.

id towers were
) reoesses of tho
id of the trade
a few Arab,
ect spoken by

n wresting the
tse advantages
ace has never
nt in literature
tion in former

indifferent to
ountains with-
Genoa," was a
[he dissensions
: of St. George
3d into the city
palaces, marble
'a Superba. In

had supplied
f in the middle

ts, its ramparts,
remarkable for
»Be mag^fioent
wn, but, on the
mselves to the
Its shipowners
s of the vessels
larbour, though
ng vessels and
inst the winds,
far beyond its
attended to by
aes is. urgently
the opening of
in direct oom-

stories of maca-
ery, ornamental
fenoea — Genoese

Jl, 1,08«,764; 1867,
170 iteamera entcnd

ITALY.

filled up by the jealous Genoese, occupies the bottom of a vast bay. It has glass-
works and potteries, and is connected by a railway with Turin. Elsewhere on the
Riviera di Punente the towns are crowded closely together. Such is the case with
the twin cities of Oneglia and Porto Maurizio, the one built on the beach, the other
on a steep hill dose by, and known as the " Fountains of Oil," because of their
extensive plantations of olives. At San Remo, however, olives are more plentiful
still.*

On the Riviera di Levante town joins town like pearls in a necklace. Albaro,
with its charming mansion. Quarto, whence departed the expedition which took
Sicily from the Bourbons, and Nervi, a health resort for persons suffering from
pulmonary diseases, constitute a long-stretching suburb of Genoa, extending in the
direction of Reoco and Camogli, two towns abounding in shipping. The rocky
promontory of Porto Fino, thus named aft«r the dolphins which formerly fre-
quented it, imposes an insurmountable obstacle to the further extension of G«noa
in this direction. Having traversed the tunnel leading through this promontory,
we reach another group of towns, viz. Rapallo, the industrious ; Ohiavari, a great
place of trade ; Lavagna, with its famous quarries of grey slates ; and Sestri di
Levante, a town of fishermen.

The coast beyond Sestri is but sparsely inbabited, for there bold cliffs approach
the sea ; but having doubled the superb cape of Porto Yenere, we enter the fine
Gulf of Spezia,t with its numerous forts, ship-yards, arsenals, and other build-
ings. The Italian Government has been busy ever since 1861 in converting this
g^lf into a first-rate naval arsenal, but no sooner has a portion of the work been
completed than the progress made in the arts of destruction compels the engineers
to remodel it — a very costly task. Whatever future may be in store for
Spezia as a military port, it has none as a commercial one, for though it affords
excellent shelter to vessels, no railway connects it with the fertile countries beyond
the Apennines, and its exports are limited to the produce of the valleys in its
immediate vicinity. Spezia is indebted for its high rank amongst the cities of
Italy to its beautiful gulf, the rival of the Bay of Naples and the roadstead of
Palermo. From the summit of the marble bill above the decayed town of Porto
Yenere we look down upon a marvellous succession of bays and promontories, and
far in the distance the mountains of Corsica rise indistinctly above the blue watens.
Looking to the east, we behold the picture^u'ie towns on the opposite side of
the gulf embedded in groves of olive-trees and cypresses, the Apuanio Alps
and the Apennines bounding the horizon. Right opposite is the charming
town of Lerici, and to the south of it the shore upon which Byron reduced to
ashes the body of his friend Shelley : no spot more appropriate for this mournful
holocaust.

• Annual produce of olive oil in the provinoe of Porto Hauriaio, which inoladea San Bamo, 778,600
gallons.

t Population of the principal towni of Lignria (1871) :— Genoa (OenoTa), 183,621 ; Savona, 24,861 ,
Spezia, 16,636 ; San Pier d' Arena, 16,668 ; Seatil Fonente, 9,606 ; San Bemo, 9,017 ; Ohiavati, 8 414 ;
Chieglia, 7,944.

MtMiaiiMiiMifei

TUSCANY.

289

It has glaM-
ewhere on the
the case with
)aoh, the other
icause of their
nore plentiful

lace. Albaro,
n which took
suffering from
tending in the
'. The rocky

formerly fre-
sion of G«noa
i promontory,
iavari, a great

and Sestri di

cliffs approach
enter the fine
1 other build-
tonverting this
the work been
I the engineers
) in store for
)ugh it affords
untries beyond
valleys in its
st the cities of
le roadstead of
town of Porto
imontories, and
he blue waterb.
>posite side of
Apuanic Alps
the charming
rron reduced to
r this mournful

Sun Bemo. 778,500

1 ; Savono, 24,861 ,
f; Ohiavari, 8 414;

IV. — Tuscany.

Tuscany, like Liguria, lies on the southern slope of the Apennines, but is of far
greater width, for that back-bone of Italy retreats there from the Oulf of Oenoa,
and stretches right across the broadest part of the peninsula to the Adriatic.
Besides this'there are several detached plateaux and mountain ranges to the south
of the valley of the Arno.*

The Apennines of Tuscany are of very unequal height, and they are traversed
by numerous low passes, which could easily be converted into carriage roads.
Speaking generally, they consist of a series of elongated and parallel mountain
masses, separated from each other by valleys, through which flow the head-streams
of the Serchio and the Arno. The first important mountain mass of the main
chain near the frontiers of Liguria, which is commanded by the Orsajo and Sucoiso,
is thus separated by the valley of the Magra from the parallel range of Lumigiana.
The chain of Oarfog^ana, to the north of the plains of Lucca, has for its pendant
the Alps of Apuana. Monte Oimone, farther east, and the other summits of the
Alpe Apennina to the north of Pistoja and Prato, are attended by the parallel
ridges of the Monti Oatini and Monte Albano, on whose slope is the famous grotto
of Monsummano, with a thermal spring. A fourth mountain mass, that which the
direct road from Florence to Bologna crosses in the Pass of Futa, has likewise its
lateral chains, viz. the Monte Mugello, to the south of the Sieve ; the Prato Magno,
encircled by the Upper Arno ; and the Alps of Catenaja, between the Arno and the
Tiber.t

The Apennines of Tuscany in many places attain a height of 5,000 feet, and are
quite Alpine in their aspect, the upper slopes remaining covered with snow for
more than half the year. They owe much of their grandeur to the precipitous slopes
and fantastic profiles of the calcareous rocks which enter so largely into their com-
position. The forests of chestnuts, firs, and beeches which formerly clothed the
whole of the range have not yet been entirely destroyed. The beautiful woods
which cover the slopes of Prato Magno have impressed the mind of many a
poet ; and, since Milton sang the delights of Yallombrosa, the " shaded vale "
has become a proverbial name for everything sweet and touching in the poetry of
nature. Farther to the west the monastery of the Campo di Maldulo (Camaldoli)
occupies one of the most beauteous spots in all Italy, the woods and meadows of
which have been celebrated by Ariosto. From the summit above the convent both
the " Tuscan and the Slavonian Sea " can be seen, as that poet tells us.

The* barren escarpments and forests of the Apennines form a charming contrast
to the valleys and rounded hills of Lower Tuscany, where nearly every height is

• Area of Tnacuiy, 9,287 iqaara miles; population (1871), 1,083,810; density, 214.

t Altitudes (in English feet) : —

^jMiMM'nn.— Alps of Succiao, 6,626 ; Alps of Oamporaghena (Oarfognana), 6,566 ; Monte Cimone, 7, 1 1 1 ;
Monte Falterone, or Falterona, 5,407.

JRsMM.— Pass of Pontremoli, or La Cisa (Sarsana to Parma), 3,410; Pass of Fiumalbo (Luooa to
Modena), 3,940 ; Pass of Futa, or Pietramala (Florence to Bologna), 3,002 ; Pass of Oamaldoli, 3,290.

^ii<i-4pmNi«iM.—PiBanino (Alpe Apuana), 6,608; Fietra Marina (Monte Albano), 1,886; Prato Magno,
6,183; Alpe di Cateniga, 4,606 feet.

..■'Ml'!!J.M' ii * ' l »'

ITALY.

•urmounted ly tho ruins of a meditoval oaatle ; graoeftil villas are Mattered oyer the
verdant slopes, farmhouses stand in the midst of vineyards and pointed cypresses,
and every cultivable spot is made to yield a rich harvest. Historical associations,
the taste of its inhabitants, the fertility of the soil, an abundance of running water,
and the sweetness of the climate all combine in making Oentral Tuscany one
of the most privileged regions of Italy. Protected by the rampart of the Apen-
nines against cold northerly winds, this region faces the Tyrrhenian Sea, whence
blow warm and humid winds of tropical origin. The rains they bring are not

Fig. 82.— Tn GoLreuMo op thb Akmo, niah Siona.

excessive, thanks to the screen formed by the mountains of Ooriica and Sardinia,
and the happy disposition of the detached hills near the coast. The climate of
Tuscany is essentially temperate, and to its equability, no less than to the natural
beauty of their abode, the Tuscans owe, no doubt, much of their gaiety, their good-
nature, fine taste, poetical feeling, and &cile imagination.

The valley of the Amo oompletely separates the hills of Southern Tuscany,
usually known as the " Sub- Apennines," from the principal chain of the mountains.
This valley, with its defiles and ancient lake basins, may be likened to a moat

MMUMl

TUSOANY.

tered over the
bed cypresaea,
1 aBsociations,
anning water,
Tuscany one
K of the Apen-
1 Sea, whence
hring are not

a and Sardinia,
The climate of
L to the natural
sty, their good-

,them TuBoany,
the mountains,
med to a moat

bounding the wall of the Apennines. The vale of Ohiana, originally an arm of the
sea, and then a lake, forms the uppermost portion of the zone which separates the
Apennines from the hills of Southern Tuscany. Then follows the Oampogna of
Florence, an ancient kke bann, which it would be easy to flood again by building
u dam across the defile of the Ck)lfolina, through which the river makes its escape,
and which was rent asunder by the " Egyptian Hercules." Castruccio, the famous
commander of the Luccans, actually proposed to flood the plains of Florence in the
fourteenth century by constructing a dam across this defile; but happily his
engineers pronounced the scheme to be impracticable, for they supposed the
difference of level to amount to 288 feet, whilst in reality it is only fifty.

The Sub- Apennine hills to the south of the Amo are of rounded contours, of a
gloomy grey colour, and devoid of all verdure. Whilst the Apennines consist exclu-
sively of Jurassic and cretaceous rooks, the Sub- Apennines are of tertiary formation,
their sandstones, clays, marls, and pudding-stones being pierced here and there by
serpentine. Well-defined ranges can hardly be said to exist. Southern Tuscany,

Fig. 83 — DariLH ov tub Armo.
Vrom the Aoatriui Staff Hap. Soale 1 : 980,000.

BVfflM.

indeed, may be described as a table-hmd intersected by rivers in all directions, sur-
mounted by irregular groups of hills, and pierced by " sinks," which swaUow up
some of the rivers. The cavities of the Ingolla form one of these sinks, in which
several rivulets lose themselves, to reappear lower down as the source of the Elsa
Viva, one of the principal tributaries of the Amo. The most elevated hills of this
Sub- Apennine region form the wate^parting between the Amo, the Oeoina, and the
Ombrone, and in the Poggio di Montieri, a mountain abounding in copper, they
attain an elevation of 3,323 feet. The Labbro (3.816 feet), Oetona (3,660 feet), and
Monte Amiata (6,460 feet), to the south of the Ombrone valley, rise to a greater
height, but geologioaUy they belong already to Central Italy. The Cetona is a
Jurassic outlier surrounded by recent formations. Monte Amiata, a trachy tic cone,
is the most elevated volcano of continental Italy. It no longer vomits lava, but
numerous hot springs and solfataras prove that the volcanic forces are not yet quite
extinct. The Radicofani (2,960 feet) is likewise an extinct volcano, whose lava
resenibles petrified froth, and can be cut with a hatchet.

Subterranean agencies must indeed be very active in Tuscany, for metalliferaaa

ITALY.

Teini ramify in all direotions, and the number of minnral tpringt of ererj deaorip-
tion ii larger than in any othor part of Italy. Aroongat thew npringa there arn
nevorol of world-wide reputation, oa, for inatunce, thoae of Monto Cutini, of Han
Oiuliano, and of the Bagni di Luooa. The brine apringa of Tuioany are very
productive ; but the moat oarioua, and at the aame time moat uaeftil, apringa of all
aro the faraoua lagoni, in a aide valley of the Oeoina, and at the northern foot of the
Poggio di Montiori. From a distance denae clouda of white vapour are seen roll-
ing over the plain, and the bubbling noino made by gaaes escaping through the
ponda, or lagoni, ia heard. Theae ponda contain various aalta, ailioa, and boraoic
acid, which ia of great value in the manufacture of china and glaaa, and yielda a
considerable revenue to Tuaoany. Nowhere elae in Europe, except, perhapa, in
the crater of the Eolian Yuloano, ia boraoic acid met with in aufficient quantities
to ropuy the labour of extracting it. In Tuaoany, however, there are aeveral other
localitiea where it might be won with advantage, as, for inatanoe, near Maasa
Maritima, to the south of the Montieri.

The subterranean fermentation of which Tuacany ia the acene ia no doubt duo
in a large meaaure to the changea which have token place in the relative propor-
tions of land and aea. Several iaolated hilla rise near the cuaat like ialanda from
the aea, and theae have evidently been joined to the mainland by the alluvial
depoaita brought down by the rivers. The Monti Sena (3,000 feet), to the east of
Pisa, between the Amo and the Serohio, are almost insulated even now, for they
are surrounded by swamps, and the level of the Lake of Bientina, at their eastern
foot, is scarcely thirty feet above that of the Mediterranean. The heights along
the coast to the south of Leghorn are not quite so isolated, but the lowland which
connects them with the table-land of the interior is only of small elevation. The
promontory, however, whose extremities are occupied by the towns of Populonia
and Piombino (653 feet), is joined to the mainland only by a low plain of nand.
The most perfect type of these ancient islands is presented to us in the supcib
Monte Argentaro, at the southern extremity of the Tuscan littoral, which rises
boldly from the sea to a height of 2,085 feet, and is attached to the mainland by
two narrow strips of land covered with pine-trees, enclosing a lake of regular
shape : in the midst of it, on. a Augment of the ancient beach, ia built
the town of Orbetello. This lake, which looks almoat as if it were the work
of a generation of giants, has been converted into an eel-pond, and miUiona of fish
are caught in it every year. Towards the west of this mountain, in the. direction
of Corsica, lie the islands of Oiglio and Monte Cristo (2,062 feet) and the rock
of Formica. The island of Elba, farther north, forms a small world of its own.

The rivers of Tuscany have wrought great changes in the plains through which
they flow, and along the sea-coast. Their labour has been facilitated by the nature
of the soil which they traverse. The least rain converts the barren hill-slopes
into a semi-fluid paste, which is carried by the rivers down to the sea. The
mouth of the Amo has thus been pushed forward to the extent of seven mUes in
the course of a few centuries. In former times the Serohio and the Amo united
before thoy flowed into the sea, but the Pisans diverted the former river to the

III

■MMMHi

TUSCANY.

848

every deeorip-
inga there arn
Cutini, of Ban
Many are very
, tprings of all
lem foot of the
r are seen roll-
i; through the
;a, and boraoic
IB, and yields a
ipt, perhaps, in
)ient quantities
■e several other
se, near Massu

I no doubt duo
elative proper-
ce islands from
>y the alluvial
, to the east of
I now, for they
it their eastern

heights along

lowland which
levation. The
18 of Populonia
' plain of aand.
i in the supcrh
al, which rises
Le mainland by
lake of regular
leaoh, is built
were the work

millions of fish
n the direction
) and the rook
I of its own.
I through which
d by the nature
rren hill-slopes

the aea. The
' seven miles in
ihe Amo united
ler river to the

north, in order to rid themselves of its unwelcome deposits. Pisa, in the time of
Htrabo, stood at a distance of only twenty Olympian stadia from the Tyrrhenian
8ea, and when the caacina of San Rossore was built, towards the close of the eleventh
century, its walls were close to the beach, which is now at a distance of three
miles. Extensive plains intersected by dunes, or tomboli, and partly covered with
forests of pines, have been added to the land in the course of centuries. These
sandy wastes have become th« home of largo herds of horses and half-wild cattle,
and the camel has been .Msclimatisou there, it is said, since the Crusades. These

Vi^. 84 HnNTi Ahuimtaho.
nram tba rrtnoh Chart. 84»k 1 1 188,000.

Dtfmt

.SHOm.

changes in the coast-line may not, however, be due exclusively to the agency of
the rivers, for there exists evidence of an upheaval of the land. The building
stone known at Leghorn as panchina is clearly of marine origin, and the shells
which enter into its composition are still met with in the Tyrrhenian Sea.

Amongst the changes effected by human agency in the basin of the Amo
those referring to the Yal di Chiitna are, perhaps, the most important. This
depression connects the basins of the Amo and Tiber, and may possibly have served
as an outlet to the former river bdbre it had opened itself a way through the

. w-i^-SfA-v ^ i---^

244

ITALY.

gorgo below Florence. Formerly the water-parting between the two riyers was
close to the Arno. A small portion of its drainage was carried to the Tuscan
river, but by far the greater portion of the vale was occupied by stagnant pools,

Fig. 86. — Val di Chiana.

From the AuRtrian Staff Map. Soale 1 : 318,000.

extending to the south as £ir as the latitude of Montepuloiano, a distance of twenty
miles. The whole of this region was a breeding-plaoe of fever. Bante and other
Italian writers speak of it as an accursed place. The inhabitants made vain
attempts at drainage. The illustrious Galileo, when consulted <Hi the subjeot,

^^^■"?i'^^ ij^iii!u i aiamgiJii ' iifflj!Miti B

mMMMiiMnn

ManMM

mtmmm

mmi^^m

TUSCANY.

246

two nvers was
to the Tuscan
itagnant pools,

^^m:

^^W^/

bance of twenty
tante and other
nts made vain
m. the subject,

declared that nothing could be done to mend this evil ; and though Torrioelli
conceived that it would be possible to drain the valley, he took no steps to put his
theories into practice.

About the middle of the eighteenth century the work of drainage was at
length seriously taken in hand, directed by Fossombroni, the celebrated engineer.
"Warps," or colmate, were thrown up at the outlet of each lateral ravine between
which the debris carried down from the flanks of the mountains was deposited.
The swamps gradually filled up, and the soil became firm. By constructing
a dam (argine) across the vale at the point chosen for the new water-parting,
an outfall was created, and a line of stagnant swamps was thus converted into
a pure rivulet. The valley, at one time a hotbed of fever, has now become one of

Fig. 86.— Tkh Laxb of Bibntina.
Fiom tbe AutriMi Steft Map. Scale 1 : 8»,000.

the most salubrious districts of Italy.' The newly won lands were at once taken
possession of by agriculturists, and 500 square miles were thus added to the pro-
ductive area of Tuscany. Villages, formerly inhabited by fever-stricken wretches,
have become wealthy towns, and the success of this bonification, or reclama-
tion, has been thorough. The torrents are under control now, and .have already
deposited 17,650 million cubic feet of alluvium over an area of 50,000 acres, as if
they were intelligent workmen. The same system of drainage has been success-
fully appAied in other parts of Italy, and particularly near Grosseto, 6n the right
bank of the Ombrone.

Amongst the great, drainage works which will evermore contribute to the glory
of Tuflcui engineers, the innumerable canals draiaiag the plains of Fuoeoohio,

life-Uj"!'""* ^

246

ITALY.

Pontedera, Pisa, Lucca, Leghorn, and Yiareggio, each of which was formerly
occupied by its lake, deserve to be noticed. One of the most difficult of these
lakes is that of Bientina, or Sesto, to the east of the Pisan hills, which is supposed
to have been formed by an overflow of the Serohio. In former times this lake hod
two effluents, one running north to the Serohio, the other south to the Amo. The
outfall left nothing to be desired in ordinary times, but after heavy rains the two
effluents were converted into inflowing rivers, and if the sluices had not been
closed, the Amo and the Serchio would have rejoined each other in this inland sea.
The Bientina, during such freshets, covered six times its ordinary area, and in
order to save the fertile fields of Tuscany it became absolutely necessary to create
a third effluent. The engineers conceived the happy idea of conveying this new
effluent through a tunnel, passing beneath the Amo, three feet in width, into an
ancient bed of that river, now supplanted by the C!olombrone.

In most of these enterprises it was necessary to stmggle on in spite of the
miasmatic atmosphere, which hung more particularly over the littoral zone,
where the fresh inland water mingles with the salt water of the Mediterranean.
The blending of the two waters destroyed the fresh-water plants and animals, and
the deleterious gases arising from their decomposition poisoned the atmosphere.
About the middle of last century an engineer, Zendrini, proposed to constract
sluices separating the fresh from the salt water. This was done, and the fevers at
once disappeared. In 1768, the sluices having been allowed to fall out of repair,
the miasmatic scourge immediately reappeared, and it was not until they had
been repaired that the sanitary condition of the villages along the coast was
improved. Twice since neglect to keep the sluices in a proper condition has
been punished with the same results ; but from 1821 they have been maintained
in thorough order, and the sanitary condition of the country has ever since been
most satisfactory. Yiareggio, in the centre of this malarial district, was up to
1740 hardly more than a hamlet, avoided on account of its insalubrity, but is now
a seaside town, the fitvourite resort of numbers of visitors.

Much has been done, no doubt, in draining the land, but there is still room
for many improvements. The Maremma, a track between Piombino and Orbetello,
remains one of the most insalubrious regions of Europe^ in spite of what has been
done by sanitary engineers. The inhabitants never reach a high age, and
though they descend to the plain only when it is absolutely required for culti-
vating their fields, they frequently carry away with them the germs of disease.
In the two summers of 1840 -and 1841 no less than 36,000 persons su£fered from
fever amongst a total population of 80,000 souls, most of whom reside in villages
built on hills, and only rarely visit the pestilential plain. In order to escape the
pernicious influence of the poisonous air, it is necessary to reside constantly at an
elevation of 325 feet above the sea, and even that does not always suffice, for
the episcopal city of Sovana is notoriously imhealthy, though built at that
height. Fevers occur frequently at a distance from the swamps, and Salvagnoli
Marchetti is of opinion that they are due to the nature of the soil. The malaria
is said to creep up clayey hills permeated by empyreumatio substances ; it likewise

' Mill n'w ' .t".» i ;i ' . » ,n.u .!a > .,iiif( ' .u aiftji

i|ii ii. i j i i i Mi

TUSCANY.

247

:h was formerly
liffioult of these
rhich is supposed
aes this lake had
the Amo. The
vy rains the two
IS had not been
1 this inland sea.
uy area, and in
icessary to create
veying this new
n width, into an

in spite of the
le littoral zone,
) Mediterranean,
and animals, and
the atmosphere,
ised to construct
and the fevers at
fall out of repair,
t until they had
ig the coast was
er condition has
been maintained
I ever since been
strict, was up to
ibrity, but is now

ere is still room
no and Orbetello,
of what has been
, high age, and
squired for oulti-
lierms of disease,
ons su£fored from
reside in villages
der to escape the
constantly at an
Iways suffice, for
;h built at that
s, and Salvagnoli
oil. The malaria
mces ; it likewise

poisons the air of districts aboun^iing in saline springs, and still more that near
deposits of alum. Southerly winds are likewise most pernicious, and fevers
rise highest in the valleys which are exposed to them. Places, on the other
hand, which are fully open to the sea breeze are quite free from malaria, even
if swamps are near, as at Orbetello and Piombiuo.

It is generally admitted that the coasts of Etruria did not suffer from malaria
whilst the ancient Tyrrhenian cities were prosperous. The excavations made

Fig. 87.— Thb Halabul Rioions.
nomUwAiutrteii staff Hap. Scale 1 : S,70(M)00.

;*r&«Hith

j ^_y^*llUtoo

Hoat aflBotad.

jEitnnbotoa.

Bandarad alnbriona.

recently in connection with the railways have revealed a complete system of
subterranean canals, which formerly drained the whole of the Maremmas.
Populonia and other large cities, of which only a few ruins are fo^nd now, could
certainly not have existed if the climate had been as unhealthy as at present.
The ancient Etruscans were famous as hydraulic engineers. Th^ embanked
torrents, drained swamps, and rendered the country cultivable, but their engineering
works were allowed to decay soon after they had been subjected, and the country
returned to its primitive savageness. On the other hand, thwe are many towns

mtttttteiSsssSssisii^

248

ITALY.

which were considered healthy during the Middle Ages, but are now desolated by
fever. Massa Maritima, to the south-west of the Montieri mountain, was rich
and populous as long as it maintained its republican liberties ; but no sooner had
it been enslaved by Pisans and Sienese than its drainage works were allowed to
fall into decay, and in the end it found itself reduced to the " shadow of a town."
Sanitary works carried out recently have brought back some of its ancient pros-
perity.

Amongst the causes which have contributed most materially towards a
deterioration of the climate may be mentioned the destruction of the mountain
forests and the rapid increase of alluvial lands resulting from it. The monasteries
of Tuscany, which until quite recently were the owners of the fish-ponds in the
Maremmas, energetically protested againt the construction of embankments or
other drainage works, which they conceived would interfere with their cherished
Lenten food. Several of the inland towns rejoiced in the possession of some
unhealthy swampy tract, to which obnoxious persons might be banished with a
certainty of their dying. Even the Kings of Spain established a penal establish-
ment at one of the most deadly spots on this coast, and banishment to Talamone,
at one time a flourishing port of the Republic of Siena, was tantamount to a
sentence of death.

Many attempts were made to reclaim these lands. Macohiavelli and other
statesmen of Tuscany thought that the former salubrity of the climate ootild be
restored by merely repeopling the country. Oolonists were sent for from other
parts of Italy, and even from Greece and G«nnany, but they soon succumbed to
the climate. Since that time considerable progress has been made in rendering
these marshy districts more salubrious. Trees have been planted, and, in com-
bination with proper drainage, they have rendered many districts habitable which
were not so formerly. Populonia is a case in point. FoUonica, where there are
furnaces in which the iron ores of Elba are smelted, is likewise looking up,
though its inhabitants still fly the place on the approach of the fever season.

The Etruscans, or Ty^henians, were the ancestors of the Tuscans, and long
before the dominion of the Romans they were the preponderating race of all
Italy. They occupied not only the whole of the southern slope of the Apennines
as far as the Tiber, but had also founded a confederation of twelve towns in the
Gampagna, of which Capua was the head, and as traders and pirates they held
possession of the Tyrrhenian Sea, still named after them. The island of Oapri
was one of their most advanced outposts towards the south. The Adriatic was
likewise their own, for Adria, Bologna (called Felsina by them), Ravenna, and
Mantua were Etruscan colonies, and the Rhaetians in the Alpine valleys were their
allies, and perhaps kinsmen. But who were the Etruscans P They have been
classed with Aryans, Ugrians, and Semites ; with Greeks, Germans, Scytbians,
Egyptians, and Turks. The Etruscan inscriptions on ancient monuments, though
very legible, have not hitherto been deciphered eatisfaotorily^ If Oorssen's inter-
pretation is accepted, their language resembled the Latin tongues; but this

aWMUMMMMMMMi

I'liinmiia

TireCANY.

249

)W desolated by
dtain, was rich
no sooner had
rere allowed to
low of a town,"
bs ancient pros-

allv towards a
f the mountain
rhc monasteries
ih-ponds in the
mbankments or
their cherished
session of some
)anished with a
penal establish-
int to Talamone,
antamount to a

avelli and other
slimate could be
t for from other
in succumbed to
\de in rendering
3d, and, in com-
habitable which
where there are
rise looking up,
)ver season.

iisoans, and long
>ting race of all
>f the Apennines
Ive towns in the
pirates they held
I island of Oapri
Dhe Adriatic was
a), Bavenna, and
ralleys were their
They have been
mans, Scytbians,
muments, though
f Corssen's inter-
ingues; but this

philologist, after all, may not be entitled to be called the "(Edipus of the
Ktruscan sphinx."

The most common type of the Etruscans, as transmitted to us on cinerary
vases, is that of squat men, often inclining to obesity, with broad shoulders, pro-
minent face, curved noses, broad retreating forehead, dark complexion, dolicho-
cephalous skull, and curly hair. This type is neither Hellenic nor Italian.
Amongst their monuments there are none of those curious structures known as
nuraghi, which abound in Malta, Sardinia, and PanteUaria, but dohnens are
numerous. The sepulchral monuments, of which many thousands have already
been brought to light, prove that the arts had attained a high degree of develop,
ment in ancient Etruria. The paintings in the interior of the vaults, the bas-reliefs
on the sarcophagi, the vases, candelabra, pottery, and bronzes, resemble similar
work produced by the genius of Greek artists. The arrangement of their dwelling-
houses, though not devoid of originality, proves the intimate connection existing
between the civilisations of the Etruscans and early Greeks. It was the Etruscans
who initiated Rome into the arts. The Cloaca Maxima, the most ancient monument
of the Eternal City, the wall named after Servius Tullius, the Mamertine prison,
and, in fact, all the remains of the Rome of the kings, were their work. It was
they who erected the temples, supplied the statues to deities, built the dwelling-
houses, and furnished them with articles of ornament Even the she-wolf of
bronBo, now in the Oapitoline Museum, and a symbol of the Roman people, appears
to be of Etruscan workmanship.

The Tuscans of our day differ, however, in many respects from their Etruscan
ancestors. These latter, to judge from the paintings in their sepulchral cities,
were an austere race. They appear, likewise, to have been a nation of cooks and
gluttons. Neither of these qualities can be laid to the charge of their desoend-
anta. The modem Tuscan is of an amiable and kindly disposition, he is pos-
sessed of wit and artistic tastes, easy to move, and altogether perhaps a trifle too
pliant of character. The Tuscans of the plain, but not those of the Maremmas,
are the most gentle of Italians ; they " live and let live," and are exceedingly
good-natured. A singular trait distinguishes them from the rest of the Italians :
though brave when carried away by passion, they turn with horror from a dead
body. In this we may trace the persistence of ancient superstitions, for though
the Tyrrhenians concealed their tombs, the worship of the dead was the most
prominent of their religious observances.

The modem Tuscans, like their ancestors, have known a time when they took
the lead amongst the people of Italy, and even now they stand at the head of the
nation in certain respects. After the decadence of Rome, when civilisation
gravitated towards the north, the valley of the Amo became one of the great
centres of the world's activity. At that time the passage of the Alps was still
difficult, but communications by sea were established between Tuscany, France,
and Spain. The Apennines not only sheltered the fertile valleys opening upon
the Tyrrhenian against wAi northerly winds, but also against the honles of
barbarian invaders. Tosoony Was, indeed, a jEavoured region, and its intelligent

860

ITALY.

inhabitants made the most of the natural advantages they possessed. " Work "
was the great law of the Florentines, and all, without exception, were expected tu
engage in it. Whilst Pisa disputed the dominion of the sea with Qenoa and
Venice, Florence became the head-quarters of commerce, and its bankers extended
their operations to every part of Europe.

But Tuscany was more than a commercial and industrial country. What
Athens had been to the world two thousand years ago, republican Florence
became during its period of prosperity, and for the second time in the history of
mankind there arose one of those centres of light the reflected rays from which still
illuminate our own times. Arts, letters, sciences, and political economy — every-
thing, in fact, that is noble in this world was cultivated with an energy to
which nations had been strangers for a long time. The pliant genius of the
Tuscans revelled in every species of work, and amongst the names great in
history Florence may fairly claim some of the greatest. Where are the men that
have exercised a greater influence in the world of art and intelleot than Giotto,
Orgagna, Masaccio, Michael Angelo, Leonardo da Yinci, Andrea del Sarto,
Brunellesohi, Savonarola, G(alileo, or Macohiavelli P It was a Florentine, too,
Amerigo Vespucci, who gave his name to the New World, and justly so, for it
was Vespucci through whom the discoveries made by the Spaniards first became
known, and who, in 1501, bestowed the name of Noma Mundus upon the newly
discovered countries, whilst Oolumbus died in the belief that he had reached the
eastern coast of Asia.

The dialect of Florence has become the polished language of the whole of
Italy, and it is curious that this honour should not have been carried off by Borne.
But whilst Florenou cultivated the arts and sciences, and through her great writers
exercised an iminense influence, the city of the popes yielded herself up to the
worship of the past, and its literature was written in a dead language, more or less
successfully imitated from that of Oicero. The dialect of Borne never became a
language like that of Florence, but Italian is nevertheless indebted to Home for
its musical pronunciation, that of the Tuscans being harsh and gutturaL Hence
the old proverb, " Lingua Toscana in bocoa Bomana." The delicate, pure poetry
breathed in the ritonteili which Tuscan peasants chant in the evening is highly
appreciated by all admirers of Italian, and the influence which the fine dialect of
the Florentines exercised upon the unification of Italy can hardly be over-
estimated. The worshippers of Dante are almost justified in saying that Italian
unity dates from the day on which the great poet first expressed himself ixt the
firm and sonorous language which he had forged out of ihe various dialects spoken
throughout the peninsula.

The geographical position of Tuscany accounts for the ''ffluenoe it has exer-
cised up vn Italy and the rest of the world, whilst its topcg nithj gives us the key
to the local history of the country. The Apennines and the mountains to the
south of the Amo divide it into a number of separate basins, each of which gave
birth to a small state or republic. At the time of the Tyrrhenians Etruria formed

a»a

SBMiB

r-ir > -i ■-'TTiiaijf

■r

TUSCANY.

261

led. "Work"
are expected tu
rith Genoa and
inkers extended

ountry. What
blican Florence
I the history of
from which still
tonomy — every-
h an energy to
t genius of the
names great in
re the men that
lect than Giotto,
drea del Sarto,
Florentine, too,
justly so, for it
rds first became
upon the newly
had reached the

of the whole of
led off by Borne,
her great writers
erself up to the
age, more or less
never became a
ted to Rome for
pitturaL Hence
cate, pure poetry
vening is highly
le fine dialect of
hardly be over-
ying that Italian
himself m the
18 dialeotfl spoken

ence it has exer-
gives us the key
mountains to the
Qh of which gave
IB Etruria formed

a confederation of cities, whilst during the Middle Ages it was divided into
numerous small republics, frequently at war with each other. Since that time
many changes have taken place in the relative importance of the various towns,
but even now most of the free cities of the Middle Ages, and even some founded
by the ancient Etruscans, occupy a high rank amongst the provincial towns of
Italy.

Florence (Firenze) is not one of these ancient cities of the Tyrrhenians ; it is
merely a Bomac colony of comparatively modern origin. In tho time of the
Empire it was of small importance, for Fiesole, on a hill to the north, remained
the leading town of the country until destroyed by the Florentines, who carried
its columns and statues to their own town. The rapid growth of Florence during
the Middle Ages is due to its position on the highway which connects Germany,
Lombardy, and even Bologna with Southern Italy. As long as Bome was the
capital of Italy travellers starting from the valley of the Tiber crossed the Apen-
nines in the direction of Ancona apd Ariminum. But after the fall of Bome,
when barbarian hordes inundated the country firom the north, the high-roads
connecting the plains of Lombardy with the valley of the Amo rose into impor-
tance. This great military highway became simultaneously a high-road of com-
merce, and it was only natural that a great emporium should spring up on the
site occupied by Florence. The " city of flowers " prospered, and became the
marvel which we still admire. But the wealth of the growing commonwealth
proved its destruction. The rich bankers grasped at political power, the Medici
assumed the title of princes, and though the arts continued to flourish for
awhile, public virtues decayed, the citizens became subjects, and intellectual life
ceased.

Florence, as in the days of republican liberty, owes much of its wealth to the
industry of its inhabitants. There are manufactories of silks and woollen goods,
of straw hats, mosaics, china, cut stones. (/>Mrra dura), and other objects, all of
them requiring workmen possessed of taste and manual dexterity. But neither
these industries nor the commerce carried on by the town would have raised
Florence above the level of other populous Italian cities. The prominent position
it holds is due entirely to the beauty of its monuments, which attract to it the
lovers of art f^om every quarter of the world. Not even Yenice is equally rich in
architectural masterpieces of the Middle Ages and the Benaissance. The museums
of Florence " la Bella " — such as the Uffizi, the Fitti (Galleries, and the Academy
of Arts — are amongst the richest in Europe, and contain some of the most
highly prized treasures of art ; its libraries abound in curious manuscripts and rare
old books. Nay, the very streets and piazzas of the town, with their palaces,
towers, churches, and statues, may be likened to a huge museum. Brunelleschi's
Duomo ; Giotto's Campanilla, which was to " surpass in beauty all imagination can
conceive ; " the Baptistery, with its incomparable doors of brass ; the Piazza della
Signoria; the monastery of San Marco, now a museum ; the gloomy palace of the
Strozzi; and numerous other buildings of superior merit make Florence the
delightful place it is. Its charms are enhanced by the beauty of the surrounding

ITALY.

country, and the traveller will always recall with plearore the walks along the
Amo, the hills of Sun Miniato and Bello Sguardo, and the picturesque spur upon
which lie the villas and ruins of Etruscan Fiesole. Unfortunately the climate of
Florence leaves much to be desired ; the wind changes abruptly, and the heat in
summer is overpowering. // caldo di Firenne has become proverbial throughout
Italy. Narrow btreets, and to some extent the disregard of the kws of hygiene,
cause the mortality to exceed that of nearly every other town on the Continent.

Fig. 88.— PtoKiMci : iH« DuoMO ahd Palazzo Vbcchio.

During the Middle Ages pestilence was a frequent visitor, and Boccaccio tells us
that in a single season nearly 100,000 inhabitants, or two-thirds of the entire
population, were swept away by it. Targioni Tozetti contrasts the site of
Empoli, a small town to the west, with that of Florence, and regrets that a
project &r removing Florence thither should not have been carried out, as proposed

in im.

The only town of any importance in the upper valley of the Amo is Are««),
an ancient city of the Etruscans, and at one time the capital of one of the most
prosperous republics of the Middle Ages. The inhabitants ascribe to the " subtile

■! i! ! !!^i , .'MU^'mi^ ^mm^ A i iv,uiiti i mi)in

s»n

^ ^;ilj tf'> < . ' i.uii« i<* '«

TUSCANY.

268

'alki along the
ique spur upon
' the climate of
ad the heat in
)ial throughout
iW8 of hygiene,
the Oontinent.

iQCoaooio tellB us
da of the entire
asts the site of
d regrets that a
1 out, as proposed

I Amo is AreiKOi
' one of the most
M to the " Buhtile

air they breathe the subtility of their spirits," and indeed the list of famous men
connected with the town is very long. The present Arezzo, however, is a decayed
place, and lives upon the memories and the monuments of a past age. Oortona,
further south, near the Lake of Trasimeno, claims to bo the most ancient city of
Italy ; but all traces of its former greatness have disappeared. Siena, which
formerly governed the whole of the hilly tract between *he Amo and Orabrone,
has fallen from her high estate, not without th6 fault of h jwn citiKons, who were
continually quarrelling amongst themselves. Siena no longer rivals Florence in
population, power, or industry, but may still compare with the city on the Amo
aa regards its public buildings — many of them in the Gothic style — its works of
art, its quaint streets and piazzas, and its magnificent position on the slopes of
three hills. Chiusa, one of the most powerful towns of ancient Etruria, is of no
importance now, and only attracts antiquarians in search oi its ancient tombs.
The vineyards of Montepulciano, on the same side of the vale of Chiani, produce
the " king of wines." Vol terra is only a small town now, interesting, however,
on account of its cyclopean walls and a museum abounding in Etrascan antiquities.
The environs are dreary in the extreme. Salt-works, yielding from 7,000 to 8,000
tons a year, quarries of alabaster, copper mines at Monte Catini, sulphur springs,
and the famous lagoni di Monti Cerboli (see p. 242), are in the neighbourhood.

The cities at the foot of the Apennines, on the other side of the Amo, have
retained their importance, for they are favourably situated for commerce. Prato,
where the valley of the Amo is widest, is the centre of a rich agricultural district.
The quarries of serpentine in the neighbourhood have furnished building stones
for many of the most beautiful edifices of Tuscany, including, the cathedral of
Prato, celebrated on account of Donatello's marvellously sculptured pulpit.
Pistoja, where the railway descends from the Apennines, is a busy manufacturing
town. Other towns of some importance are Pescia, Capanuori, in the " garden of
Italy," and Lucca the industrious, with its celebrated pictures by Era Bartolommeo.

The basin of the Serchio is of ineomparable productiveness since its marsh lands
have been brought under cultivation. From the ramparts of Lucca one of the
most charming views may be enjoyed. On the one hand we have the towers and
cupolas of the town, on the other fertile fields and orchards, with white houses
peeping through the verdure, and distant hills surmounted by old towers. The
impresrion made by this view is one of perfect peace. In a country so fertile and
beautiful, it would seem, the people ought to be happy, and, if enthusiastic writers
can be believed, suoh is really the case, and the peasants of Luooa and of Lower
Tuscany in general enjoy advantages denied to their class elsewhere in Italy.
They are farmers for the most part, but hold their land by long leases, and their
share of its produce is regulated by ancient custom. The land, however, does not
suffice for their wants, and they eraiigrate in thousandis in search of work. Many
of these emigrants work as ganders.

The inhabitants of the Upper Serchio valley, known as the Ghurfagnana, are as
industrious as those near Lucca, which is the natural outlet for its produce. The
slopes and spurs descending firom the Apennines and Apuanio Alps are cultivated

ITALY.

in terraces. CastelnuoTo, the chief town of this valley, occupies one of tho
most delightful npois of this picturesque district. The common people near it arc
said to speak the best Italian, superior even to 'that of the Sienese.

The valley of the Magra is far more frequented than that of Oarfagnana, for
the high-road from Parma to the Gulf of Spezia leads through it. In its upper
portion, in the heart of the Apennines, stands the small town of Pontremoli. Its
inferior portion, known as the Lunigiana, from the ancient city of Luni, is m
beautiful as the parallel valley of the Serchio. At Sasana it opens upon the
sea, and to the south of that charming town, where the Apuanic Alps approach
close to the sea, leaving only a narrow passage of some not in history, are situated
the towns of Carrara and Massa. Oarrara, the " Quarry," has replaced Luni as
the place from whence the white marbles so highly esteemed by sculptors are
exported, and choice blocks of which sometimes fetch £80 a cubic yard. No less
than 720 quarries perforate the neighbouring hills, and about 300 of these are
being worked now. The town may be likened to an agglomeration of sculptors'
studios, and its Academy has trained artists of high reputation. Massa enjoys
a better climate than Carrara, but its marbles are less highly esteemed. As to
the marbles of Serravezza, which are quarried in the Altissimo and other moun-
tains of the Apuanic Alps near the town of Pietra Santa, they are in many
instances as beautiful as those of Carrara. Michael Angelo highly appreciated
them, and had a road constructed to facilitate access to thorn. The quarries and
mines in the neighbourhood also yield slates, iron, lead, and Skiver.*

These towns at the foot of the Apuanic Alps were bound to prosper in prtf*
portion as the country increased in wealth, whilst Pisa, the great commercial
republic of mediiBval Tuscany, was doomed to decay, owing to the silting up of
its harbour. This Porto Pisano was situated about ten miles to the south oi
what was then the mouth of the Amo. In l4 i*^ its depth had been reduced to
five feet, a century later only rowing boats could enter it, and soon after it was
abandoned definitely. There are^jio traces of it now, and its very site is
disputed. But though Pisa is dead — Pisa tnorta — ^the city still possesses admi-
rable monuments of its past grandeur. It has a wonderful cathedral ; an elegant
baptistery ; its Campo Santa, with the famous frescoes of Orgagna and Gozzoli ;
and a leaning tower commanding a view of the Pisan hills and the alluvial plains
of the Amo and Serchio. Its commerce has dwindled away, but it is still the
capital of a rich agricultural distrioS and its university is one of the beet in
Italy. It possesses, moreover, that which no change in the commercial high-
ways can deprive it of, a mild climate, and during winter attracts numerous
visitors from the north.

Leghorn, or Livomo, has inherited the commerce of Pisa. It is the natural
outlet of the fertile districts of Tuscany, and its commerce is far more important
than might be supposed from the uofavourable configuration of the coast, and
is surpassed only by that of Genoa and Naples.t Thousands of Spanish and

* 134,000 tons of marble wen qnarriad in 1873, valued at nearly ^£500,000 ■tcrling.
t In 1873 <,466 veiMlt of 920,626 toia enterad : 6,314 vewela of 001,633 ton* cleared, indniive of
ooaiting Teaaeli.

""— "sanaauBii

TUSCANY.

ies one of tbo
jple near it are

Jarfagnana, for

In ita upper

ontremoli. Its

of Luni, is aa
tpens upon the

Alps approach
try, are situated
placed Luni as
y sculptors are
yard. No less
DO of these are
on of sculptors'
Massa enjoys
iteemed. As to
ind other moun-
y are in many
i;hly appreciated

rhe quarries and

•

prosper in pro>

Ireat commercial

lie silting up of

to the south o:!

been reduced to

oon after it was

its very site is

possesses admi-

Iral ; an elegant

na and GoztoU ;

le alluvial plains

ut it is still the

of the hest in

gmmeroial high-

tracts numerous

It is the natural

r more important

>f the coast, and

of Spanish and

ag.

I olaund, induira of

Portuguese Jews who found a refuge here have contni, .ed in no small measure
to the development of the resources of the town. Frnn m sircbite' ' .id poiut of
view, Leghorn is one of the least interesting cities of ] ly, but as ■ outcome of
human labour it is one of the most curious. Before thi ity could » buUt, 'le
swamps which occupied its site had to be drained, and an artificial harb< , '1
to be excavated for the protection of vessels. Numerous canals intcriHJc ohe
north-western portion of the town, which is known as New Venice. A i^e
breakwater marks the entrance to the harbour, and on a sand-bonk in the uifing
rises the tower of Meloria, which recalls the naval engagement in which the fleet
of the Fisans was destroyed by the Genoese.

Fig. 89.— Thi Hakbooe or Liohorn.
SmI* 1 ! ll*,O0O.

"ss:

v...»

'■ V

^'V

• - ) >

\ ^■^■■■- P\ :>^

(/-•"■■

-mr

Insular Tuscany consists of Elba and several smaller islands, which mark the
site of an isthmus that formerly joined the mainland to Corsica, and contribute
greatly towards the beauty of the Tuscan littoraL

Elba, once the miniature kingdom of Napoleon, is larger than all the other
islands together.* An ancient dependency of the Etruscan city of Populonia,
Elba rises above the blue waters of the Tyrrhenian a picturesque group of
mountains. A narrow and dangerous strait separates its steep coasts from the
promontory of Piombino, where passing vessels were formerly obliged to pay toll.

The granitic heights of Monte Oapanne, the eastern extremity of the island,

* Aim, U sqiian buIm; population, 21,723 lonla.

.j'M

886

ITAI.T.

•ttain an elerntlon of 3,303 feet ; the dume-ahaped billi of lerpentine at the other
oxtromity arc 1.000 feet in height, and the centre of the island is oootipied by
hilla of vurioufl formations, covered with brushwood. The yarioty of rocks is very
groat, taking into account the small extent of the island. Associated with tho
granites and serpentine, wo meet with beds of kaolin, and with marble similar
to that of Oitrrara. Remarkable crystals and precious stones abound to such
an extent, that Elba has been likened to a " mineralog^oal cabinet " on a
vast fl(!ale.

Formerly, when the sea was infested by pirates, the inhabitants retreated
to the recesses of the interior, or to the summits of steep promontories, where tho
picturesque ruins of ancient fortifications may still be seen. Several of the old
inland villages continue to be inhabited ; amongst others, that of Oapoliberi, tho
" Mountain of the Free," which is looked upon as a sort of acropolis. After
the suppression of piracy the islanders came down to the marina, or coast,
and established themselves in the towns of Porto Ferrajo, Porto Longone,
Marciana, and Rio. Tlie resources of the island are considerable, and a£ford
plenty of occupation to fishermen, salt-makers, wine-growers, and gardeners. The
inhabitants are hospitable, and, though neighbours of the fierce Oorsicans, they
possess all the gentleness of Tuscans.

Elba is not, however, so much noted on account of its fisheries, vineyards, salt-
works, or commerce, as because of its rich deposits of ir< a ore. The russet-
coloured olifia of ironstone are visible from the mainland, liie huge excavations
made by the miners, many of whom are convicts, resemble the craters of extinct
volcanoes, and the reddish brown, violet, or blackish colour of the rocks helps
the illusion. Of the quantity of ore carried away from here in the course of
twenty-five or thirty centuries we can hardly form a conception. The ironstone
is bedded in layers, differing in colour according to the nature of the earthy
ingredients, and rising into hills 600 and more feet in height, the slopes of
which are covered with brushwood (tnacchie). Shovels and spades are tho only
mining tools required in clearing away these heaps of ore, of which at least
100,000,000 tons remain. By regular mining operations 500,000 tons might
be obtained annually during twenty centuries. The annual produce at present
hardly exceeds 100,000 tons. The ore is more particularly suited to the manu-
facture of steel. Loadstones abound near Oapo Oalamita. The mariners of
the Mediterranean formerly made use of them in the construction of a primitive
ship's compass, by placing them in a piece of cork, which they allowed to float
in a basin of water.

The smaller islands of the Tuscan archipelago are — Giglio, with quarries
of granite; Monte Cristo, a pyramidal rook rising 2,130 feet above the sea-level;
Pianosa, with an agricultural penal settlement ; Oapraja, with a small town
built within an amphitheatre of pink-coloured granite ; and Gorgona (987 feet).*

• Population of the prindpsl towni of Tnacany (in 1871} :— Flornioe (Firense), 167,098; Leghorn
(Lirorno), 89,402; Piai, 41,796; Siena, 23,965; Laoca, 21,286; Pnto, 16,924; Oanara, 10,848; Firtoja,
12,960; Ateiso, 11,161; Yiareggio, 9,983; Pontsdera, 7,991; San Oatdano, 6,862; Fojano dei:a Cihiana,

THE APENNINES, TIUMB, MABOHES, AND AUUUZZUS.

367

tine at the other
1 ia oootipied by

of rook« ia very
Kjittted with the

marble aimilur
abound to auch

cabinet " on a

}itantfl retreated
toriea, where the
iveral of the old
f Oapoliberi, the
icropolia. After
%arina, or coaat,
Purto Longone,
able, and afford
gardenera. The
) Ooraioana, they

I, vineyarda, aalt-
re. The ruaaet-
huge excavationa
sratera of extinct
the rocka helps
in the courae of
. The ironatone
re of the earthy
tt, the alopea of
lea are the only
)f which at least
,000 tona might
oduoe at preaent
ed to the manu-
Fhe marinera of
on of a primitive
ly allowed to float

io, with quarries
eve the aea-level ;
th a amall town
fona (987 feet).*

186), 167,098; Legbom
tmrm 10,848; Fiatoja,
; Fojano del'a Ohiaiu,

v.— Thk Roman Apennines, tick Vaixky ok thk Tihek, tiik Marliikb, ano

THE AHKiixzua.

That portion of the Italian peninsula which has Rome for its centre may be
likened tu the trunk of the body, for it ia there the Apennines uttuin their greatest
huight, and nowhere else to the south of the Po are rivers of equal magnitude met
with.*

The Hiuia rampart of the Apennines runs parallel to the coast of the Adriatic.
To the n\ariuor, who sees these mountains rise above the verdure of the littoral
region, ihey have an appearance of the greatest regularity. Summit rises beyond
Bummit, one lateral chain succeeds to the other, and every one of the numerous
valloya descends perpendicularly to the coaat. The slope throughout is steep, and
the geological strata, whether of Jurasaic, cretaceous, or tertiary age, suooeed each
other regtdurly from the snow-clad sununits down to the promontories of the
coast. The only irregularity oonaiata' in u detached group of hills (1,880 feet) to
the aouth of Ancona, above which the Hxia of the Apennines changes its direction.
This region of Italy is the natural counterpart of Liguria. The position of
Ancona correaponda with that of Genoa, and the coaat, which extends on the one
band to Emilia, and on the other towards the peninsula of Monte Oarguno, may
fairly be likened to the " Rivieraa " of Genoa, with this exception, that its direction
is inverse. The territory between the mountains and the coast is narrow, the
littoral road frequently winds round promontories, and the towna extend up the
hill-sides. Still thib portion of Italy is not aa atrougly prott«^>ted by nature aa
Liguria. Towarda the north it expands upon the plain of the Po, whilat the
terraces at the foot of the main range of the Apennines aff' )rd easy aoceas from
the west. Daring the whole of the Middle Ages and down to our own daya
neighbouring statea have fought for the posaession of this territory, which has
become known, from this oirciuuatanoe, aa the " Marches ; " that is, the diaputed
frontier diatricta, where every town ia a fortreaa perched on the top of a hill.

The Apenninea forming the boundary between the Marchea and Ijatium, or
Rome, like thoae of Etroria, are grouped in aeparate mountain moaaea. The first
of these conomands the valley of the Tiber in the east ; it extenda in the north to
Monte Oomero (3,828 feet) and the Fumajolo, or head-stream of the Tiber, and in
the aouth to Monte Yerone (5,006 feet). Though inferior in height to other parts
of the Apennines, theae mountaina are known as the Alpe delta Luna. A gap,

6,127; Empoli, 6,949 ; Volterra, fi,796 ; Main Maritima, 6,766 ; Porto Fem^o, 6,779 ; Faoeochio, 6,766 ;
FigUne Vttldamo, 6,678; Montaloino, 6,186; Pontaadeve, 6,141; Pontelungo, 6,039; Butf, 6,029;
Muaw^ 4|786; Orbetello, 4,674; Pontramcdi, 4,473.

* Rome .
ITmbria
Marches
AbrusBoa

»•, Square
IUm.

FODulaUon
Tl871).

4,662

886,700

3,720

649,600

8,761 .

916,420

4,898

918.770

16,921

3.220,490

Demdtr.

184
148
214
188

190

'e;Bl*«»-'^

968

ITALY.

through which passes the road from Perugia to Fano, separates them from Monte
Cutria (5,585 feet). At that point the Apennines bifdrcate, and two parallel
ranges can be traced thence for a distance of 120 miles, as far as the trausverse
range of the Majella (9,158 feet), which reunites them, and from which radiate
the mountains of Southern Italy. These parallel chains belong to the Jurassic and
cretaceous formations, and neither of them forms a water-parting, for whilst the
Nera and other rivers tributary to the Tiber force themselves a passage through
the western one, that on the east is broken by niunerous gorges, through which
rivers and torrents find their way into the Adriatic. The most considerable
of these rivers is the Fescara, which rises on the plateau of the Abruzzos, where it
is known as the Atemo, and traverses the eastern range where it is highest. The
gorg^ excavated by this river is sufficiently wide to afford space for a railway
joining the Adriatic to the basin of the Tiber.

The plateau of the Abruzzos, enclosed by these parallel ranges, may be looked
upon as the natural citadel of Central Italy. On its western side rise the double
pyramids of Monte Yelino (8,157 feet) ; in the north Monte Yettore (8,131 feet)
forms the termination of the range of the Sibillini ; in the east rises the culminat-
ing point of the Apennines, a mountain covered with snow the greater part of the
year, and appropriately called the " Great Rock of Italy " — " Gran Sasso d'ltalia "
(9,518 feet). The fact that this magnificent mountain is the highest in all Italy
has been known from times immemorial. The Romans conceived they had dis-
covered the " umbilic of Italy " in a small lake near it, upon which floated an island
formed of rank vegetation. The Marsi and their allies, when they took up arms
against their Roman oppressors, chose Corfininm, in its neighbourhood, for the seat
of their empire, and snmamed it Italioa; and there, too, the first movements
which led to the resurrection, of modem Italy took place. The Gran Sasso, as
seeni from the Adriatic, affords a magnificent spectacle. Its calcareous masses
cannot boast of much beauty of profile, but this is compensated for by the fine
Alpine regpion extending beneath its summit, which remains the haunt of bears and
chamois, and where rare plants in the meadows remind us of Switzerland. Forests
of beeches and pines are still met with in a few places, and are all the more
appreciated as forests no longer exist in the lowland T«)gion8. This univiersal
destruction of the forests is one of the great misfortunes of Italy. In many parts
of the Roman Apennines even the soil has been washed away, and only in a few
crevasses do we meet with brooms and briers.

The valleys on the western slope of the Apennines are enclosed between
calcareous spurs of the main range, some of which attain a considerable elevation.
The Tiber itself thus passes between two lofty mountains, rising at the lower
extremity of two of these Sub-Apennine spurs, and forming a kind of triumphal
gateway. These are the Soraote (2,270 feet) and Gennaro (4,162 feet). These
fine mountains, with the Sabine Hills and the volcanic groups near them, form
the horizon of the Roman Oampagna, and their natural beauties are enhanced by
the memories of art and history which attach to them.

Several ranges of hills and detached mountain groups of calcareous fonnation,

lem from Monte
ind two parallel
IS the trauBverse
m which radiate
the Jurassic and
g, for whilst the
passage through
B, through which
lost considerahle
bruzzos, where it
is highest. The
ce for a railway

IS, may be looked
e rise the double
ttore (8,131 feet)
ses the culminat-
reater paiii of the
nSassod'Italia"
ighest in all Italy
red they had dis-
1 floated an island
tey took up arms
rhood, for the seat
first movemsnta
le Gran Sasso, as
calcareous masses
d for by the fine
launt of bears and
tzerland. Forests
are all the more
I. This univiBrsal
In many parts
md only in a few

enclosed between
iderable elevation,
sing at the lower
kind of triumphal
162 feet). These
8 near them, form
s are enhanced by

Lcareous formation,

,^'mMiJ0 '

THE APENNINES, TIBEB, MABOHES, AND ABEUZZOS.

259

like the Sub-Apennines, border upon the shore of the Tyrrhenian Sea and the
marshes which extend along it. Such are the hills, rich in alum, which are
grouped around the ai lent traobytic cone of the Tolfa. Such, too, are the Monte

Lepini (4,845 feet), the naked crest of which has been likened to an ass's back

schiena d'aaino — and which bound the Pontine Marshes on the east. In some
of the recesses of these hills there still exist forests of chestnut-trees and beeches,
where the descendants of the ancient Volsci may pasture their hogs ; but almost
everywhere else the hill-sides are bare of vegetation, and the scorching rays of
the sun have split the rocks into innumerable angular fragments. To the east of
the marshes rises a summit with ten pinnacles, covered with dense shrub on the
land side, but barren towards the sea, a few stunted palms excepted, which grow
in the fissures of the rock. This isolated hill, a counterpart of the Argentaro of
Tuscany, is the Oircello (1,729 feet), famous as the residence of the enchantress
Circe. The grotto where she changed human beings into animals is still pointed
out there to the curious, and the remains of cyclopean walls recall the mythical
age of the Odyssey. The ancient (Greeks, who were but imperfectly acquainted
with Italy, looked upon this dreaded promontory of Circe as one of the most
important islands of the Western Cydades.

During the glacial period the sea, in which have been deposited the chalk and
other rocks composing the Sub- Apennines, was the scene of volcanic action on a
grand scale. The matter ejected was heaped up in a line of volcanic cones,
n^nning in a direction nearly parallel with the Apennines and thf* coast of the
Mediterranom. These cones are joined to each other by thick layers of tufa,
which cover the whole of the plain as £ur as the foot of the calcareous mountains,
and extend for a distance of nearly 120 miles, from Monte Amiata, in Tuscany, to
the mountains of Albano, being interrupted only by the alluvial valley of the
Tiber. Ponzi and other geologists are of opinion that this tufa was ejected ^m
submarine volcanoes, carried away by the currents, and equally distributed over
the depressions of the sea-bottom. No fossils have been discovered in it hitherto,
which is accounted for by the presence of icebergs, which prevented a development
of animal life.

This volcanic region is remarkable on account of its numerous lakes. The
largest of these, that of Bolsena, was formerly looked upon as an ancient crater.
This crater would have exceeded by far the larg^t volcanic vents met with in
the Andes or in Java, for it has a circumference of twenty-five miles, and covers
an area of forty-four square miles. Modem geologists, however, look upon this
orateriform lake as a basin of erosion, and though it occupies the centre of a
plateau formed of aches, sconce, and lava, these do not form a steep edge towards
the lake, as in the case of veritable craters in the same district. One of the most
remarkable of these latter is that of Latera, to the west of the lake, in the centre
of which rises a cone of eruption, the Monte Spignano, which has a diameter
of nearly five miles.

The district of the Bolsena is likewise remarkable on account of its vertical
precipices of tufa and lava. Its picturesque towns and villages are perched upon

^MUlU-JWKUi xittoWil

260

ITALY.

bold promontories looking down on the valleys. The old town of Bagnorea
occupies the extremity of an immense mole, and is joined to the' new town by u
giddy path, bounded by steep precipices, which timid travellers do not care to
venture upon. Orvieto stands on an isolated rock resembling a fortress. Pittigliano
is surrounded by precipices : by cutting away a few yards of the narrow isthmus
which joins it to the rest of the plateau, access to it would be impossible to all but
birds. In the Middle Ages, when nobles and towns were continually at war, the
capture of one of these eyries was looked upon as a grand achievement.

Lake Bolsena discharges its surplus waters through the Marta into the
Mediterranean. The fine Lake of Bracciano, to the south of it, gives rise to
the Arrone. It, too, appears to be a basin formed by a subsidence of the ground
or erosion, and not a crater. The Lake of Yioo, on the other hand, clearly

Fig. 90.— The Lake of Bolsira.
Scale 1 : 457,000.

SlUlM.

occupies an ancient volofuio, though its rampart has been gutted towards the east.
Close to the lake, and within the encircling rampart, rises Monte Yenere, a perfect
cone, the gentle slopes of which are luxuriantly wooded. Formerly the lake
surrounded this cone, but the breach through which its emissary esqapes to the
Tiber having gradually been deepened, the waters of the lake subRided. Tradition
says that an ancient city lies at its bottom.

On crossing the Tiber we reach the beautiful volcanic group of Albano,
within the great crater of which may still be traced the remains of several
secondary craters, some of them occupied by lakes. The principal one of these,
Monte Cavo (2,790 feet), rises in the very centre of the exterior rampart.
Tradition points it out as one of EEannibal's camps. The exterior slopes of the
mountain consist of pozzuolana, small stones, and ashes, through which the
torrents have dug out furrows in divergent directions. The diversity of these

THE APENNINES, TIfiEB, ICABOHES, AND ABBUZZOS.

261

n of Bagnorea
new town by a
do not care to
ess. Pittigliano
narrow isthmus
38sible to all but
lally at war, the
lent.

Marta into the
it, gives rise to
e of the ground
iT hand, clearly

18»|io'

towards ihe east,
y enere, a perfect
onnerly the lake
ay escapes to the
)sided. Tradition

^roup of Albano,
imains of sereral
[pal one of these,
exterior rampart,
trior slopes of the
rough which the
diversity of these

Tolcanio products enables us to trace the phases of activity of this Roman
Vesuvius, which was active at a much more recent epoch than the volcanoes
farther north, and sent its streams of lava to the very gates of Rome.

The Lake of Albano discharges its surplus waters through a tunnel 7,665 feet
in length, which has been in existence for more than twenty-two centuries. The

Fig. 91. — La Momtaona o'Albamo.

Ftoin tha Aubrian Staff Msp.

Swl* 1 : SM/WO.

lake is famous on account of a small crab, large numbers of which are forwarded
to Rome during Lent. It is the only q>eoies of this animal hitherto discovered in
fresh water, and zoologuts conclude from this that the crater now occupied by the
lake formerly communicated with the sea, but was separated from it by slow
upheavals and the ejection of volcanic products. Flint implements and vases of
baked clay, discovered in the thick layers of volcanic peperino, prove that at the
18

t. i -l i HMi i Dm W

£.W3i

0gfl)jgKmim-tmmii*

ITALY.

period of the earliest eruptions the country was already inhabited by a ciyilised
population. Some of the vases referred to are doubly precious, for they present
us with delineations of the houses of that prehistoric epoch. Roman coins and
clasps of bronze, discovered in the upper layers of lava, prove that these are
comparatively recent. In fact, the most diverse developments of civilisation have
left their traces in these ancient craters. Alba Longa and other towns of the Latins
have been replaced by Roman cities ; then came the castles of the popes, and of
other high dignitaries of the Church ; and at present these hills are one of the
chief resorts of the crowds of strangers who flock to Rome from every quarter of
the world. On the culminating point of Monte Oavo stood the famous temple of
Jupiter Latialis, where the Latins ralebrated their federal FerisD. The last
remains of this temple were swept away in 1783, to be used in the construction
of a church. From its site the eye embraces a view extending to the hills of
Sardinia.

The Lake of Nemi no longer reflects in its bluish waters the foliage of
luxuriant trees, or the walls of that dreaded temple of Diana whose priest was
only allowed to assume office after he had killed his predecessor in a duel. It, too,
has its subterranean emissary, like the Lake of Albano. As to the Regillus,
famed for the defeat of the Latins by the Romans, it has dried up, whilst the
incrustating Lake of Tartari and that of the Solfatara, with its floating islands,
are mere shallow ponds, which owe their fame almost exclusively to the vicinity
ofTivoli.

All these volcanic lakes are of considerable depths, whilst the lakes in the
calcareous regions are shallow.* One amongst them, that of Fucino, has been
drained recently, and the same fate is in store for that of Trasimeno. Lake
Fucino originally occupied an area of 104 square miles, and its surplus waters
discharged themselves towards the north-west into the Salto, a tributary of the
Tiber. At an epoch not known to us the dimensions of the lake became less. It
no longer discharged an effluent, but its waters rose and fell according to whether
the seasons were wet or dry. Occasionally they rose as much as 60 feet, and two
cities, Marruvium and Pinna, are said to have been swallowed up during one of
these floods. At other times it was reduced to a swamp. The ancient Romans,
desirous of suppressing a hotbed of fever, and of gaining fertile soil for agriculture,
attempted to drain this lake. Claudius employed 30,000 slaves for eleven years
in cutting a passage through the mountains from it to the Liri. This great work
was carried on under the direction of the greedy Narcissus, but it turned out a
failure, for after a short time the tunnel became choked. In the thirteenth
century an attempt was made to reopen this tunnel, but the drainage of the lake
has only been achieved quite recently, in accordance with plans designed by
M. de Montrioher, and carried out at ^e expense of Prince Torlonia. Between

* VoLOAHic Laku : — BoUma: urctt, 43 iq. m. ; height, 996 ft. ; depth, 460 ft. Srmeeimio : area, 2S eq. m. ;
height, 49Sft.; depth, 820ft. AUiant: ares, 2*3 aq. m.; height, 1,000 ft.; depth, 466 ft. ITtmi: area,
0*8 iq. m. ; height, 1,108 ft. ; depth, 164 ft. Shaixow Lakh •.—Trmtimmto : area, 46 cq. m. ; height^
848 ft. ; dppth, 21 ft. Ammo (in 1860) : axea, 61 aq. m. ; height, 2,300 ft. ; depth, 92 ft.

"^"^^^^S^SSSSSMSSIS

'-"M^SSSSfM

.JW

THE APENNINES, TIBEB, MAECHES, AND ABBUZZOS.

268

ied bya omlised
, for they present
[toman coins and
re that these are
r civilisation have
wns of the Latins
the popes, and of
ills are one of the
I every quarter of
famous templti of
rerisD. The last
the construction
g; to the hills of

irs the foliage of
whose priest was
a a duel. It, too,
to the Begillus,
ied up, whilst the
a floating islands,
sly to the vicinity

the lakes in the
Fuoino, has been
frasimeno. Lake
its surplus waters
i tributary of the
) became less. It
ording to whether
i 50 feet, and two
up during one of
> ancirait Romans,
loil for agriculture,
w for eleven yean
This great work
at it turned out a
In the thirteenth
ainage of the lake
>lan8 designed by
orlonia. Between

meeimo : ana, 22 iq. m. ;
1, 466 ft. Nmi: area,
urea, 46 cq. m. ; height,
1,92 ft.

1855 and 1869 a new tunnel was excavated on the site of the ancient one, and
nearly 160,000,000 cubic yards of water were conveyed through it into the Liri,
and thence to the sea. The whole of the ancient lake bed has been converted into
smiling fields, traversed in all directions by carriage roads ; houses have been
erected on spots formerly covered with water ; fruit and ornamental trees have
been planted ; and the salubrity of the country leaves nothing to be desired
now. Some idea of the progress made in the art of engineering since the time
of the Romans may be formed by comparing this new tunnel with the old one.
The latter was 18,500 feet in length, had an average section of 12 square yards,
and cost (according to M. Rotrou) £9,840,000. The new tunnel has a length of
20,680 feet, a section of 24 square yards, and cost £1,200,000.

Fig. 92.— Thi Amciimt Laki of Fccixo.

BoOe 1 : 418,000.

SlIilM.

The Lake of Perugia, better known as the Lake of Trasimeno, on account of

the terrible memories which attach to it, still retains nearly the dimensions which

it had at the dawn of history. If this lake were to rise only a few feet, its

surplus waters would find their way into the Tresa, a tributary of the Tiber ; but

its basin is shallow, and evaporation suffices for carrying off the water conveyed

into it by its tributary rivulets. Amongst these is the famous Sanguinetto, on

the banks of which the armies of Hannibal and Flaminius were engaged in battle,

when,

" b«neath the feftf, .
An earthquake teeled nnheededly away."

The lake, with its islands and charming contours, is beautiful to look upon,
but the low hills surrounding it are sterile, the climate is insalubrious, its waters
harbour but few fish, and the inhabitants on its shores look impatiently forward

gaMM i wyigaiiA^

IM ITAIiT.

to the time when the engineers will fulfil their promise of winning for agriculture
30,000 acres of fertile land now covered by the waters of the lake.

But far more urgent, on sanitary and economical grounds, are the claims of
the Roman Oampagna ; that is, of the region lying between the Tolfa of Civitu
Yecchia, Monte Soracte, the Sabine Hills, and the volcanoes of Latium. Slavery
and maladministration have converted a fertile region into a desert extending to
the very gates of Rome. Painters are enraptured with this Ronum Oampagna ;
they admire its melancholy aspect, its picturesque ruins hidden beneath brambles,

Fig. 93.— Lakb op Tkasimimo.

Timn th* AnaMiii Staff Kav.

SmU* 1 : «iO,000.

^.9^:^

-tmiMk

its solitary pines, its pools reflecting the purple clouds, and visited by thirsty
buffaloes. True this region, bounded by hills of bold contours, is full of grandeur
and sadness ; but the air that hangs over it is deadly, the soil and climate of
this Agro Bonumo have deteriorated, and fever now reigns there supreme.

Two thousand years ago the Roman Oampagna, which xsovers an area of
600,000 acres to the north of the Tiber, and extends from the sea to the moan-
tains, was a fertile and carefully cultivated country. Then its inhabitants were
reduced to the condition of serfs, the Roman patricians appropriated the land, and

THE APENNINE8, TIBER, MABOHES, AND ABBUZZ08.

965

ig for ag^otilture

ire the olaims of
e Tolfa of Civita
Liatium. Slavery
sert extending to
>man Oampagna;
beneath brambles,

visited by thirsty
is full of grandeur
oil and climate of
i supreme,
xsovers an area of
le sea to the moun-
ts inhabitants were
iated the land, and

covered it with villas and parks. When these magnificent residences were given
up to pillegpe and to flames, the cultivators of the soil dispersed, and the country
immediately became a desert. Since that epoch most of the Ag^ is held in
mortmain by ecclesiastical corporations or princely families, and whilst all the
rest of Europe has been making progress, the Gampagna has become even more
sterile and insalubrious. Swamps continually invade the lowlands, and an atmo-
sphere charged with miasmata hangs ever above the hills. Malaria has already
knocked at the gates of Rome, and the fevers produced by it decimate the popula-
tion of its suburbs.

Fig. 94 — ^Tbi Bomam Oampaoiia. •

Not a village, not even a hamlet, is met with throughout ibis afflicted region.
The only buildings are the wretched storehouses of the proprietors, whose wide
domains are roamed over by herds of half-wild grey cattle, said to have been
introduced into Italy by the Huns, and distinguished by immense horns, fre-
quently suspended in the huts of the peasantry, who fancy that they keep off the
" evil eye." The soil of these neglected pastures consists of alluvium mixed with,
volcanic debris and marls, but only a few patches are cultivated. The farmers and
labourers who engage in this labour cany their lives in their hands, and are
frequently struck down by fever before they are able to regain their villages in

ITALY.

the hills. What can be done to reatore to thia region ita fertility, aalubrity, and
population P No doubt it will be neoeaaary to drain the marahea, and ^o plant
treea capable, like che Euoalyptua, of abaorbing the poiaonous miaamata ; and thiM
haa been done, with a oonaiderable amount of aucoeaa, since 1870, near the abbey
of Tre Fontane. Bat, aboye aJl, it will be neoeaaary to interest the cultivator
of the soil in ita productireneaa. Even in the most salubrious districts of the
ancient Papal dominiona the population ia being decimated by misery and the
maladiea following in ita train. In the valley of Sooco, to the aouth*eaat of Rome,
which abounda in cereala, vinea, and fhiit treea, the cultivator of the aoil is
restricted to a diet of maize, for proprietora and money-lendera eat up the rest of
his produce.

An uncultivated and insalubrioua region extends, likewiae, along the sea to the
south of the Tiber. Poisonous vapoura arise from the stagnant watera aeparated
by dunea from the sea, and in order to escape them it is neoessary to seek a refuge
in the hills of the interior, or even on jetties built out into the sea, aa at Porto
d' Anzio. The palacea which formerly lined the shore from Ostia to Nettuno, and
from the ruiuf of which have Ixyn recovered some of our moat highly valued
art treasures, tuoh aa the Gladiator and Apollo Belvedere, have been buried
long ngo beneath the dunes or in the swamps. The most dreaded of these
malarial districts lies at the foot of the Monti Lepini, and extenda from Porto
d'Anzio to Terraoina. It is known as the Pontine Marshes, from an ancient city
named Pometia, which no longer exists. No less than twenty-three cities
formerly flourished in what is now a deserted and deadly country, but which was
the most prosperous of ahe districts held by the confederation of the Volsoi. The
Roman conquerors created " peace and solitude " at the same time. Four
hundred and forty years after the building of Rome, when Appius constructed
his famous road to Terracina, the country was only a swamp. Various attempts
have been made since to reclaim this region, but it still remains the haunt of
boars, deer, and semi-savage buflEoloes, whose ancestors were imported from Africa
in the seventh century. The canals dug during the reign of Augustus appear to
have been of little use ; the works undertaken by Theodorio the Qoth were more
efficaoioun; but stagnant waters and malaria in the end regained the mastery. The
engineers employed by Pius YI. towards the close of the eighteenth century
failed likewise, and this district of 290 square miles remains a wilderness to the
p*>38ent day. If a brigand seeks refuge in it, pursuit is stopped, and he is allowed
to die in peace.

In order to drain these marshes an aooumulatics of difficulties will have to be
surmounted. A range of wooded dunes bounds the marahes on the west. Having
crossed these, we enter a second zone of marshes, which are separated f^m the sea
by a second range of dunes, extending northward from the Monte Oircello, and like-
wise densely wooded. These two formidable barriers would have to be surmounted
in order to drain the marshes towards the west. Nor are the prospects more pro-
mising in the direction of Terraoina, for there, too, every outlet ia stopped by dunes.
The streams and canals crossing the marshes are, moreover, choked up with a dense

THE APBNNIN^, TIBEB, IfABOHES, AND ABBUZZ08.

867

ty, lalubrity, and
bes, and ^o plant
iaimata ; and thin
0, near the abbey
Mt the cultivator
IB diatriota of the
y miaeiy and the
uth-east of Rome,
or of the aoil is
eat up the rest of

ong the sea to the
i waters aeparated
f to seek a refuge
e sea, as at Porto
i to Nettuno, and
ost highly valued
lave been buried
dreaded of these
tends from Porto
)m an ancient city
prenty-three cities
ry, but which was

the Vokoi. The
une time. Four
Lppius constructed

Yarious attempts
lains the haunt of
ported from Africa
Lugustus appear to
le Goth were more
the mastery. The
ighteenth century
wilderness to die
, and he is allowed

ies will have to be
the west. Having
irated from the sea
I Oircello, and like-
9 to be surmounted
>rospect8 more pro-
B stopped by dunes,
^ed up with a dense

growth of aquatic plants, which impedes the circulation of the water, feeble though
it be. Herds of buffaloes are sometimes driven into these streams to trample down
the vegetation, but neither this barbarous procedure nor the more regular process
of mowing has availed against its rapid and luxuriant growth, and the water

Fig. 95 — Thb PoNTiini M aurw.
SmO* 1 : wojoeo.

remains stagnant. Bains are not only heavy in this portion of Italy, but the
superabundant waters of neighbouring river basins actually find their way through
subterranean channels into the depression opoupied by the Pontine Ma^whes.
This happens after heavy rains in the case of the Saoco, a tributary o>f the
Oarigliano, and of the Teverone, a tributary of the Tiber, and to this circumstance

•»68

HALT.

moat be aacribed the ourioui fact first aioertained by M. de Prony, rin. that thn
volume of water annually diacharged by the Badino, which drains the marahuN,
exceeds by one*half the whole of the rain which annually deaoenda upon them.
When thia happena the whole of the country ia under water. Another danger
ariaea during dry weather. It happens then occaaionally that the parched
vegetation ia ignited through the oareleaaneaa of herdamon ; the fire communlcatot
itaelf to the turfy aoil, and the latter amouldera until the aubaoil water ia reached.
In thia manner traota of land which were looked upon aa aeoure againat every
inundation are converted into marah. During the greater portion of the year
the Pontine Marahea preaent the appearance of a plain covered with herbage and
flowera, and it ia matter for surprise that a country so fertile ahould be without
iniui^itanta. The town of Ninfa, which was built iu the eleventh century, near
the northern extremity of the plain, haa aince been abandoned, its walla, houaes,
and palacea atill remaining, covered with ivy and other creeping planta.

There can be no doubt that our engineers would be able to reclaim thia deaolate
region. The ayatem adopted in the caae of the valley of the Ohiana may not
be practicable, but other, if more coatly, meana may be deviaed. Whatever the
outlay, it ia aure to be productive, for even now the marahea yield rich harvests of
wheat and maize.

The Tiber, or Tevere, the great river of the Romana, has defied all attempts
at correction down to our own days, and ita sudden floods are said to be even more
formidable now than they were in the days of the Republic. Ever since the time
of Angus Martins there has been going on a struggle against the alluvium brought
down by the river, and it will need all the skill of the Italian engineers to master
this difficult problem.

The Tiber is by far the most important river of the peninsular portion of Italy,
and ita basin is the most extensive.* It is, too, the only river that ia navigable
in ita lower courae from Oatia to Fidenes. The Tiber riaea on the western alope
of the Alpe della* Lwa», in the latitude of Florence. The valley through which
it flowa, whilat in the heart of the Apenninea, is of aorpaaaing beauty ; at one time
it expanda into broad and fertile baains, at othera it ia hemmed in by precipitous
rooka. Below the charming baain of Perugia the Tiber receives the Topino,
formed by the confluence of aeveral atreams in the old laonatrine basin of Foligno,
one of the most delightfiil diatriots of all Italy, aitaated at the foot of the Oreat
Apenninea and of the Ool Fiorito, which leads across them. The Olitono (Oli-
tumnus) debouches upon this plain, famous on account of its pdUuoid waters : —

" Th« mort living cryBtal that was e'er
Hie hannt of tlie river nymph, to gaae and lare
Her limbe."

!I^e ruins of a beautiful temple still remain near the source of this river, but the
miraculous power of the latter of changing into a brilliant white the wool of the
sheep grazing upon its scored banks has gone for ever.

* Basin, 6,47/( square miles ; length, 260 miles, of which 60 are nsTigahlo.

iUE Al'EKNlKi'iti, TIBiilil, MAKOUE^, ASU AUUUZZOS.

ly, ri». thftt thn
ini the inanh(!!4,
inda upon them.

Another danger

lat the parched
ire communicate*

water is reached,
ire against every
tion of the yeur
with herbage and
bould be without
nth century, near

its walls, houses,
plants.
)laim this desolate

Ohiana may not

, Whatever the
Id rich harvests of

iefted all attempts
id to be even more
)ver since the time
3 alluvium brought
mgineers to master

iar portion of Italy,
r that is navigable
1 the western slope
Lley through which
eauty ; at one time
d in by precipitous
iceives the Topino,
le basin of Foligno,
) foot of the Great
The Olitono (OU-
dluoid waters : —

The Nera is the most important tributary of the Tiber; " it gives it to drink,"
as the Italian proverb says, and rivals it in volume. It is formed by the junction
of several streams descending from the Sibilline Mountains, Monte Volino, and
the Sabine Hills. About two thousand ycum ago, it is said, most of these rivulets
did not reach the Tiber ; they were intercepted in the plain of Kieti, where they

Fig. 94.— Amoibnt LACvaTRiNS Baiimi or thb Timh and ToriNo.
StaU 1 : SMiOOO.

A^l

vouono^

I this river, bat the
iiite the wool of the

MTIgablOi

formed the Laons Yelinos, represented at the present day by a few ponds and
marshes scattered over the fertile fields of the " Garden of Roses." A. breach
effected in the calcareous rocks, and several times enlarged since, allowed tht>
pent-up waters of the Yelino to escape to the Nera, and in doing so they formed
those beautiful cascades of Marmora, above Temi, whose charms have been
celebrated by poets and painters. The river falls down a perpendicular height of

:*)^ift^<,»«jrf.t.lV>^Vi"-^V',"'

pfS^i\-T ri--^

THE APENNINES, TIBEB, MAEOHES, AND ABEUZZOS.

271

> blocks of rock,

:,%,'■: r-

;;^iPi^>^

■'^^^.

more charming, are the numerous cascatellas of the Anio, or Teverone, the last
affluent of any importance which the Tiber receives above Rome. Standing on the
verdant hill upon which is built the picturesque town of Tivoli, silvery cascades
may be seen to escape in every direction. Some of them glide down the polished
rocks; others shoot forth from gloomy arches, remain suspended an instant in the
air, and then disappear again beneath the foliage ; but every one of them, whether

Fig. 98.— Thb Dilta or tub Tibih.
Aoooiding to Daiondeau (1861) and DeRJordins.

a powerful jet or a mere thread of water, possesses some charm of its own, and,
as a whole, they form one of the most deUghtful spectacles to be witnessed in
Italy. It is tiiese cascades which h»ve rendered TivoK famous throughout the
world ; and in spite of the popular rhyme —

^rand, but perhaps

■ TivoU di mal conforto,
piovot o tira vento, o moiu a morto I '

THE APENNINES. TIBEB. MABGHES, AND aBBUZZOS.

278

mcient Romans,

^■^■x--

— — * - ,' , r^

iJS^'^f -'-—

ruins, to the west
I been proposed to

utilise the great water power of the Anio far more extensively than has
been done hitherto. The ancients contented themselves with quarrying the
concretionary limestone, or travertin, deposited by the calcareous waters of
the river, sometimes to the depth of a hundred feet. They made use of this
stone for the construction of their public buildings. Travertin, when first
quarried, is white ; after a certain time it turas yellow, and subsequently assumes
a beautiful roseate hue, which imparts a character of majesty to the edifices
constructed of it.

Below their confluence with the Anio, the yellow waters of the Tiber,
discoloured by the clay brought down from the plains of Fmbria, rush beneath
the bridges of Rome. Soon afterwards the river winds round the last hills,
which formerly bounded an ancient gulf' of the aea, now silted up. The influence
of the tides makes itself felt. At the head of the Sacred Island, formerly
dedicated to Venus, and famous for its roses, but now a dreary swamp, covered
with reeds and asphodeke, it bifurcates. The principal branch, the old Tiber,
passes to the south of this island. Ostia, which was the port of the river during
the early days of Rome, is buried now beneath fields of cereals and thistles, at
a distance of five miles from the sea. Excavations made there since 1855 have
laid bare several temples, tombs, and warehouses. The merchants of Rome were
compelled to abandon that city two thousand years ago, on account of a- bar formed
at the mouth of the river.

The Roman emperors, anxious to have an outlet into the sea, ordered a ship
:anal to be excavated to the north of Ostia. This is the Fiumieino, which the
orosive action of the Tiber has converted into a small river; Claudius had huge
docks excavated to the north of this canal, and a new Ostia arose near them.
Trajan qsened another port to the south-east of it, which remained for several
centuries the port of Rome. But it, too, has been silted up for about a thousand
years, and the alluvium brought down by the Tiber is continually encroaching
upon the sea, the rate of progress being about three feet annually at the mouth
of the Fiumieino, and ten feet at that of the old Tiber. Extensive ruins of
palaces, bftths, and storehouses exist near the ancient port of Trajan, and several
works of art have recently been excavated there.

The mouth of the Tiber is thus closed by a bar, like that of aU other rivers which
flow into the Mediterranean ; and the Romans, instead of being able to n^ike use
of their river for oommimioating with the sea, are obliged to hftve recourse, to more
distant harbours. In former times they kept up this communication with Sicily,
Oreece, and the Orient through Antium, Anxur (Terracina), and even Putooli;
but since the countries of the North have riaen into political and commercial
importance, Oivita Yeochia has become the great maritime entrep6t of the valley
of the Tiber. It is well known that Garibaldi has conceived the stupendous
project of conv^ing Rome into a great maritime city. The stagnant waters of
the Oampagna are to be carried off by means of a huge sanitary canal, the bed of
the Tiber is to be deepened, and an artificial harbour capable of receiving the
largest vessels is to be constructed far out in the Mediterranean.

i>miyHiii«a^^fe'«A^i<^'^^w^^''i'-^«^

ffr*

ITALY

The exeoutinn of this vast soheme is no doubt attended with immense di£S-
culties, not the least amongst which are the annual floods of the Tiber. Ancient
writers tell us that these inundations were dreaded not only because of the damage
done directly, but also because of the great quantities of animal and vegetable
deposits which remained in the fields after the subsidence of the waters. The nature
of these floods has continued the same down to the present time. At Rome, though
its distance from the sea is only twenty-two miles, the river frequently rises forty or
fifty feet, and in December, 1598, it rose sixty-five feet I How is this huge volume
of water to be disposed of after it has passed beneath the bridges of Rome ? If
the destruction of the forests in the Apennines is one of the principal causes of
these floods, will it be sufficient to replant them? Or would it be preferable
to restore some of those ancient lakes into which numerous rivers discharged
themselves, which now take their course to the sea ? The difficulties are great
indeed, for the western slope of the Apennines is exposed to the rain-bearing
westerly and south-westerly winds, and the floods of every one of the numerous
tributaries of the Tiber take place simultaneously, and combine to form one vast
inundation.

It is by no means difficult to account for the great floods of the Tiber which
take place in winter, but the condition of the river during summer has for a long
time baffled inquiry. The level of the river during the dry season is far higher
than could possibly be accounted for by the small quantity of rain which foils
within its basin. Its volume in summer is never less than half its average
volume, a phenomenon not hitherto observed in the case of any other river. The
Seiae has a basin five times larger than that of the Tiber, and its average volume
is almost double ; yet, after a continuance of dry weather, its volume is only a
third or fourth of the Italian river. This perennity of the Tiber can only be
accounted for by assuming that it is fed, during the dry season, from subterranean
reservoirs, in which the water is stored up during winter. These reservoirs must
be very numerous, if we are to judge by the numerous " sinks," or " swallows,"
met with on the calcareous plateaux of the Apennines. One of' these sinks,
known as the -' Fountain of Italy," near Alatri, dose to the Neapolitan frontier,
has the appearance of a huge pit, 160 feet in depth and 300 feet across. Its
bottom is occupied by a forest, and numerous springs give ris6 to luxuriant
herbage, upon whicl. sheep lowered by means of ropes feed with avidity. It is
from sinks like this that the rivers of the country, the Tiber and the Sacoo, are
fed. It has been computed by Yenturoli and Lombardini, the engineers, that
about three- fourths of the liquid mass of the Tiber during winter are derived from
subterranean lakes hidden in the depths of the Apennines. The volume of water
annually supplied from this source to the Tiber would fill a basin having an area
of 100 square miles to a depth of 80 feet ! *

Primitive Rome is to a large extent indebted for her power to the Tiber, not

* Annnal rainfiiU at Bome, 30-7 inches ; at the foot of the Apenninea, 43-8 in. ; on the sammiti,
94-5 in. Yolame of the Tiber: average 10,180 cubic ft.; nrnximmn, C0,400 cubic ft. ; minimnm, 4,6iS0
onbio ft., a second.

■•.■A:'^:if.-^^imtsS-'!S^Mi;:Mi«M^

Whlilil'iUllI ^

THE APENNINES. TIBEB, MABOHES, AND ABBUZiTOS.

tflB

h. immense diffi.

Tiber. Ancient
Be of the damage
al and vegetable
aters. The nature
At Rome, though
ntly rises forty or
this huge volume
es of Rome? If
rinoipal causes of

it be preferable

rivers discharged

Bculties are great

the rain-bearing

of the numerous

to form one vast

the Tiber which
aer has for a long
ison is far higher

rain which fells
half its average
other river. The
its average volume
volume is only a
Fiber can only be
from subterranean
ise reservoirs must
I," or " swallows,"
le of' these sinks,
Bapolitan frontier,
) feet across. Its
ris6 to luxuriant
Ith avidity. It is
and the Sacoo, are
he engineers, that
r are derived from
e volume of water
rin having an area

T to the Tiber, not

in. ; on the Bummiti,
do ft. ; minimiun, 4,M0

because that river is navigable, but because it traverses the centre of a vast basin,
of which Rome is the natural capital. Rome, moreover, occupied a central
position with regard to the whole of Italy and the world of the ancients ; but, as
has already been pointed out, Rome no longer lies upon any of the. great high-
roads of nations. That city certainly occupies not only the centre of Italy,
but of all the coimtries surroimding the Tyrrhenian Sea ; and its climate would
leave little to be desired, if it were not for the insalubrity of the Campagna. Still
Rome, though the residence of two sovereigns, the King of Italy and the Pope, is
not even the principal city of the peninsula, and still less so the capital of the
Latin race. It is said that during the Middle Ages, when the popes resided
at Avignon, the population of Rome was reduced to 17,000 souls. Gregorovius,
than whom no one is better acquainted with that epoch in the history of Rome,
doubts this ; but there can be no doubt that after the sack ordered by the Con-
stable of Bourbon its population was reduced to 30,000 souls. More recently
Rome has increased rapidly, but it is still very inferior to Naples, and even to
Milan.

From the very first the Romans were a mixed race. The myth of Romulus
and Remus, the rape of the Sabine women, and incessant internal conflicts bear
evidence to this &Mt. The remains of ancient cities, oyclopean walls, burial-
grounds, iims, vases, and ornaments prove that on the right bank of the Tiber
the Etrurians were at least as strong as the Italians. Elsewhere the Gauls
predominated, and frt)m an intermixture of all these various peoples sprang the
primitive Roman.

When Rome had reached the zenith of her power things wore a diflerent
aspect, and thousands of foreigners became amalgamated with the Latins, G(auls,
Iberians, Mauritanians, Greeks, Syrians, and Orientals of every race and climate ;
slaves, freemen, and citizens flocked towards the capital of the world, and
modified the character of its inhabitants. Towards the dose of the Empire there
were more strangers within the walls of Rome than Romans, and when the empire
of the West broke to pieces, and the empress-city was pillaged repeatedly by
barbarian hordes, the Italians had already become mixed with the most diverse
elements. This endless mixture between different races, victors and vanquished,
masters and slaves, accounts, perhaps, more satisfactorily for the g^reat changes
which have taken place in the course of two thousand years in the character and
spirit of the Romans. Still the Romans on the right bank of the Tiber, the
80-called Transteveroni, have preserved the old Roman type, as transmitted to us
in statues and on medals.

Rome is great because of its past, and its ruins are more attractive than its
modem buildings ; it is a tomb rather than a living city. These monuments,
raised by the former masters of the world, strongly impress the imagination. The
sight of the Ooliseum arouses an admiration akin to terror, unless we look upon
this formidable edifice as a mere heap of stones. The thought ihat this vast arena
was crowded with men who sought to kill each other, that the steps surrounding
it were occupied by 8,000 human beings who delighted in this butchery and

^.»»^fesa@aasaiyaa£ia^^

ffit

ITALT.

encouraged it by their shouts, calls up an amount of baseness, ferocity, and
frenzy, whose existence could not fail to sap the foundations of Roman civilisation,
and make it an easy prey to the barbarian. The Forum awakens memories of
quite a different nature. Abominations were practised there, too, but its history
as a whole exhibits it as the true centre of the Bomau world. It was from this
spot that the first impetus was given to the nations of the West ; it was here that

Fig. 100.— Born.

the ideas imported firom every quarter of ike world bore fruit The walls,
columns, temples, and churches which surround the Forukn relate in mute lan-
guage the principal events in the history of Rome ; and if we search beneaih
existing edifices we meet with structures more ancient, which take us back to a
period still more remote, for edifice has succeeded edifice on this spot, where
pulsated the life of the Roman people. And thus it is throughout Rome. Every
ancient monument, arcade, or broken column, every stone, bears witness 1;o some

-*•

THE APENNINES, TIBBB, MABOHES. AND ABBUZZOS.

ferocity, and
•man civiliaation,
9ns memories of
>, but its history
[t was from this
it was here that

fruit The walls,
slate in mute lan-
we search beneath
take us back to a
1 this spot, where
LOut Rome. Every
irs witness to some

historical event, and though it may be difficult sometimes to interpret these
witnesses of the past, the truth is elicited by degrees.

In spite of pillage and wholesale destruction, there still exist numerous
ancient monuments, of which the Pantheon of Agrippa is one of the most
marvellous. The Vandals, who are usually charged with the work of destruction,
pillaged the city, it is true, but they demolished nothing. The systematical
destruction had begun long before their time, when the materials for building the
first church of St. Peter were taken from the Circus of Oaligula, and from other
monuments near it. The same plan was pursued in the construction of innume-
rable other churches and buildings of every kind. Statues were broken to pieces
and used for making lime, and in the be^nning of the fifteenth century there only
remained six of them in all Rome, five of marble and one of bronze. The invasion
of the Normans in 1084, and the numerous wars of the Middle Ages, which were
frequently attended by pillage and conflagrations, wrought further havoc, but so
large had been the number of public buildings and monuments, that on the revival
of art in the sixteenth oentury many still remained for study and imitation. Since
that time the architectural collection enclosed by the walls of Rome has been
guarded with the utmost care, and still further enriched by the masterpieces of
Michael Angelo, Bramante, and others.

On the Palatine Hill the most curious remains of ancient Rome, including the
foundations of the palaces of the CsBsars and of the walls of Eoma Quadrata, have
recently been laid open. It was on this hill, so rich in precious ^relics, that the
first Romans built their city, in order to afford it the protection of steep escarp-
ments, and of the marshes on the Tiber and Yelabro. When Rome grew more
populous it became necessary to descend from this hill. The town spread over
the valley of the Yelabro, which had been drained by Tarquin the Etruscan, and
then olinibed up the surrounding hills. A small island in the Tiber occupied its
centre. This the Romans looked upon »& a sacred spot. They enclosed it by a
nuwmry embankment, shaped like a ship, erected an obelisk in its centre to
represent a mast, and a temple of ^sculapius upon the- poop. This island .was
likened to a vessel bearing the fortunes of Rome.

There is still another Rome, the subterranean one, which is well worth study,
for we learn more from it about early Ohristianity than from all the books that
have been written. The crynts of the Christian burying-plaoes occupy a zone
around the city a couple of miles in width, and embrace about fifty distinct
catacombs. Signer Rossi estimates the length of these subterranean passages at
360 miles. They are excavated in the tufia, and are, on an average, a yard in width,
but they include chambers which SOTved as oratories, and numerous tiers of niches for
the bodies. The inscriptions, bas-reliefe, and paintings of these cities of the dead
were at all times respected by thn pagans, and fortunately t>e entrances to them
were dosed up at the time the Barbarians invaded Ro' This saved their

contents from destruction, and everything was found intacv when they were first
reopened towards the close of the sixteenth century. These tombs prove that the
popular belief of the Christians of that time was very different from what it is
20

'.*S»W»*?KtWVH H

276

ITALY.

represented to have been bj contemporaneous writers, who belonged to a different
class of society from that of the majority of the faithful. A serene gaiety reigns
throughout, and lugubrious emblems find no place there. We neither meet with
representations of martyrdoms nor with skeletons or images of Death ; even the cross,
which at a later epoch became the great symbol of Christianity, is not seen there.
The most common symbols met with are those of the Good Shepherd carrying a
lamb upon his shoulders, and the vine decked with leaves. In the oldest

Fig. 101 — Tub Hills of Romb.

catacombs, which date back to the second and third centuries, the figures are
Greek in character, and abound in heathen subjects. One represents the Good
Shepherd surrounded by the Three Graces. There are two Jewish catacombs,
likewise excavated in the tufa, and they enable us to compare the religious notions
which prevailed at that time amongst the followers of the two religions.

By an absurd predilection for mystical numbers, Rome is even now spoken of
as the " City of the Seven Hills," although it lost all claim to such a designation

THE APENNINES. TIBEB, MABOHEd, AND ABBUZZOS.

iged to a different
rene gaiety reigtis
neither meet with
kth ; even the croas,
is not seen there,
epherd carrying a
In the oldest

rm-

.<^jk\

V ▼^■- .

32L

WLxmM

ies, the figures are
Bpresents the Good

Jewish catacombs,
be religious notions
religions.
»Yen now spoken of

such a designation

after it had outgrown the walls built by Servius TuUius. Independently of
Monte Testaooio, which is merely a heap of potsherds, there are at least nine
hills within the walls of actual Rome, viz. the Aventino, to which the plebeians
retired during their feeble struggles for independence ; the Palatino, the ancient
scat of the GsDsars ; the Capitolino, surmounted by the temple of Jupiter ; Monte
Celio (Oselius) ; the E.squilino ; Quirinale ; Citorio ; and the Pincio, with its
public gardens. Besides these, there ate two hills on the opposite bank of the
Tiber, viz. Monte Oianicolo (Janioulum), the highest of all, and the Vatican,
which derives its name from the Latin word taten, a soothsayer, it having once been
the seat of Etruscan divination.

Faithful to its traditions, the last hill has ever since remained the place of
vaticinations. When the Christian priests left the obscurity of the catacombs they
established themselves upon it, and thence they governed Homo and the Western
world. The Papal palace, abounding in treasures of art, was bui upon it, and close
to it stands the resplendent basilica, of St. Peter, the centre of Catholic Christen-
dom. A long aiT^de connects the palace with the Castle of Sant' Angelo, the
ancient mausoleum of Hadrian. The guns of this fortress no longer defend the
Vatican, for the temporal power of the pontiffs is a thing of the past ; but their
sumptuous church of St. Peter, with its dome rising high into the air, and visible
even from the sea, its statues, marbles, and mosaics, bears witness to the fact that
the riches of all Christendom formerly found their way to Rome. St. Peter's alone
cost nearly £20,000,000 sterling, and is ouly 'tne out of the 366 churches
of the city of the popes. At the same time, thn admiration which their
sumptuous edifice arouses is not without its alloy. A multiplicity of ornaments
dwarfs the proportions of this colossal building, and, more serious still, instead of
its being the embodiment of an entire epoch of its faith and ideas, it is repre-
sentative only of a transitory phase in the local history of Catholicism, of an age of
contradictions, when the paganism of the Rraiaissance and the Christianity of the
Middle Ages allied themselves in order to give birth to a pompous and sensuous
neo-Catholicism suited to the tastes and caprices of the century. How different is
the impression we derive from this building from that which the sombre nave of
a Gothic cathedral makes upon us I If; is a remarkable &ct that the quarter
of Rome in which the ohuroh of St. Peter is built is the only portion
of the city which was laid waste by the Mussulmans in 846, who are thus
able to boast of having sacked Papal Rome and taken possession of
Jerusalem, whilst the tomb of Mohammed has ever remained in the hands of the
faithful. As to the Jews, they did not come to Rome as conquerors. Shut up in
their filthy Ghetto near the swampy banks of the Tiber, and not far from that
arch of Titus which reminded them of the destruction of their temple, they have
been the objects of hatred and persecution duriug nineteen centuries. They have
survived, thanks to the power of their gold, and since their liberation from bondage
they contribute even more to the embellishmrait of the Italian capital than do
their Christian fellow-citizens.

Our nineteenth century is not &vourable to the creation of edifices fit to rival

gife^Mi^p gg i i sa fe iBPWw*^ "^*'*^^

,:^ ^mmi^ i m i mii%iv

MO ITALT.

the Oolisenm or St. Peter'*, but there are work* of another nature, not Iors
deserving of attention, which may distinguiah thia third era in the history of
Rome. Above all, it will be neceaaary to protect the city againat the floods
of the Tiber, and to improve ita aanitary condition. The bed of the river will
have to be deepened, embankmenta oonatmcted, and a ayatem of drainage
eatabliahed.

It ia well known that the quantity of water supplied to the Rome of tho
ancienta was prodigioua. In the time of Trajan nine grand aqueducta, having a
total length of 262 miloa, aupplied about 4,400 gallona of water per aeoond, and
thia quantity woa -.ugmented to the extent of one-fourth by canala aubaequently
oonatruoted. Even now, although moat of theae ' cient aqueducta are in
niina, the water aupply of the capital of Italy ia aupenor to that of moat other
citiea.* But if the time ahould ever come when Rome will occupy the whole of
the apace enoloaed within ita walla, if ever the Forum ahould again become the
centre of the city, then the want of water will be felt there aa much as in moat of
the other great towna of Europe.

Irrespectively of the inaalubrity of the environa, there ia another reooon why
modem Rome cannot compare with the ancient city. Ita atreeta no longer
radiate from a centre towarda all the pointa of the oompeaa, aa they did of
yore. The Appian Road, which on first leaving the city pasaes through a curious
avenue of tomba, ia typical of the old roada, oonatruoted in atraight linea, and
ahortening diatancea. It ia true that theae ancient highwaya have been anper-
aeded by railvaya, but they are still few in number, and Rome ia not rituated
on a trunk line. Eleewhere railwaya were built from the capital of the oonntry
towarda ita periphery ; in Italy, on the contrary, it waa Florence, Bologna, and
Naplea which oonatruoted linea converging upon Rome.

Rome ia one of thoae large citiea whioh are leaat able to exiot upon their own
resources, and having no port, and ita immediate vicinity being rendered unin-
habitable by miaamata, it haa attached to it outlying places, and ocoupiea a
position aimilar to that of a apider in the centre of its web. Ita gardena, ita rural
retreata, and ita induatrial eatabliahmenta are all in the hill towna of Tivoli ; at
Fraaoati (near whioh are the ruins of TuacnInm) ; at Marino (where the confederated
nationa of Latium held their meetinga) ; at Albano (joined by a magnificent viaduct
to Ariccia) ; at Yelletri (the old oity of the Yolaoi) ; at Paleatrina (more ancient than
either Alba Longa or Rome, and occupjring the site of a famoua temple of Fortune,
the pride of ancient Pneneste). Its watering-places are at Palo, Fiumicino, and
Porto d'Anzio, whioh adjoina the little town of Nettune, so famous because of the

* Water nipply of wnne leading oitiee (in gmnoni) :—

Borne (1869) .
Furie(1876) .
London (1874)
Olaigow (1874) .
WuUngton (1870)

FerDiy.
41,«80,000
78,100,000
110,000,000
32,482,500
86,000,000

FerlnlMUtaat.
108

27-5

62
860

THE APENNINES, TIBEB. MABCHE8, AND ABBUZZOS.

881

nature, not long
in the history of
gainat the floods

of the river will
tem of drainage

the Rome of the
ueducte, having a
r per second, and
inals subsequently
iquedncts are in
lat of most other
supy the whole of
again become the
luch as in most of

lother reason why
streets no longer
8, as they did of
through a curious
■traight lines, and
havo been super-
me is not situated
Ltal of the country
ence, Bologna, and

list upon their own
ing rendered unin-
B, and occupies a
s gardens, its rural
>wnsof Tivoli; at
ire the confederated
magnificent viaduct
. (more ancient than
I temple of Fortune,
alo, Fiumioino, and
nous because of the

haughty beauty of its women. Its only seaport is Oivita Yecohia, a dreary town
on the Tyrrhenian Sea, with a magnificent harbour.* The ancient harbours to the
south of the Tiber are very little resorted to in our day. Terraoina, hiddnn amidst
verdure at the foot of white cliffs, is only used by Rome-bound travellers coming by
the coast road fVom the south, t Nearly every other town of Latium is built un
one or other of the two great roads, of which one leads northward to Florence, whilst
the other penetrates the valley of the Saooo towards theflouth-east,and finally issues
upon the campagna of Naples. Yiterbo, the " city of nice fountains and pretty
girls," is the principal town in the north. Alatri, on the slope of the Garigliano,

Fig. lOa.— CiTITA ViCOHU.
S«al*l:8JB8.

iOnOFnt.

and commanded by a superb necropolis enclosed by oydopean walls, occupies a
similar position in the south. In .the east, in one of the most charming valleys of
Sabina, traversed by the ever-cool waters of the Anio, lies Subiaco, the ancient
Sublaquenm, thus named after the three reservoirs constructed by Nero, who used
to fish trout in them with a golden net. It was in a holy cave {aaero apeeu) near
Subiaco that St. Bennet established his famous monastery, which preceded the
still more famous monastery of Monte Oasino, and conjointly with that of Lerins,
in Provence, became the cradle of monaohiam in the West.^

* Value of exixnto sod importo, 1868, iSl.S48,000; 1868, »M,600.

t Tonnage of Tetaela which entered and cleared at me p<nta of Latinm in l%Ti :— Oivita Veoohia
£20,000 (1875, 600,8C1) ; Finmidno, 68,00(> ; Porto d'Amdo, 80,900; Tarracina, 888,000 tone.

t Towna of Latium (1871) :— Borne, 329,886 (1876, 264,280); Yiterbo, 16,826; Velletri, 14,798;
Civita Veoohia, 10,484; Feraotino, 8,360; TiYoli, 7,780; Frodnono, 7,714; Snbiaoo, 6,900; SoMa, 6,650;
Alatri, 6,898 intaaUtaota.

' *'^^*'^f«^'

2R'2

ITALT.

Perugia, tho capital of Umbria, on the rood from Rome to Anoono, ia one of tliu
ancient cities of the Etrusoana, and excavation* carried on in it« vicinity buvu
revealed tombs of thn highest interest. After every war and disaster this city
has arisen from its ruins, for its position in the midst of a fertile plain, and at the
point of junction of several natural high-roads, is most favourable. It is both a
Roman and a Tuscan city, and at the period »! the Renaissance it gave birth to
one of the groat Nohools of painting. There still remain numerous monuments at
Perugia which date back to that famous epoch, and although no longer one of tho
artistic head-quarters of Italy, it is still the seat of a university ; its trade, espo-
cially in raw silk, is active ; and its clean houses and streets, its pure atmosphere,
und charming inhabitants annually attract to it a large number of the foreigners
who spend the winter at Rome. Perugia has by far outstripped its rival, Foligno,
which was formerly the great commercial mart of Oentral Italy, and still oarrios
on a few branches of industry ; amongst others, the tanning of leather. As to
Assisi, it is justly famous because of its temple of Minerva, and its gorgeous
monasteries decorated with the frescoes of Oimabue and his successor, GKotto,
the last of the Greek and the first of the Italian painters. Assisi is only a small
place now, but its environs are fertile and densely inhabited. It gave birth to
Francesco d' Assisi, the founder of the order of St. Francis.

Other towns of Umbria, though not now of much importance, may boast of
having once played a great part in history, or of possessing beautiful monuments.
Spoleto, the gates of which Hannibal sought in vain to force, has a superb basilica,
a Roman viaduct carried across a deep ravine, and mountains clad with pines and
chestnuts. Terni is proud of its famous cascade (see p. 270). Orvieto, to the
north of the Tiber, near the frontier of Tuscany, is haughty und dirty, but justly
famous on account "^f its marvellous cathedral, one of the most costly and tasteful
buildings in the world. Oitta di Oastello, on the U< per Tiber, and Gubbio, in the
very heart of the mountains, are the two principal towns in the Umbrian Apen-
nines. Both are delightfully situated, and possess efficacious mineral springs.
At Gubbio are shown the famous "Engubion Tables," seven plates of bronze
covered with Umbrian characters, and tho only relics of that kind known to exist.
The little town of Fratta, now known as Umbertide, half-way between Perugia
and Citta di Castello, is only of local importance.*

Ancona is the Adriatic port of the Roman countries. It is an ancient city of
the Dorians, which still retains the name given it by its founders, on account of its
being situated at the " angle " formed by the coast between the Gulf of Venice
and the Southern Adriatic. A fine triumphal aroh near the mole attests the
importance which IVajan attached to the possession of this port. Thanks to its
favourable position and the labour bestowed upon the improvement of its harbour,
Ancona is one of the three great places of commerce on the Adriatic ; it ranks next
to Venice, and is almost the equal of Brindisi, though not one of the stages on the
road to India. Its commerce is fed by Rome, the Marches, and Lombardy ; and

• Popniationof the piinoipal towns of Umbria (1871) :— Perugia, 16,708 ; Rieti, 12,906 ; Temi, 12,41' i
FoUisn>. 8,471 ; Spoleto, 7.490; Orvieto, 7.423 ; Oitta di Ouatollo, 6.(88; Asdai, 6,826.; Qubbio, 6,848.

'^T'^i"W*"SlWCW*WTOWW!rT

TB£ APENNINES, TIBEfi, MARCHES, AND AUIIUZZOB.

288

)ona, ii one of tliu

its vicinity buvu

disuater thii city

plain, and at the

ble. It is both a

)e it gave birth tu

>ua monuments at

longer one of the

' ; its trade, espu-

pure atmosphoro,

of the foreignori)

its rival, Foligno,

, and still oarrioa

f leather. As to

and its gorgeous

suooesBor, GKotto,

dsi is only a small

It gave birth to

aoe, may boast of
utiful monuments,
a superb basilica,
ad with pines and
Orvieto, to the
d dirty, but justly
costly and tasteful
md Oubbio, in the
he Umbrian Apen-
} mineral springs.
L plates of bronze
ad known to exist.
f between Perugia

an ancient city of
'8, on account of its
le Gulf of Venice
9 mole attests the
rt. Thanks to its
nent of its harbour,
iatio; it ranks next
)f the stages on the
id Lombardy ; and

li,ri.906;T«mi,13,41*i
6«S26; aabbio.6,M3.

amongst its exports are fruits, oil, asphalt from the Abruisos, sulphur Arom the
Apennines, and silk, " the very bent in the world," if the native estimate of its quality
(un be accepted.* The other ports along this coast offer but little heltor, and
ibeir commerce is small. Pesaro, the native town of Rossini, is only visited by
vessels of twenty or thirty tons. Fasso merely admits barges. The small river port
of Sinigaglia (Senigallia) was formerly much frequented during the fair, at which
commodities valued at £1,000,000 sterling used to change hands, but since its
abolition in 1870 it has been deserted.

With the exception of Fabriano, which occupies a smiling valley of the

Fig. lOa.— Vaixiti ur Ebmion on thi Wmtimn Hlom or tnb ArBNiiiMst.

Soo* 1 1 4aR,ooo.

BMilM.

Apennines, and of Asooli-Pioeno, ol ; river Tronto, the inland towns of the
Marches are huilt upon the summit of hills, but extend through their suburbs to
the cultivable plains. The prinoipul amongst them are Urbino, whose greatest
glory consists in having been th ^ birthplace of Raffael, and which, like its neighbour
Pesaro, formerly produced a, kind of faience much valued by connoisseurs ; Jesi ;
Osimo ; Maxerata ; Reoanati, the native place of Leopardi ; and Fermo. One of the
most famous of thase hill towns is Loreto, formerly the most-frequented place of
pilgrimage in the Ohristian world. Before the Beformation, and at a time when

• Tonnage of remU which entered and cleared from Anoona in the ooaak and foriagn trad*) 3<8,202
tons in IMS, 872,877 ton* in 1867, 7<1.689 tona in 187».

^i:.jj-UAato.}fci.^4M^iM s iMiiMa^^

tt4

ITALY.

travelling was far more difficult than now, as many as 200,000 devotees visited
the shrines of Loreto every year. They were shown there the veritable house in
which the Virgin Mary was bom, and which was carried by angels to the spot it
now occupies, and where it is sheltered by a magnificently decorated dome. At
Castelfidardo,' close by, was fought the battle which cost the Pope the greater part
of the " patrimony of St. Peter."

There are only a few towns in the uplands of the Abruzzos. The principal of
these is Aquila, founded in the thirteenth century by the Emperor Frederick II.
The other towns are diSoult of access, and, far from attracting inhabitants from
beyond, they send their vigorous sons to the lowlands, where they are known as
Aquilani, and highly appreciated as terrace gardeners. The most populous places
are met with in the lower valley of the Atemo, or command the road leading to
the coast and the fertile fields of the Adriatic slope. Solmona is embedded in a
huge garden, anciently a lake, and overlooked in the south by the steep scarps of
Monte Majella. Popoli, at the mouth of a defile, where the Atemo assumes the
name of Pescara, is one of the busiest places between the sea and the uplands.
Ghieti, lower down on the same river, is said to have been the first town in the old
Neapolitan province to introduce steam into its spinning-mills and other fiictories.
Teramo and Lanciano are likewise places of some importance, but the only ports
along the coast, Ortona and Yasto, are merely frequented by small coasting vessels.*

A small district in the Marches, joined to the coast by a single road, has
maintained its independence through ages. Monte Titano, which rises in one of
the most beautiful parts of the Apennines, and the base of which has been used as
a quarry sittoe time immemorial, bears upon its simmiit the old and famous city
of San Marino. From its turreted walls the citizens can see the sun rise above
the Ulyrian Alps. San Marino, with some neighbouring hamlets, constitutes a
^' most illustrious " republic, and is now the only independent municipality of
Italy. Named after a Dalmatian mason who lived as a hermit on Monte Titano,
San Marino has existed as a sovereign state from the fourth century, its citizens
having at all times known how to turn to advantage the jealousies of their neigh-
bours. The constitution of this republic, however, is anything but demoorati&
The citizens, even though they be landed proprietors, have no votes, and are at
most permitted to remonstrate. The su preme pow«> is vested in a Oounoil of sixty
members, composed of nobles, citieens, and landowners. The title of councillor is
hereditary in the family, and when a family becomes extinct the remaining fifty-
nine choose another. The Council appoints the various officials, including a captain
for the town and one for the country. San Marino has its little army, its budget,
and its monopolies. A portion of its income is derived from the sale of titles end
of decorations, and on the payment of £1,400 it has even created dukes, who take
rank with the highest nobility of th«) kingdom. Taxation is voluntary. When
the public chest is empty a drummer is sent round the town to invite oontribu-

* Towna of the MardhM h»ving over 10,000 inhabitants :— Anoona, 3ft,lll ; Jeri, 18,472 ; Budgaglu,
11,173; AMsoli-Piceno, 11,878; Fermo. 16,803; llacemta, 11,194; Fetaro, 13,376; TTrUno, 10,1M.

^fc-MCM .—Lanciaiio, 1S,482 ; Ohi«ti, 14,321 ; AqnOa, 13,613 ; CampobaHO, 18,846 ; Sobnona, 13,683 ;
Yasto, 10,098.

THE APENNINES, TIBEB, MABGHES, AND ABBUZZOS.

285

f devotees visited
eritable house in
sis to the spot it
>rated dome. At
e the greater part

The principal of
3ror Frederick II.

inhabitants from
hey are known as
st populous places
B road leading to
is embedded in a
the steep scarps of
temo assumes the
and the uplands,
rst town in the old
nd other fiiotories.
but the only ports
1 coasting vessels.*
a single road, has
ch rises in one of
L has been used as
I and famous city

the sun rise above
alets, constitutes a
it mumcipality of

on Monte Titano,
sntury, its citizens
lies of their neigh-
g but demooratia
> votes, and are at
t a C)ouncil of sixty
tie of counoilloir is
le remaining fifty-
including a captain
e army, its budget,
le sale of titles &nd
ed dukes, who take
voluntary. When
to invite oontribu-

Jeri, 18,472; Binigsglia,
rs ; T7rt>iiio, 10,184.
,8,846; SoImoB%lM88;

tions. Though perfectly independent, this republic accepts a subsidy from Italy,
and claims the special protection of the King. Its criminals are shut up in an
Italian prison, its public documents are printed in Italy, and an Italian judge
occupies the bench of the republican prsetorium. There is no printing-office in the

Fig. 104. — BmiNi and San Habino.
Suae 1 : 150,000.

■sifaM.

little state, for the Council is afraid that books objectionable to the surrounding
kingdom might be issued from it.*

* Ana of San Huhio, 34 iquara miles; population (1874), 7,816.

fciagni.t .-j.!.-'"<ji

886

ITALY.

VI. — SouTHERir Italt, Naplbr

Amokgst the yarious states which have been welded into the modem kingdom of
Italy, NapleSr though second to others in population and industry, occupies the
largest area.* It embraces the whole southern half of the peninsula, and its coast
has a development of 995 miles. Formerly the country was better known than
any other portion of Italy as Greater Greece, but now many parts of it ate
scarcely known at all.

The Apennines of Naples can hardly be* described as a mountain chain. They
consist rather of distinct mountain groups joined by transverse ranges, or by
elevated saddles. In the first of these groups the serrated crest of the Meta
(7,364 feet) rises above the zone of trees, and is separated from the Abruzzos hy
the deep vaUey of the Sangro, which flows to the Adriatic. Farther to the south,
beyond the valley of Isemia, which gives birth to the Yoltumo, rise the mountains of
the Matese, culminating in the Miletto (6,717 feet), the last bulwark of the Samnites.
Other summits, less elevated, but equally steep and imposing, rise near Benevento
and Avellina. They aboimd in savage defiles, in which many a bloody battle has
been fought. The valley of the " FurosB Caudinee," where the Romans humbled
themselves before the Samnites, and made promises which they never meant to
keep, may still be recognised on the road from Naples to Benevento. The memory
of this event lives in the Oaudarola Boad, and the village of Forchia d' Arpaia. This
mountain region, which might fitly be called after its ancient inhabitants, is con-
nected in the south with a transveraal chain, running east and west, and termi-
nating in Oape Campandlo, to the south of the Bay of Naples. The beautiful
island of Capri, with its white olifis and caverns flooded by the azure water i of
the Mediterranean, lies off this cape.

The eastern slope of the cretaceous mountains of Naples is gentle, and gradually
merges in argillous tacoglieri, or table-lands, deposited during the Pliocene
epoch. The tavogliere de la Pugiia is, perhaps, the most sterile and dreary
portion of Italy. It is cut up into terraces by deep ravines, through which
insignificant streams find their way to the Adriatic, and the centres of population
must be looked for at the mouths of valleys or along the high-roads. The country
itself is a vast solitude, deserted by all except nomad herdsmen^ There are no
shrubs, and a kind of fennel, which forms the hedges separating the pasturing
grounds, is the largest plant tc be seen. Hovels, resembling tombs or hei^ of
stone, rise ^ ;re and there in the midst of these pb'jns. Fortunately the old feudal
customs which prevented the cultivation of theiie puins, and compelled the moun-
taineers to keep open wide paths, or iratturi, tiirough their fields for the passage
of sheep, have been abolished, and the aspect of the tavogliere improves from year
to year.

These tavoglieri completely separate the mountains of the peninsula of Gargano
— the " spur " of the Italian " boot " — from the system of the Apennines. The
northern slopes of these rug^;ed mountains are still clad with forests of beeches
* Ares, axolnaive of th* AbriuuM, 38,002 iquare miles ; population, 6,251,7A0.

80UTHEBN ITALY, NAPLES.

287

todem kingdom of
istry, occupies the
Dsula, and its coast
letter known than
vy parts of it ate

tain obain. Tbey
jrso ranges, or by
crest of the Meta
I the Abruzzos by
irther to the south,
Lse the mountains of
irk of the Stamnites.
ise near Benevento
I bloody battle has
) Romans humbled
ey never meant to
rento. The memory
lia d'Arpaia. This
inhabitants, is con-
id west, and termi-
tes. The beautiful
the azure water i of

«ntle, and gradually
iring the Pliocene
sterile and dreary
les, through which
ntres of population
roads. The country
len. There are no
ating the pasturing
' tombs or heiqw of
lately the old feudal
[impelled the moun-
elds for the passage
improves from year

leninsula of Gargano
he Apennines. The
h forests of beeches

in, «,2A1,7S0.

and pines, which supply the best pitch of Italy, and by thickets of carob-trees and
other plants, whose flowers are transformed by the bees into delicious honey ; but
the very name of the most elevated summit — Monte Oalvo (5,150 feet), or " bald
mountain " — proves that the deplorable destruction of forests has been going on
here as in the rest of the peninsula. In former times the recesses of Monte
Gargano wer-: Lcld by Saracen pirates, and they defied the Christians there for a
long time, iu ^-pue of the many sanctuaries which had been substituted for the
ancient heathen temples. The most famous of these was the church on Monte
Sant' Angelo, at the back of Manfredonia, which was frequently resorted to by the
navigator about to leave the shelter of the bay for the dangerous coasts of Dalmatia
or the open sea.

Fig. lOA. — HoMTB Oaboaho.

iyg./t£fc

lOMflM.

The Neapolitan Apennines terminate in the south with tbe ancient volcano of
Monte Tultur (4,356 feet). Farther south the country gradually sinks down
into a table-land intersected by deep ravines, which discharge their waters in three
directions — towards the Bay of Salerno, the Bay of Taranto, and the Adriatic.
The Apennines, far fkt>m bifurcating, as shown on old maps, are cut in two by
the low saddle of Potenza, and on the peninsula forming the " heel " of Italy only
low ridges and terraces are met with.

The peninsula of Oalabria, however, is rugged and mountainous. The Apen-
nines, near Lagonegro, again rise above the zone of forests. Monte Polino
(7,656 feet) is the highest summit in Naples. The group of which it forms the

W ^Uw«.i li ia»Ul»yttJ i ai lll lMJ.^>JM"^ ? ^w: '' ' ' -'■ ■ »■■ -j^tl-IMWJ^iJiBlk.Wi.f-JiitMJi.u'iMAlllV'SMIWi^

•itmmflitt

288

ITALY.

centre occupies the entire width of the peninsula, and along its western coast it
forms a wall of cliffs even less accessible than those of Liguria. Towards
the south it opens out into wooded valleys, where the inhabitants collect manna,
an esteemed medicinal drug. The deep valley of the Grati separates these
mountains from the Sila (5,863 feet), which is composed of granites and schists,
and still retains its ancient forests, haunted by brigands. The shepherds who
pasture their flocks in tLe clearings of these woods are said to be the descendants
of the Saracens, who formerly occupied this " Country of Rosin," by which name
it was known to the Greeks.

To the south of the isolated Sila the peninsula narrows to a neck of small
elevation, where raised beaches attest the successive retreats of the sea. A
third mountain mass, of crystalline formation, rises to the south of this depres-
sion, its furrowed slopes clad in forests. This is the Aspromonte (6,263 feet), or
" rugged mountain." One of its spurs forms the palm>clad promontory of Sparti-
vento, or " parting of the winds."

Naples, like Latium, has its volcanic mountains, which form two irregular ranges,
one on the continent, the other in the Tyrrhenian Sea, and are, perhaps, connected
beneath the sea with the volcanic mountains of the Lipario Islands and Mount
Etna. One of these is Mount Yesuvius, the most famous volcano of the world, not
because of its height or the terror of its eruptions, but because its history is that
of an entire population who have made its lavas their home.

Scarcely have we left the d'^file of Oaeta and entered upon the paradisiacal
Tfrra di Lavoro than we cc " ^.fon the first volcano, the Rocca Monfina (3,300
feet), which rises between two calcareous mountains, one of which is the Massico,
whose wines have been sung by Horace. No eruption of this volcano is on
record, and a village now occupies its shattered crater. To judge from the
streams of lava which surround its trachytic cone, its eruptions must have
been formidable. The entire Campania is covered to an unascertained depth
with ashes ejected from it, and the marine shells found in them prove that the
whole of this regpion must have been upheaved at a comparatively recent
epoch.

The hills which rise to the south of the Campania cannot boast of the grandeur
of the Rocca Monfina, but they have been looked upon from the most remote
times as one of the great curiosities of our earth. Standing upon the com-
manding height of the Camaldoli (518 feet), the Fhlegrean Fields lie at our
feet. Acquainted as we now are with the far more formidable volcanoes of Java
and the Andes, this verdant sea-bound country may not strike us as a region of
horrors. But our Greco- Roman pn 'ecessors looked upon it with very different
eyes, and being unable to account for the phenomena they witnessed, they
ascribed them to the gods. The quaking soil, the flames bursting forth firom
hidden furnaces, the gaping funnels communicating with unexplored caverns, lakes
which disappeared at irregular intervals, and others exhaling deadly gases — all
these things left their impress upon ancient mythology and poetry. At the time
of Strabo the shores of the Bay of Raise had become the favourite reeort of

■•m

■ ' . ' . '( ,." !i !w » a »

^^W-^^'m^^:::MP ? ^: ' tm^^&sk.M^im

^^i^M^M^mSKKSSSS^

mt I .m iii i ii i iiii w iiij i |iii ii JH I »' iw ' . ; "^ ■ I" 1 .1 II "II '.f :i"rS^BP?S

tB western coast it
liiguria. Towards
mts collect manna,
iti separates these
'anites and scliists,
'he shepherds who
he the descendants
by which name

to a neck of small
ts of the sea. A
uth of this depres-
>nte (6,263 feet), or
>montory of Sparti-

wo irregular ranges,
perhaps, connected
[slands and Mount
10 of the world, not
B its history is that

ion the paradisiacal
Ksca Monfina (3,300
hich is the Massico,
this volcano is on
ro judge from the
uptions must have
unascertained depth
ihem prove that the
omparatively recent

toast of the grandeur
>m the most remote
ing upon the com-
{a Fields lie at our
ble volcanoes of Java
ike us as a region of
t with very different
hey witnessed, they
bursting forth from
cplored caverns, lakes
ag deadly gases — all
poetry. At the time
e favourite resort of

" ■ i m 'immmmm'mi^mmiifmmmmmmmrmmm'mmm^i'i^m'fmr-

-r

80UTHEBN ITALY. NAPLES. IM

voluptoaries, and ■umptuou* villas roae upon every promontorj ; but the terrori
inspired by hidden flames and mysterious caverns had not yet departed. A
dreaded oracle was said to have iti nni there, guarded by Cimmrrians, to whom
strangers desirous of consulting tho gods had to apply. These troglodytse were
doomed never to behold the sun, and only quitted their caverns during the night.

Fig. 106.— Tri Aihis or thi Campania.
Aooordlnf to Car Va|t. Bode 1 : 8Hk,400.

tCmpri

IBBl

CZH^JmL?

SSSlTiwibytM
10

The Phlegrean Fields were likewise supposed to have been the battle-ground of
giants struggling for the possession of the fertile plains of the Oampania. During
the Middle Ages Fozzuoli was looked upon as the spot from which Christ descended
into helL

The number of craters still distinguishable is twenty. If we were to suppose

ITALY.

the jountry to be deprived of its vegetation, its aspect would resemble that of thn
surface of the moon. Even the city of Naples occupies an ancient crater, tho
contours of which have become almost obliterated. To the went of it several old
craters can still be traced, one of them occupying a promontory of tufa, surmounted
by what is called the tomb of Virgil. Passing through the famous grotto of
Posilipo, we find ourselves in the Phlegrean Fields. On our left rises the small
conical island of Nisita, its ancient crater invaded by the sea. Farther on wo
reach the crater known as the Solfatara, the Forum Vuloani of the ancients. Its
last eruption took place in 1198, but it still exhales sulphuretted hydrogen, '''he
Park of Astroni lies to the north. The interior slope of its enclosing wall is exceed-
ingly steep, so as to render impossible the escape of the deer and boars which
are kept within. The only access is through an artificial breach. Another crater,
less regular in shape, is now filled with the bubbling waters of the Lake of
Ag^ano. Near it is the famous Qrotto of Dogs, with its spring of carbonic acid.
Other springs of gas and sulphurous water rise in the neighbourhood, and to
them Pozzuoli is indebted for its name, which is >aid to mean the " town of
stinkfl." The town, in turn, has given its name to the earth known as pozzuolana,
which supplies an excellent material for the manufacture of cement.

The coast of Pozzuoli has undergone repeated upheavals and subsidences, in
proof of which the three columns of the temple of Serapis are usually referred to.
At a time anterior to the Romans this temple, together with the beach upon which
it stands, sank beneath the waters of the sea, and its columns must have been exposed
to their action for many years, perhap<« centuries, for up to a height of twenty
feet they are covered with tubes of serpulsB, and perforated by innumerable holes
bored by pholadidse. In the course of time it rose again slowly above the waters.
This happened, perhaps, in 1538, when the Monte Nuovo sprang into existence. In
the short period of four days this new volcano, 490 feet in height, rose above the
surrounding plain, and buried the village of Tripergola beneath its ashes. A beach
now known as La Starza was formed at the foot of the cliffs, and two sheets of
water to the west of Monte Nuovo were out off from the sea. One of these, the Lago
Lucrino, is famous for its oysters ; the other is the Lago d'Avemo, which Yirgil, in
conformity with antique legends, described as the entrance to the infernal regions.
It occupies an ancient crater, and its pellucid waters abound in fish. There are no
exhalations of poisonous gases now, and birds fly over the lake with impunity. Still
its vicinity is haunted by the memories of the old pagan mythology. Lake Fusaro
is referred to by the ciceroni as the Acheron ; close to it they point out the den of
Cerberus ; the sluggish stream of Acqua Morta has been identified with the Cocytus ;
Lake Lucrino, or rather a spring near it, with the Styx ; and the remains of a sub-
terranean passage which connected the Averno with the sea are pointed out as the
whilom grotto of the Sibyl. The inhabitants of Ounue, which was founded by a
colony from Chalcis, and the ruins of which still exist on the Mediterranean coast,
to the east of Pozzuoli, brought with them the myths of Hellas, and Grecian poetry,
which took possession of them, has kept their memory alive.

It is quite proper that this region of Tartarus should have its contrast in Elysian

; ' '.v.'m"

- ' fesMMM.-

.fe.^a&w.ajgiy.,j,.

■enible that of thn
inoient crater, tbtj
it of it several old
f tufa, turmounted

famous grotto of
,efb rises the small
L Farther on wo

the ancients. Its
id hydrogen, '''he
ing wall is exceed-
■ and boars which
1. Another crater,
ri of the Lake of
g of carbonic acid,
ibourhood, and to
ean the " town of
own as pozzuolana,
lent.

uid subsidences, in
usually referred to.

beach upon which
ihave been exposed

height of twenty

innumerable holes
f above the waters,
into existence. In
^ht, rose above the
its ashes. A beach

and two sheets of
e of these, the Lago
10, which Virgil, in
lie infernal regions.
Ssh. There are no
ith impunity. Still
logy. Lake Fusaro
)oint out the den of
d with the Gocytus ;
le remains of a sub-
i pointed out as the
1 was founded by a
[editerranean coast,
ind Grecian poetry,

contrast in Elysian

SOUTHERN ITALY, NAPLES.

Fields, and this name has actually been bestowed upon a portion of the peninsula
of BaisD, wl^ioh formed the chief attraction of the voluptuous Romans, and where
Mariufl, Pompey, CoDsar, Augustus, Tiberius, Claudius, Agrippina, Noro, and
others bad their palaces. Many a fearful tragedy has been anacted in these
sumptuous buildings. But hardly a trace of them exists now ; nature has
resumed possession of the country, and the hills of tufa and volcanoes are the
only curiosities of the peninsula. Cupe Miseno is one of these old volcanoes, and
from its summit may be enjoyed one of the most delightful prospects in the world.
The whole of the Bay of Naples — "a bit of heaven fallen upon r,ur earth "—lies
spread out beneath us, and Isohia the joyous, formidable Cupri, the promontory of
Sorrento, Mount Vesuvius, and the houses and villas of Naples fill up the space
bounded by the sea and the distant Apennines.

The island of Procida joins the Phlegrean Fields to the chain of island volcanoes
lying off the Bay of Qaeta. Ischia is the most important of these, and its volcano,
the Epomeo (2,520 feet), almost rivals Mount Vesuvius in height. One of its
most formidable eruptions occurred in 1302, at a time when Mount Vesuvius
was quiescent, but after the latter resumed its activity Isohia remained in
repose. Similarly, when the Monte Nuovo was ejected from the earth, the huge
volcano went to sleep for no less a period than one hundred and thirty years.
Isohia Las known no eruption for five centuries and a half, and the gases escaping
from its thirty or forty hot springs are now the only signs of volcanic activity.

Isohia has certainly been upheaved during a comparatively recent epoch, for
its traohytic lavas re8t in many places upon clays and marls containing marine
shells of living Mediterranean species. Some of these have beep found at a height
of nearly 2,000 feet. At the present time the tufa rocks of Ischia, and of the other
volcanic islands to the west of it, are being washed away by the sea. Ventotene,
the ancient Pandaturia, to which the Roman princesses were exiled, is hardly
more now than a heap of scorisD. Ponza, likewise a place of exile of the Romans,
has been separated by the erosive action of the sea into a number of smaller
islands. Its lavas overlie Jurassic rooks, similar in all respects to those of Monte
Giroello on the coast nearest to it.

Mount Vesusius (4,100 feat), the pride and dread of the Neapolitans, was like-
wise an island during prehistoric times. The marine shells found in the tufa of
Monte Somma prove this, and on the east the volcano is still surrounded by plains
but little elevated above the sea. Formerly the mountain was covered with
verdure to its very summit, but an immense explosion shattered its cone, and the
ashes thrown up into the air shrouded the whole of the country in darkness.
Even at Rome the sun was hidden, and an age of darkness was believed to have
set in. When at length the light reappeared, the face of the country was found
to have undergone a marvellous change. The mountain had lost its shape, the
fertile fields were hidden by masses of debris, and entire towns had been buried
beneath ashes.

Since that terrible event Mount Vesuvius has vomited lavas and ashes on many
oocasionB. No periodicity has been traced in these outbursts, and the intervals

f.'i^^S^KI^^ist^".

292

iTATiY.

of ropoM woro generally of suffioient duration to enable Tegetation to retume ita
■way. But these eruptions hav(« become more iVequent since the seventeenth
century, and hardly a decode passes by without one or more if them. Each of them
modifies the contours of the mountain, whose grea^ <'.> 't>*: vent has undergone
many changes. The orescent-shaped mass of debrib -'.'r}- ' -rrrundn the old
crater, known as the Atrio del Cavallo, waa undou ;wdly of loftier height
previously to the great outburst of 79 than it is now. The vioinitj of Naples has
facilitated u study of the phenomena attending volcanic eruptions, and an
observatory, permanently occupied, has been built close to the cone of eruption.

The neighbourhood of Mount Vesuvius, like that of all other volcanoes, abounds
in hot and gas springs, but there are no subsidiary craters. The nearest volcano

Fig. 107 — EHumoN or Hovnt Visutivs, Arsii. 30t«, I87S.

' , ■ 14.

■

^5:

-■**?S|aa!«? . ' .

i>^ ,. -^fc^*

1
1

is Monte Yultur (4,356 feet), a regular cone on the eastern slope of the peninsula.
Its dimensions are larger than those of Vesuvius, but no eruptions are on record,
though a slight escape of carbonic acid is still going on from the two lakes which
occupy the bottom of its yast crater. On a line connecting Ischia, Vesuvius, and
Monte VuUur, and about half-way between the two latter, we meet with the most
abundant carbonic acid spring of Italy. The gas escapes with a hissing noise
from the pond of Ansanto, and the ground around the spring is covered with the
remains of insects, killed in myriads on coming within the influence of the
poisonous air. Near it the Romans erected a temple in honour of Juno the
Hephitio.

The disastera resulting firom yoloanio eruptions are great, no doubt, but they

■ ...u-iiJ.jiL-;.u...

^^m^mm

80UTHEBN ITAI.T, NAPLES.

n to retume its
the •Aventeenth
. Each of them

has undergone
r unrln the old

loftier hoight
:j of Naplea hoa
ptions, and an
e of emption.
loanoee, abounds

neareat volcano

of the peninrala.
as are on record,

two lakea which
ia, YeauyiuB, and
Bet with the moat
I a hiaaing noise

covered with the
influence of the
our of Julio the

» doubt, but they

are exceeded by thoae caused by earthquakea. Some of thflno are unquestion-
ably caused by a aubterranean displacement of lava, and thus, when Vesuviua
begins to stir, Torre del Oreco and other towns u' ts foot incur the risk
of being buried beneath aahea or deatroyed by earthquakes. But the Busili>
oata and Calabria — that is to say, the two provinces lying between the vol-
oanic foci of Vesuviua and Etna — have many times been shaken by earthquakea
whose origin cannot be traced to volcanic agenoiea. Out of a thouHand earth*
quakea recorded in Southern Italy during the last three centuries, nearly all
occurred in the provinces named, and they were occasionally attended by the most
disastrous results. The earthquake of 1857 cost the Hvcm of 10,000 persons at
Potenca and its vicinity, but the moat diaastrous of these events happened in 1785
in Southern Calabria. The first shook, which proceeded from a focus beneath th«
town of Oppido, in the Aspromonte Mountains, only lasted a hundred seconds, but
within that short apace of time 109 towns and villages were overthrown, and
32,000 of their inhabitanta buried beneath their ruins. Crevasses opened in the
ground ; rivers were awallowed up, to reappear again lower down as lakes ; liquid
clay flowed down the hill-slopes like lava, converting fertile fields into unproductive
wastes. The commotion of the sea added to these horrors. Many of the inha-
bitants of Scilla, aAraid to remain on the quaking land, fled to their boats, when on
enormous mass of rook detached itself f^m a neighbouring mountain, and,
tumbling into the sea, produced a wave which upset the boats and cast their
fragments upon the shore. Want of food brought on famine, and typhus, as
usual, came in its train.

We are not yet able to predict earthquakes, and can only pro/ide against them
by a suitable construction of our dwellings. There exists, however, another cause
of misery and depopulation which the Neapolitans might successfully combat,
as was done by their ancestors. In the time of the Greeks the swamps along
the coast were certainly less extensive than they are now. War, and a return
towards barbarism, have caused the rivers to be neglected, and to produce a
deterioration in the climate. Baia, a place once famous on account of its healthi-
ness, has become the home of malaria. Sybaris, the town of luxury and pleasure,
has been supplanted by a fever-plain " which eats more men than it is able to
nourish." These paludial miasmata, poverty, and ignorance decimate the popu-
lation of the Puglia, Basilicata, and Calabria. Even certain Asiatic diseases, such
as elephantiasis and leprosy, ravage the country, which, from its rare fertility
and fine climate, ought to be in the enjoyment of the greatest prosperity.

Continental Sicily is indeed a favoured region, and its eastern slopes more
especially might be converted into one liuge garden, for the rainfall there is
abundant. Naples enjoys a semi-tropical climate, and its winter temperature is
hardly inferior to the annual mean of London. Snow very rarely falls, and only
remains on the tops of the hills for a few weeks.* The vegetation along the coast
is of tropical luxuriance. Oranges and lemons bear excellent fruit ; date-palms
uplift their fan-shaped leaves, and sometimes bear fruit ; the American agave
* Mesn snnnal temptntnre of Nsplei, 62* F. ; estnnns, 33* and 104* ; ninfidl, 87 inohM.

JBfl^'S;^-''

-smmemmiimim

fiM

ITALY.

stretches forth its candalabra-like branches; sugar-cane, cotton, and other industrial
plants, which elsewhere in Europe are scarcely ever met with outside hothouses,
grow in the fields. In the forests of Calabria the olive-tree affords as much shade
as does the beech with us. Even the bare rocks on the coast yield excellent
grapes and garden fruits. Naples, Sicily, Andalusia, and certain districts of
Greece and Asia Minor realise our beau id6al of the sub-tropical zone, and only
the heaths on the Adriatic slope and the upper valleys of the Apennines remind
us that we are still in Central Europe.

This delightful country is inhabited V^ a people haviag the most diverse
origin. It is now 2,300 years since the Samnites occupied the whole of it
from sea to sea. They were more numerous than the Bomans, and might have
conquered the whole of Italy had there been more cohesion amongst them, and
some of that talent for organization which constituted the strength of their
adversaries. But they were split into five tribes, each speaking a di£Perent
dialect ; and whilst the Samnites of the hills quarrelled with their kinsmen in the
plains, the latter were at enmity with the Hellenized Samnites who lived near
the Greek towns on the coast.

The whole of the coast of Southern Italy, &om Cumsa — founded more than a
thousand years before our era — to Sipuntum, of which some ruins remain near the
modern Manfredonia, was dotted with Greek colonies. In these districts of
Southern Italy the bulk of the population is of very different wigin from that
of other parts of the peninsula. To the north of Monte Gargano, Celtic,
Etruscan, and Latin elements preponderate, whilst Hellenes, Pelasgians, and
kindred races dominate in the south. Not only did civilised Greeks found their
colonies there, but the aboriginal population, the lapygians, spoke a dialect akin
to the Hellenic, and Mommsen may be right when he conjectures that these
lapygians were of the same origin as the modem Albanians.

At a subsequent date these southern Italians had to bow down before the
Romans, who founded military colonies amongst them, but never succeeded in
completely Latinising them. When the Boman Empire fell to pieces the Caesars
of Byzantium still maintained themselves for a longtime in Southern Italy, and the
Greek language again preponderated, but gradually Bomance dialects gained the
upper hand. The inhabitants returned to a state of barbarism, but they retained
to a great extent their language and customs, and even now there are districts in
the south which are Italian in appearance rather than in reality, and in eight
villages of the Terra d'Otranto the Hellenic dialect of the Peloponnesus is still
spoken. Towns like Naples, Nicastro, Tarento, Gallipoli, Monopoli, and others,
whilst preserving their sonorous Greek names, have also retained many features
which recall the times of Major Greece.

Beggio — that is, the " city of the strait " — appears to have retained the use of
Greek much longer than any other town, and its patricians, who boasted of being
pure lonians, still spoke the language of their ancestors towards the close of the
thirteenth century. In several remote towns of the interior Greek was formerly
in common use. The old popular songs of Bovfi, a small town near the southem

■^T"

80TJTHEEN ITALY, NAPLES.

296

other industrial
tside hotbooses,
8 as much shade

yield excellent
;ain districts of

zone, and only
)ennine8 remind

;he moet diverse
;he whole of it
and might have
ongst them, and
rength of their
cing a different
r kinsmen in the
who lived near

led more than a
remain near the
lese districts of
origin from that
Gargano, Celtic,
Pelasgians, and
eeks found their
ke a dialect akin
ctures that these

down hef ore the
ver succeeded in
pieces the Caesars
)m Italy, and the
alects gained the
rat they retained
re are districts in
ity, and in eight
oponnesus is still
)poli, and others,
ed many features

Btained the use of
hoasted of being
is the close of the
reek was formerly
near the southem

extremity of Italy, are in an Ionian dialect more like the language of Xenophon
than is modem Greek. Down to a very recent date the peasants near ] )ccaforte del
Greco, Condofuri, and Cardeto spoke Greek, and when they appeared before a magis-
trate they required an interpreter. At the present day all young people speak
Italian ; the old language has been forgotten, but the Greek type remains. The
men and women of Cardeto are famous for their beauty, more especially the latter.
" They are Minervas," we are told by a local historian. Their principal livelihood
consists in acting as wet nurses to the children of the citizens of Heggio. The
women of Bagnara, between Scilla and Palmi, are likewise of wondrous beauty,
but theii features are stern, betraying Arab blood, and they are destitute of the
noble placidity of the Greek.

It is said that the women of the Hellenic villages of Calabria are still in the
habit of executing a sacred dance, which lasts for hours, and resembles the repre-
sentations we meet with on ancient vases, only they dance before the church
instead of the temple, and their ceremonies are blessed by Christian priests.
Funerals are accompanied by weeping women, who collect their tears in lachry-
matories. Elsewhere, as in the environs of Tarento, the children consecrate the
hair of their head to the -manes of their ancestors. Old morals, no less than old
customs, have been preserved. Woman is still looked upon as an inferior being,
and even at Beggio the wives of citizens or noblemen who respect ancient
tradition confine themselves to the gynseoeum. l^ey do not visit the theatre, go
out but rarely, and when they walk abroad are attended by barefooted servants,
and not by their husbands.

In addition to Samnites, lapygians, and Greeks, who form the bulk of the
population of Southem Italy, we meet with Etruscans in the Campania ; Saracens
in the peninsula of Gargano, in the Campania, the marina of Beggio, Bagnara,
and other coast towns ; Lombards in Benevento, who retained their language down
to the eleventh century ; Normans, from whom the shepherds on the hills are
supposed to be descended ; and Spaniards in several coast towns, especially at
Barletta, in Apulia. The Albanians have probably furnished the largest contingent
of all the strangers now domiciled in Southem Italy. They are numerous on the
whole of the eastern slope of the peninsula, iTrom the promontory of Gargano to
the southernmost point of Calabria. One of their clans came to Italy in 1440,
but the bulk of them only arrive<'T during the second half of the fifteenth century,
after the heroic resistance made by Scanderbeg had been overcome by the Turks.
The conquered Skipetars were then compelled to expatriate themselves in order to
escape the yoke of the Turks, and they were received with open arms by the Kings
of Naples, who granted them several deserted villages, which are now amongst
the most flourishing of Southem Italy. The descendants of these Skipetars, who
are principally domiciled in the Basilicata and Calabria, rank among the most
useful citizens of the country. They take the lead in the intellectual regenera-
tion of the old kingdom of Naples, and were the first to join the liberating army
of GaribaldL Many have become Italianised, but there are still over 80,000 who
have neither forgotten their origin nor their language.

ffeaftw

* ^*i-iM[

296

ITALY.

The Neapolitans are undoubtedly one of the ^nest races of Europe. The
Calabrians, the mountaineers of Moliso, and the peasants of the Basilicata are so
well proportioned, erect, supple of limb, and agile, that their low stature, as com-
pared with the races of the North, can hardlj be a subject of reproach ; and the
nobility and expression of the faces of Neapolitan women fully compensate for
the irregularity we frequently meet with. The faces of the children, with their
large black eyes and well>formed lips, beam with intelligence, but the wretched
existence to which too many of them are condemned soon degrades their physiog-
nomy. Supremely ignorant, the Neapolitan is, nevertheless, most admirably gifted
by nature. The country which has produced so many great men since the days
of Pythagoras is in nowise inferior to any other ; its philosophers, historians, and
lawyers have exercised a powerful influence upon the march of human thought ;
and the number of great musicians which it has produced is proportionately large.

Still, in many respects, the inhabitants of Southern Italy hold the lowest
rank amongst the nations of Europe. Ever since the annihilation of the Greek
republican cities the country has been subjected to foreign masters, who have either
devastated it or systematically oppressed its inhabitants. With the exception of
Amalfi, no other town was granted the privilege of governing itself for any
length of time. The very position of the country exposed it to dangers. Placed
in the centre of the Mediterranean, it was on the high-road of every pirate or
invader, whether Saracen or Norman, Spaniard or Frenchman, and the absence
of any natural cohesion between its various districts prevented its population from
organizing a united resistance against the attacks of foreign invaders. Southern
Italy has not the river basins of Lombardy, Tuscany, Umbria, or Rome ; there
exists no centre of gravity, so to say, and the country is split up into s^Mirate
sections having nothing in common.

The government under which the Neapolitans lived until quite recently was
most humiliating. " I do not require my people to think," said King Ferdi-
nand II. of Naples. Ideas which did not commend themselves to the authorities
were punished as crimes, and only mendicity and moral depravity were allowed
to flourish. Science was compelled to live in retirement ; history to seek a refuge
in the catacombs of archsDology ; and literature was corrupt or frivolous. Of the
Neapolitans who did not expatriate themselves only a very small number became
eminent. Schools were hardly known outside the large towns, and where they did
exist thoy were placed under the su^ .'vision of the police. Men able to read and
write were looked at askance, and, '■'j escape being accused of belongiD.g to some secret
society, they were compelled to turn hypocrites. Old superstitions exist in full force,
and the heathen hallucinations of Greeks and lapygians still survive. The idola-
trous Neapolitan casts himself down before the statue of St. Januarius, but heaps
imprecations upon the head of his saint if his miraculous blood does not quickly
liquefy. Similar superstitions exist in nearly ever/ town of Naples. Every one
of them has its patron saint or deity, who, if he should fail to protect his people,
is treated as a common enemy. As recently as 1858 the villagers of Calabria,
irritated by a drought* put their venerated saints into prison; and Barletta,

ZZ. ar.

SOUTHBEN ITALY, NAPLES.

297

Europe. The
^asilicata are so
stature, as com-
roach ; and the
compensate for
Iren, with their
ut the wretehed
3 their physiog-
idmirably gifted

since the days

historians, and
Luman thought ;
rtionately large,
hold the lowest
on of the Greek
who have either
the exception of
g itself for any
mgers. Placed

every pirate or
and the absence
population from
ders. Southern
or Borne ; there
up into s^Mirate

itite recently was
iid King Ferdi-
the authorities
ity were allowed

to seek a refuge
rivolouB. Of the
. number became
d where they did

able to read and
ii).g to some secret
exist in ^11 force,
ive. The idola-
larius, but heaps
does not quickly
pies. Every one
otect his people,
gers of Calabria,
i: and Barletta,

about the same period, had the melancholy honour of being the last town in
Europe in which Protestants were burned alive. Such is the fanaticism still met
with in the second half of the nineteenth century I *

Pig. 108.— EnucATioNAi, Map or Italy.

R'WTf,,^; ^ (HUNGARY

KM p.

CZ]

3<L&op«.

S0.70PA

70.80 p«.

So^go ju.

J0.IOOpA

Bwihierland, Aiii,I»>re. Contoa, ^ 4,^"5**!,i

Doutw, BaMtandHsntn Alpes Miritimea, CrMtia, Emilia,

Jun. Alpe^ Haute Saroie, Llgmia, Lomtnrdr, Vt netia, Harcfaes,

Var. Btyria, Carlnthla, Tnacsiir, Ca>.ipMua,

Hnngarjr, Piemont. Xlmbria. Baraitia.

Dalmatia, Cnmiola, BoRnia,
Abnizzoa, Apulia, AfHcii,
Calabria, Badlioata.

SioUy.
Latlum.

• In 1868 69 per cent, of the men and 88 per cent, of the wou:en married in the Campania, the moat
educated province of Naplee, were not ahle to sign their names. In the BaailicaU the proportions -wen
85 and 06 per cent. !

ITALY.

One of the great superstitions of the Neapolitans refers to the " evil eye."
The unfortunate heing who happens to have a nose like a battle-axe and large
round eyes is looked upon as aj'ettatore, and is avoided as a fatal being. If by
any evil chance his glance happens to fall upon any unfortunate person, it is con-
sidered necessary to counteract it by the influence of an amulet resembling the
/aacinum of the ancients, or by some other means no less potent. Coral amulets
are looked upon as most efficient, and many who pretend not to believe in
their virtues are the first to make use of them. The peasants of Calabria wear
an image of their patron saint upon the chest, and shield their cattle and houses by
means of the images of saints or household gods. At Reggio a cactus may be
seen near the door or on the balcony of every house, which has been placed
there to keep off evil influences, and is universally known as Valbero del maP occhio
(the tree of the evil eye).

Next to superstition, the great scourge of Southern Italy is brigandage. The
very name of Calabria conjures up in our imagination pictiiresque brigands armed
with carbines. Unfortunately this Calabrian brigand is no myth, invented to serve
the purposes of the stage. He really exists, and neither the severity of the laws
put in motion against him nor political changes have brought about his exter-
mination. On many occasions, after a successful hunt for brigands had been
carried on, the authorities felicitated themselves upon having rid the country of
this scourge, but it regularly revived.

In Sardinia and Corsica the peasant takes up arms from a desire for vengeance,
but in Calabria from poverty. Feudalism, though abolished in name, still
flourishes in that country. Nearly the whole of the soil belongs to a few great land-
owners, and the peasant, or cafore, is condemned to a life of ill-remunerated toU.
In years of plenty, when the rye, chestnuts, and wine suffice for the wants of bis
family, he works without grumbling, but in years of dearth brigandage flourishes.
The brigand, or gualano, looks upon the feudal ^^rd as the common enemy, steals his
cattle, sets fire to his hou^d, and e- takes him prisoner, releasing him only on
payment of a heavy ransom. Some of these bandits become veritable wild beasts,
thirsting after blood ; but, as long as they confine themselves to avenging wrongs,
they may count upon the complicity of all other peasants. The herdsmen of the
mountains supply them with milk and food, furnish them with information, and
mislead the oarabiniers sent in pursuit of them. All the poor are leagued in
their favour, and re^se to bear witness against them. Moreover, most of these
Neapolitan bandits, conscientious in their own way, are extremely pious. They
swear by the Virgin or some patron saint, to whom they promise a portion of their
booty, and religiously place the share promised upon the altar. Not content with
wearing amulets all over the body to turn aside bullets, they are said sometimes
to place a consecrated wafer in an incision they make in their hand, in the belief
that this will render deadly their own bullets.

The fearful poverty of the South Italian peasantry has led to another practice,
even worse than brigandage. Foreign speculators, Christians as well as Jews, travel
the country, and particularly the Basilicata, iiy order to purchase children, whom

SOUTHERN ITALY, NAPLES.

299

the " evil eye."
e-aze and large

being. If by
person, it is con-
resembling the

Coral amulets
ot to believe in
of Calabria wear
le and houses by
a cactus may be
has been placed
tro del map occhio

rigandage. The
I brigands armed
invented to serve
erity of the laws
about his exter-
igands had been
d the country of

re for vengeance,
in name, still
I a few great land-
remunerated toil,
the wants of his
indage flourishes,
enemy, steals his
sing him only on
[table wild beasts,
avenging wrongs,
herdsmen of the
information, and
r are leagued in
er, most of these
ely pious. They
a portion of their
Not content with
e said sometimes
and, in the belief

another practice,
rell as Jews, travel
le children, whom

their poverty-stricken parents are ready to part with for a trifle. The more intel-
ligent and prettier the child, the greater the likelihood of its passing into the
hands of these dealers in human flesh. The latter are threatened with the
penalties of the law, but custom and ignoble accomplices enable them to evade
them, and to carry their living merchandise to France, England, Germany, and
even America, where the children are converted into acrobats, street musicians,
or simple mendicants. The chances of this shameful commerce have been carefully
calculated, and the losses arising from deaths and the cost of travelling are more
than covered by the earnings of the children. Yigg^ano, a small town of the
Basilicata, is more especially haunted by these trafiiokers, for its inhabitants
possoss a natural g^ft for music.

Voluntary emigration is on the increase, and if it were not for the obstructions
placed in the way of young men liable to the conscription, certain districts would
become rapidly depopulated in favour of South America. Only the poorest peasants
remain behind. This emig^tion- influences in a larg^ measure the customs of the
country, and, conjointly with railways and factories, will no doubt bring about an
assimilation of Southern Italy to the rest of the peninsula. Brigandage and the
traffic in children will doubtless disappear, but the proletarianism of manufacturing
towns is likely to be substituted for them.

For the present Naples is almost exclusively an agricultural country. The
Tavolieri of Fuglia, and the hills which command them, remain for the most part
a pastoral country, but the greater portion of the productive area of Naples is
under cultivation. As in the time of the Romans, cereals, with oil and wine,
form the principal produce ; but, in addition to these, tobacco, cotton, madder, and
several otiiur plants used in manufactures, are grown. With some care these pro-
ducts might attain n rare degree of excellence. Even now the oil of the PugUa
competes successfully with that of Nice, and the wines grown on the scoriee of Mount
Vesuvius enjoy their ancient celebrity, the Falerno of Horace, grown in the
Phlegrean Fields, disputing the pre-eminence with the Laclrymse Christi of
Ve8uviut3 and the white wiue of Capri.

The agricultural products of Naples are almost exclusively derived from the coast
region, and commerce is principally carried on in coasting vessels. The interior is
sterile to a great extent, and there are no metalliferous veins to attract population.

Southern Italy has no natural centre, and, as its life has at all times been
eccentric and maritime, it is but natural that all the large towns should have
sprung up on the coast. Two thousand years ago, when Greece was a civilised
country and Western Europe sunk in barbarism, the most important towns lay
on the Ionian Sea facing the east. >But, when Rome became the mistress of the
world. Greater Greece was forced to face about, and Naples became the successor
of Sy baris and Tavent. This position of vantage it has retained even to the present
day, when Western Europe has become the focus of civilisation. The wave of
history has passed over the Tarent and Sybaris, and whilst the fine port of the
former is now deserted, the latter, at one time the largest city of all Italy, is
nothing but a heup of ruins.

;?«!(f??^;

8«'K)

ITALY.

Naples, the " new town " of the Cumeans, has for centuries been the most
populous town of Italy, and even now the number of its inhabitants is double
that of Home. In the days of Strabo Naples was a large town. Greeks who
had made money by teaching or oth( rwise, and who desired to end their diiyb in
peaceful repose, used to retire to that beautiful town, where Greek manners pre-
dominated, and the climate resembled that of their native country. Many Romans
followed this example, and Naples, together with the numerous smaller towns
dotting the shores of its magnificent bay, thus became a place of repose and
pleasure. At the present day it attracts men of leisure from every part of the
world, who revel in its beauties and enjoy the noisy gaiety of its inhabitants —
" masters in the art of shouting," as Alfieri called them. The prospect from the
heights of Capodimonte and the other hills surrounding the immense city is full
of beauty : promontories jut out into the blu6 waters, islands of the most varied
colours are scattered over the bay, shining towns strstch along the foot of ver-
dant hills, and vessels ride upon the waves. Looking inland, we behold the
grey summit of Vesuvius, which, lurid at night, and always threatening, imparts a
modicum of danger to the voluptuous picture.

The Neapolitans are indeed a happy people, if' such a term may be applied to any
fraction of mankind. They know how to enjoy the giiti^ of nature, and are conten. .
if need be, with very little. Naturally intelligent, they are equal to any enter
prise ; but, as they hate work, they soon give up what they have begim, and make
sport of their want of success. Travellers were formerly fond of describing that
ourious type, the lazzarone, the idle man of pleasure, who, enveloped in a rag, slept
on the beach or in the porr'u of a church, and disdained to work after he had
earned the pittance sufficing for his simple wants. There still remain a few repre-
sentatives of this type, but the material exigencies of our time have absorbed the
majority of those idle tatterdemalions, and converted them into labourers. Others
have succumbed to disease, for they knew nothing of sanitary laws, and dwelt in
damp cellars, or bam, beneath the palaces of the wealthy. Naples contributes her
fair share towards the industrial products of the peninsula. The principal articles
manufactured are macaroni and other farinaceous pastes, cloth, silks known as
gros df. Naples, glass, china, mvsical instruments, artificial flowers, ornaments,
and everything entering into the dail}' consumption of a large city. Its workers
iv. coral are famous for their skill ; and Sorrento, near Naples, supplies the muoh-
piised workboxes, jewel cases, and other articles carved in palm-wood. The ship-
yards of CasteUr^uare ('.i Stabia are more busy than any others in Italy, those of
Genoa and Spezii ttlone excepted The sailors of the bay are equal ft the Ligurians
in seamanship, nnd surpass them a,^ T.^hermen. , The inhabitants of Torre del Greco,
who engage in corul-fishing, are well acquainted with the submarine topography
of the coasts of Sardinia, Sicily, and Barbary, and the least movement of the air
or water reveals phenomena to them which remain hidden to all other eyes. They
own about 400 fishing-boats, which depart in a body, and their return after a suc-
cessful season presents a spectacle which even Italy but rarely afEords.*

• In 1878 there weie 363 fishiiig-bMta, and 90,000 Uw. of coral, valued at ^£92,000. were obtained.

been the most
itanta is double
a. Greeks who
d their dnyb iu
t manners pre-
Many Romans
9 smaller towns
I of repose and
irery part of the
ts inhabitants —
ospect from the
ense city is full
the most varied
the foot of ver-
, we behold the
ening, imparts a

)6 applied to any
and are content .
al to any enter
)egim, and make

describing that
>d in a rag, slept
rk after he had
aaina few repre-
ive absorbed the
bourers. Others
vs, and dwelt in
8 contributes her
principal articles

silks known as
vers, ornaments,
ty. Its workers
pplies the muct-
vood. The ship-
in Italy, those of
I f-i the Ligurians
' Torre del Greco,
arine topography
rement of the air
ther eyes. They
etum after a suc-
ords.*
00, were obtained.

.„_..-.^-. -A*

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*lir

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SOUTHERN ITALY, NAPLES.

801

Naples, with its magnificent bay, and the fertile tracts of the Campania and
the Terra di Lavoro n^ar it, could hardly fail to become a great commercial city,
and if it holds an inferior rank in that respect to Genoa, this is owing to its not
being placed upon a great high-road of international commerce. The country
depending upon it is of comparatively small extent ; only a single line of rails

Fig. 109.— PoMriii.
From the XeapoUtM Staff Map. Soale 1 : 8^000.

SHUw.

crosses the Apennines ; and travellers who follow the mountain road to Tarent are
not, even now, quite safe from brigands. The foreign commerce of the city is
carried on principally with England and France, and the coasting trade is
comparatively of great importance.*

The university is one of the glories of Naples. Founded in the first half of

* In 1864 10,694 Te^selg, of 1,496,600 tons burdea, entered and cleared the port of Naples ; in 1876
11,288 vessels, of 2,928,922 tons.

ITALY.*

the thirteenth century, it is one of the oldest of Ti<i.ly, hut has had its periods of
disgraceful decay. Up to a recent period, when archoiology and numismatics wero
the only sciences not suspected of revolutionary tendencies, it was a place of intbl-
luotual corruption, but its regeneration has been brought about with marvellous
rapidity. The young Neapolitans now study science w^th a zest sharpened by
abstinence ; and, if the rather gushing eloquence of the South could be trusted,
Naples has become the greatest seat of learning in the world. Thus much in
certain, that the 2,000 students of the university will give a great impulse to the
" march of ideas."

Naples possesses an admirable museum of autiquities, open to all the world,
and, more precious still, the ruins of Fozzuoli, fiaite, and Oumea, catacombs no less
interesting than are those of Rome ; and, above everything else, the Roman city of
Pompeii, which has been excavated from the ashes of Mount Vesuvius, beneath
which it lay buried for seventeen centuries. It is not merely a City of the Dead,
with its streets and tombs, temples, markets, and amphitheatres, which these
excavations have restored to us, but they have likewise given us an insight into
the life of a provincial Roman city. When we gaze upon inscriptions on walls
and waxed tablets, at work interrupted, at mummified corpses in the attitude
of flight, we almost feel as if we had been present at the catastrophe which
overwhelmed the town. No other buried city ever presented us with st> striking a
contrast between the tumult of life and the stillness of death. In spite of a hundred
years of excavation, only one-half of the city has yet been revealed to us. Hercu-
laneum is buried beneath a layer of lava sixty feet in thickness, upon which the
houses of Resina, Portici, and other suburbs of Naples have been built, and but
very few of its mysteries have been revealed to us. Of Stabia, which lies hidden
beneath the town of Gastellamare, close to the beach, we know hardly anything.

Numerous jjopulous towns cluster around Naples, rivalling it in beauty. To
the eolith, oo the shores of the bay, are Portici, Resina, Torre del Greco, Torre
deir Annuuziata, Gastellamare, and sweet Sorrento, with its delicious climate, its
delightful villas and olive groves. Off Cape Campanella, facing the volcanic
islands of Ischia and Procida, at the other oxtremity of the bay, rise the bold cliffs
of Capri, full of the mem i of hideous Tiberius, the Timberio of the natives.
Another bay opens to the south of that barren mass of limestone, its entrance
guarded by the islets of the Syrens, who sought in vain to cast their spell over
sage Ulysses. This bay is hardly inferior in beauty to that of Naples ; its shores
are equally fertile, but neither of the three cities, Peestum, Amalfi, or Salerno,
which successively gave a r<.ame to it, has retained its importance for any length of
time. Amalfi, the powerful commercial republic of the Middle Ages, whose code
was accepted "by all maritime nations, is almost deserted now, and only shelters a
few fishing-smacks within its rocky creek. In a delightful valley near it stands
the old Moorish city of Ravello, almost as rich as Palermo in architectural
monumenisi Salerno is much more favourably situated than Amalfi, for the road
of the Campania debouches upon it. The town is said to have been founded by a
son of Noah, and when the Normans occupied the country in the eleventh century

tad its periods of
luminnatics were
B a place of intbl-
with marvellous
Bst sharpened by
could be trusted,
. Thus much is
%t impulse to the

to all the world,
catacombs no less
bhe Roman city of
Vesuvius, beneath
City of the Dead,
tres, which these
IS an insight into
icriptions on walls
QB in the attitude
catastrophe which

with so striking a
spite of a hundred
led to us. Hercu-
18, upon which the
jen built, and but

which lies hidden
lardly anything,
it in beauty. To
) del Greco, Torre
ilicious climate, its
icing the volcanic

rise the bold cliffs
rio of the natives,
istone, its entrance
at their spell over
N'aples; its shores
Lmalfi, or Salerno,
30 for any length of
e Ages, whose code
md only shelters a
,lley near it stands
lO in architectural
Lmalfi, for the road

been founded by a
le eleventh century

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SOUTHERN ITALY, NAPLES.

808

they made it their capital. But its ancient splendours have gone. Its university,
at one time the representative of Arab science, and the most famous in Europe for
its medical faculty, has made no sign for ages, and Salerno has now no claim
whatever to the title of " Hippocratic town." It aspires, however, to rise into
importance through commerce and industry, and a breakwater and piers might
convert it into a formidable rival of Naples. The inhabitants are fond of repeating
a local proverb —

" When Salerno a port doth obtain
That of Naples will be inane."

Faestum, or Posidonio, the ancient mistress of the bay, stood to the south-east
of Salerno. It was founded by the Sybarites on the ruins of a more ancient town
of the Tyrrhenians. The Roman poets sang this " city of roses " on account of
its cool springs, shady walks, and mild climate. It was destroyed by the Saracens
in 915, and its ruins, though amongst the most interesting of all Italy, dating
as they do from a period anterior- to that of Rome, were known only to shepherds
and brigands up to the middle of last century. Its three temples, the most
important of which was dedicated to Neptune, or Poseidon, are amongst the most
imposing of continental Italy, their effect being heightened by the solitude which
surrounds them and the waves which wash their foundations. The traveller,
however, cannot afford to remain for any length of time within their vicinity, for
the site of the ruins is surrounded by marshes, the exhalations from which sadly
interfere with the excavations going on.

Numerous towns and villages are dotted over the champaign country separating
Mount Vesuvius from the foot-hills of the Apennines. Starting from Yietri, a
suburb of Salerno on the banks of a narrow ravine, we ascend to Cara, a favourite
summer retreat, abounding in shade-trees. Near it is a monastery famous
amongst antiquaries on account of its ancient parchments and diplomas. On
descending to the plain of the Samo we pass Nocera, a country residence of the
ancient Romans ; Pagani, still situated within the region of woods ; Angri, which
manufactures yams from cotton g^own in its environs'; and Scafati, more indus-
trious still. Near it may be seen the ruins of Pompeii, the town of Torre dell'
Annunziata, and, on the southern slope of Yesuvius, the houses of Bosco Tre Case
and Bosco Reale. There are savants who believe they can trace in the veins of
the inhabitants of Nocera and the neighbourhood the Arab and Berber blood of
the 20,000 Saracens who were settled here by the Emperor Frederick II.

The vaUey of the Samo, above Nocera, is densely peopled as far as the foot of
the Apennines, and another chain of villages extends northwards to the town of
Avellino, the fields of which are enclosed by hedges of filbert-trees {avellana in
Italian), and which is important on account of its intermediary position between
the mountains and the plain. The population, however, is densest in that portion
of the Campagna known as the ''Happy" (Felice), which extends between
Yesuvius and Mont« Yergine. Samo, named after the river, though far away
from it, abounds in cereals, vines, fruit, and vegetables, and manu&ctures cotton
stuffs and raw silk. Falma stands in the midst of fertile fields ; Ottajano, the

ITALY.

town of Ootaviua, on the lower slope of the Somma of Vesuvius, is famous for its
wines ; Nola, where Augustus died, and which gave birth to Giordano Bruno, has
fertile fields, but is better known through the fine Greek vases found in its ruins,
and on account of the remains of an amphitheatre built of marble, and of greater
size than that of Oapua.

Famous Capua, the ancient metropolis of the Campania, at one time the rival
of Rome, with half a million inhabitants dwelling within its walls, has been com>
pletely stripped of its former splendours. Its name is applied now to a sullen
fortress on the Yoltumo, the Casilinum of the Romans ; and Santa Maria, which is
the representative of the veritable Capua, offers no " delights " other than those of a
large village. In its environs, however, may still be seen the ruins of a fine amphi-
theatre, a triumphal arch, and other remains of a vast city. Caserta, the " town of
pleasure " of the modem Campania, lies farther to the south. It boasts of a large
palace, shady parks, and vast gardens ornamented with statues and fountains, and
was the Versailles of the Neapolitan Bourbons. An aqueduct supplies it with
water from a distance of twenty-five miles, and crosses the valley near Maddaloni
by means of a magnificent bridge, built about the middle of last century by Vanvi-
telli, and one of the ma'-terpieceb of modern architecture.

The great Roman highway bifurcates to the north of Capua and the Voltumo.
One branch turns towards the coast ; the other, along which a railway has been
built, skirts the volcano of Rocca Monfino, follows the valley of the Garigliano
and of its tributary the Sacco as far as the eastern foot of the volcano of Latium,
and then descends into the Campania of Rome. Historically the coast road is the
more famous of the two. It first passes close to Sessa, the ancient city of the
Auronci, whose acropolis stood in the crater of the Rocca Monfino. It then turns
towards the coast, and having crossed the Garigliano near its mouth, where it
is bounded by insalubrious marshes, it penetrates the defile of Mola di Gaeta,
o£Bcially called Formia, in memory of ancient Formise, where Cicero lived and
died. Travellers coming from Rome first look down from this spot upon the
beauties of the Campania, and see stretched out before them the Bay of Gaeta, with
the volcanic islands of Ponza, Ventotene, and Ischia in the distance. Gtaeta, a
fortress which guards this gateway to the Neapolitan paradise, is built on the
summit of Monte Orlando, occupying a small peninsula attached to the mainl^d
by an isthmus only 300 yards in width. The port of Ghteta is well sheltered
against westerly and northerly winds, and is much frequented by coasting vessels
and fishing-smacks ; but Gaeta itself is better known as a fortress. It was here
the kingdom of the two Sicilies was put an end to by the abdication of Francis n<
in 1861.

Towns of some importance are likewise met with on following the eastern road
from Naples to Rome. The most considerable amongst them is San Germano, the
name of which has recently been changed into Casino, in honour of the famous
monastery of that name occupying a terrace to the west of the town, and affording a
glorious prospect of hills and valleys. This monastery was founded in the sixth
century by St. Bennet, or Benedict, and its rules have been accepted throughout

8, ia famous for its
iordano Bruno, has
I found in its ruins,
\>le, and of greater

; one time the rival
Edis, has been com-
k1 now to a sullen
ata Maria, which is
ither than those of a
ins of a fine amphi-
[serta, the " town of
It boasts of a large
and fountains, and
Lct supplies it with
ley near Maddaloni
t century by Vanvi-

a and the Yoltumo.

a railway has been
y of the Qarigliano

volcano of Latium,
the coast road is the

ancient city of the
fino. It then turns
its mouth, where it

of Mola di Gaeta,
re Cicero lived and

this spot upon the
e Bay of Gaeta, with

distance. Gaeta, a
iise, is built on the
iied to the mainj^d
eta is well sheltered
i by coasting vessels
>rtre88. It was here
[cation of Francis !!•

iring the eastern road
is San Germane, the
liononr of the famous
town, and affording a
founded in the sixth
accepted throughout

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SOUTHEEN ITALY, NAPLES.

80S

the Eaatern Church. No body of men has ever exercised a greater influence upon
the history of Oatholioism than these Benedictine monks of Monte Oasino, At the
height of its power the order held vast estates throughout Italy, and many popes
and thousands of Ohurch dignitaries have been furnished from its ranks. The
library of Monte Oasino is one of the most valuable in Europe, and the services
formerly rendered to science by the Benedictines have saved this monastery from
disestablishment, a favour likewise extended to the monastery of La Cava and the
Charter-house of Pavia.

There are b^t few towns of importance in the mountain region of Naples.
Arpino, the ancient Arpinum, the birthplace of Cicero and Marius, with cydopean

Fig. 110.— Ths Mar8HR8 or Salpi.
Scale 1 : 2SS,0OO.

nil ifMt, in' p^V""'

. ————— 8 Miln.

walls built by Saturn, is the most populous place in the upper valley of the Liri,
to the south of the mountains of Mantese. Benevento occupies a central position
on the Galore, the principal tributary of the Volturno, and several roads diverge
from it. The ancient name of this place was Maleventum, but in spite of its change
of name the town has frequently suffered from sieges and earthquakes, and of all
the great edifices of its past there now remains only a fine triumphal arch erected
in honour of Trajan, llie city walls, nearly four miles in circumference, have for
the most part been constructed from the fragments of ancient monuments.

Ariano, to the east of Benevento, and also in the basin of the Yoltumo, is
built upon three hills commanding a magnificent prospect, extending from the

wmmm m^^ ^m m^'^

T >ifi& c t^^~iA <S" rtioT^wfiu' t.

806

ITALY.

often snow-clad Matese Mountaios to the cone of the Yultur. It lies on the nil-
road connecting Naples with Foggia and the Adriatic, and carries on a considerable
trade. Campobasso, the capital of Molise, is likewise an important commercial
intermediary, though still without a railway.

The commercial towns on the Adriatic slope of the Apennines are of greater
importance than those to the east. Foggia, on the Tavoglieri di Puglia, upon
which converge four railways and several high-roads, is a great mart for provisions,
and in importance and wealth, though not in population, is the second city of
Naples. Several smaller towns surround it like satellites, such as San Severo,
Cerignola, and Lucera, which became wealthy in the thirteenth century, when the
Saracens, exiled from Sicily by Frederick II., settled here. Foggia, however, and
its sister cities, in spite of the proximity of the Bay of Manfredonia, have no direct
outlet to the sea, for the coast for a distance of thirty miles, from Manfredonia to
the mouth of the Otranto, is fringed by insalubrious lagoons and marshes. The
reclamation of thetie is absolutely necessary to enable Southern Italy to develop
its great natural resources. The largest of these lagoons or marshes, that of
Salpi, has been reduced to the extent of one-half by the alluvium conveyed into it
by the rivers Carapella and Ofanto, but as long as the new land remains unculti-
vated deadly miasmata will not cease. At the eastern extremity of this marsh
stood the ancient city of Salapia.

At the extremity of the peninsula of the Gargano, to the north of these marshes,
are the harbours of Manfredonia and Yieste, very favourably situated for sailing
vessels compelled by stress of weather to put into port. The first harbour to the
south of the marshes is Barletta, near which is the " Field of Blood," recalling the
battle of Oannse. Barletta exports cereals, wines, oil, and fruit, partly grown on
the old feudal estates near the inland towns of Andria, Oorata, and Ruvo. The
latter, the ancient Rubi, has yielded a rich hardest of antiquities of every kind.
The other coast towns to the south-east of Barletta are — ^Trani, which carried on
a considerable Levant trade towards the dose of the Middle Ages; Bisceglia;
Molfetta ; Bari, the most populous town on the Adriatic slope of Naples ; and
Monopoli, all of which are much frequented by coasting vessels. Tasano, near
Monopoli, occupies the site of the ancient port of Gnatia, and, like Rubi, has
well repaid the search for archaeological remains.

Brindisi, at the northern extremity of the peninsula of Otranto, in the time
of the Romans and during the Orusades, was one of the great stations on the
route from Western Europe to the East, and is likely again to occupy that
position. It lies at the very entrance to the Adriatic. Its roadstead is excellent,
and its harbour one of the best on the Mediterranean. The entrance is narrow,
and was formerly choked up with the remains of wrecks and mud, but is now
practicable for steamers of the largest sice. The two arms of the harbour bear
some resemblance to the antlers of a stag, and to this circumstance the town is
indebted for its name, which is of Mesapian origin, and means " antler-shaped."
Brindisi has recently become the European terminus of the overland route to
India, and many new buildings have risen in honour of this event, which it

SOUTHERN ITALY, NAPLES.

807

It lies on the rail-
s on a considerable
K>rtant commercial

ines are of greater
ri di Puglia, upon
mart for provisions,
the second city of
loh as San Severe,
century, when the
ggia, however, and
}nia, have no direct
om Manfredonia to
and marshes. The
m Italy to develop
)r marshes, that of
im conveyed into it
id remains unculti-
mity of this marsh

th of these marshes,
situated for sailing
first harbour to the
Uood," recalling the
lit, partly grown on
i, and Ruvo. The
ities of every kind,
li, which carried on
ie Ages; Bisoeglia;
Dpe of Naples ; and
isels. Tasano, near
and, like Bubi, has

)traiito, in the time
reat stations on the
;ain to occupy that
adstead is excellent,
entrance is narrow,
Ld mud, but is now
of the harbour bear
Distance the town is
ms " antler-shaped."
le overland route to
bhis event, which it

was expected would convert the town into an emporium of Eastern trade. These
expectations have not been realised. Several thousand hurried travellers pasa
that way every year, but Marseilles, Genoa, and Trieste have lost none of their
importance as commercial ports in consequence. Moreover, v.'hen the Turkish
railways are completed, the position now held by Brindisi will most likoly be
transferred to Saloniki or Constantinople.*

Taranto, or Tarent, on the gulf of the same name, is making an effort, like
Brindisi, to revive its nncient commercial activity. Its harbour, the Piccolo Mare,
or " little sea," is deep and perfectly sheltered, and its roadstead, or Mare Qrande,
is fairly protected by two outlying islands against the surge. As at Spezia, springs

Fig. Ul.-Tui Harbouh or Brwdiu in 1871.
Soala 1 : 86,000.

— M— tf '»J3Att.

of fresh water, known as Oitro and Gitrello, rise from the bottom of the harbour
as well as in the roadstead. The geographical position of Tarent enables it suc-
cessfully to compete with Bari and the ether ports of the Adriatic for the com-
merce of inland towns like Matera, Oravina, and Altamura, and it appears to be
destined to become the g^reat emporium for the Ionian trade. No other town of
Italy offers equal facilities for the construction of a port, but the two channels, one
natural and the other artificial, which join the two " seas " have become choked,
and only small craft are now able to reach the harbour. Modem Tarent is a small
town, with narrow streets, built to the east of the Greek city of that name, on the

* In 1863 1,100 veaaeli, of 76,000 torn, eaterad and cleared at Brindiai; in 1875 1,342 ymuJB,
inotniive of 896 ■teamen, of 771,096 tons, in the foreign trade.

-2&..

806

ITALY.

'■■

limeitone rock bounded by the two channels. Its commerce has been slowly
increasing since the opening of tho railway, its industry being limited to fishing,
oyster-drodging, and the manufacture of. bay-salt; and tho Taranteso enjoy the
reputation of being the most indolent people in Italy. The heaps of shells on the
beach no longer supply the purple for which the town was formerly famous ; but
tho inhabitants still make use of the byssus of a bivalve in the manufacture of
very strong gloves.

The only towns of any importance in the peninsula stretching southwards
from Brindisi and Tarent are Lecco and Gallipoli, the former surrounded by
cotton plantations, the latter — the Eallipolis, or " beautiful city," of the Greeks —
picturesquely perched on an islet attached by a bridge to the mainland. The
surrounding country, owing to the want of moisture, is comparatively barren.

Fig. lis.— Thb Hauboi'u or lAaANio.
B«>1« 1 ! *os,ooo.

'8 HUM

The western peninsula of Naples is far better irrigated than that of Otranto,
but this advantage is counterbalanced to a large extent by the mountainous
nature of the country, and by its frequent earthquakes. Fotenza, a town at the
very neck of this peninsula, half-way between the Ghilf of Tarent and the Bay
of Salerno, most happily situated as a place of commerce, has repeatedly been
destroyed by earthquakes, and its inhabitants have only ventured to rebuild it in
a temporary manner.

The famous old cities of Calabria, such as Metapontum and Heraolea, have
ceased to exist. Sybaris the powerful, with walls six miles in circumference, and
suburbs extending for eight miles along the Grati, is now covered with alluvium
and shrubs — " its very ruins have perished." The city of the Loori, to the aoutii
of Gerace, which existed until the tenth eentury, when it was destroyed by the
Saracens, has at least retained ruins of its walls, temples, and other buildings.

mm » _ <iM. f,^ ^ gm

-t-

le hu« been slowly
i^ limited to fishing,
Daranteso enjoy the
aps of shells on the
rmerly famous ; but
the manufacture of

etching southwards
mer surrounded by
y," of the Greeks—
the mainland. The
ratively barren.

han that of Otranto,
by the mountainous
ttenza, a town at the
Tarent and the Bay
has repeatedly been
tured to rebuild it in

I and Heradea, have
in circumference, and
jvered with alluviiim
le Loori, to the south
Kras destroyed by the
and other buildingik

SICILY.

The only one of these old cities still in existence is Gotrone, the ancient Oro-
to. ., the " gateway to the granary of Calabria." In travelling olong the coasts
of Greater Greece we feel astonished at the few ruins of a past which exercised so
powerful an influence upon the history of mankind.

The existing towns of Oalabria cannot compare in importance with those of a
past age. Rossano, near the ruins of Sybaris, is the small capital of a district, and
if« visited only by coasters. Oosenza, in the beautiful valley of Orati, at the foot
of the wooded Sila, keeps up its communications with Naples and Messina through
the harbour of Paola. Oatanzaro exports its oil, silk, and fVuit either by way
of the Bay of Squillace, on the shores of which Hannibal had pitched his camp,
or through Pizzo, a small port at the southern extremity of the Bay of Santa
Eufemia. Reggio, nestling in groves of lemon and orange trees at the foot of the
Aspromonte, is the most important town of Calabria. It stands on the narrow
strait separating the mainland from the island of Sicily, and could not fail to
absorb some of the commerce passing through that central gateway of the Medi*
terranean. Messina and Reggio mutually complement each other, and the
prosperity of the one must result in that of the sister city.*

VII. — Sicily.

The Trinaoarda of the ancients, the island with tae " three promontories," is
clearly a dependency of the Italian peninsula, from which it is separated by a
narrow arm of the sea. The Strait of Messina, where narrowest, is not quite two
miles in width. It can be easily crossed in barges, and, with the resources at our
command, a bridge might easily be thrown across it, similar enterprises having
succeeded elsewhere. It can hardly be doubted that before the close of this
century either a tunnel or a bridge will join Sicily to the mainland, and human
industry will thus restore in some way the isthmus which formerly joined the
Cape of Faro to the Italian Aspromonte. We know nothing about the period when
this rupture took place, but to judge from the ancient name of the strait —
Heptastadion — it must have been much narrower in former times, t

* Towna of Kaplet hsTing over 10,000 inhabitanU (in 1870):— Naples (Napoli), 421,803; Bari,
40,423; Foggia, 84,181; Andria, 33,67.8; Reggio, 20,864; Barletta, 27,444; Molfetto, 26,616; Oorata,
26,018; Tnoti, 24,026 : Bitonto, 28,087 ; Taranto, 22,868; CaiteUamute di Stabia, 22,037 ; Cerignola,
21,739 ; Lecoe, 21,081 ; 8aIerno, 30,611 ; Avena, 19,734 ; Biaceglia, 19,007 ; Toire del Greco, 18,060 ;
Catanaaro, 18,781 ; Potenaa, 18,613; Gaeta, 18,386; Avellino, 18,260; Gerliaai, 18,176; Maddaloni,
17,578; Afragola, 17,641; FrancaTilla Fontaoa, 17,467; BeneTento, 17,370; Altamura, 17,004; Santa
Maria Capua Vetere, 16,786 ; San Severo, 16,646 ; Torre Annnnaiata, 16,321 ; Ravo di Puglia, 16,066 ;
Monte Sant' Angelo, 14,003 ; Roaaano, 14,818 ; San Maroo in Lamia, 14,640 ; Coienaa, 14,622 ; Caaerta
14,678; Ganoaa di Puglia, 14,468; Oatuni, 14,422; Ariano di Poglia, 14,847; Matera, 14,262;
Monopoli, 13,800 ; Hinenrino lluige, 13,630 ; Martina Franoa, 13,440 ; Campobaaao, 13,346 ; Brindiii,
13,194 ; Luoera, 13,064 ; Acerra, 12,868 ; Ceglia Meaaaoapio, .12,682 ; Gioja del Oolla, 12,442 ; Pagani,
12,208; Fasano, 12,190; Capua, 12,174 ; Oittanova, 12,137 ; Palo di Colla, 11,887; Moladi Bari, 11,776;
Pozauoli, 11,761; Rionent in Voltara, 11,620; MalS, 11.326; Reaina, 11,133; Samo, 10,933; San
Giovanni del Teduccio, 10,898 ; Nola, 10,771 ; Gingliano in Campania, 10,761 ; Lauria, 10,609 ;
Frattamaggiore, 10,486 ; Corigliano Oalabro. 10,481 ; Kioastxo, 10,418; Gairaao, 10,081 ; Honteoorvo,
10,020 ; Gonvenano, 10,012.

t Minimum width of the Strait of Maiiina, 10,330 feet; maximum depth, 1,090 feet ; average depth,
246 feet.

!^:.'. !

810

ITALY.

From un bistoriottl point of viow Sicily may ■till be looked upon m a portion
of the muinlund, for the atruit can be oroMed almost aa easily aa a wide river. On
the other band, it enjoy* all the advantages of u maritime position. Situate in thu

Fig. 113.— Tiia Htmit op Mbmina.

SMllM.

▼ery centre of the Mediterranean, between the Tyrrhenian and the eastern basin,
it commands all the commercial high-roads which lead from the Atlantic to the
East. Its excellent harbours invite navigators to stay on its coasts ; its soil ia

i« » iii n I' ll llB l B m'I.WIiri l i |-- » « n.l>,;»;i- . .

SiOILY.

811

upon M a portion
I a wide river. On
Situate in tho

ion

NUN

and tlie eastern basin,
)m the Atlantic to the
1 its coasts ; its soil is

uxoeedingly fertile ; the most varied natural resourcea inrure the oxistonoe of its
inhabitants ; and a genial climate promotes tho dovolopmont of life. Hardly a
district of Europe appears to bo in a more favourable position for supporting a
dense population in comfort. Sicily, indeed, is more densely populated and
wealthier than the neighbouring island of Sardinia or cither of tlio Neapolitan
provinces, the Campania alone excepted, and rivals in importance tho provinces
of Northern Italy.*

Sicily, whenever it has been allowed to rejoice in the possession of peace and
froodom, has always recovered with wonderful rapidity ; and it would certainly
now be one of the most prosperous countries if wars had not so frequently devas-
tated it, and the yoke of foreign oppressors had not weighed so heavily upon it.

The triangular island of Sicily would possess great regularity of structure
if it were not for the bold mass of Mount Etna, which rises above the shores of the
Ionian Sea at the entrance of the Strait of Messina. From its base to the summit
of its crater, that huge protuberance forms a region apart, differing from the rest
of Sicily not only geologically, but also with respect to its products, cultivation,
and inhabitants.

Ancient mariners mostly looked upon the Sicilian volcano as the highest
mountain in the world ; nor did they err much as respects the world known to

Fig. 114.— Phohlr dp Mount Etna.

"tk.

them, for only at the two extremities of the Mediterranean, in Spain and Syria, do
we meet with mountains exceeding this one in height ; and Mount Etna is not only
remarkable from its isolated position, but likewise by the beauty of its contours, the
lurid Rheen of its incandescent lavas, and the column of smoke rising from its
summit. From whatever side we approach Sicily, its snowy head is seen rising
high above all the surrounding mountains. Its position in the very centre of the
Mediterranean contributed in no small measure to secure to it a pre-eminence
amongst mountains. It was looked upon as the " pillar of the heavens," and at a
later epoch the Arabs only 'spoke of it as el Jebel, " the mountain," which has
been corrupted by the people dwelling near it into " Mon gi hello."

The mean slopes of Mount Etna, prolonged as they are by streams of lavas
extending in every direction, are very gentle, and on looking at a profile of this
mountain it will hardly be believed that its aspect is so majestic. It occupies,
in fact, an area of no less than 460 square miles, and its base has a develop*
ment of about 80 miles. The whole of this space is bounded by the sea, and by
the valleys of the Alcantara and Simeto. A saddle, only 2,820 feet in height,
connects it in the north-west with the mountain system of the remainder of Italy.
Small cones of eruption are met with beyond the mass of the volcano to the north

• Area of Rioily, 11,290 iquare miles ; population in 1870, 2,66fi,800 sou^ ; density, 227.

8ia

ITALY.

of the Alcantara, and streams of lava having filled up the ancient valley of the
Simeto, that river was forced to excavate itself another bed through rooks of
basalt, and now descends to the sea in rapids and cascades.

An enormous hollow, covering an area of ten square miles, and more than 3,000
feet in depth, occupies a portion of the western slopo of the volcano. This is the
Yal di Bove, a vast amphitheatre of explosion, the bottom of which is dotted over
with subsidiary craters, and which rises in gigantic steps, over which, when the
mountain is in a state of eruption, pour fiery cascades of lava. Lyell has shown
that this Yal di Bove is the ancient crater of Mount Etna, but that, at some
period not known to us, the existing terminal vent opened a couple of miles farther
west. The steep sides of the Yal di Bove enable us to gain a considerable insight
into the history of the volcano, for the various layers of lava may be studied there
at leisure. The cliffs upon which stands the town of ^ai Beale afford a similar
opportunity for embracing at one glance a long period of its history. These cliffs,
over 300 feet in height, consist of seven distinct layers of lava, successively poured
forth from the bowels of Mount Etna. Each layer consists nearly throughout
of a compact mass, affording no hold for the roots of plants, but their surfaces
have invariably been converted into tufa, or even mould, owing to atmospheric
agencies which operated for centuries after each eruption. It has likewise been
proved that these clifEs not only increased in height in consequence of successive
eruptions, but that they were also repeatedly upheaved from below. Lines of
erosion resulting from the action of the waves can be distinctly traced at various
elevations above the present level of the Mediterranean. The lavas, too, have
undergone a change of structure since they were poured forth, as is proved by
beautiful caverns enclosed by prismatic columns of basalt, and by the islet of the
Cyclops, near Aci Trezza.

During the last two thousand years Mount Etna has had more than a
hundred eruptions, some of them continuing for a number of yearq. Hitherto it
has not been possible to trace any regularity in these eruptions. They appear to
occur at irregular intervals, and the quantity of lava poured forth from the prin-
cipal or any subsidiary cone varies exceedingly. The most considerable stream
of lava of which we have any record was that which overwhelmed the city of
Catania in 1669. It first converted the fields of Nicolosi intb a fiery lake, then
enveloped a portion of the hill of Monpilieri, which for a time arrested its progress,
and finally divided into three separate streams, the principal of which descended
upon Catania. It swept away a part of that town, filled up its port, and formed a
promontory in its stead. The quantity of lava poured forth on that occasion has
been estimated at 3,532 millions of cubic feet ; and nearly 40 square miles of
fertile land, supporting a population of 20,000 souls, were converted into a stony
waste. The double cone of Monti Rossi, with its beautiful crater now grown over
with golden-flowered b^oom, was formed by the ashes ejected during that great
eruption. More than 700 subsidiary oones, similar to the Monti Rossi, are
scattered over the exterior slopes of Mount Etna, and bear witness to as many
eruptions. The most ancient amongst them have been nearly obliterated in the

SICILY.

818

cient valley of tlie
I through rocks of

nd more than 3,000
Icano. This is the
vhich is dotted over
er which, when the
, Lyell has shown
, but that, at some
uple of miles farther
considerable insight
nay be studied there
Leale afford a similar
istory. These cliffs,
,, successively poured
s nearly throughout
8, but their surfaces
wing to atmospheric
It has likewise been
squenoe of successive
)m below. lines of
tly traced at various
The lavas, too, have
jrth, as is proved by
,d by the islet of the

IS had more than a
►f yearq. Hitherto it
ans. They appear to
forth from the prin-
t considerable stream
rwhelmed the city of
intb a fiery lake, then
le arrested its progress,
il of which descended
I its port, and formed a
h on that occasion has
•ly 40 square miles of
jonverted into a stony
crater now grown over
ted during that great
the Monti Bossi, are
ir witness to as many
early obliterated in the

course of ages, or buried beneath streams of lava, but the others still retain their
conical shape, and rise to a height of many hundred feet. Several amongst them
are now covered with forests, and the craters of others have been converted into
gardens — delightful cup-shaped hollows, where villas shine like gems set in
verdure.

Most of these subsidiary cones lie at an elevation of between 3,300 and 6,600
feet above the sea, and it is there the internal forces make themselves most strongly
felt. As a rule the subterranean activity is less violent near the summit, and
during most of the eruptions the great terminal crater merely serves as a vent,

Fig. 116.— Tub Lata Stkbam of Catamia.
Scale 1 : 800,000.

ll.*i|E.orr.r.

■SHllM.

through which the aqueous vapours and gases make their escape. Fumaroles
surrounding it convert the soil into a kind of pap, and the substances which escape
froih them streak the soori89 with brilliant colours— scarlet, yellow, and emerald
green. The internal heat makes itself felt on many parts of the exterior slopes.
It converts loose rocks into a compact mass, far less difficult to climb than are
the loose cinders of Mount Vesuvius. Travellers ascending the mountain need
fear nothing from volcanic bombs. Showers of stone are occasionally ejected from
the principal vent, but this is quite an exceptional occurrence. If it were not so,
the smaU structure above the precipices of the Val di Bove, which dates from the

814

ITALY.

time of the Romans, and is known as the " Philosopher's Tower," would long ago
have been buried bsneath debris. A meteorological observatory might therefore be
established with safety on the summit of this mountain, and no better station could
be found for giving warning of approaching storms.

The summit of Mount Etna, 10,866 feet in height, does not penetrate the zone
of perennial snow, and the heat emitted from the subterranean focus soon melts
the incipient glaciers which accumulate in hollows. Nevertheless the. upper half
of the mountain is covered with a shroud of white during a great part of the year.
It might be imagined that the tmow and copious rains woidd give birth to numerous
rivulets descending from the slopes of the volcano; but the small stones and
cinders which cover the solid beds of lava promptly absorb all moisture, and
springs are met with only in a few favoured spots. They are abundant on

Fig. 11 B. — 8l7B8IDIART CONBB OF MoVNT EtNA.

llWSi'i"

the lower slopes, or in the immediate vicinity of the sea. One of these is the
fountain of Acis, which issues from the chaos of rooks which Polyphemus is
said to have hurled at the ships of sage Ulysses. Another gives birth to the
river Amenano, which rises in the town of Catania, and hastens in silvery cascades
towards its port. When we look at these clear springs in the midst of black sands
and burnt rocks we are able to comprehend the fancy of the ancient Greeks, who
regarded them as divine beings, in whose honour they struck medals and raised
statues.

Though running streams are scarcely met with on the slopes of Mount Etna,
its cinders retain a sufficient quantity of moisture to support a luxuriant vegetation.
The mountain is clad with verdure except where the surface of the lava is too
conlpact to be penetrated by the roots of plants. Only the highest regions, which
are covered with snow during the greater part of the year, are barren. It is

ii m ii HM i< w: r . w i <Hi».. —

liOKB!^«— -~

SICILY.

816

ir," would long ago

might therefore be

better station could

penetrate the zone
a focus soon melts
jless the upper half
eat part of the year,
f e birth to numerous
le small stones and
b all moisture, and
y are abundant on

',"E«fCp

One of these is the
prhich Polyphemus is
ler gives birth to the
ens in silvery cascades
e midst of black sands
e ancient Greeks, who
ok medals and raised

slopes of Mount Etna,
a luxuriant vegetation,
face of the lava is too
highest regions, which
rear, are barren. It is

a remarkable fact that the flora of the Alps should not be met with on Mount Etna,
although the temperature suits it exactly.

Formerly the volcano was surrounded by a belt of forests occupying the zone
between the cultivated lands and the region of snow and cinders. Such is the
case no longer. On the southern slope, which is that usually ascendea by tourists,
there are no forests at all, and only the trunk of some ancient oak if, occasionally
met with. On the other slopes groves of trees are more frequent, particularly in
the north, where there remain a few lofty trees, which impart quite an alpine
character to the scenery. But the wood-cutters prosecute their work of exter-
mination without mercy, and it is to be feared that the time is not very distant
when even the last vestiges of the ancient forests will have disappeared. The
magnificent chestnuts on the western slopes, amongst which could be admired until
recently the " tree of the hundred horses," bear witness to the astonishing fertility
of the lava. If the cultivators of the soil only desired it, a few years would
suffice to restore to Mount Etna its ancient covering of foliage.

The cultivated zone occupying the lower slopes of the mountains presents in
many places the appearance of a beautiful garden. There are groves of olive,
orange, lemon, and other fruit trees, in the midst of which rise clumps of palms,
and villas, churches, and monasteries peep out from this mass of verdure. The
fertility of the soil is so great that it supports a population three or four times more
numerous than that in any other part of Italy. More than 300,000 inhabitants
dwell on the slopes of a mountain which might be supposed to inspire terror, and
whjch actually bursts at intervals, burying fertile fields beneath a fiery deluge.
Town succeeds town along its base like pearls in a necklace, and when a stream
of lava effects a breach in this chain of human habitations it is closed up again as
soon as the lava has had time to cool. From the rim of the crater the mountain
climber looks down with astonishment upon these human ant-hills. The con-
centric zones of houses and verdure contrast curiously with the snows and ashes
occupying the centre of the picture, and with the barren limestone rocks beyond
the Simeto. And this is only a small portion of the vast and marvellous prospect,
embracing a radius of 134 miles. Well may the beholder be enchanted by the
unrivalled spectacle of three seas, of a deeper blue than the skies, washing the
shores of Sicily, of Calabria, and of the islands of .i^olia.

Mount Pelorus, which forms a continuation of the chain of the Aspromonte of
Calabria, is of very inferior height to Mount Etna, but it had existed for ages
when the space now occupied by the volcano was only a bay of the sea. It
was formerly believed that & crater existed on the highest summit of Pelorus
dedicated to Neptune, and now to the "Mother of God," or Dinna Mare
(3,600 feet), but such is not the case. These mountains consist of primitive and
transition rocks, with beds of limestone and marble on their flanks. They first
follow the coast of the Ionian Sea, where they form numerous steep promontories,
and tiien, turning abruptly towards the west, run parallel with that of the .^lian
Sea. Their culminating point, near the centre, is known as Madonia (6,336 feet),
and the magnificent forests which still clothe it impart to that part of the island

fir*

W»i i.1| liflt^ ?.^ ^^ffl,^

^< -t. t ^ tO* '

816

ITALY.

"if

quite a northern aspect, and we might almost fancy ourselves in the Apenni^ies or
Maritime Alps. Limestone promontories of the most varied profile advance into
the blue waters of the sea, and render this coast one of the most beautiful of the
Mediterranean. We are seized with admiration when we behold the enormous
quadrangular block of Oefalu, the more undulating hill of Termini, the vertical
masses of Coltafano, and above all, near Palermo, the natural fortress of Monte
Pellegrino (1,970 feet), an almost inaccessible rock, upon which Hamilcar Barca
resisted for three years the efforts of a Roman army to dislodge him. Monte San
Giuliano (2,300 feet), an almost isolated limestone summit, terminates this chain
in the west. It is the Eryx of the ancients, who dedicated it to Venus.

The mountains which branch off from this main chain towards the south gra-
dually decrease in height as they approach the sea. The principal slopes of the
island descend towards the Ionian and Sicilian Seas, and all its perennial rivers —
the Flatani, Salso, and Simeto — flow in these directions. The rivers on the
northern slope are mere fiumare, formidable after heavy rains, but lost in beds of
shingle during the dry season. The lakes and swamps of the island are likewise
confined to the southern slope of the mountains. Amongst them are the pantani,
and the Lake, or biviere, of Lentini, which is the most extensive sheet of water in
Sicily ; the Lake of Pergusa, or Enna, formerly surrounded by flowery meadows in
which Proserpine was seized by Pluto ; the biviere of Terranova ; and several
marshy tracts, the remains of ancient bays of the sea. This southern coast of the
island contrasts most imfavourably with the northern, for, in the place of pic-
turesque promontories of the most varied outline, we meet with a monotonous si^dy
shore, devoid of all shade. Natural harbours are scarce there, and during the
winter storms vessels frequenting it are exposed to much danger.

The southern slope of Sicily, to the south of the Madonia, consists of tertiary
and more recent rooks, abounding in fossil shells mostly belonging to species still
living in the neighbouring sea. In the hills to the south of Catania these tertiary
rooks alternate with strata of volca&io origin, which are evidently derived froqi
submarine eruptions. This process is still going on between Girgenti and the
island of Pantellariti, where the submarine volcano of Giulia or Ferdinandea occa-
sionally rises above the surface of the sea. It was seen in 1801, and thirty years
later it had another eruption, residting in the formation of an island four miles in
circumference, which was examined by Jussieu and Constant Provost. In 1863 it
appeared for the third time. But the waves of the sea have always washed away
the ashes and cinders ejected on these occasions, spreading them in regular layers
over the bottom of the sea, and thus producing an alternation of strata similar to
that observed at Catania. In 1840 the summit of this submarine volcano was
covered with only six feet of water, but recently no soundings were obtained at a
depth of fifty &thoms. '

This submarine volcano is not the only witness to the activity of subter-
ranean forces in Southern Italy. We meet there with mineral springs discharging
carbonic acid and other gases, which prove fatal to the smaller animals venturing
within their influence, and with a naphtha lake near Palagonia, from which escape,

SICILY.

817

in tlie Apennines or
profile advance into
LOst beautiful of tbe
>ehold the enormous
Termini, the vertical
al fortress of Monte
lich Hamilcar Barca
[ge him. Monte San
erminates this chain
to Venus.

)wards the south gra-
rinoipal slopes of the
its perennial rivers —
The rivers on the
IS, but lost in beds of
;he island are likewise
bhem are the pantani,
sive sheet of water in
w flowery meadows in
rranova; and several
s southern coast of the
, in the place of pic-
;h a monotonous se^idy
there, and during the
nger.

lia, consists of tertiary
ilonging to species still
; Catania these tertiary
jvidently derived froqa
^een GUrgenti and the
la or Ferdinandea occa-
1801, and thirty years
an island four miles in
at Provost. In 1863 it
ve idways washed away
them in regular layers
ion of strata similar to
submarine volcano ytaa
lings were obtained at a

the activity of subter-
eral springs discharging
laller animals venturing
onia, from which escape,

likewise, irrespirable gases. A similar phenomenon may be witnessed in
connection with the Lake of Fergpuw, which occupies an ancient crater about four
miles in circumference, and usually abounds in tench and eels. From time to

Fig. 117.— Thi Macoalvbas and Gibouiti.
SoiJ«l : 100,000.

Miss'ivrcr

S ■ "<^ "'•i

'S-^'"' tk:..

■^liswi*;;;

B"ie

time, however, an escape of poisonous gases appears to take place from the bottom
of the lake, which kills the fish, whose carcasses rise to the sur&oe. Another
of these aabes has made its appearance farther west, near th« Palazzo Adriano^
23

'^S^f^l^'^raf^^w

Wt?f&pa^ -It*- •-

-??*'V. ^■^.'

818

ITALY.

and, indeed, tho whole of underground Sioily appears to be in a state of chemical
effervescence.

Next to Mount Etna the great centre of volcanic activity in Sicily appears to
be near Qirgenti, at a place known as the Maccalubas. The aspect of this spot
changes with the seasons. In summer bubbles of gas escape from small
craters filled with liquid mud, which occasionally overflows, and runs down the
exterior slopes. The rains of winter almost obliterate these miniature volcanoes,
and the plain is then converted into one mass of mud, from which the g^ases escape.
At the beginning of this century the soil was occasionally shaken by earthquakes,
and on these occasions jets of mud and stones were ejected to a height of ten or
twenty yards. The Maccalubas appear now to be in a state of quiescence, for
these mud volcanoes also seem to have their regular periods of rest and activity.

The deposits of sulphur, which constitute one of the riches of Sicily, undoubt-
edly owe their existence to these subterranean lakes of seething lava. These
sulphur beds are met with in the tertiary strata extending from Oentorbi to
Cattolica, in the province of GKrgenti. They date from the epoch of the Upper
Miocene, and are deposited upon layers of fossil infusoria exhaling a bituminous
odour. Geologists are not yet agreed on the origin of these sulphur beds, but it
is most likely that they are derived firom sulphate of lime carried to the surface
by hot springs. In the same formation beds of gypsum and of rock-salt are
met with, and the latter may frequently be traced from a saline effervescence
known as occhi di aak (" eyes of salt ").

Sicily, like Gbeece, enjoys one of the happiest climates. The heat of summer
is tempered by sea breezes which blow regularly during the hottest part of each
day. The cold of winter would not be felt at all if it were not for the total
absence of every comfort in the houses, for ice is not known, and snow exceedingly
rare. The autumn rains are abundant, but there are many fine days even during
that season. The prevailing winds firom the north and wcbi are salubrious, but
the sirocco, which usually blows towards the south-east, is deadly, especially when it
reaches the northern coast. It generally blows for three or four days, and during
that time no one thinks of clarifying wine, salting meat, or painting houses or
furniture. This wind is the great drawback to the climate^ In some parts of
Sioily the exhalations from the swamps are dangerous, but thia is entirely the &ult
of man. It is owing to his neglect that Agosta and Syracuse suffer firom fevers,
and that death forbids the stranger to approach the ruins of ancient Himera.*

Temperature and moisture impart to the vegetation of the plains and lower
valleys a semi-tropical aspect. Many plants of Asia and Afirioa have become
acclimatized in Sicily. (Groups of date-palms are seen in the gardens, and the
plains around Sciacca, almost African in their appearance, abound in groves of dwarf
palms, or giummare, to which ancient Selinonte is indebted for its epithet of
Palmoaa. Cotton grows on the slopes of the hills up to a height of 600 feet above
the sea ; bananas, sugar-cane, and bamboos do not require the shelter of green-

* Mean uiniul temp«ntnre »t Palermo and Hesaiiia, 04° F. ; at Catania aod Oirgenti, 48* F. ; rajo&ll
at Palermo, 26 inohea.

iriti^iir'iir'iiiihi

'^"'''^'*~' ' '''i «>ji* i' ''>m n *WiLm < miMm t Mmu,m^

SICILY.

819

1 a state of oliemioal

in Sicily appears to
e aspect of this spot

escape from small
;, and runs down the
I miniature volcanoes,
hich the gases escape,
aken by earthquakes,
to a height of ten or
ate of quiescence, for
of rest and activity,
es of Sicily, undoubt-
Bcthing lava. These
ing from Oentorbi to
le epoch of the Upper
jxhaling a bituminous
le sulphur beds, but it

carried to the surface
I and of rock-salt are

a saline effervescence

The heat of summer
he hottest part of each
were not for the total
i, and snow exceedingly
y fine days even during
^est are salubrious, but
eadly, especially when it
»r four days, and during
t, or painting houses or
nate. In some parts of
this is entirely the fault
acuse suffer from fevers,
of ancient Himera.*
of the plains and lower
<ai Africa have become
in the gardens, and the
ibound in groves of dwarf
lebted for its epithet of
, height of 600 feet above
lire the shelter of green-

ik and Oi^entl, 68° F. ; rwn&tt

houses ; the Victoria regia covers the ponds with its huge leaves and flowers ; the
papyrus of the Nile, which is not known anywhere else in Europe, chokes up the
bed of the Anapus, near Syracuse : formerly it grew also in the Oreto, near Palermo,
but it does so no longer. The cactus of Barbary (Cactus opuntia) has become the
most characteristic plant of the coast districts of Sicily, and is rapidly covering the
most unpromising beds of lava. These and other plants flourish most luxuriantly on
the southern slopes of Moimt Etna, where the orange-tree bears fruit at a height
of 1,700 feet, and the larch ascends even to 7,400 feet. These slopes facing
the African sun are the hottest spots in Europe, for the volcano shelters them
from the winds of the north, whilst its dexk-coloured scorise and cinders absorb
the rays of the mid-day sun.

Those portions of Sicily which are clothed with trees or shrubs are always
green, for orange-trees, olive-trees, carob-trees, laurels, mastic-trees, tamarisks,
cypresses, and pines retain their verdure even in winter, when nature wears a
desolate aspect in our own latitudes. There is no " season," so to say, for with a
little care all kinds of vegetables can be had throughout the year. The gardens
around Syracuse are famous above all others, because of the striking manner in
which they contrast with the naked rocks surrounding them. The most delightful
amongst them is the Intagliatella, or Latomia de' Qreci, which occupies an old quarry
where Ghreek slaves dressed the stones used in erecting the palaces of Syracuse.
The vegetation there is most luxuriant ; the trunks of the trees rise above masses
of shrubs, their branches are covered with creeping plants, flowers and ripening
fruit cover the paths, and birds without number sing in the foliage. This earthly
paradise is surrounded by precipitous walls of rook covered with ivy, or bare and
white as on the day when Athenian slaves were at work there.

Sicily lies on the high-road of all the nations who ever disputed the command of
the Mediterranean, *and its population consequently consists of a mixture of the
most heterogeneous elements. Trrespeotively of Sicani, Siculi, and other aboriginal
nations, whose position amongst the European family is uncertain, but who
probably spoke a language akin to that of tiie Latins, we know that Phoenicians
and Oarthaginians successively settled on its shores, and that the Chreeks were
almost as numerous there as in their native country. Twenty-five centuries have
passed since the Greeks founded their first colony, Naxos, at the foot of Mount
Etna. Soon afterwards Syracuse, Lentini, Catuiia, Megara Hyblsea, Messina, and
other colonies sprang into existence, until the whole of the littoral region was in
the hands of the Greeks, the native populations being pushed back into the interior.
In Sicily the Greek met with the same climate, and with rocks and mountains
similar in aspect to those of his native home. The " Marmorean " port and the
wide bay of Syracuse, the acropolis and Mount Hybla, do they not recall Attica or
the Peloponnesus P The fountain of Arethusa, on the island of Ortygia, which is
supplied through underground.channels, reminds us of the fountain of Erasinos and
of many others in Hellas, which find Hieir way through fissures in the limestone
rocks to the seashorei The Syraousans said that the river Alpheus, enamoured of

r^^-'^^^W^^'^^^^y^y^^^

mm^B^smm;

880

ITALY.

the nymph Arethuaa, did not mingle ita waters with thow of the Ionian, but found
its way through subterranean channels to the coast of Sicily, where i' rrtie again
at the side of the fountain dedicated to the object of his adoration, bringing
the flowers and firuits of beloved Qreeoe. This legend bears testimony to the
great love which the Greek bore his native land, whose very fountains and
plants were supposed to follow him into his new home.

If we may judge from the number of inhabitants with which the principal
towns were credited at that time, Sicily must have had a population of several
millions of Greeks. The Carthaginian merchants and soldiers, on the other hand,
though they were the masters of portions of the island for two or three centuries,
never settled upon it, and only a few walls, coins, and inscriptions bear witness now
of their ever having been present. It has been very judiciously remarked by
M. Dennis that the most striking evidence of their reign is presented in the
desolate sites of the cities of Himera and Selinus. At the same time we must not
forget that the Oarthaginians, by intermingling with the existing populiation,
materially affected the ulterior destinies of the island. The Romans, who held
Sicily for nearly seven centuries, did so in a still higher degree. Vandals and
Goths likewise left traces behind them. The Saracens, themselves a mixed race,
imparted their Southern impetuosity to the Sicilians, whilst their conquerors, the
Normans, endowed them with the daring and indomitable courage which at that
period animated these sons of the North. In 1071, when the Normans laid siege
to Palermo, no less than five languages were spoken on the island, viz. Arabic,
Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and vulgar Sicilian. But Arabic was the tongue of the
civilised inhabitants, and even during the dominion of the Normans inscriptions
upon palaces and churches were inscribed in it. It was at the court of King
Roger that Edrisi wrote his " Geog^phy," one of the g^reat monuments of science.
In 1223 the last Arabs were made to emigrate to Naples, but by that time much
Arab blood already flowed through the veins of the inhabitants.

Later on, the character of the population was still further modified by French,
Germans, Spaniards, and Aragonese, and all this helped to make them a people
differing in appearance, manners, habits, and feelings from their Italian neigh-
bours. These islanders look upon every inhabitant of the mainland as a foreigner.
The absence of roads on the island enabled the different groups of its population
to maintain their distinct idioms and character during a very long period. The
Lombards whom thfi Romans transplanted to Benevento and Palermo spoke their
native dialect long after it had become extinct in Lombardy. Even now there
are about 60,000 Sicilians who speak this ancient Lombard tongue. At San
Fratello, oxi a steep hill on the northern coast, this idiom is spoken with the
greatest purity. Nor has the Italian wholly supplanted the vulgar Sicilian in the
interior of the island. We meet with many Greek and Arab words. One of the
most curiuuB vronjt' 19 that of vol, which is applied to various districts of Sicily,
and is supposed to have been derived firom vali, the Arab term for " governor."
The Sicilian idiom is less sonorous than the Italian. Towels standing between
consonants are frequently suppressed, and the 0, and even the a and « (ee), are

^^■^-'y«i=»«^aei>M>r?!jwit«:i .iW.ij^v^

SICILY.

821

ihe Ionian, bat found
, where i* rnie again
I adoration, bringing
ars testimony to the
yery fountains and

I which ihe principal
population of several
rs, on the other hand,
wo or three centuries,
bions bear witness now
ioiously remarked by
1 is presented in the
ame time we must not
) existing population,
he Romans, who held
degree. Vandals and
Bmselves a mixed race,
t their conquerors, the
courage which at that
he Normans laid siege
the island, viz. Arabic,
was the tongue of the
B Normans inscriptions
I at the court of King
t monuments of science,
but by that time much

»nt8.

ler modified by French,
» make them a people
»m their Italian neigh-
mainland as a foreigner,
^ups of its population
very long period. The
md Palermo spoke their
jardy. Even now there
ibard tongue. At San
iom is spoken with the
ihe vulgar Sicilian in the
Lrab words. One of the
arious districts of Sicily,
ab term for " governor."
roweb standing between
veri the a and i (ee), are

changed into oo, which renders the speech hard and indistinct. The language
lends itself, however, admirably to poetry, and the Sicilian popular songs are quite
equal in natural grace and delicacy to the much-admired rispetti of Tuscany.

Of all the emigrants who have settled on the island the Albanians alone have
not become merged in the general population. Locally known as Oreoi, they still
form separate communities, speaking their own language and observing special
religious rites, in several of the towns of the interior, and more especially at
Piana de' Greet, which occupies a commanding hill to the south of Palermo.
Nor is the fusion amongst the other races as complete as it appears to be at the
first glance. The population around Mount Etna, who are, perhaps, more purely
Qreek in blood than the Greeks themselves, are noted for their grace, gaiety, and
sweetness of disposition. They are the most intelligent portion of the population
of Sicily. Those of Trapani and San Giuliani are said to be the best-looking, and
' their women delight the stranger by the regularity and beauty of their features.
The Palermitans, on the other hand, in whose veins flows much Arab blood, are
for the most part unprepossessing in their appearance. They open their house but
rarely to strangers, and jealously shut up their women in its most retired part.

The most ferocious usages of war, piracy, and brigandage have kept their
ground longer at Palermo and its environs than anywhere else. The laws of the
omerta, or " men of heart," make veng^eanco a duty. A chi ti toglie il pane, e tu
toglili la vita ! (" Take the life of him who has taken your bread ! ") is its funda-
mental principle ; but in practice Palermitan vengeance is far from possessing the
simplicity of the Corsican vendetta, for it is complicated by the most atrocious
cruelties. No less than four or five thousand Palermitans are said to be affiliated
to the secret league of the tnaffia, whose members subsist upon every kind of
roguery. Up to 1865 the brigands were mastera in the environs of that town.
They virtually laid siege to the town, separating it from its more distant suburbs.
Strangers were afraid to leave lest they should be murdered or captured by
bandits ; and no farmer could harvest his com or olives, or shear his sheep,
without paying toll to these highwaymen. More than ten years have passed
since then, but in spite of measures of exceptional severity the maffia still exists.

The history of this association, which dates its origin back to the time of the
Norman kings, remains yet to be written. It has always flourished most, in time
of political troubles, and consequent misery. No doubt things have grown worse
in the course of the last twenty years ; taxes have been increased, the conscrip-
tion established, and many abrupt changes, such as are inseparable from a new
political regimen, have been introduced. The people, accustomed to put up with
ancient abuses, have not yet learnt to bear the burdens imposed in connection
with the annexation of the island to the kingdom of Italy. Nevertheless the
Sicilians grow more Italian from day to day. Community of language and of
interests attaches the island to the peninsula, and the time is not far distant when
both countries will gravitate in the same orbit. Italy is most highly interested in
establishing feelings of friendship with the inhabitants of the island, and in deve-
loping its resources. The rapid increase of tiie population, which is sud to have

ITALY.

tripled since 1734, bears witness to the great natural riches of the country ; and
what might not be achieved if the barbarous processes now in force there were
superseded by the scientific methods of our own time f

Sicily was the favourite haunt of Geres, and in the plain of Catania thin
beneficent goddess taught man the art of cultivating the soil. The Sicilians havo
not forgotten this teaching, for nearly half the area is covered with com-fielda ;
but they have not improved their system of cultivation since those fabulous times,
and improvements can hardly be effected as long as the restrictions imposed by
the feudal tenure introduced by the Normans are allowed to exist. The agricul-
tural implements are of a primitive kind, manure is hardly known, and the
fate of the crops depends entirely upon nature. When travelling through the
country districts of Sicily, we are struck by not meeting with isolated houses.
There are no villages, for all the cultivators of the soil live in towns, and are
content to travel daily to their fields, which are occasionally at a distance of six
miles. Sometimes they pass the night there, in a cavern or a ditch covered
with boughs, and at harvest-time the labourers sleep in improvised sheds. This
absence of human habitations imparts an air of solemn sadness to vast corn-fields
covering valleys and slopes, and we almost fancy we are wandering through a
deserted country, and wonder for whose benefit the crops are ripening.

Oom-fijBlds cover a greater area than that devoted to the cultivation of all
other objects put together; nevertheless the latter articles represent a higher
pecuniary value. The orchards, vineyards, and gardens near the towns are a
far greater source of wealth than the distant corn-fields. In former times wheat
was the principal article of export ; now Sicily is no longer a granary, but promises
to become a vast emporium of firuit. Even now the crop of oranges grown there,
which consists of seven kinds, subdivided into four hundred varieties, represents a
value of £2,000,000 a year. The marvellous gardens which surround Palermo are
steadily increasing at the expense of the ancient plantations of ash, and ascend
the hills to a height of 1,160 feet. Hundreds of millions of oranges are exported
annually to C!ontinental Europe, England, and America, and the inferior sorts are
converted into essoitial oils, citric acid, or citrate of lime. The last is used in
printing stuffii, and Sicily enjoys a monopoly in its manufaotnre.

Sicily likewise occupies a foremost place as a vine-growing country, and
supplies more than a fourth of the wine produced throughout Italy. The cultiva-
tion of the vine, which is carried on to a large extent by foreigners, is much better
understood there than on the neighbouring peninsula, and the wines exported
from Marsala, Syracuse, Uloamo, and Milaszo are justly held in high estimation.
An excellent wine is also grown on the south and western slopes of Mount Etna,
to which the heat of the sun imparts much fire. England and non-Italian Europe
are the great consumers of ike wines of Sicily, as they are of its oils, almonds,
cotton, saffron, sumach, and manna, extracted, like that of the Oalabrias, from a
kind of ash. Baw silk, which Sicily was the first to produce in Europe, is like-
wise exported in considerable quantities.

Sulphur is the great mineral product of the island. The beds vary muoh in

--^ 1^'" 'lili>ill>lnlll«|M»-<|fc|,||,||'|||-

SICILY.

>f the oountry ; and
in force there won;

ain of Catania thin
The Sioiliana hav«<
ed with oom.fiolds ;
hoM fabulous times,
■trictions impowd by
exist. The agrioul-
dly known, and the
ftvelling through the
with isolated houses. .
e in towns, and are
at a distance of six
I or a ditch covered
rovised sheds. This
ess to vast corn-fields
wandering through a
I ripening.

the cultivation of all
IS represent a higher
near the towns are a
[n former times wheat
, granary, but promises
r oranges grown there,
I varieties, represents a
I surround Palermo are
ions of ash, and ascend
I oranges are exported
d the inferior sorts are
I. The last is used in
tnre.

growing oountry, and
ut Italy. The oultiva-
•eignen, is much better
nd the wines exported
aid in high estimation,
slopes of Mount Etna,
and non-Italian Europe
ire of its oils, almonds,
I the Oalabrias, from a
duce in Europe, is like-

The beds vary much in

richness, but even where they contain only five or six per cent, a light brought to the
walls of the mine will cause the sulphur to boil like pitch. The blocks extracted
from the mine are piled up in the open air, where they remain exposed to the
destructive action of the atmosphere. The fragments are then heaped up over the
flame of a furnace, which causes the stones to split, the melted sulphur flowing
into moulds placed beneath. By this primitive process only two-thirds of the
sulphur contained in the rook are extracted, but it proves nevertheless most
remunerative. About 200,000 tons of sulphur, or more than two-thirds of the
sulphur required for manufacturing purposes throughout Europe, are annually
exported from Sicily, and the known deposits of the islands have been computed
to contain from 40,000,000 to 60,000,000 tons. To the north of Girgenti and
in other parts of Sicily sulphureous plaster has been used in the construction of
the houses, and the atmosphere there is at all times impregnated with an odour
of sulphur.

Kock-salt is met with in the same formations as the sulphur, and in
quantities almost inexhaustible, but salt is not a rare article, and even the Sicilians
prefer to gather it from the salt swamps extending along the coast, the most
productive of which are near Trapani, at the western extremity of the island. At
the same spot the sea yields the best coral of Sicily. The tunny fishery is carried
on mostly in the great bays between Trapani and Palermo, while most of the sword-
fish are captured in the Strait of Messina. The seas of Sicily abound in fish,
and the islanders boast of being the most expert fishermen of the Western
Mediterranean.

Until recently communications in Sicily were kept up almost exclusively by sea.
In 1866 the only carriage road of the island, which connects Messina with
Palermo, was hardly made use of by travellers, and even now the most important
mines of sulphur and salt communicate with the seashore only by mule-paths ;
and the inhabitants are actdally opposed to the construction of roads, from fear uf
their interfering with the existing mode of transports. The road which connects
the harbour of Terranova with Oaltanissetta has been under construction for
twenty years, although it is the only one which joins the interior of the country
to the sea-coast. Railways to some extent supply this deficiency of roads, but are
being built very slowly, hardly more than 250 miles being at present open for
traffic.

Palermo the "hapi^," the capital of Sicily, is one of the great towns of Italy.
At the time of the Arabs it surpassed all towns of the peninsula in population, but
at present, though increasing rapidly, it yields to Naples, Milan, and Rome. No
other town of Europe can boast of an equally delicious climate, nor is any fairer to
look upfm from a distance. Bold barren motmtains enclose a marvellous garden,
the famous " shdl of gold " {eonea tfora), £roi& the midst of which rise towers
and domes, palms with &n-shaped leaves, and pines, commanded in the south by
the huge eoolesiasticil edifices of Monreale. Termini is the only city of Sicily
which rivals Palmero in the beauty of its site, and which truly merits its epithet

jm^.

884

ITALT.

But the beauty of the country oontnita moat pftinftilly with the miaery and
filth reigning in moit of the quarters of the capital. Palermo haa ita aumptuoua
ediflcea. It boaats of a cathedral laviahly decorated ; ita royal palace and pala-
tino chapel, covered with moaaioa, and harmonioualy combining the beautiea of
Byzantine, Mooriah, and Roman art, are unique of their kind ; the church of
Monreale, in one of ita mburba, may challenge Ravenna by the number of iu

Fif. 118.— PALimno AND MoNn Pulbomixo.

moaaica. There are Moorish palaces, a few modem monuments, and two broad
streets, which a Spanish governor had made in the shape of a cross. But, besides
these, we only meet with dark and narrow, streets and wretched tenements, the
windows of which are stuffed with rags. Down to a recent period Palermo was unde-
serving its Greek name of "Port of all Nations." Enclosed within mountains, and
having no communications with the interior, its commerce was merely local, and
its exports were limited to the produce of its fisheries and of its gardens. Though

'--iTr(fii-"iiiiiri iiiiBiiiliffir

SICILY.

826

ith the mitery and
I has its •umptuous
ftl palace and pala-
ing the beauties of
ad ; the church of
the number of iU

S3Plfc

:-«5»^'

ments, and two broad
across. But, besides
retched tenements, the
iod Palermo wasunde-
within motmtains, and
was merely local, and
'its gardens. Though

far more populous than Oenoa, its commerce is only half that of the Ligurian city,
bu^. it is rapidly on the increase.

Trapani, a colony of the Carthaginians like Palermo, and MarsaUi, ao famous for
its wines, at the weatem extremity of the island, are proportionately far busier
thaoi the capital. Trapani, built on a sickle- shaped promontory, carries on a lively
trade. Th« salt marshes near it are amongst the most productive in all Italy ; *
tunny, oral, and : ponge fishing is carried on ; and the artisans of the town are
^killed m wen vers, masons, and jewellers. The harbour is one of the best in Italy ;
thu roadstead is well sheltered by the outlying jiEgadian Islands ; and the ambition
of the inbttbitants, who desire to look forward to a time when Trapani will be the
principal emporium for the trade with Tunis, is likely to be realised on the comple-
tion of a railway to M«saina. The harbour of Mazzaro, the outlet for the produce
of the inland towns of Oastelvetrano and Salemi, lies closer to Tunis, but its shelter
is indifferent. As to Marsala — the "Mars ed Allah," or Qod's haven, of the Arabs
—its port was filled up by Ohai:les V., and has only recently been reconstructed.
It is, however, not of sufficient depth for large vessels, and only salt and wine are
exported from it to France and England. Marsala occupies the, site of tho ancient
city of Lilybeeum, which had a population of 900,000 soub when Diodorus Siculus
wrote his Geography. It has recently become famous in consequence of the
landing there of Ghiribaldi and his thousand followers in 1860, and its being
the spot from which they entered upon the triumphant march which ended in the
battle of the Voltumo and the capture of Oaeta.

Messina the " noble " is the great commercial centre of Sicily, and the only
port of that island where vessels of all nations meet. Messina is a stage on the
ocean high-roads which join or connect Western Europe and the Levant. Its
roadstead is one of the safest, and vessels in distress are certain to find protection
there. Moreover, vessels ooming from the Tyrrhenian, and fearful of encounter-
ing the dangerous currents of the strait during a storm, may easily find shelter at
MilazTO, to the north of it. The port of Messina is formed by a sickle-shaped
tongue of land, making a natural breakwater, t There are few cities in Europe
which are more exposed to the destructive action of earthquakes than Messina,
and the traces of the great shock of 1783, which swamped the vessels in the
harbour, undermined the palaces along the seashore, and caused the d^ath of
more than a thousand persons, have not yet entirely disappeared.

Oatania, the sub-Etnean, as its Greek name implies, is menaced not only by
earthquakes, but olso by volcanic eruptions. It, too, enjoys a high amount of
commercial prosperity, and exports the surplus produce of the towns situated at
the foot of the volcano, among which are Acireale, with its orange groves; Giarre,
with its dusty streets ; Patemo, abounding in thormal springs ; Ademo, on the

* Th« nit manhM of fhe proviuce of Trspani oover an area of 2,100 acres, and yielded, in 1866,
66.000 toni oi salt, valned at £24,200.

t In 1862 27,006 Tenels, of 1,82(,232 tons burden, entered and cleared from Sicilian porta ; in 1869
34,980 veaaels, of 3,869,337 tons; in 1873 70,974 vetMli, of 6,942,700 tons. In 1876 the number of
vesaela aad tonnage which entered and cleared was— at Beaeina, 9,218 veaaels, of 2,386,144 tona; at
Palermo, 11,692 veaaels, of 1,812,196 tona; at CSatania, 6,187 veaaela, of 629,630 tona; and at Trapani,
M07 veaaela, of 288,476 tona.

tI'

^ 1

si*>a»»--i'-s««»

^mmtm

826

ITALY.

summit of a rock of lava ; Bronte, at the junction of two streams of scoriae ; and
Bandazza, commanded by an ancient Norman castle. Oatania also monopolizes
the export of the produce of the inland districts of Eastern Si<Hly ; it is the great
railway centre of the island, and several caniag^ roads converge upon it. Its port
has g*-own too small for the business carried on there, and it is proposed to enlarge
it by means of piers and breakwaters.

It is quite natural that on en island, no locality of which is more than forty miles

Fig. 119.— Trafaki and Mahsala.
SMle 1 : 970,000.

SUflMk

from the sea, all great towns should be met with on the coast, where there are
greater facilities for commerce. Still a few centres of population sprang up in the
interior, either in the imidst of the most fertile districts or at the crossings of the
most-frequented lines of communication. Nicosia, the Liombard city, is thus a
natural place of passage between Catania and the northern coast of the island.
Corleone occupies a similar position with respect to Palermo and the AfrioJin dope

~^*9»tt!P<»^

SICILY.

827

earns of scorisB ; and
aia also monopolizes
Uoily ; it is the great
rge upon it. Its port
is proposed to enlarge

more than forty miles

coast, where there are
Illation sprang up in the
at the crossings of the
.(Omhard city, is thus a
em coast of the island.
10 and the African slope

of the island, Oastro Giovanni, the ancient Enna, likewise occupies a privileged
position, for it stands on an elevated plateau in the very centre of the island : a large
stone near it is said by the inhabitants to be an ancient altar of Ceres. Piazza
Armerina Populentmime, and Oaltag^rone, surnamed la gratissima on account of
the fertility of its fields, are both populous towns, which carry on a considerable
commerce through Terranova, in the building of which the stones of the old temples
of Gela have been utilised. Oaltanisetta, farther to the west, and its neighbour
Canicatti, export their produce through the port of Licata.

In the south-eastern comer of Sicily there are likewise several inland towns of
some importance, amongst which Eagusa and Modica are the most considerable.
Comiso, an industrious place, lies farther to the west, and is surrounded by cotton
plantations. The valley of the Hipparis, sung by Pindar, separates it from
Yittoria, the saline plains of which furnish much of the soda exported to
Marseilles. Noto, like most towns in that part of Sicily, is at some distance from
the coast, but its twin city, Avojia, stands upon the shore of the Ionian Sea. Noto
and Avola were both overthrown by the earthquake of 1693, and have been
rebuilt with geometrical regularity near their former sites. The fields of Avola,
though not very fertile by nature, are amongst the best cultivated of the island,
and it is there only that the production of the sugar-cane has attained to any
importance.

On the northern slope of the hills forming the back-bone of the island there
are several other towns inhabited by the agricultural population. Lentini, the
ancient Leontium, which boasts of being the oldest city in the island, is at pre-
sent only a poor place, having been wholly rebuilt since the earthquake of 1693. '
Militello has been restored since the same epoch, and Grammicheli was founded in
the eighteenth century to afford a shelter for the inhabitants of Oochiala, which was
destroyed by an earthquake. Yizzini and Licodia di Yizzini are renmrkable on
account of the beds of lava near them, which alternate with layers of marine fossils,
and Mineo stands near a small crater of the swamp of Falici. The popular songs
of Mineo are famous throughout Sicily. The marvellous " stone of poetry " is
shown near it, and all those who kiss it are said to become poets.

Southern Sicily is poor in natural ports, and formerly, along the whole of that
part of the coast which &ces Africa, there were only open roadstdads and beaches.
On the Ionian coast, however, two excellent harbours are met with, viz. those of
Agosta and Syntouse, which are very much like each other in outline and general
features. Agosta, or Augusta, the successor of the Ghreek dty of Megara Hybitsa,
is now nothing more than a fortress besieged by fever. Syracuse, the ancient
city of the, Dorians, and at one time the most populous and wealthy city of
the Mediterranean, has been reduced to a simple provincial capital. That
city, whose inhabitants even during the last century celebrated their great
victory over the Athenians, is now hardly more than a heap of ruins. Its
" marble port," formerly surrounded by statues, is now frequented only by small
boats, and its great harbour, large enough for contending squadrons, lies
deserted. All that remains of it is contained in the small island of Ortygia,

liwawtiiwni

mmmmmmi'mmtm

828

ITALY.

separated from the mainland by fortifioationB, a ditch, and the swamps of
Syraca. The vast peninsula of limestone fonnerly occupied by the city is at pre-
sent inhabited only by a few farmers, whose houses stand near the canals of irri-
gation. The grand edifices erected by the inhabitants of ancient Syracuse are

Fig. 120.— Stbaousb.
Sadet:10(MXIO.

Sllilwk

now represented by the ruins of columns on the banks of the Anapo rising ftom
the " azure" fountain of Oyane ; by the fortifications of the Epipolse and Bnryelum
erected by Archimedei, and now known as Belvedere ; by the remains of bathi, an
enormous altar large enough for hecatombs of sacrifices, an amphitheatre, and an
admirable theatre for 25,000 spectators, who were able to see at a glance from their

^'-ii''''r'Wiiiii

Hii

mmmi

HiM

SIOILT.

829

md the swamps of
by the city is at pre-
Etr the canals of irri-
ncient Sjrraouse are

scats the whole of the ancient city, with its temples and fleets of merchantmen.
Nothing, however, is hotter calculated to convey an idea of the ancient grandeur
of the city than the vast quarries of lautumue and the subterranean catacombs,
more extensive than those of Naples, and not yet wholly explored. In former
times the summit of the island of Ortygia was oocuined by an acropolis, in which
stood a temple of Minerva, a rival of the Parthenon of Athens. Sailors, on leaving

le Anapo rising £rom
ilpipoleB and Enryelum
e remains of baths, an
amphitheatre, and an
at a glance from their

Fig. 131.— Tjiiiplb or Comcobd at Oibobmti.

Ei-iacJ^s aa:^,

■tT-!*'s?*»iias.

I?s:

the port, were bound to look towards this temple, holding in their hands a vase of
burning charcoal taken fixmi the altar of Juno, which they flung into the sea
when they lost sight of it. * Portions of the temple still exist, but its beautifiil
columns have been covered with plaster and incorporated in an ugly church.

There kre other HeUenic ruins in Sicily, which, in the eyes of artists, make that
island a worthy rival of Greece itself. Girgenti, the ancient Acragas, or Agri-

ITALY.

\';

*'^,

gente, which numbered its inhahitante by hundreds of thousands, but is now a
poor place like Syracuse, possesses ruins of at least ten temples or religious edifices,
of which that dedicated to Olympian Jupiter was the largest in all Italy, and
has been made use of in the construction of the present mole. Another, that
dedicated to Concord, is in a better state of preservation than any other Greek
temple outside the limits of Hellas. The modem city occupies merely the site of
the ancient acropolis, and is built upon a layer of shelly sandstone, which descends
in steps towards the sea. The cathedral has been built from materiaLs taken from
a temple of Jupiter Atabyrios, and its baptismal font is an ancient sarcophagus
upon which are represented the loves of Pheedra and' Hippoly tus. In former times
Agrigente reached to with' a a couple of miles from the sea. The modem port,
named in honour of one of the most famous sons of the city, lies to the west of the
ancient Hellenic Emporium, at a distance of four miles from the city. It is the
busiest harbour on the southern coast, and larg^ quantities of sulphur arc exported
from it (see Fig. 117, p. 317).

Soiacca, another seaside town farther to the west, in one of those localities of
the island most exposed to earthquakes, boasts of being the modem representative
of SeUnus, though that Greek city was situated about fourteen miles farther west,
to the south of Castelvetrano. Its seven temples have been overthrown by earth-
quakes, but they still present us with remains of the purest Doric style. The
metopes of three of them have been conveyed to Palermo, where they form the
most precious ornaments of the museum.

Segesta, on the north coast,, no longer exists, but there still remain the ruins of
a magnificent temple. Other remains of Greek art abound in all parts of the
islands, and there are also monuments erected by the Romans. If we contrast
these ancieat edifices with those raised since by Byzantines, Moors, Normans,
Spaniards, and Neapolitans, we are bound to admit that they exhibit no progress,
but decadoice. Alas ! how very much inferior are the inhabitants of modem
Syracuse in comparison with the fellow-oitizens of an Archimedes !

Sicily offers most striking examples of towns changing their positions in con-
sequence of political disturbances. When the ancient Greek cities wero s* the
height of their power they bo\dIy descended to the very coast ; but when war and
rapine got the upper hand — ^when Moorish pirates scoured the Sea, and brigandage
reigned in the interior — ^then it was that most of the cities of Sicily took refuge on
the summits of the hills, abandoning their low-lying suburbs to decay, and
allowing them finally to disappear. Girgenti is a case in point. Some of the
towns occupy sites of much natural strraigth, and are almost inaccessible. Such
are Oentnripe, or Centorbi, which stretches along the edge of a rock to the west of
the Simeto, and San GKuliano, the town of Astarte, which stands on the summit of
a pyramidal rock 1,200 feet in height above Trapani. But, on the retum of
peace, the inhabitants abandoned their eyries and c^une bock to the plain or coast.
All along the northem coast, from Palermo to Messina, the towns on the marina,
or beach, kept increasing at the expense of the borgos occupying the summits of the
mountains, and in many instances the latter were deserted oltogethw. Oeftthi

iiiHiii

iMHM

THE ^ffiOLIAN OB LIPABIO ISLANDS.

uands, but is now a
>B or religious edifices,
^t in all Italy, and
mole. Another, that
lan any other Greek
ies merely the site of
stone, which descends
I materials taken from
ancient sarcophagus
rtus. In former times
The modem port,
lies to the west of the
n the oity. It is the
i sulphur arc exported

e of those localities of
modem representative
sen miles farther west,
. overthrown by earth-
■est Doric style. The
, where they form the

till remain the ruins of
id in all parts of the
oans. If we contrast
ines, Moors, Normans,
ey exhibit no progress,
inhabitants of modem
imedes!

their positions in con-
reek oities weiTO at the
Bst ; but when war and
the sea, and brigandage
>f Sicily took refuge on
raburbs to decay, and
In point. Some of the
loet inaccessible. Such
at a rock to the west of
itands on the summit of
But, on the return of
ok to the plain or coast.
le towns on the marina,
jring the summits of the
ted altogether. Oefak

affords a striking illustration of this change. The modem city nestled at the foot
of a bold promontory, upon the summit of which may still be seen the crenellated
walls of the old town, within which nothing now remains excepting a small
cydopean temple, the most venerable ruin of all Sicily, which has resisted the
ravages of thirty centuries.*

The .^olian or Liparic Islands.

The ^olian or Liparic Islands, though separated from Sicily by a strait more
than 300 fathoms in depth, may nevertheless be looked upon as a dependency of
the larger island. Some of these volcanic islands, " bom in the shadow of Mount
Etna," lie on a line connecting that volcano with Mount Vesuvius, and they
originated probably during the same convulsion of nature. They all consist of
lavas, cinders, or pumice, ejected from volcanoes. Two amongst them, Yulcano and
Stromboli, are still active volcanoes, and the flames and undulating columns of
smoke rising from them enable mariners and fishermen to foretell changes of
temperature or wind. It is probable that this intelligent interpretation of volcanic
phenomena was the reason why these islands were dedicated to JBolus, the god of
the winds, who there revealed himself to mariners.

Lipari, the largest and most central of these islands, is at the same time the
most populous. A considerable town, commanded by an ancient castle, rises like
an amphitheatre on its northern shore. A well-cultivated plain, abounding in
olive-trees, orange-trees, and vines, surrounds the town, and the slopes of the hills
are cultivated almost to their very summits. The population, as in Sicily, has
been recraited from the most diverse elements since the time that Greek colonists
from Rhodes, Onidus, and Selinus entered into an alliance with the aboriginal inha-
bitants. This intermixture of races is proceeding now as much as ever, for commerce
continually introduces fresh blood, and many Galabrian brigands have been con-
veyed to the island, where they have become peaceable citizens. The population
is now permitted to multiply in peace, for the volcanoes of Lipari have been
quiescent for centuries. The Lipariotes have a legend according to which St.
Calogero chased the devils from the islands, and shut them up in the furnaces of
Yulcano, and we may infer from this that the last volcanic eruption took place soon
after the introduction of Christianity ; that is jo say, about the sixth century. The
existence of subterranean forces manifests itself now only in thermal springs and

• TowBiof Bioily faav&ig mon tiutn 10,000 iulubitenti (in 1871) :— Palermo, 186,406 ; Meidiik, 71,021 ;
Cntenik, 84,397; Matnk, 84,202; Modics, 83,169; Tnpuii, 28,062; AdrMde, 26,692; Caltogironet
2«,978; BHrnaaSnperiora, 21.494; CkltaniiMtta. 21,464; Canicatti, 20,908; Alcamo, 20,890 ; Caatdve-
tiano, 20,420; Pattinko, 20,008; Syraouae (Sixaonaa), 20,086; Tenniai Imanae, 19,646; Oirgenti,
10,603; Sdaoea, 18,896; Piaaaa Amerina, 18,262; Vittoria, 17.628; Oiarre, 17.414; Comiao, 16.694;
Corleona. 16,160.; Lioata, 16,966; FaTaia, 16,233; Vuvni, 14,042; TenanoTa di Sioilia, 14,911;
Patettio, 14,790; Noto, 14.767; Aderno. 14,673; Bronte, 14,689; Niooala, 14.644; Castrogiovanni.
14,611 ; BartMllona Poaao di Ootto, U.471 ; Salami. 14,096; Palma di Montechiaro, 13,497 ; Monreale,
13,496; Qangi, 13,067; San Cataldo, 12,899; Bianoavilla, 12.681 ; Partana, 12,467 ; Haaaata del VaUo,
12,166; Leonforta, 12,010 ; Maaiarino, 11,961 ; Arola, 11,912; Agin, 11.876 ; Bagheria, 11.661 ; Bieai.
11.648; AgoaU, 11.882; Gaatellamara dal Golfo, 11,280; HiatreUa, 11,218; Bacalmnto. 11,012;
Niacemi, 10,760; Sdecli, 10,724 ; Lentini, 10.678 ; Oaftlii, 10,194 ; Froina. 10,198; Qrammioheli, 10.192 ;
Pietraponia, 10,149 ; Palaoolo Aureide, 10,182.

it i j iii lli p

ITALY.

steam jets, which have been visited from the most ancient times for the cure of
diseases. Earthquakes, however, are of frequent occurrence, and that of 1780 bo
much frightened the inhabitants that with one aceord they dedicated themselves to
the Virgin Mary. Dolomieu, who visited Lipari in the year following, found them
wearing a small chain on the arm, by means of which they desired to show that
they had become the slaves of the " Liberating Virgin."

Lipari is a land of promise to the geologist, on account of the great variety of
its lavas. Monte della Oastagna is wholly composed of obsidian. Another hill, Monte
Bianco, consists of pumice, and, when seen from a distance, has the appearance of

Sig. 132.— Thi CmTEAL Poetion op tmi .Solian Iblanub.

being covered with snow. The streams of pumice which fill every ravine extend
down to the sea, and the water is covered with this buoyant stone, which drifts
sometimes as far as Corsica. Lipari supplies nearly the whole of Europe with
pumice.*

Vuicano, to the south of Lipari, £rom which it is separated by a strait less than
a mile across, contrasts strangely with its smiling neighbour. Vuicano, witii the
exception of a few olives and vines growing on the southern slopes, consists wholly
of naked scoriee, and this ciniumstnuoe probably led to its being dedicated to
Vulcan. Most of its rocks are black >t oi a reddish hue like iron, but there are

* Ana and popnlation oKtbe lipurio Islands f— lipari, 12-4 ■qnan milea. U,000 in&aUtante; Vol-
cano, 9-7 iqnaie miles, 100 inhabitenta ; Fanaria and n«>ighboiiring islets, 7*7 square miles, SOO inhaUt-
ants; Stromboli, 7*7 square miles, 600 inhabitaata ; Salina, 10-8 sqnaxe miles, 4,600 inhabitants; FelioacB,
6-9 square miles, 800 inhabitants ; Alicudi, 3 square miles, SOO inhabitants. Total, 67'2 square ndles,'
18,400 inhabitants.

dZ££^ESitnH8iilti

iMJiWiillil

iiiiiiiiiiifttiiMiiMlili

rar

THB JSOLIAN OB LIPABIO ISLANDS.

888

times for the cure of
, and that of 1780 so
idioated themselves to
following, found them
J desired to show that

)f the great variety of
. Another hill, Monte
has the appearance of

ILANUS.

fill every ravine extend
ant' stone, whichi drifts
whole of Europe with

,ted by a strait less than
ur. Vuloano, with tlie
u slopes, consists wholly
its being dedicated to
like iron, but tbere are

lilM, 14,000 in&aUUntB; Vnl-

7-7 Bqoue nilM, 800 {nhAbit-

IM, i,600 inhabitants ; Falion^,

its. Total, fi7'2 •q«« n«Jl«».

others which are scarlet, yellow, or white. At the northern extremity of the
island rises the Yulcanello, a small cone which appeared above the surface of the
sea nobody knows when, and which an isthmus of reddish cinders united about the
middle of the thirteenth century to the principal volcano of the island. This
central mountain of the island has a crater about 1,800 yards in circumference,
from which steam continually escapes. The atmosphere is charged with sul-
phurous vapours di£B.cult to breathe. From hundreds of small orifices jets of
steam make their escape with a throbbing and hissing noise. Some of these
fumaroles have a temperature of 610° F. Jets of a lower temperature are
met with in other parts of the island, and even at the bottom of the bay. Violent
eruptions are rare, and in the eighteenth century only three occurred. The last
eruption took place in 1873, after a repose of a hundred years. Until recently the
only inhabitants of Yul"*!- . were a few convicts, who collected sulphur and
boraoio acid, and manufactured a little alum. But an enterprising Scotchman has
now taken possession of this grand chemical laboratory. He has built a large
manufactory near the port, and a few trees planted around his Moorish residence
have somewhat improved the repulsive aspect of the country.

Stromboli, though smaller than either Lipari or Vulcano, is nevertheless
more celebrated, on account of its frequent eruptions. For ages back scarcely
any mariners have passed this island without seeing its sununit in a state of
illumination. At intervals of five minutes, or less, the seething lava filling its
caldron bubbles up, explosions occur, and steam and stones are ejected, lliese
rhythmical eruptions form a most agreeable sight, for there is no danger about
them, and the olive groves of the Stromboliotes have never been injured by a
stream of lava. The volcano, however, has its moments of exasperation, and
its ashes have frequently been carried to the coast of Oalabria, which is more
than thirty miles off.

Fanaria and the surrounding group of islands between Stromboli and Lipari
have undergone many changes, if Dolomieu and Spallanzani are correct in
saying that they ozigjuQally formed only a single island, which was blown into
fragments by an eruption having its centre near the present island of Dattilo.
A hot spring and an occasional bubbling up of the sea-water prove that the
Toloanic forces are not yet quite extinct.

As regards the small eastern islands of the archipelago, Salina, Felicudi, and
Alicudi, the last of which resembles a tent ]^tched upon the surface of the
water, history furnishes no records of their ever having been in any other than a
quiescent state. The island of IJstica, about thirty rules to the north of Palermo,
is likewise of volcanic origin, but is not known ever to have had an eruption. It
is one of the most dreaded places of exile in Italy. Near it is the iminhabited
island of Medico, the ancient Osteodes, where the mercenaries deserted by the
Carthaginians were left to die of starvation.

884

ITALY.

Thb MoAviAK Island*.

Off the western extremity of Sicily lie shallows, sand-banks, and calcareous
islauds (if the same composition as the adjoining mainland. These are the Ayades,
or Goat Islands, named after the animals which climb their steep escarpments.
Favignana, near which the Romans won the naval victory which terminated the
first Punic war, is the largest of these islands. Its steep cliffs abound in caverns,
in which heaps of shells, gnawed bones, and stone implements have been found,
dating back to the contemporaries of the mammoth and the antediluvian bear.
Gonflicts between contrary winds are frequent in this labyrinth of rocks and
shoals, and the power of the waves is much dreaded. The tides are most irregular,

Fig. 133. — ^ThI MlDITMKAltlAN TO Tm SoUTM OF 81OII.Y.
Soiaa 1:4,0001000.

and give rise to dangerous eddies. The sudden ebb, locally known as marubia, or
" tipsy sea " (mare ubbriaeo f), has been the cause of many shipwrecks.

Pantbllaria.

Pantellaria rises in the very centre of the strait which unites the Western
Mediterranean with ^e Eastern. The island is of volcanio origin, abounds in
thermal springs, and, above all, in steam jets. Placed on a great line of navigation,
Pantellaria might have become of importance if it had possessed a good harbour c
like Malta. To judge from certain ruins, the population was more considerable

•¥,i^i>i^jms

banks, and calcareous
These are the Ayades,
leir steep escarpments,
which terminated the
iffs ahound in caverns,
ents have been found,
the antediluvian bear,
abyrinth of rocks and
ides are most irregular,

Sicily.

lUy known as tnarubia, or
ly shipwrecks.

hich unites the "Western
Icanio origin, aboands in
a great line of navigation,
possessed a good harbour c
m was more considerable

MALTA AND QOZZO.

formerly than it is now. There exist about a thousand odd edifices, called teat by
the inhabitants, which are supposed to be ancient dwellings. Like the nuraghi of
Sardinia, they have the shape of hives, and are built of huge blocks of rook
without mortar. Some of them are twenty-five feet high and forty-five feet wide i
and Bossa, the archaeologist, thinks thnt they date back to the stone age, for pieces
of worked obsidian have been found i^ em.

From the top of Pantellaria we are able to distinguish a promontory on the
Sicilian coast, but, though it is nearer to Africa than to Europe, the island
uevertheleia belongs to the latter continent, as is proved by the configuration of the
sea-bottom. This cannot be said of Linosa, an island with four volcanic peaks
to the west of Malta, and still less of the Pelagian Islands. The latter, consisting
of Lampedusa and a satellite rock called Lampion, owe their name (Lamp-bearer
and Lamp) to the light which, legends tell us, was kept burning by a hermit or
angel for the benefit of marines. In our own days this legendary lamp has been
superseded by a small lighthouse marking the entrance to the port of Lampedusa,
where vessels of three or four hundred tons find a safe shelter.

About the close of the eighteenth century the Russians proposed to establish
a military station on Lampedusa to rival that of Malta, but this project was never
carried out, and has not been taken up by the Italian Government. The popu-
lation consists of soldiers, political exiles, criminals, and a few settlers, who speak
Maltese.*

Malta and Gozzo.

Malta, though a political dependency of Great Britain, belonga geographically to
Italy, for it rises from the same submarine plateau as Sicily. About fifty miles to
the east of the island the depth of the sea exceeds 1,600 fathoms, but in the north,
in the direction of Sicily, it har^y amounts to eighty, and there can be no doubt
that an isthmus formerly united Malta to continental Europe. Geologists are agreed
that the land of which Malta and Gozzo are now the only remains must formerly
have been of great extent, for amongst the fossils of its most recent limestcne
rooks have been found the bones of elephants and other animals which only
inhabit continents. Even now the island is slowly wasting away, and its steep
cliffs, pierced by numerous grottoes, locally known as ghar, are gradually crumbling
into dust.

Placed in the very centre of the Meditenanean, and possessed of an excellent
port, Malta has at all times been a oommeroial station of much importance. It
has been occupied by all the nations who succeeded each other in the possession
of the Mediterranean — ^Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, and Greeks. But long
before that time the island must have been inhabited, for we meet with grottoes
excavated in the rocks, and with curious edifices resembling the nuraghi of
Sardinia, and it is just possible that the descendants of these aborigines still

* Ftmtellaria, 39-7 ■qnare milM, 6,000 inhabifamts ; Unoia, 4*6 iqBue milat, 900 inhatntanta;
Lampedtua, S aquare milM, 600 inluiWitaata.

■*iSf?W^

WALT.

constitute the principal element of the existing population, which, at all events,
is very mixed, and during the domination of the Saracens almost became Arab.
The language spoken is a very corrupt Italian, containing many Arabic words.
The great military part played by Malta began when the Knights of St. John,

Fif. 121.— Thi Pout or Malta.
B«da 1:40,000.

iv*3ri&'T..iirOr

^- '<^

U»M'I5-

tlOki.

after their expulsion' i^m Rhodes in 1522, installed tbemselvet upon the island,
and converted it into the bulwark of the Christian world. In the beginning of ihis
century Malta passed into the possession of the English, who may sorvey thence,
as from a watch-tower, the whole of the Mediterranean, frmn Gilwaltar to Smyrna

rs®fe*^'*""'

which, at all events,
almost became Arab,
any Arabic worda.
Knighta of St. John,

••-,

'^■•^ —

nselTes upon the islancl,
In the beginning of this
who may aurvey thence,
mm Gibraltar to Smyrna

nMMto

mi l i i mi iii

'■*'es*5_-fn'

MALTA AND QOZZO.

tnd Port Said. The excellent port of 1m Vuletta singularly facilitate! the mili-
tary and commercial part which Malta ia called upon to play in the world of the
Mediterranean. It ii auffioiently apaoious to shelter two entire fleeta, and its
approaches are defended by fortifications rendered impregnable by the successive
work of three centuries. There are, besides, all the facilities required by merchant-
men, including a careening dock larger than any other in the world. The
commerce of the island is rapidly increasing ; it is one of the great centres of
steamboat navigation, and submarine telegraphs connect it with all parts of the
world.*

The city of La Valetta has retained all its ancient picturesqueness, in spite
of its straight streets and the walls which surround it. Its high white houses,
ornamented with balconies and conservatories, rise amphitheatre-like on the slope
of a hill ; stairs lead fVom landing-place to landin/ place to the summit of this
hill ; and from every street we behold the blue sea, with its large merchantmen and
crowds of smaller vessels. Gondolas, having two huge eyes painted upon the prow,
glide noiselessly over the waters, and curious vehicles roll heavily along the
quays. Maltese, English soldiers, and sailors of every nation crowd the streets.
Now and then a woman glides rapidly along the walls. Like all Ohristian women
of the East, she wears the /aldeita, a sort of black silk domino, which hides her
somptuottS dress, and coquettishly conceals her features.

Malta beyond the walls of the town is but a dreary place of abode. The
country rises gently towards the south, in the direction of Oitta Yecchia and the
hills of Ben Gemma. Grey rooks abound, a fine dust covers the vegetation, and
the white waUs of the village glisten in the sun. There are no trees, except in a
few solitary gardens, where the famous mandarin oranges grow. Nor are there
any rivers. The soil is scorched, and it is matter for astonishment that it should
yield such abnndant harvests of cereals, and clover (sulki) growing to the height
of a man. Oamation tints delight the eye during the season of flowers. The
Maltese peasants, small, wiry, and muscular, are wonderfully industrious. They
have brought the whole island under cultivation, the olifb alone excepted, and,
where yegetable soil is wanting, they produce it artificially by triturating the rocks.
In former times vessels coming from Sicily were bound to bring a certain quantity
of soil as ballast But in spite of their careful cultivation, the inhabitants of
Malta, Gozso, and Comino' (thus named from cumin, which, with cotton, is the
principal crop of the island), the produce hardly suffices for six months' consump-
tion, and the islanders are largely dependent upon Sicily for their food. Navi-
gation and the fisheries contribute likewise towards the means of subsistnnoe, but
the Maltese would nevertheless perish on their idand if the surplus population
did not emigrate to all the coast lands of the Mediterranean, and especially to
Algeria, where the Maltese, as everywhere else, are distinguished for thrift and
industry.

* The tonnage of veaaela which enter and clear snnaally ttam foreign ports amounta to 4,800,000
toni; the valae of dntiable artidea imported ia nearly £9,000,000 sterling, and the Talne of the ezpoita
about the i

.-i^mmmm

i L . ] . ii|iiMJaLtolJ l iil. ' J<aiiiMMB t

888

ITALY.

In winter this exodus is in some measure compensated for by the arrival of
many English families, who visit the island for the sake of its dry and mild
climate. February is the finest month, and the island is then resplendent with
verdure, but the scorching heat of summer soon dries up the vegetation.

A governor appointed by the Crown exercises executive functions, and enjoys
the privilege of mercy. He is assisted by a Council of seven members, by whom
all laws are discussed and voted. The lord-lieutenant of each district is chosen
amongst the Maltese nobles, and deputies appointed by the governor manage
the affairs of the villages. Italian is the language used in the courts, with the
exception of the Supreme Court, into which English was introduced in 1823.

The revenues of the island, about £170,000 annually, are not sufficient to cover
the military expenses, and the deficiency is made up by the imperial treasury.

Most of the inhabitants are Boman Oatholics. The bishop is appointed by the
Pope, and enjoys an income of £4,000.*

VIII. — Sardinia.

It is a curious fact that an island so fertile as Sardinia, so rich in metals, and so
favourably situated in the centre of the Tyrrhenian Sea, should have lagged
behind in the race of progress as it has. When the Carthaginians held that
island its population was certainly more numerous than it is now, and the fearful
massacres placed on record by the historians of Rome testify to this &ct. Its
decadence was sudden and thorough. In part it may be accounted fcnr by the
configuration of the island, which presents steep cliffs towards Italy, whence
emigrants might have arrived, whilst its western coast is bounded by marshes
and insalubrious swamps. But the principal cause of this torpor, which endured
for centuries, is traceable to the actions of man. The conquerors who succeeded
the Romans and Byzantines in the possession of the island, whether Saivoens,
Pisans, Genoese, or Aragonese, monopolized its produce solely with a view to
their own profit, ai^d further mischief was wrought by the pirates of Barbary, who
frequently descended upon its coasts. As recently as 1815 the Tunisians landed
upon Sant' Antioco, massacring the inhabitants, or carrying ihem into slavery.
The coast districts became depopulated, and the inhabitants retired to the interior,
where, oppressed by their feudal lords, they led a life of isolati<m from the rest cf
Europe. It is hardly a generation since Sardinia began to participate in the
general progress made throughout Italy.

Sardinia is nearly as large as Sicily, but has only a fourth of its population.f
Geographically it is more independent of Italy than the southern island, and a
profound sea, more than 1,000 fathoms in depth, divides it from the Afrioan
continent. Sardinia with Corsica forms a group of twin islands, which is sepa-
rated from the Tuscait archipelago by a narrow strait only 170 fathoms in depth.

* Axaa of Malta, GKnno, and Oomino, 146 iqiui* milM ; popnlation 140,084, inolaaive of 7,S00 militaiy
and their fiuntliea.

t Area, 0,440 aquavo milea ; popnlation (1871), 636,£00.

^tssitmwM

. for by the arrival of
of its dry and nuld
then resplendent with
vegetation,
functions, and enjoys
en members, by whom
each district is chosen
the governor manage
n the courts, with the
troduoed in 1823.
3 not sufficient to cover
imperial treasury,
lop is appointed by the

rich in metals, and so
a, should have lagged
larthaginians held that
is now, and the fearful
»tify to this fact. Its
»e accounted for by the

towards Italy, whence
is bounded by marshes
s torpor, which endured
nquerors who succeeded
land, whether Saracens,

solely with a view to
pirates of Barbary, who
L6 the Tunisians bnded
^ing them into slavery,
bs retired to the interior,
isolation from the rest cf
m to participate va. the

ourth of its population-t
e southern island, and a
les it from the African
n islands, which is sepa-
ly 170 fethoms in depth.

0,084, inoluHve of 7,809 mflitary

840

ITALY.

of the mountains of Cornoa, whilst the smaller ones lay to the west. Alluvial
deposits, voloanic eruptions, and perhaps, also, an upheaval of the soil, have
converted the shallow straits which separated them into dry land.

The mountains of Sardinia may be said to begin with the islands of Maddalena
and Caprera, in the Strait of Bonifacio, and in the mountain mass of the Oallura
they attain already a considerable height. A depression separates these from the
southern portion of the great back-bone of the island, which stretches along the
whole of the eastern coast, and terminates abruptly at Cape Oarbonaro. These
mountains, like those of Corsica, consist of crystalline rooks and schists; but
whilst the slope on the latter island is steepest towards the west, the reverse is the
case on Sardinia, and that island may almost h^ said to turn its back upon Italy.

Fig. 120. — Tan Strait op Bomifaciu.
Btwle 1 : 800,006.

lEorCr

lOHilM.

The general slope of the island is towards the west, and its oooupation by Spain
could therefore be justified by purely geographical arguments.

The highest summits of the island are found in the central portion of this
crystalline oliain, where the Gennargentu, or " silver mountain," rises to a height of
6,116 feet. A little snow remains in the crevices of this mountain throughout the
summer. The inhabitants of Northern Sardinia formerly imagined that their own
GKgantinu, or " giant," in the mountains of Limbarra, constituted the culminating
point of the island, but^ careful measurements have shown that that superb peak
only attains an elevation of 4,397 feet.

Hie secondary mountain groups in the western portion of the island are
separated from the main chain by recent geological formations. The granitio

mi^

SABDINIA.

> the west. AUuvial
ral of the soil, have
land.

islands of Maddalena
1 mass of the Gallura
arates these from the
1 stretches along the
le Oarbonaro. These
cks and schists; but
est, the reverse is the
its back upon Italy.

\» occupation by Spain
its.

central portion of liiis
ain," rises to a height of
ountain throughout the
magined that their own
tituted the culminating
ihat that superb peak

tion of the island are
nations. The granitio

region of La Narra, to the west of Sassari, almost uninhabited in spite of its
fertil valleys, and the island of Asinara adjoining it, which abounds in turtles,
are amongst these insulated mountain regions. Another, intersected by the
beautiful valley of Domus Novas, occupies the south-western extremity of the
island. Geologists look upon it as the most ancient portion of the island, and
the plain of Campidano, which now occupies the site of an ancient arm of the sea,
is of quaternary formation. The transversal range of Marghine occupies the
centre of the island, and there, too, we meet with vast limestone plateaux pierced
by volcanic rocks. The ancient craters, however, no longer emit lava, nor even
gases, and the villagers have tranquilly built their huts within them. Thermal
springs alone indicate the existence of subterranean forces. Volcanic cones of
recent age are met with in the north>westem portion of the island, as well as in
the valley of the Orosei, on the east coast. The trachytic rocks of the islands of
San Pietro and Sant' Antioco are of greater age. They sometimes present the
appearance of architectural piles, especially at the Cape of Columns, which is,
however, rapidly disappearing, as the stone is being quarried to be converted into
pavement. On Sant' Antioco, which a bridge joins to the mainland, there are
deep caverns, the haunts of thousands of pigeons, which are caught by spreading
a net before their entrance.

In addition to the changes wrought by volcanic agencies, Sardinia exhibits
traces of a slow upheaval or subsidence due to the expansion or contraction of the
upper strata of the earth. Baised beaches have been discovered by La Marmora
near Cagliari, at an elevation of 243 and 322 feet above the sea-level, where
shells of living species are found together with potsherds and other articles,
proving that when this upheaval took place the island was already inhabited.
Elsewhere there exist traces of a subsidence, and the old Phoenician cities of Nora,
to the south-west of Cagliari, and Tharros, on the northern peninsula of the
Gulf of Oristano, have become partly submerged.

Amongst the rivers of the island there is only one which deserves that
name. This is the Tirso, or Fiume d'Oristano, which is fed by the snows of the
Geimargentu and the rains which descend on the western mountain slopes. Other
rivers of equal length are hardly more than torrents, which at one time invade the
fields adjoining them, and at another shrink to a thin thread of water meandering
between thickets of laurel-trees. Most of the river beds are dry during eight
months of the year, and even after rain the water does not find its way into the
sea, but is absorbed by the littoral swamps.

All these swamps have brackish water. The largest amongst them communicate
freely with the sea, at least during the rainy season, but others are separated from
it by a strip of sand. But shese, too, are brackish, for the sea-water percolates
through the soil, and kaeps them at the same level. The water of the inland
swamps is likewise saturated with saline substances derived from the surrounding
soil. They generally dry up in summer, but the coating of salt which then appears
is hardly dry enough to repay the labour of collection and refinement. The only
salt marshes actually explored are those of Cagliari and of Carlo-Forte, on San

ITALY.

Pietro. They have heen leased to a French company, and yield annually nearly
120,000 tons of salt.

Swamps and marshes envelop nearly the whole of the island in a zone of mias^
mata, which are carried by the wind into the interior, producing fever even in the
more elevated mountain districts. There are localities on the island the air of
which no stranger can breathe with impunity. The coast districts of Sardinia,
with their stagnant waters, are, in truth, the most imhealthy in Italy, and quite
one-fourth of the area of the island is exposed to the scourge of malaria, which
sufficiently accounts for the small population of the island and the little progress
made.

Even when Sardinia was at the height of its prosperity, and supplied Rome
with an abundance of com, cheese, pork, lead, copper, iron, and textile fabrics,
it was noted for its unhealthiness, and the emperors exiled to it those whom they
desired to get rid of. Then, as now, the landed proprietors, about the middle of
Jime, retired to the towns, the walls of which offered some protection against the
poisonous air. The Italian Government officials are sent to the island as a punish-
ment, and for the most part look upon themselves as condemned to death. Even
the native villagers are bound to observe the greatest precautions, and wear gar-
ments of skin or leather which are impenetrable to rain, mist, and dew. They
are dressed most warmly during the hottest part of the year as a protection against
the climate, and in their long mMtrucaa of sheepskin they almost look like Wal-
laohian herdsmen.

Ancient geogr&phers, as well as the Sardinians themselves, ascribe the imhealthi-
ness of the climate to the rarity of north-easterly winds. The mountains of Lim-
barra, in the north of the island, are popularly supposed to act as a sort of screen,
which diverts this health-bringing wind, to the great detriment of Lower Sardinia;
and there appears to be much truth in this popular notion. South-westerly
winds, or iibeecioa, are mostly equally rare, and when they blow they do so with
tempestuous violence.

The regular winds of Sardinia blow firom the north-west or south-east. The
former is known as the maeatrak, the latter as the ievante or sirocco, called maledetto
kmnie by the inhabitants of Southern Sardinia. It becomes charged with moisture
during its passage across the Mediterranean, and its temperature is in reality much
less than might be supposed ftom the lassitude produced by it. The maestrale, on
the other hand, is hailed with joy, for it is an invigorating wind. On reaching the
coast it g^erally parts with its moisture, and when it arrives at Cagliari it is per-
fectly dry. The capital of Sardinia is indebted to this wind and to sea breezes
for its low temperature (62'4° F.), which is far lower than that of (Jenoa.

Hurricanes are comparatively rare, and hailstorms, which work such damage
elsewhere, are hardly known. Most of the rain falls in autumn ; it ceases in
December, when the pleasantest season sets in. These are the " halcyon days "
of ancient poets, when the sea calms down in order that the sacred bird may build
his nest. But these pleasant days are succeeded by a wretched spring. February,
the " double-fitced month ** of Sardinian mariners, brings capricious frosts, to which

lB«iiMi»<u ^jUi^mam^L'iiiiiii^iMiSt.ijUt^SliiA&jSb.iM

SABDINIA.

840

yield annually nearly

md in a zone of mias^
cing fever even in the
the island the air of
t districts of Sardinia,
hy in Italy, and quite
rge of malaria, which
and the little progress

f, and supplied Rome
n, and textile fabrics,
to it those whom they
I, about the middle of
protection against the
the island as a punish-
tnned to death. Even
lautions, and wear gar-
, mist, and dew. They
• as a protection i^inst
almost look like Wal-

s, ascribe the unhealthi-
The mountains of Lim-
) act as a sort of screen,
aent of Lower Sardinia;
lotion. South-westerly
y blow ihey do so with

rest or south-east. The
ir sirocco, called makdetto
9S charged with moisture
rature is in reality much
ly it. The maestrale, on
; wind. On reaching the
ves at Cagliari it is per-
find and to sea breezes
that of Genoa,
liich work such damage
a autumn ; it ceases in
ire the " halcyon days "
he sacred bird may build
bched spring. February,
saprioious frosts, to which

succeed, in March and April, abrupt changes of temperature, winds, and rain.
Vegetation in consequence is far more backward than might be supposed from the
latitude.

The vegetation of Sardinia resembles that of the other islands of the Mediter-
ranean. The forest in the highland valleys of the interior and on the trackless
mountain slopes consists of pines, oaks, and holm-oaks, mixed here and there with
yoke-elms and maples. The villages are surrounded by chestnut-trees and groves
of magnificent walnut-trees. The hill-tops, robbed of their forests, are covered
with odoriferous plants and thickets of myrtles, strawberry-trees, and heather. It
is there the bees collect the bitter honey so much despised by Horace. Vast tracts of
uncultivated land near the seashore are covered with wild olive-trees, which only
need grafting to yield excellent fruit. All the fruit trees and useful plants of the
Mediterranean flourish in Sardinia. Almond and orange trees, introduced by
the Moors at the close of the eleventh century, flourish vigorously. The orange
groves of Millis, which are protected by the extinct volcano of Monte Ferru, are,
perhaps, the most productive on the shores of the Mediterranean, and in good
seasons yield 60,000,000 oranges. The gardens of Domus Novas, Ozieri, and
Sassari are of surprising fertility. In the southern part of the island, wherever the
cultivated fields gain upon the lands covered with rock-roses, fennel, and lilies,
they are fenced in with fig-trees. The fan-shaped foliage of the date-palm is seen
near every town, and more especially in the environs of Oagliari. By a curious
contrast the dwarf palm is not met with in the southern lowlands of the island,
though their climate is almost African, but forms dense thickets in the solitudes of
Alghero, in the north of the islands. The inhabitants eat the roots of this tree, as
do also the Moors.

Although all the plants of neighbouring countries become easily acclimatized in
Sardinia, that island is naturally poorer in species than are continental regions
lying under the same latitude. l%ere is nothing special about its flora, for the
island is probably only a remnant of a larger tract of land which formerly joined
Europe to Asia. As to the &mous plant mentioned by ancient writers, which, eaten
by mistake, produced fits of "sardonic laughter," or even death, it does not
appear to be peculiar to the island. Mimaut thinks, from the descriptions of
Pliny and Pausanias, that the large-leafed water-ptlrsley {Siutn latifolium) is
referred to.

The number of species of animals, like that of plants, is smaller in Sardinia
than on the neighbouring continent. There are neither bears, badgers, polecats,
nor moles. Vipers or venomous serpents of any description do not exist, and the
only animal to be dreaded is the tarentula (ansa, or argia), a sting from which
can be cured only by dancing imtii completely exhausted, or by immersion in
dung. The ordinary frog, though common in Corsica, does not exist, but European
butterflies are numerous. The mouflon, which is, perhaps, the ancestor of our
domestic sheep, and has been exterminated in nearly all the islands of the
Mediterranean, still lives in the mountains of Corsica and Sardinia. Wild horses
roamed over Sant' Antiooo as recently as the beginning of this century ; myriads

844

ITALY.

of rabbits burrow in the small islands lining the coast ; and wild goats with long
horns and yellow teeth inhabit the limestone island of Tavolara, in the Gulf of
Terranova. These goats are descended from domestic animals abandoned at seme
former period. Caprera, the residence of Garibaldi, is named after the goats
which formerly inhabited it, and animals of that Vind recently introduced there
quickly returned to a state of nature.

Naturalists have observed that the mammals of Sardinia are smaller than the
same species living on the continent. The goat is the only exception to the rule.
The stag, deer, wild boar, fox, wild cat, hare, rabbit, marten, and weasel are all of
them smaller than the continental varieties. The same rule applies to domesticated
animals, with the exception of the pig, which grows to a great size, especially where
it is allowed to roam through oak forests. There is a variety of this animal
whose hoofs are not cloven, and which ought, therefore, to bb classed amongst soli-
peds. The horses and asses of Sardinia are dwarfs. But the horse is distinguished
by great sobriety, sureness of foot, vigour, and endurance. If in addition to these
advantages it possessed a more attractive exterior, it would rank among the most
highly appreciated horses of £urope. As to the donkeys, though hardly larger
than a mastiff, they are brave little animals, atod frequently share with their
masters the only room of their abode. The old-fashioned mills, resembling in
every respect the Roman bas-reliefs which may be seen in the Vatican, are
propelled by these donkeys, which thus materially contribute towards the support
of their proprietors.

Sardinia abounds more than any other country of Western Europe in pre-
historic remains. There are megaliths, known as " giants' stones," " altars," or
" long-stones," as in Brittany, scarcely any of them showing traces of the chisel.
Dolmens, however, are rare, and the genuineness of all is doubted Amongst
these monuments there are, perhaps, some which were connected with the worship
of some Eastern deity, for Phoenicians and Carthaginians stayed for a considerable
time upon the island, where they founded Oaralis, Nora, Tharros, and other towns ;
and even during the time of the Romans it was customary to place Punic inscrip-
tions upon the tombstones. The ruins of Tharros have yielded golden idols and
other articles in large numbers, most of them being of Egyptian origin. But the
principal witnesses to the civilisation of the ancient Sards are the curious
structures known as nuraghi. They generally occupy the hill-tops, and, seen from
a distance, resemble pyramids. The limestone plateau of Giara, near the centre of
the island, is surrounded by masonry structures of this description, which aboimd
also in other portions of the island, the number still existing being neatly 4,000.
They are most numerous in the basaltic region to the south of Maoomer,
and are met with for the most part in fertile districts, far away from the arid
steppes.

The origin and uses of these nuraghi have been a subject of much discussion, but
archaeologists now almost universally adopt the views of Signer Spano, the indefa-
tigable explorer of Sardinian antiquities. According to him these nuraghi were
dwellings, and their Phoenician name simply means " round house." The rudest

SABDINIA.

I wild goats with long
rolara, in the Gulf of
lals abandoned at seme
lamed after the goats
jntly introduced there

i are smaller than the
' exception to the rule.
I, and weasel are all of
applies to domesticated
it size, especially where
variety of this animal
)b classed amongst soli-
le horse is distinguished
If in addition to these
rank among the most
(/though hardly larger
lently share with their
ed miUs, resembling in
jn in the Vatican, are
mte towards the support

Western Europe in pre-
its' stones," " altars," or
fing traces of the chisel.

is doubted Amongst
inected with the worship
stayed for a considerable
'harros, and other towns ;
y to place Punic inscrip-

yielded golden idols and
Igyptian origin. But the

Sards are the curious
) hill-tpps, and, seen from
' Giara, near the centre of
lescription, which abound
flting being neavly 4,000.

the south of Maoomer,
, far away from the arid

ect of much discussion, but

Signer Spano, the indefa-

him these nuraghi were

jund house." The rudest

among them, dating back probably for forty centuries, contain but a single chamber.
They were erected during the age of stone, when man first gave up his cavern
dwellings. The more recent constructions date back to the age of bronze, and even
of iron. More skill is exhibited in their structure, though no mortar has been
used, and they contain two or more chambers, forming as many floors, and accessible
by means of stone stairs. The ground floor of some is large enough for the accom-
modation of forty or fifty persons, and is furnished with antechambers and small
semicircular recesses. The nuraghi of Su Domu of S'Orou, near Domus Novasi
which has recently been demolished, contained ten chambers and four courtyards ;

Fig. 127.— La Giaia.
Soale 1 : SOStSM.

kNirm^

SXilM.

it was a fortress as well as a dwelling-plaoe, capable of accommodating a hundred
persons and standing a siege. The dwellings of the modem Albanians and of the
Swaneti in the Caucasus still resemble these ancient abodes.

The rubbish which accumulated in these nuraghi has yielded a multitude of
objects which throw light upon the daily life of the inhabitants, and bear witness to
their relative civilisation. The lower strata only contain hand-made utensils, stone
arms, and pottery, but in the upper and more recent layers many articles of bronze
have been found. Other monuments of cyclopean structure stand near these
ancient dwellings. They are popularly known as " giants' tombs," and Signer

846

ITALY.

Sapi, who has examined a large number of them, has discovered in every instance
the ashes of human beings.

Though very superstitious, the Sardinians have no legends respecting these
dwellings of the aborigines, and at most attribute them to the devil. This
absence of traditions is no doubt traceable to the almost total annihilation of
the inhabitants by successive conquerors. The Carthaginians showed no mercy
to the aborigines, and during the first centuries of Roman rule massacres and
forcible emigration were the order of the day, and the gaps thus created were filled
up by Italian colonists and exiles. v

The ancient Sards were most likely Iberians. Thpy are of low stature, and
the climate, which has stunted the growth of wild and domesticated animals,
appears to have influenced man likewise; but they are well proportioned and
muscular, have an abundance of black hair and strong beards, and scarcely ever
grow bald. There are minor differences in the Sards of the two provinces. Those
of the north have generally oval features and an aquiline nose, whilst those near
Oagliari, who are probably more mixed, have irregular features and prominent
cheek-bones.

The inhabitants of the interior of the island are, perhaps, of purer race than any
other Europeans. Their ancestors, no doubt, were of the most diverse orig^, but
most invasions which took place after the Roman era stopped short at the coast.
The Yandals paid a visit to Sardinia, but all the other (Germanic tribes, who
ravaged nearly every other country of Western Europe, spared that island, and
its inhabitants were thus able to preserve their manners and language. The
Moors, Piaans, Genoese, Gatalonians, and Spaniards, who successively invaded the
island, never penetrated beyond the coast. There is only one exception to this
rule, viz. that of the Barbaricini, who inhabit the mountain district of Barbagia,
in the very centre of the island, and who are supposed to be the descendants of
Berbers expelled from Africa by the Yandals. When they came to the island
they were still pagans, and they intermarried with their neighbours, the Ilienses,
an aboriginal tribe, pagans like themselves. They were converted to Christianity
in the se- mth century, and the sombre drera worn by their women reminds us of
Barbary.

Of all the idioms derived from the Latin, that spoken in Sardinia has most
resemblance to the language of the ancient Romans. More than five hundred
words are absolutely identical. There are likewise a few Ch^k words not met
with in any other Latin idiom, as well as two or three words which have no
affinity with any other European tongue, and which are, perhaps, derived from the
language spoken by the aborigines. The two leading dialects, those of Logoduro,
in the north and of Cagliari, are directly derived from the Latin, and are, perhaps,
most nearly related to Spanish. At Sassari, and in some of the neighbouring coast
districts, an Italian dialect is spoken which is very much like that of Corsica or
Genoa. At Alghero the descendants of the Catalonian immigrants who settled
there about the middle of the fourteenth century still speak their old Provenfal.
The MaureUi, ox Maureddus, in the environs of Iglesias, who are probably Berbers,

SARDINIA.

847

ered in every instance

ends respecting these
to the devil. This
total annihilation of
ians showed no mercy
An rule massacres and
hus created were filled

re of low stature, and
domestioated animals,
well proportioned and
ards, and scarcely ever
I two provinces. Those
noBo, whilst those near
'eatures and prominent

I, of purer race than any
nost diverse origin, hut
ped short at the coast.
Qermanio tribes, who
spared that island, and
>s and language. The
mccessively invaded the
ily one exception to this
in district of Barbagia,

> be the descendants of
hey came to the island
aeighbours, the Ilienses,
inverted to Christianity
Ir women reminds us of

m. in Sardinia has most
Bf ore than five hundred
)w Gh^k words not met
e words which have no
lerhaps, derived from the
Lects, those of Logoduro,

> Latin, and are, perhaps,
}f the neighbouring coast
L like that of Oorsioa or

immig^rants who settled
Mk their old Proven9aL
rho are probably Berben^

and can be recognised by their narrow skulls, make use of a few African words.
Maltzan looks upon the inhabitants of the fertile district of Millis as the purest
representatives of African immigrants, and it was they who introduced the cultiva-
tion of the orange into Sardinia.

The Sardinians of the interior not only retain their ancient language, but like-
wise many of their ancient customs. Their dances are still the same as in the
time of Greece. In the north the steps are regulated by the human voice, the
chanters occupying the centre of the ring. In the south a musical instrument,
the launedda, is used, which is nothing but an ancient flute, made of two or three
reeds. The customs observed at christenings, weddings, and funerals are likewise
of remote date. Marriage, as amongst nearly all the ancient inhabitants of
Europe, is preceded by a feigned abduction of the bride. The latter, after she has
entered the house of her husband, must not stir from her place during that day,
nor speak a single word. Mute as a statue, she is no longer a sentient being,
but a "thing," the property, of her husband. She is not permitted to see her
relatives during three days, and in the south many women partly conceal their
features.

The mountaineers likewise observe the lugubrious ceremony of a wake, called
titio or attito. Women, who are either the firiends of the deceased or are engaged
for the purpose, penetrate the mortuary chamber, tear their hair, howl, and
improvise hymns of mourning. These old pagan ceremonies become truly terrific
when the deceased has been the victim of assassination, for in that case the
mourners swear to take the life of the murderer. Up to the beginning of this
century the practice of the vendetta annually cost the lives of hundreds of young
men. At the present day it is confined to the most secluded parts of the island,
and in the mountain districts of Nuoro and La Oallura it is customary at
christenings to place a few bullets in the swaddling-clothes of the infants,
these consecrated bullets being supposed never to miss their mark. Another
custom still more barbarous has ceased to be observed since the beginning of
the last century. Women, cdled " finishers " (aceabadure), were employed to
hasten the end of dying persons, a practice which often led to the most atrocious
deeds.

The peasant of Sardinia, though not the proprietor of the soil, is nevertheless
permitted to enjoy the result of his labour. The feudal system existed up to 1840,
and many traces of it still survive. The great barons, most of them of Spanish
extraction, were almost the absolute masters of the country, and up to 1836 they
administered the law, had their prisons, and erected gallows as a symbol of their
power. The peasants, however, were not tied to the land, but could migrate at
pleasure, and custom granted them a fair share of the produce of the soil. By
virtue of an ademprivio they were permitted to cut wood in the forests, to pasture
their sheep on the hills, and to bring into cultivation the waste lands of the plains.
Agriculture was oarriod on in the most primitive fashion, for the great lords of
the land usually resided abroad, and the management of their estates was left to
baili£b. Govemmoit has now become the proprietor of most of the tmenoloaed

848

ITALY.

Un J, 80,000 acres of which have been ceded to the Anf^lo-Ttalian Company, which
baa undertaken to provide the island with a network of railways.

In the more densely populated districts the division of the land is exceedingly
minute, and this subdivision is still progressing at a most disastrous rate. The
nomad herdsmen, on the other hand, possess no land of their own, though, it'
inclined, they are at liberty to enclose a plot. But vague proprietary rights like
these render the careful cultivation of the soil impossible. It has been seriously
proposed to expropriate the whole of the land, and to sell it to a few enterprising
capitalist*, bat this would simply amount to a restoration of the old feudal times,

Fig. 128.— DllTBIOT OP lOUHUS.

BMOti: tiojm.

i*!* CeEoTMr, v'i W' 3i'

^--i. ;

y-,:: -m

■ai^

■^■:'--' ■:- ^ 1

ii ^ *»>' jj^^^^Hl^^

^ '^-.^^^^^t^^mM

fe %V, '■■

.. ^ UPi«lre.F \^^H^BB9

s V 1

^^^^^^^ j^Jl^ia^g^ U ^^H^DnBI^H^^^^^D

-^ ^ "^T?^ ^^^■■^■^ ^HHh^^H

m^aa^i\

■ - " ■-

'-j'^^^^^Fv ,V--- TTl^Hffl

'V'^^^B' IJ^^H

' ■

r»mm,rt,h,rfT^^mi ''l^Pfl

* \M^r^ ""^'^-^

1- 1 "1 -1 »i

and poverty, which is great eveu now, would become greater. There are viUages in
the district of Ogliastra where the peasants eat bread made of the acorns of Qutreut
ilex, the dough being kneaded with water containing a fatty clay. This is, perhaps,
the only instance of earth-CBting in Europe. The Spaniards, too, eat acorn bread,
but they use the fruit of Quereut haltota, which is really edible, and are careful
not to mix its flour witih earth.

The Sardinians, even when they are the owners of pasture-grounds or of fidds,
never live in the country. Like the Sicilians, they are concentrated in towns or
large villages, and neither hamlets nor isolated fiinnhouaes are met with. Even

"l^^^kii-..

SABDINIA.

ilian Company, whicli
By».

je land ia exceedingly
diMiatrouB rate. Tho
their own, though, if
proprietary rights like
It has been aenously
t to a few enterprising
r the old feudal times,

w. There are villagefl in
I of the acorns of QuereuB
foUj. This ie, perhapB,
rds, too, eat acorn bread,
r edible, and are oarefol

tore-grounds or of fields,
onoentrated in towns or
es are met with. Even

the shepherds in the mountains build their huts in groups called ttaMni, and
combine for mutual protection into cuMorgie. Members of these associations, when
thoy lose their cattle from disease or any other cause, may claim one or more
beasts from every one of their comrades living within the same district or canton.
In other parts of the island — as, for instance, near Iglesias — the produce of the
orchards is looked upon as common property. The mountaineers, though poor,
practise the ancient virtue of hospitality, and though the dwellings are rude, they
find means of making a stranger staying amongst them comfortable.

The products of Sardinia form but a small proportion of those of all Italy.
Most of the peasants only work by fits and starts, and hardly more than a fourth
of the area of the island has been brought under cultivation. It sometimes
happens that the crops are destroyed by the scorching heat of the sun, or eaten up
by locusts, which come in swarms from Africa. Except near Sassari no attempt is
made to improve the produce. The olive-tree alone is cultivated with some care,
for the grower of a certain number of these trees may claim political privileges,
and even the title of " Count," and thousands of proprietors have converted their
sterile steppes into productive olive groves. The millions of oranges grown in the
gardens of Millis and elsewhere are taken entirely for home consumption.
Commercially these oranges are of less importance than the saline plants collected
in the marshes of the coast districts, and the ashes of which are exported to
Marseilles to be converted into soda.

The working of granite and marble quarries yields some profit, but the mines,
which were of such importance in the time of the Romans, are hardly touched
now. There is only one iron mine, that of San Leone, where work has been carried
on seriously by a French company since 1822. It yields about 60,000 tons of ore
annually, and the oldest railway of the island connects that mine with Oagliari. The
district of Iglesias, where the Romans founded Plumbea and Metalla, and the
Pisans searched for silver, has recently regained some of its ancient importance on
account of its lead and zinc mines. The waste of the old mines is likeMrise being
scientifically treated by French, English, and Italian companies, to whom mining
claims have been ceded, and a curious stalootite cavern which traverses the hill
near Domus Novas has been utilised in gaining acoess to the soorisB. Iglesias is
rapidly growing into a city of modem aspect, the village of Gonessa is ah-eady a
respectable town, and tlie* little harbour of Porto Souso, until recently almost
deserted, is now crowded, with small craft employed in carrying annually 900,000
tons of lead and zinc ore to the roadstead tf Carlo-Forte. Unfortunately the
miners, especially thoeei from abroad, frequently succumb to the climate.

The fisheries, being for the most part carried on in the bays exposed to the
sea breezes, are not attended by the same dangers. Certain portions of the coast
abound in fish, such as the Bay of Cagliari, and the narrow arms of the sea in the
archipelago of the Maddalena, which the ancients searched for purple shells.
Anchovies and "sardines" periodically visit the coasts, and as many as 50,000
tunny-fish are sometimes caught in a single srason. The swamps or lagoons like-
wise yield fidli, which are caught in nets spread at the openings of the channels

850 ITALY.

oommunicating with the lea. The awamp of Cugliari abounds in ahad, that of
Oristano in mullets and eels, and that of Alghero in pike and gold fish. The Hnheriua
of Sardinia are consequently of much importance, but most of their protits are
reaped by strangers. Oors'cans fish near La Maddalena, Genoese around San
Pietro, and Italii>;is monopolize the coral fisheries. These latter, too, collect the
Pinna nohilU, a shell, the silky byssus of which is converted into stuff for garments.
Nor do the Sardinians takn to the sea as sailors, and the commerce of the island

Fig. 13D — Caolubi. as •■■» r>0M thi Pam or Bomibia.

.<<<-'

^fW-*=■

• '•-eyviri'"-

.'-• .s^--

is carried on almost ezolusively in Oenoeso and other Italian vessels. Out of
2,400 proverbs collected by SpHno, only three refer to the sea ! *

The inhabitants of the northern " Cape " of Sassari, or di Sopra, claim to be
more intelligent and civilised than those of the southern " Cape " of Cagliari, or
di 8otto. The former do not call themselves Sardinians at all, but apply that
name, which to theih is synonymous with barbarians, to the inhabitants of the

* In 1873 ll,2fi6 Tewels, of 1,080,000 tons, entered and cleared the five ports of the island. In 187fi
2,016 vessels, of 604,766 tons, entered and cleared at Cagliari alone, tbe increase since 1861 having been |
nearly 100 per cent.

8ABDINU.

unda in ihad, that of
^Id fish. The iiHherius
•t of their protita are
Genoeae around San
latter, too, collect the
nto stuff for garmenta.
lommerce of the island

loMimu.

... ^.J ^

parr'

Italian vesseli. Out of
J seal*

or rf» Sopra, claim to be
1 "Cape" of Oagliari, or
as at all, but apply that
o the inhabitants of the

Bto ports of tb« ialand. In 1876
increoae since 1861 haying Iwen

interior and of the aouth. In former times these two aectiona of the population
hated each other, and the apirit of the vendetta, which aet family againat family,
village against village, made its influence felt all over the ialand. Thia old
animoaity baa not yet completely died out ; but the people of Sassari can no
longer claim to be the superiors of their aouthem neighboura. They certainly
are better agriculturiats and more induatriou*, but the aouthemera poaaoHS the
richest mines, their portion of the ialand ia moat productive, and it ia the seat of
the capital.

Oagliari, the ancient Caralis, haa remained the great emporium of the ialand
since the daya of Oarthage. Only a few idola, aepulchral chambers, the ruins o|

Fig: .180.— Th« Pokt or Tiiibamota.
BmU* 1 ! VMfiOO.

l»*Si'a (TCr

an aqueduct, and an amphitheatre excavated in the rock, recall the dominion of
Carthaginians and Bomans, but it could not be deprived of its excellent harbour
and riagnificent roadstead. The town was only a short time under the rule
of the Moors, but its physiognomy is almost more oriental than that of any city
in Europe, many of its houses being provided with cupolas and balconies over-
hanging the streets. Its position as a place of commeice is most favourable, for
it lies on the ocean highway connecting Sicily with the Balearic islunds, and the
coast of Africa is within a day's sail. It is sure to prosper, especially if a serious
effort is made to drain the marshes and to transform the plain of the Campidano
into a fertile garden. The latter, an ancient arm of the sea, extends to the
south-east towards Oristauo, the " town of potters." During the Middle Aget

•r^r. r: 7 t / r. 3KJMtiu t :-

^ baaa i aaaaadaasia^asbs^is--^^ ^^ ^^^

862

ITALY.

the latter was the seat of the most powerful lords of the island, and it was thence
Eleonora promulgated her famous Carta de logu, which hecame the puhlio law of
the whole island. Oristano has an excellent harbour, sheltered by the peninsula
of Tharros, upon which the Phoenicians had founded one of their settlements ; its
fields are fertile, and, to bring about a return of its ancient prosperity, it is only
necessary to drain the marshes which now hem it in. In former times fires were
lighted upon the walls of the town during the season of malaria, to purify the atmo-
sphere ; but the vast forests from which the fuel for these fires was procured have
disappeared, and this portion of Sardinia is no longer entitled to its ancient
epithet of " Arborea." It is said that in the marshes of Nurachi, to the north-
east of Oristano, may be heard now and then a noise resembling the bellowing
of a bull. This noise is probably produced by the passage of air through some
subterranean cavern, and similar phenomena have been observed on the coast of
Dalmatia.

Sassari the delightful, the rival of Oagliari, is embosomed amidst olive-trees,
gardens, and country houses. It alone, of all the towns of the island, could boast
of a republican government during the Middle Ages, and the public spirit of its
present inhabitants is, perhaps, traceable to this circumstance. Its geographical
position, however, is far less favourable than that of Oagliari, for a zone of
swamps separates it from the sea. It might export its produce through the port
of Alghero or the excellent harbour of Porto Oonto, to the south of the
mountains of La Nurra ; but facility of access has dictated its choice of Porto
Torres, a miserable village on the swampy shore of the Gulf of Asinara. Porto
Torres occupies the site of a Boman city, and the arches of a huge aqueduct and
the columns of a Temple of Fortune still rise above the reeds. Thii> 'fid port
certainly offers great facility for the export of the olive oil of Sassari and the
wines of Tempio, as respects France and Genoa ; but the intricate navigation of
the Strait of Bonifacio separates it from the nearest Italian coast. It-aly has
therefore determined to create an additional port on the east coast of the island,
and the Bay of Terranova has been selected for that purpose. Olbia, which at
the time of the Bomans had no leas than 150,000 inhabitants, occupied the site
of the present town, which the Italians fondly imagine may become the great
emporium of the island. Its port is certainly well sheltei^, and the roadsteads
of the archipelago of La Maddalena near it afEord additional accommodation ; but
seriously to improve the condition of Sardinia it will be necessary, above all things,
to drain its dreary swamps, and to " transform tbeir poisonous exhalations into
bread."*

IX. — The Pkesent and Future of Italy.

No impartial spectator can deny that Italy, since it has again taken its place
among the nations of Europe, promises great things for the future. Even its

• Population of the principal towns of Saidinia (1871) :— Gagliari, 31,9.5; SMSari. 30,642; Algli
8,769; Oaieri, 7,96fi ; Igleua*, 7,191 ; Orutano, 6,963 ; Terranora, 1,976.

■f-

THE PBESENT AND FUTUEE OF ITALY.

8«8

aud, and it was tbence

icame the public law of

tered by the peninsula

f their Hettlements ; its

nt prosperity, it is only

former times fires were

aria, to purify the atmo-

fires was procured have

entitled to its ancient

Nurachi, to the north-

isembling the bellowing

,ge of air through some

observed on the coast of

lomed amidst olive-trees,
of the island, could boast
d the public spirit of its
tanoe. Its geographical
Oagliari, for a zone of
>roduce through the port
}, to the south of the
bated its choice of Porto
Gulf of Asinara. Porto
} of a huge aqunduct and
the reeds. Thii» '»ld port
re oil of Sassari and the
be intricate navigation of
Italian coast. Italy has
B east coast of the island,
purpose. Olbia, which at
ibitants, occupied the site
le may become the great
)ltered, and the roadsteads
ional accommodation ; but
aecessary, above all things,
poisonous exhalations into

f Italy.

has again taken its place
for the future. Even its

81,» 6j SMaui, 30,642; Alghero,
(78.

political regeneration has brought to the surface men of the highest intellect,
courage, zeal, and public spirit. There are some amongst them whom posterity
will look upon as a credit to all mankind. Possibly this period of excitement
and nervous activity may be succeeded by a sort of moral collapse, such as
generally takes place after every great crisis in the life of a nation. But this
need not render us anxious for the future, for generations exhausted by the efforts
they have made will be succeeded by others eager to continue the work their pre-
decessors have begun.

In sciences and arts the native country of Yolta, Cialdi, Secchi, Rossini, Yerdi,
and Tela occupies even now a position of equality with the most advanced nations
of Europe. The Italian of the present day is able to refer without shame to the
two great centuries of the Renaissance, for he has entered upon a second period
of regeneration, and the names of contemporaries can be mentioned by the side
of the great names of the past. Italy has its skiKul painters and sculptors,
its celebrated architects and unrivalled musicians. The great works achieved by
its engineers are deserving the study of foreigners. Amongst its physicists,
geologists, astronomers, and mathematicians there are some of the brightest
ornaments of the age, and the assiduity with which universities are frequented
insures their having worthy successors. A geographical society only recently
established has succeasfully taken up the work of exploration so gloriously carried
on by the Genoese and Venetians. It is not just, therefore, to say ironically
that " Italy has been made, but not Italians." Individually the Italians are
inferior to no other race of Europe, and the reorganization of the country would
have been impossible had there been any deficiency in men of mark.

Italy is more densely inhabited than any other of the great states of Europe,
in spite of vast extents of almost iminhabitable mountain tracts and swamps.
The population, however, increases less rapidly than in Russia, England, or
Germany. It doubles in about a century, whilst that of Russia doubles in fifty,
and that of France in two hundred years. Italy thus occupies an intermediate
position. In Apulia and Calabria, which are amongst the poorest provinces, the
birth rate is highest, whilst in the wealthy Marches and Umbria it is lowest. On
an average the Italian dies when he is thirty-two, and his life is consequentiiy
much shorter than that of the average Frenchman or Englishman.

Agriculture and the development of the natural resources of the soil and the
sea engage much more attention than industry properly so called. Nearly
fifty per cent, of the total area is imder cultivation. The cereals raised do
not suffice for the wants of the inhabitants, but other products are exported in
considerable quantities. In its production of oil Italy holds a foremost rank as
regards quantity, but not always with respect to quality. The amount of fruit
gi'own, such as figs, g^pes, almonds, and oranges, is greater than in any ether
country of Europe. The chestnut forests in the Apennines and Alps yield rich
harvests. Its mulberry plantations are four times more extensive than those of
France, and the raw silk produced in favourable yeara exceeds in quantity that
exported from China. The peninsula is still entitled to its ancient epithet of

' <imwKi^-»^iiS s s^Es^:''?^^ieis mmmmm0»i —

864

ITALY.

(Enotria (wine land), but, apart from certain districts of continental Italy and
Sicily, the quality of wine produced, owing to carelessness on the part of the
growers, is inferior to what it is in France. The cultivation of cotton is com-
parativdy of small importance. The breeding of animals yields large protits, and
Italy is noted throughout Europe for the quality of some kinds of cheese.*

The working of the iron mines of Elba, the quarrying of marble and granite in
the Alps and Apuanic Alps, the extraction of borax and boracio acid in the
Tuscan Sub-Apennines, the mining for lead and zinc in Sardinia, and for sulphur
in Sicily,t lead up to industrial pursuits properly so called. These latter extend
nearly to everything, from the manufacture of pins to the construction of steam-
engines and ships. Italy, however, is eminent only in the production of certain
articles de luxe, such as straw bonnets, cameos, coral jewellery, glass, and in the
preparation of macaroni and other &rinaceous pastes. The manufacture of silk,
however, has taken a rapid development in recent years, and Milan has become a
dangerous rival of Lyons. In the province of Novara, and more especially at
Biella, there are hundreds of woollen factories. The cotton manufacture is not of
much importance, and linen- weaving is for the most part carried on ad a domestic
industry. Italy, in fact, cannot yet be called a manufacturing country. The number
of workmen is large, but they mostly labour at home or in small workshops,:^ and
a division of labour, such as exists in England, France, or Oennany, is hardly .
known. Manufactories, however, are rapidly increasing, and e^o^oniical con-
ditions are gradually becoming what they are already in most otL*?^ ui^ries of
Europe. ' *

Italy possesses a powerful mercantile marine, manned by 150,000 seamon ; but
its foreign commerce is far less than might have been expected from its tonnage.^
Most of the vessels are engaged in the coasting trade. The first Italian vessel was
seen in the Pacific in 1847, and even now the Italian flag is very inadequately
represented in the navigation of the great oceans. Italian patriots are anxious to
see the commerce of the country extended to the most distant regions. For the
present Italy enjoys a sort of monopoly in the Mediterranean, and any increase of

* Agricultural lUtiitics of Italy, 1869 (according to Maestri) -.—JHitribiUioH o/Armt ;— Field*, vine-
yards, and orchards, 27,267,360 acres ; olive plantations, l,S7l,400 acres; chestnnt plantations, 1,446,000
acres; foresta, 10,240,400 aores ; meadows, 2,900,000 acres; pastures, 18,387,000 acres. Atmual
Produee .—Cereals, 208,300,000 bushels (value £84,000,000) ; potatoes, 27,«00,000 bushels (£2,000,000) ;
wines, 880,000,000 gallons (£44.000,000) ; raw silk, 6,889,487 lbs. in 1873, 6,306,214 Iba. in 1874 ;
tobacco, 7,236,000 lbs. ; oil, 3,747,860 lbs. (£8,800,000) ; chestnuts, 14,860,000 bnshols. Do»mt%e^»d
AnimtOt (1868) :— 1,196,128 horses, 3,489,126 heads of cattle, 8,674,627 sheep and goats, 1,668,682
P«g«-

t Annual mineral produce of Italy (in tons): — Iron, 86,000; copper, 13,000; lead, 82,260; sine,
30.000; cowl, 110,760; sulphur, 286,611; salt, 888,000; besides small quanUties of silver, nickel,
mercury, &c.

X OeeupatiMu :—kaumg!A every 1.000 inhabitanto there are 342 agriculturisto ; 163 miner* and
artisans; 29 commercial men ; 23 arttsto and identiflc men; 7priesto; 6 officials; 1 soldier; 81 "pro-
prietors ; " 21 domestic servants ; IS paupers ; and 382 without occupation.

{ In 1874 there were 10,929 vessels (including 138 steamers), of a burden of 1,031,8^9 tons; 37,660
vessels, of 7,680,817 tons, entered from or cleared for foreign porta; 197,896 vesssls, of 16,600,000 tonit,
entered and cleared in the home trade. Of every 1,000 tons engaged in the foreign oommerce, 868 sailed
under the Italian, 266 under the English, and 173 under the French ilaf . The commerce with Fhmce
engaged 1,779,672 tons ; that with England 1,888,800 tons ; and that with Austria 998,740 tons.

f.y^ntf^x:

THE PRESENT AND PUTUBE OF ITALY.

866

continental Italy and
B8 on the part of tbe
ition of cotton is com-
irields large prolits, and
inds of cheese.*
f marhle and granite in
id horacic acid in the
strdinia, and for sulphur
I. These latter extend
I construction of steam-
e production of certain
Uery, glass, and in the
he manufacture of silk,
nd Milan has become a
and more especially at
n manufacture is not of
carried on ad a domestic
Lg country. The number
1 small workshops,^ and
, or Gennany, is hardly
r, and e^'>'">Tiio.al con-
most otLe^ !u*rie^ of

by 160,000 seamen ; but
[>ected from its tonnage.§
le first Italian vessel was
iag is very inadequately
ta patriots are anxious to
[istant regions. For the
lean, and any increase of

IribiUion ofAr*a .—Fields *ine-
; ohMtnut plantetions, 1,445,000
M. 18,387,000 «ore». Awtmil
7,000,000 buahels (£2,000,000) ;
1873, 6.308,214 lb«. in l«74 ;
^860,000 buahola. DomtHietted
S27 ahoep and gotto, 1,M8,682

p«r, 18,000; lead, 82,260; »inf,
lall qiiantitiea of liWer, nickel,

agricultariito; 163 minen and
; 6oiBciab; 1 eoldier; 31"pro-
on.

nrdenof 1,031,880 tone; 37,660
(7,896 veaNls, of 16,600,000 ton*,
the foieign commerce, 368 eailed
lg. The oommeroe with Frtnce
ith Austria 998,740 tone.

population or wealth in Northern Africa must prove of immediate advantage to it.
But there can be no doubt that the proposed railway from Antwerp or Calais to
Saloniki or Constantinople will seriously a£Pect the transit trade of Italian ports.
Nor are Italian shipowners able to compete with their rivals of Marseilles or Trieste
when it is a question of speed, for the number of their steamers is very small. ^

Pig. 181. — Navioatton of Ttalt.

^^ssiiyjr

The facilities for carrying on oo6Mting trade have, in some measure, interfered
with the development of the inland trade of the country. The construction of
railways, however, is gradually bring^g about a change. Ali^uly five lines of

«»®a

THE PBESENT AND FUTUEB OF ITALY.

The oommeroe of Italy has increased rapidly of late, but it is still inferior not
only to that of England, France, Germany, Austria, and Russia, but likewise to
that of muoh smaller countries, like Belgium and the Netherlands. In 1875
the imports, including transit, were estunated at £48,614,280, the exports at
£42,301,800. France participates in this commerce to the extent of 31 per cent.,
England is represented by 23, Austria by 20, and all the other countries of the
world share in the remainder. Recently the commerce with North and South
America has assumed considerable proportions, and efforts are being made to obtain
a footing in Eastern Asia.

The great scourge of Italy consists in the poverty of its peasantry even in
the most fertile provinces, as in Lombardy and the Basilicata. These peasants
live in foul hovels, and the united earnings of a whole family are hardly sufficient
to procure bread. Cheatnuts, and a polenta of maize and paste made of damaged
flour, are the principal articles of food, and nothing is left for luxuries, or even
comfortable clothing. Rickets and other diseases brought about by an insufficiency
of food are common, and, in fact, mortality is very great. Emigration is under
these circumstances of immense advantage to the country, for the thousands of
Italians who seek work or found new homes in South America, the United States,
France, Turkey, Egypt, and elsewhere, not only earn their bread, but also render
some assistance to those of their relatives who remain behind. It is said that out
of 500,000 Italians living abroad, no less than 100,000 are engaged in art, either
as painters, sculptors, or musicians, the latter bdng frequently mere street-singers
or organ-grinders.

!l^orance, the usual companion of poverty, is still very great throughout the
peninsula. We might err in condemning the Italians because of their ignorance
of the arts of reading and writing, for, as the heirs of an ancient civilisation,
they are more polished in their manners than the educated peasants of the
North. Still this ignorance i« nrost deplorable, for it precludes all progress.
Nearly two-thirds of the population over ten years of age are unable to read, and
fifty-nine men and seventy-eight women out of every hundred are unable to sign
the marriage registers. There are several thousand parishes without elementary
schools, and the number of pupils, instead of amounting to the normal proportion
of one to every six or seven inhabitants, is only one to about eleven.* Education,
however, is making fair prog^wss, but its influence upon the diminution of crimes
of violence has hitherto been small. In 1874 Signor Cantelli, the Home
Secretary, stated that there occurred annually 3,000 homicides, 4,000 cases of
highway robbery, and 30,000 violent assaults.

The permanent confusion of the finances of Italy, attended as it is by beavy
and vexatious taxes, must be looked upon as one of the principal causes which
retard the development of the country. The national debt may appear a small
matter if we compare it with that of France, but it has been raised in the course

* Pnb!it Sekool* {1912) -.—Mfiii Omamifiry waA evening 1(^001^2,274,999 pnpili; 1,088 miperior
■dioola, 64,044 pupila; 21 niiiTenitiea, 10,000 itadents; 6S1 profeiiional, teohnioal, and art whool%
83,311 itiidante. Total, 60,076 aobooli, ftc, with 2,882,354 fupik and atadeota.
26

868

ITALY.

of a tingle generation, and is angmenMng from year to year. The revenue
increases, but the expenditure does so ukbttirie, and the additional income
resulting from an increase of taxation and the sales of Church property is not
sufficient to cover the deficiency. The heavy cost of the army, an absence of
sustained efforts in carrying on public works, waste and fraud by public servants,
have hitherto prevented the establishment of a balance between income and
expenditure, and the paper money issued by Government is nowhere accepted at
its nominal value.

This disorganization of the finances places Italy at the mercy of foreigners,
and the arrangements which have to be made from time to time with foreign
capitalists are not always of a purely financial nature. The inefficiency of her
military and naval organisation, moreover, compels her to cultivate foreigib alli-
ances as expediency may direct, and to these alliances Italy is, in a large measure,
indebted for her political unity.*

Nor is this unity even now as perfect as oould be desired. The Pope has been
deprived of his temporal power ; he resides at the Vatican as a guest ; and the
money offered him by the Italian Government, but which has never been accepted,
is not tribute, but a gratuity. But, in spite of this, the Pope is still a real power,
and his very presence interferes 8ubst«ntially with the permanent establishment
of the state. The Oatholics of the woild have not yet acquiesced in his disesta-
blishment, and they allow no opportunity for attacking the new order of things
to escape them. Political Europe is consequently much interested in the home
affairs of Italy, and feels temjtted frequently to intervene. The most expert
diplomacy may not be able to avert this danger, and if there is a struggle it will
certainly not be confined to the peninsula.

In the end Italy will no doubt escape from the anomalous position of having
for her capital a city which is the seat of a theocratic government claiming the
allegiance of the Roman Catholics of the entire world. The geographical
conditions of no other country are equally favourable to the development of
national sentiments and the maintenance of a national individuality. At the
same time the well-defined boundaries of the country deprive it of all force of
expansion. Italy will never play a great part beyond the bounds of the Mediter-
ranean, and though Italian may obtain a certain preponderance in Tunis, Egypt,
and the Levant, the noble language of Dante has no chance, as regards univer-
sality, when opposed to English, French, Spanish, German, or Bussian.

X. — GOVBBMMKNT AND ADMINISTRATION.

Thb charter promulgated in Mtirch, 1848, declares the old kingdom of
Sardinia to be an hereditary constitutional monarchy. It has gradually been

* Expaoditore

BflTMIIlS

Defldt
National Debt

18U.
£24,206,920
£18,832,880

£6,874,040
£100,000.000

ima.

£61,704,000
£1(2,884,000

£0,840,000
£402,400,000

1876.
££6,618,600
£ 08,490.80

£1,118,800
£460,000,000

mmm

GOVERNMENT AND ADUINISTBATION.

) year. The revenue
be additional income
)hurcli property is not
) army, an absence of
wd by public servants,
I between income and
is nowhere accepted at

,e mercy of foreigfners,
3 to time with foreign
rhe inefficiency of her
) cultivate foreigib alli-
|r is, in a large measure,

d. The Pope has been
an as a guest ; and the
las never been accepted,
ope is still a real power,
lermanent establishment
oquiesced in his disesta-
he new order of things
interested in the home
rene. The most expert
lere is a struggle it will

lalous position of having
[ovemment claiming the
rid. The geographical
I to the development of
1 individuality. At the
eprive it of aU force of
LO bounds of the Mediter-
iderance in Tunis, Egypt,
lanoe, as regards univer-
Etn, or Russian.

kTION.

es the old kingdom of
. It has gradually been

100
MO

1876.
£66,618,600

£«MM>8<>0

£M 18,800

£460,000,000

extended to the other portions of the peninsula. Like most similar documents, it
guarantees equality before the law, personal liberty, and inviolability of the domi-
oile. The press is free, " subject to a law repressing its abuses ; " the right of
meeting is recognised, " but not in the case of places open to the general public ; "
and all citizens are promised the enjoyment of equal civil and political rights,
" except in those cases which shall be determined by law."

The executive is intrusted to the King, but no law or act of government is
valid imless countersigned by a minister. The King, as such, is commander of
the naval and military forces, he concludes all treaties, and the assent of the
Chambers is only required if they concern cessions of territory, or entail an
expenditure of public money. All Government officials are appointed by the King,
he may dissolve the Ohamber of Deputies, justice is administered in his name,
and he possesses the right of pardon. He enjoys the fruits of the Crown lands,
and may dispose of his private property without reference to the general laws of
the country. The civil list of the £ing and the members of his family annually
exceeds £800,000 1

Senators are appointed by the King from amongst ecclesiastical, military, and
civil functionaries, persons of wealth, and men who have deserved well of the
country. Their number is not limited, and they must be forty years of age.
Deputies are elected for five years. They must be thirty years of age. I^either
senators nor deputies are in receipt of emoluments, and this may explain the
little zeal they exhibit in the performance of their public duties. A quorum,
consisting of one-half the members of each house piua one, is frequently unattain-
able for weeks.

The franchise is enjoyed by professors of universities and colleges, civil
servants, knights o.f orders of chivalry, members of the liberal professions,
merchants, persons who have an income of £24 from money invested in Govern-
ment securities, and all others twenty-five years of age, able to read and write,
and paying 32s. in taxes. The number of electors is about 400,000, but hardly
one-half of them ever go to the poll.

Each province occupies the position of a "corporation," which may hold
property, and enjoys a certain amount of self-government. The "Provincial
Councils" consist of from twenty to sixty members, who are chosen by the
municipal electors for five years. These Councils usually occupy themselves
with the material interests of the province, and, when not sitting, are represented
by a " Deputation " charged with controlling the acts of the prefect.

The municipal organization is very similar to that of the provinces. The
Councils are elected for five years: aU nudes of twenty-one years of age paying
from 4s. to 20s. In taxes (according to the importance of the municipality),
professors, civil servants, members of liberal professions, and soldiers who
have been decorated are in the enjoyment of the franchise. The Council meets
twice a year, and its sittings are held in public if a majority demands it. It
appoints a municipal giunta of from two to twelve monbers, oluvrged with the
conduct of ounent affiors. The mayors, like the provincial prefects, are

HALT.

appointed by Goyemmeni, but muit be chosen from the members of the Municipal
Council.

The great territorial divisions of the kingdom (see p. 362) consist of 69
provinces and 284 circles {drcondarii), or districts. These latter again are sub-
divided into 1,77Q judicial districts {mandamenii) and 8,360 commuaes. The
central Government is represented in the provinces by a prefect, in the districts
by a sub-prefect, and in the communes by a mayor, or tindaeo. This system of
administration it very much like that existing in modem France.

The administration of justice was organised in 1866. In each commune there
is a " Oonciliator," appointed for three years by Cbvemment, on the presentation
of the Municipal Oouncil. A "Fretor " administers justice at the capital of each of
the judicial districts : he is assisted by one or more Yice-pretors. "Sexi follow 161
civil and correctional courts, 92 assise courts, 24 courts of appeal, 26 commercial
tribunals, and 4 courts of cassation ; the latter at Florence, Naples, Palermo, and
Turin. The Code of Laws is an adaptation of the Code Napoleon, and breathes
the same spirit.

In military matters Prussia has served as a model. Every Italian, on attaining
his twenty-first year, becomes liable to serve in the army or navy. Men embodied
in the first category of the standing army (Meeroih permanente) remain frtnn three
to five years under the colours, according to the arm to which they belong, and six to
seven years on furlough. The men of the second category, or reserve of the stand-
ing army, drill fifty days, and are then dismissed to their homes. The " mobilised
militia " includes all men up to forty not belonging to the standing army. A
** levy en masse," or Milwia ttanaiok, is provided for by law, but nothing has been
done hitherto to render it a reality. The standing army includes 90 regiments of
infantry, 20 regiments of cavalry, 14 of artillery, and 1 of engineers, and numbers
410,000 men; the reserve amounts to 180,000 men; the mobilised militia (247
battalions, 24 Alpine oompanies, 60 batteries, and 10 companies of engineers),
277,000, and 234,000 officers and men are stated to be under the colours. The
four great fortresses of the north are Yerona, Mantua, Peschiera, and Legnago.
These form the famous " Quadrilateral." Venice is likewise a place of great
strength, and made an heroic defence in 1849. Palmanova defends the frontier
between the Julian Alps and the Gulf of Trieste. Rocoa d'Anfo, on ap isolated
rock to the north of Lake Gbrda, commands the defiles of the Adige and Chiese.
Pizzighettone, on the Adda, is no longer of much importance, now that Italy has
acquired possession of the Quadrilateral ; but Alessandria, at the confluence of ^o I
Tanaro and Bormido, will always retain its rank as the great strategical centre of I
Piemont, and one of the strongest places of Europe. Casale may be looked upon [
as one oi its outworks, and together with Genoa defends the passages of the
Apennines. Piacenza and Ferrara command important passages of the Po. Thai
other fortresses of Itikly are Ancona in the centre ; Porto Ferrajo in Elba ; Gaeta,!
Oapu^ and Taranto in the south ; and Messina in Sicily.

The navy consists of 21 irondads (179 guns, engines of 11,310 horse-power,!
76,842 tons) and 61 wooden steamers, muuied by 20,000 seamen. The greatf

r ]|i.l i p i il'f i l|l'. i " i i.j'jf i )- i i l '.i i i,]» ii|i

nben of the Mimioipal

p. 362) oonnst of 69
i latter again are tub-
J,360 commune*. The
jrefeot, in the districts
\idaco. This system of
i'ranoe.

In each commune there
mi, on the presentation
at the capital of each of
etors. Next follow 161
r appeal, 26 commercial
», Naples, Palermo, and
Napolten, and breathes

rery Italian, on attaining
>r navy. Men embodied
nente) remain frwrn three
oh they belong, and six to
f, or reserve of the stand-
bomes. The " mobilised
the standing army. A
aw, but nothing has been
includes 90 r^fiments of
>f engineers, and numbers
le mobilised miUtia (247
companies of engineers),
under the colours. The
Feschiera, and Legnago.
ikewise a place of great
inova defends the firontier
icoa d'Anfo, on ap isolated
I of the Adige and Chieae.
,rtanoe, now that Italy has
ia, at the confluence of ^e
great strategical centre of
liasale may be looked upon
fends the passages of the
t passages of the Fo. The
toFerrajoinElba; Gaeta,

lies of 11,310 horse-power,
0,000 seamen. The great

OOVEBNMEMT AND ADMINISTRATION.

naval arsenals and stations are at Speiia, Genoa, Naples, Oastellamare di Stabbia,
Venice, Ancona, and Taranto.

The Roman Catholic Church alone is acknowledged by the State, but all other
religions are tolerated. The conflict between Church and State is favourable to the
spread of Protestantism ; but, apart from the Waldenses and a few foreigners in the
larger towns, there art. ao Protestants in Italy. Many of those, however, who a*^
nominally Catholics have ranged themselves amongst the enemies of their Church,
or are perfectly indifferent.

Italy occupies quite a special position in the world, owing to its being the seat
of the Papacy. Rome is the seat of two governments, viz. that of the King and
of the Sovereign Pontifll The latter, though shorn of his temporal power, is
in principle one of the most absolute mopirchs. Once elected Vicar of Jesus
Christ by the cardinals met in conclave, l. is responsible to no one for his
actions, though it is oustonwry for him to listen to the advice of the Sacred
College of Cardinals before deciding questions of importance. The Pope alone, of
all men, is infallible ; he can efiace the crimes of others, " bind and unbind," and
holds the keys of heaven and hell, his power extending thus beyond the span of
man's natural life.

The cardinals are the great dignitaries of this spiritual government. They
are created by the Pope. Their number is limited to 70, viz. 6 Cardinal Bishops
(who reside at Rome), 50 Cardinal Priests, and 14 Cardinal Deacons. The Cardinal
Camerlengo represents the temporal authority of the Holy See, and on the death of
a pope he takes charge of the Vatican and of the Fisherman's Key, which is the
symbol of the power bestowed upon St. Peter and his successors. In special oases
the cardinals of the three orders maj be convoked to an (Ecumenical Council.
On the death of & pope the cardinals elect his successor, who must be fifty-five
years of age, and obtain two-thirds of the votes. His investment with the
pallium and tiara, however, only takies place after the assent of the Governments
of France, Spain, Austria, and Naples (now represented by Italy) has been
secured.

In virtue of the formula of " A free Church in a free State," so frequently
repeated since Cavour, the Pope is permitted to enjoy sovereign rights. He
convokes councils and chapters, appoints all ecclesiastical officers, has his own
post-office and telegraph, his guard of nobles and of Swiss, pays no taxes, and
enjoys in perpetuity the palaces of the Vatican and Lateran, as well as the villa
of Castel-Gandolfo, on the Lake of Albano. In addition to this, he has been voted
by the Italian Parliament an annual "dotation " of £129,000. This grant, how-
ever, he has not touched hitherto, but the " Peter's pence/' collected by the
fiiithful in all parts of the world, amount to more than double that sum.

Italy is divided into 47 arohiepiscopal and 206 episcopal sees. There are more
than 100,000 secular priests, and in 1866, when the monasteries and convents were
suppressed, their inmates receiving pensions from Government, there were 32,000
monks and 44,000 nuns. The ecclesiastioal army consequently numbers 176,000
souls, and is nearly as numerous as the military force on a peace footing.

- _*fc,(u,w.4-r^prf-^v***)^M-. ^

u wm w iw " I \ mnp»\f 'ymf^mm^

■timated for 1876) of

l,302,9«6
2,807,460
1,404,004

ai7,o«o

1,2!»,014

2,008,072

0*4,482

27,482,174

CORSICA/

^li'^i^^ii

RSIOA, with Sardinia, forma a world apart. At a remote epoch
theie two islands were but one, and it is ouriovs to find that
Oorrioa, which politically now forms part of franco, is geo-
graphically as well as historically much more Italian than its sister
isknd. A ghmoe at a map is sufficient to convince us that Corsica
is a dependency of Italy, for while abyssal depths of more than 600 fathoms
separate it from Provence, it is joined to the coast of Tuscany by a submarine
plateau, the mountains of which rise above the surface of the waters as islands. The
climate and natural productions of the island ai.t, those of Italy, and the language
of its inhabitants is Italian. Purchased from the Genoese, then conquered by
main force, Oorsioa in the end voluntarily united its destinies with those of France.
It has now been connected for more than three generations with the latter, and
there can be no doubt that most of its citizens look upon themselves as Frenchmen.
Though only half the size of Sardinia, Corsica is. nevertheless larger than an
average French department. The fourth island in size of the Mediterranean, it
follows next to Cyprus, but is far more important than that island, and only yields
to Sicily and Sardinia in wealth and population, t It is a country of great natural
beauty. Its mountains, attaining an altitude of over 8,000 feet, remain covered
with snow during half the year, and the view from the summits embraces nearly
the whole of the island, its barren rocks, forests, and cultivated fields. Most of
the valleys abound in running water, and cascades glitter in all directions. Old
Genoese towers, standing upon promontories, formerly defended the entrance to
every bay exposed to incursions of the Saracens, but they arc hardly more now-
adays than embellishments of the landscape.

Monte Cinto, the culminating point of the island, does not pierce the region of

* ^irfAor<«iM ;— Haimooohi, "O^raphifl de la Cone;" Oregoiovins, "Oonim;" Pr. HMmte,
" Voj'age en Gone."

t Arab of Condca, 8,878 ■quare miles ; length from north to eouth, 1 14 miles ; width, 82 miles ; dove-
lopmoit of ooaat-Une, 800 mile*.

864

0OB8I0A.

peniitent snowi. A huge oitadel of granite, whooe fiutneiMe afforded a shelter to
the Oortioana during their wan of independence, it riiee in the north-weitcm
portion of the island. From ite lununit we can trace the whole of the coast from
the French Alps to the Apennines of Tuscany. There are other peaks to tho
north and south of it which almost riyal it in height.* This main chain of the
island consists throughout of crystalline rook. Transverse ridges connect it with
a parallel range of limestone mountains on the east, which extend northward
through the whole of the peninsula of Bastia, and shut in, farther south, the old
lake basin of Oorte, now drained by the Oolo, Tarignano, and other rivers. The
whole of the interior of Corsica may be described as a labyrinth of mountains, and

Fig. 188.— BVBMABIKI PLATIAir BRWmf OOBUOA AMD TUMAMT.
SMdt 1 : 1,860^0001

y^:V:

.KWOm.

in order to pass firom village to village it is necessary to climb up steep steps, or
aeak, and to ascend from the region of olives to that of pasturage. The high-road
which joins Ajaooio to Bastia has to climb a pass 3,793 feet in height (Fig. 134),
and even the road following the populous western coast ascends and descends con*
tinuously, in order to avoid the promontories descending steeply into the sea.
These physical obstades sufficiently explain why railways have not yet been
built.

The western coast of the island is indented by numerous gulfs and bays, which
resemble ancient fiords partly filled up by alluvial sediment. On ihe eastern coast.

* From north to Math :— Monte Padro, 7,846 feat ; Monte Cinto, 8,878 feet ; FagUa Orba, 8,388 feet ;
Botondo, 8,607 feet ; Monte d'Oio, 7,890 feet ; Incudine, 6,746 feet

) olimb up steep itepe, or
isturage. The high-road
eet in height (Fig. 184),
Moulds and deaoends con-
ing steeply into the aea.
frays have not yet been

ouB gulfs and bays, which
snt. On the eastern coast,

78 feet; P«gli» OAa, 8,aM fe^i

tea£y.;^i^jA!g'ijijia*'Ljji^ "

MtMei**^)*^*

OOBSIOA.

865

which &ce8 Italy, the slopes are more gentle ; the rivers are larger and more
tranquil, though not one of them is navigable; and the ground is more level.
This portion of the island is known as Banda di Dentro, or " inner zone," in dis-
tinction of the Banda di Fuori, or " exterior (western) zone." The eastern coast
appears to have been upheaved during a comparatively recent epoch, and ancient
gulfs of the sea have been converted into lagoons and swamps, quite as dangerous
from their miasmal exhalations as those of the sister island. If we add that the
mountains in the west obstruct the passage of the vivifying mistral, that the heat
in summer is great, and droughts frequent, we have said enough to account for
the i'osalubrity of the climate.* The maritime basin between Corsica and Italy
is almost shut ia by mountains, and purifying breezes are rare there. Between
Bastia and Forto-Yeochio not a single town or village is met with on the coast,
and in the beginning of July the peasantry retire to the hiUs in order to escape
the fever. Only a few guards and the unfortunate convicts shut up in the peni-
tentiary of Casabianda remain behind. Nothing more melancholy can be imagined

Fig. 134. — FuotiLR OF THB Road from Amccio to Bibtia.

t} tS tt If M

than these fertile fields deserted by their inhabitants. Plantations of eucalyptus
have been made recently with a view to the amelioration of the climate.

Owing to the great height of the mountains we are able to trace in Corsica
distinct zones of vegetation. Up to a moderate height the character of the
vegetation is sub-tropiqal, and resembles that of Sicily or Southern Spain. There
are districts which can be numbered amongst the most fertile of the Mediter-
ranean. One of these is the Canyto deU'Oro, or "field of gold," around Ajacoio,
where hedges of tree-like cacti separate the gardens and orchards ; such, also, is
the country to the north of Bastia, with its aromatic flowers and luscious fruits.
Olive forests generally cover the lower hills, their silvery foliage contrasting with
the sombre verdure of the chestnut woods above. Balagna, near Oalvi, on the
north-western coast of the island, is &mous for its olives, whilst another valley, on
the opposite side of the iskad, near Bastia, can boast of the most magnificent
chestnut-trees. Chestnuts, in some parti, constitute the principal article of food,

• Heaa «iuum1 tenp«ratim at Bsrtift, W'V F. ; niidUi, 28 indiM.

:m'4

■ tM I Iyi " -

5!!^"3>'5U'?~

I M M i nty 'i i"'""

0OB8I0A.

and enable the inhabitants, who are by no means distinguished for their industry,
to dispense with the cultivation of cereals. Some political economists have
actually proposed to fell these trees, in order that the inhabitants may be forced
to work. ,

Chestnut-trees grow up to a height of 6,250 feet. The virgin forests which
formerly extended beyond them to the zone of pasturage have for the most part
disappeared. In the upper Balagna valley, Valdoniello, and Aitone, however,
magnificent forests may still be seen, and a larch (Pintts altiaaimm), the finest
conifer of all Europe, attains there a height of 160 feet. These splendid trees,
unfortunately, are rapidly disappearing. They are being converted into masts, or
sawn into staves and planks.

The pasturing grounds above theso forests are frequented during summer by
herdsmen with their flocks of sheep and goats. The agile mufHon is still met
with there in a few rocky recesses, and the shepherds assert that wild boars,
though very numerous on the island, carefully avoid its haunts. The wolf is
unknown in the island, and the bear has disappeared for more than a century.
Foxes of large size and small deer complete the fauna of the forest region of
Corsica. The malmignntu spider, whose bite is sometimes mortal, is probably of
the same species as that of Sardinia and Tuscany ; the tarentula is the same as
that of Naples, but the venomous ant known as innafantato appears to be peculiar
to the island.

We know nothing about the origin of the aborig^inal inhabitants of Corsica.
There are neither nuraghi, as in Sardinia, nor other antiquitie? enabling us to
form an opinion with respect to their manners. But there exist near Sartdne and
elsewhere several dolmens, or stazzone, menhirs, or staniare, and even avenues
of stones which are similar in all respects to those of Brittany and England. We
may assume, therefore, that these countries were formerly inhabited by the same
race.

The inhabitants of Corte, in the interior of the island, and the mountaineers of
Bastelioa, boast of being Corsicans of the purest blood. At Bastia the type is
altogether Italian, but as we travel into the interior we meet men with large
fleshy faces, small noses devoid of character, dear complexion, and eyes of a chest-
nut colour rather than black. Fhocseans, Romans, and Saracens^ who maintained
themselves here until the eleventh century, were succeeded by Italians and French.
Calvi and Boni&oio were Genoese settlements, and at Carghese, near Ajaccio, we
even meet with a coloixy of Greek Mainotes, who settled there in the seventeenth
century, and whose descendants now speak Greek, Italian, and French. But, in
spite of these foreign immigrations, the Corsicans have in a large measure retained
their homogeneity. Paolo was rather proud of a Genoese proverb, which said
that the " Corsicans deserved to be hanged, but knew how to bear it." History
bears, indeed, witness to their patriotism, fearlessness, and respect for truth ; but it
also tells us of foolish ambitions, jealousies, and a furious spirit of revenge. Even
in the middle of last century the practice of the vendetta cost a thousand lives

mt»0»^^*rm$m

COE8I0A.

867

for their industry,
1,1 economists have
its may be forced

virg^'n forests which
e for the most part
id Aitone, however,
Itmimus), the finest
lese splendid trees,
irerted into masts, or

during summer by

muiHon is still met
lert that wild boars,

launts. The wolf is
lore than a century.

the forest region of
nortal, is probably of
tntula is the same as
ippears to be peculiar

ahabitants of Corsica.
|[uitie9 enabling us to
9xist near Sartdne and
ire, and even ayenues
ly and England. We
inhabited by the same

id the mountaineers of
At Bastia the type is
meet men with large
m, and eyes of a chest-
icens; who maintained
by Italians and French,
^hese, near Ajacoio, we
9re in the seventeenth

and French. But, in
large measure retained
se proverb, which said

to bear it." History
ispect for truth ; but it
irit of revenge. Even

cost a thousand lives

annually. Entire villages were depopulated, and in many parts every peasant's
house was converted into a fortress, where the men were constantly on the alert,
the women, protected by custom against outrage, sallying forth alone to cultivate
the fields. The ceremonies observed when a victim of the vendetta was brought
home were terrible. The women gathered round the corpse, and one amongst
them, in most cases a sister of the deceased, furiously called down vengeance upon
the head of the murderer. The voceri of death are amongst the finest national
songs. Foreign domination is to blame, no doubt, for the frequency of these
assassinations. The judges sent to the country did not enjoy the confidence of the
inhabitants, and these latter returned to the primitive law of retaliation.

Though Corsica gave a master to France, the spirit of the people is essen-
tially republican. The Romans barely succeeded in enslaving it, and even in
the tenth century the greater portion of the island formed a confederation of
independent communities known as Terra del Commune. The inhabitants of each
valley formed apieve {plehs), by whom were elected a podesta and the " fathers of
the commune." These latter appointed a " corporal," who was charged with the
defence of popular rights. The podestas in turn elected a Council of twelve, who
stood at the head of the confederation. This constitution survived conquest and
invasion. In the eighteenth century, when fighting heroically against Genoa and
France, Corsica declared all citizens equal. It was institutions like these which
made Rousseau say that "that little island would bne day astonish Europe."
Since that time the Napoleonic era has whetted the ambition of the Corsicans,
and they appear to have forgotten their traditions of freedom.

Corsica is one of the least-populated departments of France.* The eastern
slope of the island, though more fertile and extensive than the western, and
formerly densely peopled, is now almost a desert. The Roman colony of Mariana
DO longer exists, and the Phoceean emporium of Aleria has dwindled down since
the thirteenth century into an isolated homestead standing close to a pestiferous
swamp. At the present time the great centres of population are on the western
coast, which faces France, enjoys a salubrious climate, and possesses magnificent
ports.

The Corsicans certainly appear to deserve the charge of idleness which is
brought against them, for they have done but little to develop the great n .-j-urces
of their island. Fishing and cattle-breeding they understand best. In many
parts agricultural operations are carried on almost exclusively with the help of
Italian labourers, known as Lucchesi, because most of them formerly came from
Lucoa. Thanks, however, to the impulse given by France, a commencement has
been made in the cultivation of the soil, and olive oil, equal to the best of Provence,
wine, and dried fruits already constitute important articles of export, f

Corsica abounds in ores, but they do not appear to be as rich as those of
Sardinia. Formerly iron mines alone were worked, the ore being conveyed to the

• Area, 8,378 sqaaro mUes; population in 1740, 120,880 ; in 1872, 2«9,861.

^ Amragt annual produee :—Ceni^ 2,618,000 bashels; oil, 3,300,000 gallona; wine, 6,600,000
gallon!.

i ■.

COBSIOA.

furnaces near Bastia and Porto Yeochio ; but of late years copper mines have been
opened at Castifao, near Corte, and argentiferous lead is being procured from a
mine near Argentella, not far from He Rousse. Bed and blue granite, porphyry,
alabaster, serpentine, and marble are being quarried. There are many mineral
springs, but the only one enjoying a European reputation is that of Orezzo, which
rises in the picturesque district of Oastagnicoia. Its ferruginous water contains
a considerable quantity of carbonic acid, and is recommended as efficacious in a
host of diseases.

The most important town of Corsica, though not its capital, is Bastia, thus

Fig. 136.— Visw OP Babtu.

named from a Genoese castle built towards the close of the fourteenth century on
the beach of the hill village of Cardo. Bastia stands about a mile to the north of
the two former capitals of the island, viz. Mariana and Biguglia, of which the
former has left no trace, whilst the latter has dwindled down to a miserable
village. The geographical position of Bastia is excellent, for it is within easy
reach of Italy, and frequent communications with that country have exercised a
most happy influence upon its inhabitants, who are the most civilised and indus-
trious of the whole island. Its harbour is small, and far from safe, but it is much
frequented. The city rises amphitheatrically upon hills, and is suiroonded by
delightful gardens and numerous villas.

.^^^MkiM

'"•^^'^^ipBP^f

CORSICA.

869

)er mines have been
ig procured from u
e gpranite, porphyry,

are many mineral
lat of Orezzo, which
nous water contains

as efficacious in a

pital, is Bastia, thus

St. Florent, only six miles from Bastia, but on the western coast of the island,
has an excellent harbour, but the atmosphere hanging over its marshes is deadly.
He Rousse, farther to the west, is the principal port of the fertile district of
Balagna. It was founded by Paoli in 1758, in order to ruin Oalvi, which had
remained faithful to the Genoese. This object has been attained. He Rousse
exports large quantities of oil and fruit, whilst the old town of Oalvi, on its
whitish rock, is a place without life, frequently visited by malaria. The coast to
the south of Oalvi, as far as the Gulf of Sagone, though exceedingly fertile, is
almost a desert, and many parts of it suffer from malaria. Ajaccio, however, at
one time merely a maritime suburb of Oastelvecchio, standing a short distance
inland, has risen into great importance. It is the pleasantest and best-built
town of the island, and Napoleon, the most famous of its sons, showered fo vours
upon it. The inhabitants fish and cultivate their fertile orchards. They also
derive great advantages from a multitude of visitors, who go thither to enjoy a
delicious climate and picturesque scenery.

The other towns of Oorsica are of no importance whatever. SartSne, though
the capital of an arrondissement, is merely a village, and the activity of the dis-
trict centres in the little port of Fropriano, on the Gulf of Yalinco, one of the
trysting-places of Neapolitan fishermen. Oorte is famous in the history of the
island as the birthplace of the heroes of the wars of independence. Porto Vecchio,
though in possession of the best harbour of the island, is frequented only by a few
coasting vessels, whilst Bonifacio, an ancient ally of the Genoese, is important only
because of its fortifications. The prospect from the isolated limestone rock upon
which it is built is exceedingly picturesque. The mountains of Limbara stand
out clearly against the sky, and in front we look down upon the granitic islets
dotting the Strait of Bonifacio, so dangerous to navigators. It was here the
frigate La SSmillante foundered in 1855, with nearly a thousand soids on board.*

•I: p.:;

* Towns of Corsica (1872) :— Bastia, 17,9fi0 ; Ajacdo, 16,660 ; Corte, 6,460 ; Suttoe, 4,160 ; Bool-
&cio, 3,600 ; Bastelica, 2,960 ; Calensana. 2,600 ; Caivi, 2,176 inhabitants.

fourteenth century on

a mile to the north of

Hguglia, of which the

down to a miserable

for it is within easy

mtry have exercised a

«t civilised and indus-

3m safe, but it is much

and is surrounded by

SPAIN/

I. — General Aspects.

I HE Iberian peninsula, Spain and Portugal, must be looked upon
geographically as one. Differenced of soil, climate, and language
may have justified its division into two states, but in the organ-
ism of Europe these two constitute but a single member, having
the same geological history, and exhibiting unity in their physical
configuration, t

Compared with the other peninsulas of Southern Europe, viz. Italy and that of
the Balkans, Iberia is most insular in its character. The isthmus which attaches
it to4he trunk of Europe is comparatively narrow, and it is defined most distinctly
by the barrier of the Pyrenees. The contour of the peninsula is distinguished
by its massiveness. There are curving bays, but no inlets of the sea penetrating
far inland, as in the case of Ghreeoe.^

It was said long ago, and with justice, that Africa begins at the Pyrenees.
Iberia, indeed, bears some resemblance to Africa. Its outline is heavy, there are
hardly any islands along its ooasts, and few plains open out upon the sea. But it
is an Africa in miniature, only one-fiftieth the size of the continent upon which it
appears to have been modelled. Moreover, the oceanic slope of the peninsula is
quite European as to climate, vegetation, and abundance of running water ; and

* Authorities :— Coello, F. de Luxan y A. Faaciul, " BeseBas Oeogr&flca, G«ol6gica y Agricola de
Espafla ; " Baron Davillier et Guat. Dort, " Voyage en Eapagne ; " De Laborde, " Itin£ndie Deacriptif de
I'Espagne ; " Bory de Saint- Vincent, " B6ium6 G^ographiqne de la P^ninsule IMrique ; " De Vemeuil et
Collomb, " M^oires Odologiquea snr I'Eapagne ; " Fori, " Handbook for Trayellers in Spain ; " Fem.
Gkurrido, " L'Eapegne Contemporaine ; " Cherbulies, " L'Espagne PoUtiqae ; " Ed. Quinet, " Uea Vacancca
en Eapagne;" Th. €toutier, "Tras los Montea," "Voyage en Eapagne;" M. Willkomm, "Die Pyre-
naiache Halbinael," " Strand- nnd Steppengebiete der iberiachen Halbinael ; " George Sand, "Un Hiver h
Majorque ; " Ludw. Salvator, " Balearen in Wort nnd BOd ; " Blad£, " ^tudea Gtegraphiquea aur la
Valine d'Andorre ; " W. von Humboldt, " Urbewdhner Spaniena ; " Eug. Cordier, " Organiaation de la
Famille chea lea Baaquea ; '\ Paul Broca, " M^moiroS d'Anthropologie."

t Area of the Iberian peninaola, exduaive of tiio Balearic lalanda, 226,606 aquare milea ; area of Spain,
101,104 aquare milea ; of Portugal (without t^e Acoree), 34,601 aquare milea. Average height, according
to Leiroldt, 2,300 feet.

^ Contour of peninaula, 2,016 milea, of which 1,301 are on the Atlantic, and 714 on the Meditenanean.
Width of the iathmua of the Pyreneea, 260 milea.

GENERAL ASPECTS.

871

certain features of its flora even justify a belief that at some remote epoch it was
joined to the British Isbnds. African Hispania only bogius in reality with the
treeless plateaux of the interior, and more especially with the Mediterranean
coasts. There we meet the zone of transition between the two continents. It*
general aspect, flort, fauna, and even population, mark out that portion of Spain
as an integral part of Barbary ; the Sierra Nevada and the Atlas, facing each
other, are sister mountains ; and the strait which separates them is a mere accident
in the surface relief of our planet.

Fig. 136.— Ths Tablb-landb of thb Ibbriam Pininivla.
SmU 1 : 10,800,000.

must be looked upon
, climate, and language
ates, but in the organ-
single member, having
; unity in their physical

e, viz. Italy and that of
isthmus which attaches
I defined most distinctly
ininsnla is distinguished
bs of the sea penetrating

)eginB at the Pyrenees,
line is heavy, there are
it upon the sea. But it
continent upon which it
lope of the peninsula is
I of running water ; and

ftiica, Geol6gica y Agricola de
Iwrde, " Itm^ndre Deaoriptif de
rale Ib^rique ; " De VeraeuU et
r Travellera in Spain;" Fem.
i ; " Ed. Quinet, " Mea Vacancca
;" M. Willkonun, "Die Pyre-
i ; " George Sand, " Un Hiver h
« lltudea Otegraphiques but la
;. Cordier, " Organisation de la

SOS square miles ; area of Spain,
les. Average height, according

, and 714 on the Mediterranean.

Spain, though nearly surrounded by the sea, is nevertheless essentially con-
tinental in its character. Nearly the whole of it consists of table^lands, and only
the plains of the Tajo (Tagus) and of Andalusia open out broadly upon the ocean.
The coast, for the most part, rises steeply, and the harbours are consequently diifi-
cult of access to the inhabitants of the interior, a circumstance most detrimental
to the development of a large sea-borne commerce.

Ever since the discovery of the ocean high-roads to America and the Indies, the
Atlantic coast of the Iberian peninsula has taken the load in commercial matters,

871

SPAIN.

a fact easily accounted for by the physical features of the country. Spain, like
peninsular Italy, turns her back upon the east. The plateaux slope down gently
towards the west ; the principal rivers, the Ebro alone excepted, flow in that direc-
tion ; and the water-shed lies close to the Mediterranean shores.

Spain must either have given birth to an aboriginal people, or was peopled by
way of the Pyrenees and by emigrants crossing the narrow strait at the columns of
Hercules. The Iberian race actually forms the foundation of the populations of
Spain. The Basks, or Basques, now confined to a few mountain valleys, formerly
occupied the greater portion of the peninsula, as is proved by its geographical nomen-
clature. Celtic tribes subsequently crossed the Pyrenees, and established themselves
in various parts of the country, mixing in many instances with the Iberians, and
forming the so-called Oeltiberians. This mixed race is met with principally in
the two Castiles, whilst Galicia and the larger portion of Portugal appear to be
inhabited by pure Oelts. The Iberians had their original seat of civilisation in
the south ; they thence moved northward along the coast of the Mediterranean,
penetrating as far as the Alps and the Apennines.

These original elements of the population were joined by colonists from the
great commercial peoples of the Mediterranean. C4diz and M&laga were founded
by the Phoenicians, Cartagena by the Carthaginians, Sagonte by immigrants from
Zaoynthe, Rosas is a Rhodian colony, and the ruins of Amt>urias recall the Emporium
of the Massilians. But it was the Romans who modified the character of the
Iberian and Celtic inhabitants of the peninsula, whom they subjected after a
hundred years' war. Italian culture gradually penetrated into every part of the
country, and the use of Latin became universal, except in the remote valleys
inhabited by the Basques.

After the downfall of the Roman empire Spain was successively invaded by
Suevi, Alani, Vandals, and Visigoths, but only the latter have exercised an
abiding influence upon the language and manners of the Spaniards, and the
pompous gravity of the Castilian appears to be a portion of their heritage.

To these -northern invasions succeeded an invasion from the neighbouring
continent of Africa. The Af&ha and Berbers of Mauritania gained a footing upon
the rock of Gibraltar early in the eighth century, and very soon afterwards nearly
the whole of Spain had fallen a prey to the Mussulman, who maintained himself
here for more than seven centuries. Moors immigrated in large numbers, and they
substantially affected the character of the population, more especially in the south.
The Inquisition expelled, or reduced to a condition of bondage, hundreds of
thousands of these Moors, but its operations only extended to Mussulmans or
doubtful converts, whilst Arab and Berber blood had already found its way into
the veins of the bulk of the population. Castilian bears witness to the great
influence of the Saracens, for it contains many more words of Arabic than
of Visigothic origin, and these words designate objects and ideas evidencing a
state of progressive civilisation, such as existed when the Arabs of C6rdova and
Granada inaugurated the modem era of science and industry in Europe.

OBNBBAL ASPECTS.

878

country. Spain, like
X slope down gontly
)d, flow in that diruc-
es.

e, or was peopled by
rait at the columns of
of the populations of
tain valleys, formerly
I geographical nomen-
established themselves
rith the Iberians, and
Bt with principally in
Portugal appear to be
seat of civilisation in
>f the Mediterranean,

by colonists from the
M&laga were founded
B by immigrants from
is recall the Emporium
the character of the
hey subjected after a
into every part of the
in the remote valleys

aooessively invaded by
ter have exercised an
iie Spaniards, tuad the
bheir heritage,
rom the neighbouring
i gained a footing upon
soon afterwards nearly
rho maintained himself
gtrge numbers, and they
especially in the south,
bondage, hundreds of
ded to Mussulmans or
»dy found its way into
» witness to the great
words of Arabic than
md ideas evidencing a
B Arabs of 06rdova and
ry in Europe.

During the dominion of the Moors the Jews prospered singularly on the soil of
Spain, and their number at the time of the first persecution is said to have been
800,000. Supple, like most of their faith, they managed to get a footing in both
camps, the Christian and Mohammedan, and enriched themselves at the expense of
each. They supplied both sides with money to carry on the war, and, as farmers of
taxes, they oppressed the inhabitants. The Ohristiaa faith triumphed in the end ; the
kings, to pay the cost of their wars, proclaimed a crusade against the Jews ; and the
people threw themselves with fury upon their hated oppressors, sparing neither iron,
fire, tortures, nor the stake. A few Jewish families may have escaped destruction
by embracing Oatholioism, but the bulk of that people perished or were driven into
exile.

Far happier has been the lot of the Gipsies, or Oitanoa, who are sufficiently
numerous in Spain to give a special physiognomy to several large towns. These
Gipsies have always conformed outwardly to the national religion, and the Inqui-
sition, which has sent to the stake so many Jews, Moors, and heretics, has never
interfered with them. The Oipsies, in many instances, have settled down in the
towns, but they all have traditions of a wandering life, and most highly respect
those of their kinsmen who still range the woods and plains. These latter are
proud of their title of viandantet, or wayfarers, and despise the dwellers in towns.
These Spanish GKtanos appear to be the descendants of tribes who sojourned for
several generations in the Balkans, for their lingo contains several hundred words
of Slav and Greek origin.

M. de Bourgoing has drawn attention to the great diversity existing amongst
the population of Spain. A Galician, for instance, is more like an Auvergnat
than a Oatalonian, and an Andalusian reminds us of a Gascon. Most of the
inhabitants, however, have certain general features, derived from a common
national history and ancestry.

The average Spaniard is of small stature, but strong, muscular, of surprising
agility, an inde&tigable walker, and proof against every hardship. The sobriety
of Iberia is proverbial. " Olives, salad, and radishes are fit food for a nobleman."
The physical stamina of the Spaniard is extraordinary, and amply explains the ease
with which the eonquiatadorea surmounted the fatigues which they were exposed to
in the dreaded climate of the New World. These qualities make the Spaniard the
best soldier of Europe, for he possesses the fiery temperament of the South joined
to the physical strength of the North, without standing in need of abundant
nourishment.

The moral qualities of the Spaniard are equally remarkable. Though careless
as to evety-day matters, he is very resolute, sternly courageous, and of great
tenacity. Any cause he takes up he defends to his last breath. The sons always
embrace the cause of their fathers, and fight for it with the same resolution.
Hence this long series of foreign and civil wars. The recovery of Spain from the
Moors took nearly seven centuries; the conquest of Mexico, Peru, and South
America waff one continued fight lasting throughout a century. The war of inde-
pendence which freed Spain from the yoke of Napoleon was an almost unexampled
87

•^

S74

SPAIN.

effort of patriotism, and the Spaniards may justly boast that the French did not
find a single spy amongst them. Th^ two Oarlisk wars, too, would have bvcn
poflsible nowhere else but in Spai a.

Who need wonder, after this, if ' . ^i Xh-^ \ "vl <edt bpaniard speaks of himself with
a certain haughtiness, which in an\ oi^e else would be pronoimoed presumptuouH ?
" The Spaniard is a Gascon of a tragic type ; " sr lays a French traveller. With him
deeds always follow words. He is a boaster, but not without reason. He unitcg
qualities which usually preclude each other, for, though haughty, he is kindly in
his manners ; he thinks very highly of himself, but is considerate of the feelings of
othurs ; quick to perceive the shortcomings of his neighbours, he rarely makes
them a subject of reproach. Trifles give rise to a torrent of sonorous lang^ge,
but in nmtters of importance a word or a gesture suffices. The Spaniard combines
a solemn bearing and steadfastness with a considerable amount of cheerfulness.
Nothing disquiets him ; he philosophically takes things as they are ; poverty has no
terrors for him ; and he even ingeniously contrives to extract pleasure and advantage
from it. The life of Oil Bias, in whom the Spaniards recognise their own like-
ness, was more chequered than that of any other hero of romance, and yet he was
always full of gaiety, which even the dark shadow of the Inquisition, then resting
upon the country, failed to deprive him of. " To live on the banka of the
Mazanares," says a Spanish proverb, " is perfect bliss ; to be in paradise is the second
degree of happiness, but only on condition of being able to look down upon Madrid
through a skylight in the heavens."

These opposites in the character of the Spaniards give rise to an appearance of
fickleness which foreigners are unable to comprehend, and they themselves com-
placently describe them as eoaas de JEtpana. How, indeed, are we to explain so
much weakness associated with so many noblo qualities, so many superstitions in
spite of common sense and a keen perception of irony, such ferocity of conduct in men
naturally generous and magnanimous P A Spaniard, in spite of his passions, will
resign himself philosophically to what he looks upon as inevitable. Lo que hade
ter no paede /altar, " What is to be will be," he says, and, wrapped up in his cloak,
he allows events to take their course. The great Lord Bacon observed, three hundred
years ago, that the " Spaniards looked wiser than they were ; " and, indeed, most
of them are passionately fond of gambling, and their apathetic fatalism accounts
for many of the ills their country suffers. The rapid decay which has taken
place in the course of three centuries has led certain historians to number the
Spaniards amongst fallen nations. The edifices met with in many towns and
villages speak of a grandeur now past, and the deitpohlados and deheaat, which we
encoimter even in the vidnity of the capital, tell of once fertile fields returned
to a state of nature.

Buckle, in his " History of Oivilisation," traces this decay to the physical
nature of Spain and to a long succession of religious wars. The Visigoths defended
A nanism against the Franks, and when the Spaniards had become good Catliolics
their country was invaded by Moors, and for more than twenty generatioud they
struggled against them. It thus happened that patriotism become identical with

.>-m^-^

!■*»»**"•-

:«JP^"

GENERAL ASPECTS.

■:\

at the French did not
too, would have boon

d Bpeaka of himielf with
lounced presumptuouH ?
jh traveller. With h i in
out reaion. He unites
lughtj, he is kindly in
derate of the feelings of
boun, he rarely makes
t of sonorous language,
The Spaniard combines
amount of cheerfulness,
hey are ; poverty has no
it pleasure and advantage
eoognise their own like-
romance, and yet he was
Inquisition, then resting
ro on the banks of the
e in paradise is the second
> look down upon Madrid

) rise to an appearance of
md they themselves com-
eed, are we to explain so
so many superstitions in
ferocity of conduct in men
ipite of his passions, will
inevitable. Lo que hade
wrapped up in his cloak,
m observed, three hundred
vere ; " and, indeed, most
lathetio fatalism accounts
[ decay which has taken
historians to number the
vith in many towns and
loa and dehemt, which we
noe fertile fields returned

kis decay to the physical
. The Visigoths defended
lad become good Catholics
L twenty generatioun they
ism became identical with

Absolute obedience to the behests of the Church, for every one, from the King down
to the meanest archer, was a defender of the faith rather than of his native soil.
The result might have been foretold. The Church not only took possession of most
of the land won from the infidels, but it also exercised a baneful iufluonoo upon the
Oovemmont, and, through its dreaded tribunals of the Inquisition, over the whole
of society.

But whilst these long religious struggles tended to the moral and intellectual
abasement of the Spaniards, there were other causes which operated in an inverse
sense, and these Buckle does not appear to have properly appreciated. The kings,
in order to secure the support of the people in their wars against the MuNsulmans,
found themselves compelled to grant a large measure of liberty. The towns
governed themselves, and their delegates, as early as the eleventh century, sat with
the nobility and clergy in the Oortes, and voted the supplies. Local government
conferred advantages upon Spain then enjoyed only in few parts of Europe.

Fi(. 1S7.— DSHMAS IN THI EnTIROXS OF MaDIUD»
iMit 1 I 4fl(MXI0.

Industry and the arts flourished in these prosperous cities, and a stop was even
put to the encroachments of the olerffy long before Luther raised his powerful
voice in Oermany.

A struggle between the supporters of local government and of a centralized
monarchy at length became imminent, and no sooner had the infidels been expelled
than civil war began. It terminated in favour of King^ and Church, for the
comuneros of the Castiles met with little support in the other provinces, and their
towns were ravaged by the bloodthirsty generals of Charles Y.

The discovery of the New World, which happened about this period, pi-oved a
disaster to Spain, for young men of enterprise and daring crossed the Atlantic,
and thus weakened the mother country, which was too small to feed such huge
colonies. The inunense amount of treasure (more than £2,000,000,000 between
1500 and 1702) sent home from the colonies contributed still further to the rapid
decay of Spain, for it corrupted the entire nation. Money being obtainable without

Bi^«9S»^-

876

SPAIN.

work, all honest labour ceased, and when the colonies no longer yielded their
metallic treasures the country saw itself impoverished, for the gold and silver
had found their way to foreign lands, whence Spain had procured her supplies.

History affords no other example of so rapid a decadence brought about with-
out foreign aggression. The workshops were closed, the arts of peace forgotten,
the fields but indifferently cultivated. Toung men flocked to the 9,000 monas-
teries to enjoy a life of indolence, and "science was a crime, ignorance and
stupidity were the first of virtues." Population decreased, and the Spaniard even
lost his ancient renown for bravery. If the Bourbon kings placed foreigners in

Kg. 138.— DlNSITT OP THS PoPUlATIOir OF THB IbSHUM PEKDraULA.

^f^

•«'

all high positions of state, they did so because the Spaniards had become incapable
of conducting public business.

But if we compare the Spain of our own days with the Spain of the Inquisition,
we cannot fail to be struck with the vast progress made. Spain is no longer
a " happy people without a history," for ever since the beginning of the century
it has been engaged in struggles, and during this period of tumidtuous life it
has done more for arts, science, and industry than in the two centuries of perce
which succeeded the dark reign of Philip II. No doubt Spain might have done

longer yielded their
>r the gold and silver
Ksured her supplies.
;e hrought about with-
rta of peace forgotten,
id to the 9,000 monas-

crime, ignorance and
and the Spaniard even
^ placed foreigners in

[ Pbmnbvla.

lencia

BaredoM

tlAfJ^M,

rde had become incapable

I Spain of the Inquisition,
ie. Spain is no longer
beginning of the century
od of tumiiltuous life it
e two centuries of peece
t Spain might have done

THE OASTELES, LEON, AND ESTEBMADUBA.

377

even more if the strength of the country had not been wasted in internal struggles.
Unfortunately the geographical configuration of the pcuinsula is unfavourable to
the consolidation of the nation. The littoral regions combine every advantage of
clljiate, soil, and accessibility, whilst the resources of the inland plateaux are
comparatively few. .The former naturally attract population; they aboimd in
large and bustling cities, and are more densely populated than the interior of the
country. Madrid, which occupies a commanding position almost in the geo-
metrical centre of the country, has become a focus of life, but its environs are very
thinly inhabited.

This unequal distribution of the population could not fail to exercise a powerful
influence upon the history of the country. Each of the maritime provinces felt
sufficiently strong to lead a separate existence. During the struggles with the
Moors common interests induced the independent kingdoms of Iberia to co-operate,
and facilitated the establishment of a central monarchy ; but, to maintain this unity
afterwards, it became necessaiy to have recourse to a system of terrorism and
oppression. Portugal, being situated on the open Atlantic, shook off the detested
yoke of Castile after less than a century's submission. In the rest of the
peninsula political consolidation is making progress, thanks to the facilities of
intercoiomunication and the substitution of GastiUan for the provincial dialects ;
but it would be an error to suppose that Andalusians and Galicians, Basques and
Catalans, Aragonese and Madrilefios, have been welded into one nation. Indeed,
the federal constitution advocated by Spanish republicans appears to be best suited
to the geographical configuration of the country and the genius of its population.
The desire to establish provincial autonomy has led to most of the civil wars of
Spain, whether raised by Carlists or Intramingentea. It is therefore meet that, in
our description of Spain, we should respect the limits traced by nature, bearing
in mind the fact that the political boundaries of the province do not always
coincide with water-edieds or linguistic boundaries.

II. — The Oastilbs, Leon, and Estremautjra.*

The great central plateau of the peninsula is bounded on the north, east, and
south by ranges of mountain's extending from the Cantabrian Pyrenees to the
Sierra Morena, and slopes down in the west towards Portugal and the Atlantic.
The uplands through which the Upper Duero, the Tajo (Tagus), and the Guadiana
take their course are thus a region apart, and if the waters of the ocean were to
rise 2,000 feet, they would be converted into a peninsula attached by the narrow
isthmus of the Basque provinces to the French Pyrenees. The vast extent of
these plateaux — ^they constitute nearly half the area of the whole country — accounts
for the part they played in history, and their commanding position enabled the
Castilians to gain possession of the adjacent territories.

* Basin of the Duero (Leon and Old Caatile, )

exolusive of Logroilo and Santander) ]

Basins of the Ti^o and the Gnadiana . . .

Ana.

PopnUiloa (187U).

DenMtr

36,693 sq. m.

2,660,000

44,719 „

2,276^90&

;';-;(

■s

■gi

SPAIN.

i£

The Castiles can hardly be called beautiful, oi rather their solemn beauty does
not commend them to the majority of travellers. Vast districts, such as the Tierra
de Campos, to the north of Valladolid, are ancient lake beds of great fertility, but
exceedingly monotonous, owing to the absence of forests. Otheis are covered with
small stony hillocks ; others, again, may be described as mountainous. Mountain
ranges covered with meag^ herbage bound the horizon, and sombre gorges,
enclosed between precipitous walls of rock, lead into them. Elsewhere, as in the
Lower Estremadura, we meet with vast pasture-lands, stretching as far as the eye
can reach to the foot of the mountains, and, as in certain parts of the American
prairies, not a tree arrests the attention. Looking to the faarful nakedness of
these plains, one would hardly imagine that a law was promulgated in the middle
of last century which enjoins each inhabitant to plant at least five trees. Trees,
indeed, have been cut down more rapidly than they were planted. The peasants
have a prejudice against them ; their leaves, they say, give shelter to birds, which
prey upon the corn-fields. Small birds, nightingales alone excepted, are pursued
without mercy, and a proverb says that "swallows crossing the Castiles must
carry provisions with them." Trees are met with only in the most remote
localities. The hovels of the peasantry, built of mud or pebbles, are of the same
colour as the soil, the walled towns are easily confounded with the rook near them,
and even iu the midst of cultivated fields we may imagine ourselves in a desert.
Many districts suffer from want of water, and villages which rejoice in the posses-
sion of a spring proclaim the fact aloud as one of their attributes. Huge bridges
span the ravines, though for more than half the year not a drop of water passes
over their pebbly beds.

The Sierra Guadarrama and its western continuation, the Sierra de Grddos,
separate this central plateau of Spain into two portions, lying at different
elevations. Old Castile and Leon, which lie to the north, in the basin of the
Duero, slope down from east to west from 5,600 to 2,300 feet ; whilst New Castile
and La Mancha, in the twin basins of the Tajo and the Guadiana, have an average
elevation of only 2,000 feet. In the tertiary age these two plateaux were covered
with huge lakes. One of them, the contours of which are indicated by the debris
carried down from the surrounding hills, orig^ally discharged its waters in the
direction of the valley of the Ebro, but aubsequently opened itself a passage
through the en 'alline mountains of Portugal, now representjsd by the gorges of
the Lower Paero. At another epoch this Lake Superior communicated with the
lake which overs^iread what are now the plains of New Castile and La Mancha.
The tt;-ea covered by these two lakes amounted to 30,000 square miles, and Spain
was then a mere skeleton of crystalline mountains, joined together by saddles of
triassic, Jurassic, and cretaceous age, enclosing these two firesh-water lakes, and
bounded exteriorly by the ocean. This geological period must have been of very
long duration, for the lacustrine deposits are sometimes nearly a thousand feet in
thickness. The miooene strata which form the superficial deposits of these two lake
basins of the Castiles are geologically of the same age, for fossil bones, of the
same great animals — megatheria, mammoths, and hipparions — are found in both.

THE OASTILES, LEON, AND E8TBEMADUEA.

879

eir solemn beauty does
lots, such as the Tierra
s of great fertility, but
3theis are covered with
lountainous. Mountain
1, and sombre gorges,
. Elsewhere, as in the
tching as far as the eye

parts of the American
he fearful nakedness of
mulgated in the middle

least five trees. Trees,
planted. The peasants
B shelter to birds, which
e excepted, are pursued
ssing the Castiles must
Ly in the most remote
pebbles, are of the same
nth the rook near them,
ae ourselves in a desert.
Loh rejoice in the posses-
btributes. Huge bridges
t a drop of water passes

1, the Sierra de GrMos,
ions, lying at different
rth, in the basin of the
feet ; whilst New Oastile
uadiana, have an average
ro plateaux were covered
e indicated by the debris
iharged its waters in the

opened itself a passage
•esented by the gorges of
)r communicated with the

Castile and La Mancha.
) square miles, and Spain
ed together by saddles of
wo fresh-water lakes, and
1 must have been of very
nearly a thousand feet in
. deposits of these two lake
B, for fossil bones, of the
ions — are found in both.

The Oantabrian Mountains bound Leon and Old Oastile towards the north-west
and north, but broad mountain ranges run out from these immediately to the east
of the Fefia Labra, and form the water-shed between the basin of the T aero and
the head -stream of the Ebro. These ranges are known by various^names. They
form first the Paramos of Lora (3,542 feet), which slope gently towards the south,
hut sink down abruptly to the Ebro, which flows here in a gorge many hundred
feet in depth. The water-shed to the east of these continues to the mountain
pass of the Brujula, across which leads the road (3,215 feet) connecting Bdrgos
with the sea. Beyond this pass the so-called Mantes of Oca gradually increase in
height, and join the crystalline Sierra de Demanda, culminating in the Pico de
San Lorenzo (7,554 feet). Another mountain mass lies farther to the south-east.
It rises in the Pico de Urbion to a height of 7,367 feet, and gives birth to the
river Duero. The water-shed farther on is formed by the Sierra Cebollera

Mg. 139. — Pbofilk of thb Batlway from Batonmb to Cadiz.
(Altitude* in feet.)

2' 3

(7,039 feet), which subsides by degrees, its ramifications extending into the basins
of the Ebro and Duero. The Sierra de la Moncayo (7,906 feet), a crystalline
mountain mass similar to the San Lorenzo, but exceeding it in height, terminates
this portion of the enceinte of the central plateau. The broad ranges beyond
offer no obstacles to the construction of roads, but there are several rugged ridges
to the south of the Cebollera and Moncayo, which force the Duero to take a
devious course through the defile of Soria. Numancia, the heroic defence of
which has since been imitated by many other towns of the peninsula, stood near
that gorga

The average height of tlie mountains separating the basin of the Duero from
that of die Tajo is more than that of those in the north-east of Old Castile. The
mountains gradually increase in height towards the west and south-west, until
they form the famous Sierra de Gtiaoarrama, the granitic rocks of which bound the
horizon of Madrid in the north. It cvmstitutes a veritable wall betwe^i the two

880

SPAIN.

Gastiles, and the construction of the roads which lead in zigzag over its passes of
Somosierra (4,680 feet), Navaoerrada (5,834 feet), and Guadarrama (5,030 feet)
was attended with di£Boalties so considerable that Ferdinand YI., proud of the
achievement, placed the statue of a lion upon one of the highest summits, and thus
recorded that the " King had conquered the mountains." This sierra forms a
natural rampart to the north of the plains of Madrid, and many sang^uinary
battles have been fought to secure a passage through them. The railway to
Madrid avoids them, but the depression of Avila, through which it passes, is
nevertheless more elevated than the summit of the Mont Cenis Railway.

The mountains to the south-west of the Peak of Pefialara (7,870 feet), which

Fig. 140. — SiBBBAS DB GBin08 AMD Ol QaTA.
BoOtl i 800,000.

• W

is the culminating point of the sierra, sink down itipidly, ana at the Alto de la
Oierva (6.027 feet) the chain divides into two branches, of which the northern
forms the water-shed between the Duero and the Tajo, whilst the more elevated
southern chain joins the Sierra de Gxuularrama to the Sierra de Gr^os, but is cut
in two by the defile excavated by the river Alberche, which rises to the north
of it.

The Sierra de Gr^dos is, next to the Pyrenees and the Sierra Nevada of
Granada, the most elevated mountain chain of Spain, for in the Plaza del Moro
Almanzor it attains a height of 8,680 feet, and thus reaches far beyond the zone
of trees. Its naked summitB of crystalline rocks remain covered with snow
during more th^n half the year. The country extending along the southern slope

--««

", i » i ;!i! )l li|V j |W,*tii>i

^ ' y i sMtmum'. i m ' i "

THE OASTILES, LEON. AND ESTEEMADUEA.

881

l^zag over its passee of
ladarrama (6,030 feet)
land YI., proud of the
leat summits, and thus
This jsierra forms a
and many sang^uinary
lem. The railway to
i^h which, it passes, is
)nis Bailway.
ara (7,870 feet), which

y, ana at the Alto de la
, of which the northern
Krhilst the more elevated
la de QrMos, but is cut
rhioh rises to the north

I the Sierra Nevada of
tr in the Plaza del Moro
}he8 far beyond the zone
lain covered with snow
along the southern slope

of these mountains is one of the most delightful districts of all Spain. It
abounds in streams of sparkling water ; groups of trees are dotted over the hill-
slopes and shield the villages ; and Charles Y., when he selected the monastery of
St. Tuste as the spot where he proposed to pass the remainder of his days, exhi-
bited no mean taste. In former times the foot of the sierra was much more
frequented, for the Roman road known as Via Lata (now called Camino de la Plata)
crossed immediately to the west of it, by the Puerto de Bancs, and thus joined the
valley of the Duero to that of the Tajo.

The Sierra de Gata, which lies beyond this old road, has a course parallel with
that of the Sierra de GrMos, and this parallelism is observable likewise with respect
to the minor chains and the principal river beds of that portion of Spain. The
Sierra de Gata rises to a height of 5,690 feet in the Pefia de Francia, thus named
after a chapel built by a Prankish knight. Within its recesses are the secluded
valleys of Las Batueoas and Las Hurdes.

° In the eastern portion of .New Castile the country is for the most part undu-
lating rather than mountainous, and, if the deep gorges excavated by the rivers
were to be filled up, wotild present almost the appearance of plains. The most
elevated point of this portion of the country is the Muela de San Juan (5,900 feet),
in the Montes Universales, thus called, perhaps, because the Tajo, the Jucar, the
Ghiadalaviar, and other rivers flowing in opposite directions take their rise there.

The Sierra del Tremendal, in the district of Albarracin, farther north, is said
to be frequently shaken by earthquakes, and sulphurous gases escape there where
oolitic rooks are in contact with black porphyry and basalt. Several triassic
hills in the vicinity of Cuenca are remarkable on account of their rock-salt, the
principal mines of which are those of Minglanilla.

Farther south the height of land which separates the rivers flowing to the
Mediterranean from those tributaiy to the Tajo and Guadiana is imdulating, but
not moimtainous. We only again meet with real mountains on reaching the head-
waters of Guadiana, Segura, and Guadalunar, vhere the Sierra Morena, forming
for 2£0 miles the natural boundary between La Mancha and Andalusia, takes its
rise. Seen ivoro. the plateau, this sierra has the appearance of hills of moderate
height, but travellers facing it from the south see before them a veritable mountain
range of bold prohie, wad abounding in valleys and wild gorges. Geographically
this sierra belongs to Andalusia rather than to the plateau of the Castiles.

In the west, judging from the courses of the Tajo and the Guadiana, thecountoy
would appear to 6tti>side by degpwes into the plains of Portugal ; but such is not the
case. The greater portion of Estremadura is occupied by a mountain mass con-
sisting of granite and other crystalline rooks. The sedimentary strata of the
region bounded in the nori:h by the Sierras of GrMos and Gata, and in the south
by the Sierra de Aroche, are but of small thickness. In former times these
granitic mountains of Estremadura retained pent-up waters of the lakes which then
covered the interior plateaux, until the incessant action of water forced a passage
through them. Their highest summits form a range between the rivers Guadiana
an i Tajo known as the Sierra of Toledo, and attein a height of 5,115 feet in

)

■A

■

flM

■■i

SPAIN.

the Sierra de Guadalupe, famous in other days on account of the image of a
miracle-working Virgin Mary, an object of veneration to Estremeuos and Chrin-
tianized American Indians.

Geologically the eyries of volcanic hills known as Campo de Oalatrava (2,270
feet) constitute a distinct group. They occupy both banks of the Guadiana, and the
ancient inland lake now converted into the plain of La Mancha washed their foot.

Fig. 141. — DariLB op thi Tajo in thi Protimoi of Goadalajaka.

From their craters were ejected trachytio and basaltic lavas, as well as ashes, or
negrisaka, but acidulous thermal springs are at present the only evidence of sub-
terranean activity.

The rivers of the Cantiles are of less importance than might be supposed from
a look at a map, for, owing to a paucity of rain, they are not navigable. The
moisture carried eastward by the winds is for the most part precipitated upon the

-■*.^mm

of the image of a
stremefioa and Chris-

de Oalatraya (2,270
he Guadiana, and the
3ha washed their foot.

LDALAJABA.

Bfl, as well as ashes, or
) only evidence of sub-

ght be supposed from
e not navigable. The
precipitated upon the

THE OASTILES, LEON, AND ESTBEMADUBA.

888

exterior slopes of the mountains, only a small proportion reaching the Castilian
plateaux. Evaporation, moreover, proceeds there very rapidly, and if it were not
for springs supplied by the rains of winter there would not be a single perennial
river.*

Of the three parallel rivers, the Duero, the Tajo, and the Guadiana, the latter
two are the most feeble, for the supplementary ranges of the Sierras of Grades and
Guadarrama shut ofl' their basins from the n : oisture-laden winds of the Atlantic. Yet,
in spite of their small volume, the geological work performed by them in past
ages was stupendous. Both find their way through tortuous gorges of immense depth
from the edge of the plateaux down to the plains of Lusitania. The gorge of the
Duero forms an appropriate natural boundary between Spain and Portugal, for it
offers almost insurmountable obstacles to intercommunication. The more con-
siderable tributaries of the Duero — such as the Tonnes, fed by the snows of the
Sierra de GrMos ; the Y^ltes ; and the Agueda — likewise take their course through
wild defiles, which may be likened to the canons of the New World. The Tajo
presents similar features, and below its confluence with the A]l.berche it enters a
deep defile, hemmed in by precipitous waUs of granite.

The Guadiana passes through a similar gorge, but only after it has reached
the soil of Portugal. The hydrography of its head-streams, the GKguela and
Z&ncara, which rise in the Serranio of Cuenca, offers curious features ; but, as
they are for the most part dry during summer, the bountiful springij known as
the qfos, or " eyes," of the Guadiana are looked upon by the inhabitants as the
true source of the river. They are three in number, and yield about four cubic
yards of yater a second. These springs are popularly believed to be fed by the
Ruidera, which, after having traversed a chain of picturesque lakelets, disappears
beneath a bed of pebbles ; but Coello has shown that after heavy rains this head-
stream of the Guadiana actually reaches the Z&ncara.

The climate of the Castilian . plateaux is quite continental in its character.
The prevailing winds of Spain are the tame as in the rest of Western Europe, but
the seasons and sudden changes of temperature in the upper basins of the Duero, the
Tajo, and the Ghiadiana recall the deserts of Africa and Asia. The cold in winter is
most severe, the heat of summer scorching, and the predominating winds aggravate
these features. In winter, the norte, which passes across the snow-covered Pyrenees
and other mountain ranges, sweeps the plains and penetrates through every
crevice in the wretched hovels of the peasant. In summer a contrary wind, the
solano, penetrates through breaks in the Sierra Nevada and Sierra Morena,
scorches the vegetation, and irritates man and animals. The climate of Madrid f
is typical of that of most of the towns of Castile. The air, though pure, is exceed-
ingly dry and penetrating, and perstms affected with diseases of the throat run
considerable risk during their period of acclimation. " The air of Madrid does
not put out a candle, but kills a man," says a proverb, and the climate of that
city is described as " three months of winter and nine of hell." True, in the

* Average rainfall at Madrid, 10-7 inches ; evaporation, 72*6 inches,
t Mean annnal temperatTire, 67'9° ; eztremea, 104° and 14° F.

■Sf

■i

:-j

884

SPAIN.

time of Charles V., Madrid enjoyed the reputation of having an excellent olimatc,
and it is just possible that its deterioration may be ascribable to the destruction of
the forests.

The greatest variety of plants is met with if we ascend from the plains to the
summits of the mountains, but taken as a whole tie vegetation is singularly
monotonous, for the number of plants capable of supporting such extremes of

Fig. 142.— Thi Stifph of Ifiv Oabtili.
Aooordins to WUlkomiB. SoUe 1 : 1,800,000.

aoUilM.

temperature is naturally limited. Herbs and shrubs predominate. The thickets
in the upper basin of the Duero and on the plateaux to the east of the Tajo and the
Ghiadiana consist of thyme, lavender, rosemary, hyssop, and other aromatic plants ;
on the southern slopes, of the Cantabrian Mountains heaths with small pink flowers
predominate ; vast areas in the mountains of Cuenoa are covered with Spanish
broom, or esparto ; and saline plants aboimd in the environs of Albaoete. These
regions are generally described as the "Steppes of Castile," though "deserts"

g an excellent olimate,
to the destruction of

rom the plains to the
igetation is singularly
ing such extremes of

• it "^ ^ . -

an /"^[^^iSa^j

»minate. The thickets
jast of the Tajo and the

other aromatic plants ;
leith small pink flowers

covered with Spanish
18 of Albacete, These
le," though "deserts"

THE CA8TILES. LEON, AND E8TBEMADUBA.

would, perhaps, be a more appropriate term. For miles around the village of San
Giemente not a rivulet, a spring, or a tree is met with, and the aspect of the
country throughout is exceedingly dreary. The interminable plains of La Mancha
— the " dried-up country " of the Arabs — adjoin these steppes in the west, and
there corn-fields, vineyards, and pasture-grounds alternate with stretches of thistles,
and the monotony is partly relieved by the windmills, with their huge sweeps slowly
revolving overhead. Estremadura and the slopes of the Sierra Morena are prinoi-
pally covered with rock-roses, and from the summit of some hills a carpet otjaraks,
bluish g^reen or brown, according to the season, extends as far as the eye reaches,
and in spring is covered with an abundance of white flowers resembling newly
fallen snow.

Woods arti met with only on the slopes of the mountains. Oaks of various
species and chestnut-trees occupy the lower zone, and conifers extend beyond them
to the extreme limit of trees. These latter likewise cover the vast tracts of shifting
sands which extend along the northern foot of the Sierra Guadarrama, and are the
analogue of the French landea.

The remains of the ancient forests still shelter wild animals. In the beginning
of this century bears were numerous on the southern slopes of the Cantxbrian
Mountains ; the thickets of Guadarrama, GrMos, and Gata still harbour wolves,
lynxes, wild cats, foxes, and even wild goats. Deer, hares, and other g^ame abound.
The oak forests are haunted by wild boars of immeueie size and strength. Before
the downfall of Islam it was thought meritorious to keep large herds of pigs, and
a traveller who visits the remote villages of Leon, Yalladolid, and Upper Estrema-
dura will find that this ancient custom still survives. The black hogs of Trujillo
and Montanchez are famous throughout Spain for their excellent hams.

The country offers great facilities for the breeding of sheep and cattle ; there
are, however, several districts which are admirably suited to the production of cereals.
The Tierra de Campos, in the basin of the Duero, is one of them. It owes its
fertility to a subterranean reservoir of water, as do also the mesa of Ocana and
other districts in the upper basins of the Tajo and the Guadiana, which are arid only
in appearance. The vine flourishes on stony soil, and yields excellent wine, and
the same may be said of the olive-tree, which constitutes the wealth of the
Campo de Calatrava. Agricultural -^ arsuits would thus appear to ofier great
advantages; and if thousands of acres are still allowed to lie fallow, if nomad
habits still predominate, this is owing to sloth, force of habit, the existence of
feudal customs, and sometimes, perhaps, to discouragement produced by seasons
of drought.

Most of the herds of merinos are obliged to traverse nearly half Spain in
search of the food they require. Each herd of about 10,000 sheep is placed
in charge of a mayoral, assisted by rabadanes in charge of detachments of from
1,000 to 1,200 animals. The shepherds and sheep of B&lia, in Leon, are reputed
to be the best. In the beginning of April the merinos leave their pasture-grounds
in Andalusia, La Mancha, and Estremadura for the north, where they pass the
summer, returning in September to the south. It may readily be imagined that

.':,*

886

SPAIN.

thcHe wandering herds do miinh datii^'i^ to the fields through which they puHs,
even though the privileges of the ctheop'breedors were abrogated in a large measure
in 1836. iSpain, however, in spite of every advantage offered by nature, is obliged
now to import sheep from abroad to improve its flocks. Mules, too, which aro
almost indispensable in so stony u country, are imported from prance. Cameln,
lamas, and kangaroos have been introduced, but their number has never huxitx
large, and the fauna as well as the flora of the Oastiles bears the stamp of monotony.

As is the land so are its inhitbitants. The men of Leon and the Oastiles aro
grave, curt of speech, majestic in their gait, and of even temper. Even in their
amusements they carry themselves with dignity, and those amongst them who
respect the traditions of the good old time regulate every movement in (icoordance
with a most irksome etiquette. The Oastilian is haughty in the extreme, and Yo
soy Caatellano ! cuts short every further explanation. He recognises no superiors,
but treats his fellows on a footing of perfect equality. A foreigner who mix's
for the first time in a crowd at Madrid or elsewhere in the Oastiles cannot fail
in being struck by the natural freedom with which rich and poor converse with
each other.

The Oastilian, thanks to his tenacious courage and the central position he
occupies, has become the master of Spain, but he can hardly be said to be the
master in his own capital. Madrid is the great centre of attraction of the entire
peninsula, and its streets are crowded with provincials from every part of
Spain. This invasion of the capital, and of the Oastiles generally, is explained by
the sparseness of the population of the plateaux, a sparseness not so much due to
the natural sterility of the country as to political and social causes. There can
be no doubt that the Oastiles formerly supported a much denser population than
they do now, but the towns of the valleys of the Tajo and the Guadiana have shrunk
into villages, and the river, which was formerly navigable as far as Toledo, is so
no longer, either because its volume is less now than it used to be, or because its
floods are no longer regulated. Estremadura, at present one of the poorest
provinces of Spain, supported a dense population in the time of the Romans,
who founded there the Oolonia Augusta Emerita, which became the largest town
of Iberia. During the dominion of the Moors, too, Estremadura }*ielded bounteous
harvests, but the old cities have disappeared, and the fields are now covered with
furse, broom, and rock-roses.

The expulsion of the Moors no doubt contributed towards the decay of these
once fertile regions, but the principal cause must be looked for in the growth of
feudal, military and ecclesiastical institutions, which robbed the cultivator of the
fruits of his labours. Subsequently, when Oortez, Pizarro, and other tonquistadores
performed their prodigious exploits in the I^ew World, tht^y attracted the enter-
prising youth of th^ province. The peaceable cultivation of the soil was held in
contempt, fields remained untilled, and 40,000 nomadic shepherds took possession
of the country. It is thus the JEatrem^os became what they are, the " Indians"
of the nation.

augh which they pns^
ated in a large meastiro
Bd by nature, is obliged
Mules, too, which urc
Tom prance. Camels,
umber has never btien
the stamp of monotony.

on and the Castiles aro
temper. Even in their
ose amongst them who
novement in (locordanco
in the extreme, and Yo
recognises no superiors,
A foreigner who mix's
the Oastiles cannot fail
and poor converse with

the central position he
ardly be said to be the

attraction of the entire
als from every part of
enerally, is explained by
ness not so much due to
Doial causes. There can
L denser population than
iie Guadiana have shrunk
le as far as Toledo, is so
ised to be, or because its
sent one of the poorest
be time of the Romans,
became the largest town
nadura pelded bounteous
lids are now covered with

>ward8 the decay of these
ked for in the growth of
bed the cultivator of the
}, and other conquistadores
thty attracted the enter-
n of the soil was held in
ihepherds took posseesion
they are, the " Indians"

THE 0A8TILES. LEON, AND E8T11EMAUURA.

887

This decrease of population was unfortunately attended by a return towards
barbarism. Throe hundred years ago the region on the southern slopes of the
Sierra de Ouudarrama was famous for its industry. The linen and cloth of Avila,
Medina del Oampo, and Segovia were known throughout Europe; Burgos and
Aranda del Duero were the seats of commerce and industry; and Medina de
Rio Seco was known as " Little India," on account of the wealth displayed at its
fairs. But misgovemment led to the downfall of these industries, the country
became depopulated, and its ancitnt culture dwindled to a thing of the past. At the
famous university of Salamanca the g^eat discoveries of Newton and Harvey were
still ignored at the close of last century as being " contrary to revealed religion,"
and the lower classes grovelled in the most beastly superstitions.

In this very province of Salamanca, close to the Feiia de Francia, exist the
" barbarous " Batueoas, who are charged with not being able to distinguish
the seasons. Nor are the inhabitants of other remote mountnin districts of
the Oastiles what wt; should call civilised. Amongst these may be noticed the
charroa of Salamarw a and the famous maragatos of Astorgu, most of them
muleteers. The" intermarry amongst themselves, and are looked upon as

the lineal desceuu,.ut8 of some ancient tribe of Iberia. The suggestion that
they are a mixed I'ace of Visigoths and Moors is not deserving of attention,
for neither in their dress nor in their manners do they remind us of Mussulmans.
They wear loose trousers, cloth gaiters fastened below the knee, a short and
close-fitting coat, a leather belt, a frill round the neck, and a felt hat with a
broad brim. They are tall and strong, but wiry and angular. Their taci-
turnity is extreme, and they neither laugh nor sing when driving before them
their beasts of burden. It is difficult to excite their passion, but, once roused,
they become ferocious. Their honesty is above suspicion, and they may be safely
trusted with the most valuable goods, which they will defend against every
attack, for they are brave, and skilled in the use of arms. Whilst the men
traverse the whole of Spain as carriers of merchandise, the women till the soil,
which, being arid and rocky, yields but a poor harvest.

The vicissitudes of history explain the existence of numerous towns in the
Castiles which can boast of having been the capital of the country at one time or
other. Numantia, the most 'ancient of all those cities, exists no longer, and the
learned are not yet agreed whether the ruins discovered near the decayed town of
Soria are the remains of the walls demolished by Soipio iBmilianus. But there are
several cities of great antiquity which possess some importance even at the present
day. Leon is one of these. It was the head-quarters of a Roman legion
{septima gemina), and its name, in reality a corruption of kgio, ia supposed to be
symbolized by the lions placed in its coat of arms. Leon was one of the first
places of importance taken from the Moors. Its old walls art in ruins now, and
the bcuiutiful cathedral has been transformed into a clumsy cube. Astorga, the
" magnificent city " of Asturica Augusta, has fallen even lower than Leon, whilst
Palenoia (the ancient Pallantia) still enjoys a certain measure of prosperity, owing

SM SPAIN.

to its favourable geographical position at the Pisuerga, which has caused it to
be selected as one of the great ailway centres of the peninsula.

Burgos, the former capital of Old Oastile, points proudly to its gruoefUl oatho*
dral and other ancient buildings, but its streets are nearly deserted, and the crowds
which congregate occasionally in the churohos, hotels, or at the railway station
are composed, for the most part, of beggars. In the cathedral are preserved
numerous relics, and the Cid, whose legendary birthplace, Bivar, is near, lies buriod
in it.

Valladolid, the Belad Walid of the Moors, at one time the capital of all Spain,
enjoys a more favourable geographical position than Bdrgos. It lies on the Lower

Fig. 143.— Saumanoa AMD in Dupoblaoos.
1 1 : lOO^OOO.

• SKUm.

Pisuerga, where that river enteis the broad plain of the Puero, at an elevation
of less than 600 feet above the sea. There are numerous factories, conduct
by Catalans, and the city boasti, like Bdrgos, of many curious buildings and
historical reminiscences. The houses in which Columbus died and Cervantes
bom are still shown, as is the beautiful monastery of San Pablo, in which reside
Torquemada, the monk, who condemned 8,000 heretics to die at the stake. Th^
castle of Sim&ncas, where the precious archives of Spain are kept, is near thil
city.

Descending tiie Duero, we pass Toro, and then reach Zomora, the " goodlj
walls " of wbich proved such an obstacle to the Moors. Zamora, though on th|
direct line between Oporto and continental Europe, is an out-of-the-way place

<«a»

which has caused it to
Itiula.

]ly to its graceftU oatho-

Ideaerted, and the crowd*

ir at the railway atation

I cathedral are preservod

Uvar, ia near, liea buried

the capital of all Spain,
M. It lies on the Lower

■ ' -m-r-

sJh*" ^

sfe^

^^%

^^p

r-rl^^E

MjLhMw '''yj^^

Kj' \J I -^'l^^^

he Puero, at an elevation
erous factories, conducted
ny curious buildings and
us died and Oerrantes was
in Pablo, in which resided
to die at the stake. The
iin are kept, is near this

aoh Zamora, the " goodly

Zamora, though on the

n out-of-the-way place at

*.;:— ^

'^^' ^^^ ^

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

Uilli 125
^ Ufi 12.0

«'

Photographic

Sdsices

Corporation

<«^

23 WIST MAIN STRHT

WltSTII,N.Y. 14510

(716)S72-4S03

CIHM/ICMH

Series.

CIHM/ICMH
Collection de
microfiches.

Canadian Inttituta for Historical IMicroraproductions / Institut Canadian da microraproductiona historiquaa

THE CA8TILES, LEON, AND ESTREMADUBA.

889

present, and the same may be said of the famous city of Salamanca, on the
Tormes, to the south of it.

Salamanca, the Salmantica of the Romans, succeeded to Palencia^as the seat of
a university, and during the epoch of the Renaissance was described as the " mother
of virtues, sciences, and arts," and the " Rome of the Castiles." It still deserves
the latter epithet, because of its magnificent bridge built by Trajan, and the beau-
Fig. 144.— The Alcazab of Skoovia.

tiful edifices dating bock to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Its intellectual
superiority, however, is a thing of the past.

Ar^valo, and the famous town of Medina del Campo, to the norUi-east of Sala-
manca, carry on a considerable trade with com. Avila ooonjnes an isolated hillock
on the banks of the Adaja, to the north of the Sierra de Grades. Avila still preserves
its turreted walls of the fifteenth century, and its fortress-like cathedral is a marvel
I of architecture. There are also curious sculptures of aninuds, which are ascribed

890

SPAIN.

«■'

to the aboriginal inhabitants of the country. Similar works of rude art in the
vicinity are known as the " bulls of Guisando," from a village in the Sierra de
GrWos.

Segovia the " circumspect " is situated on an affluent of the Duero, like
Avila, and in the immediate vicinity of the Sierra de Ghiadarrama. Its turreted
walls rise on a scarped rock, supposed to resemble a ship. On the poop of this

Fig. 146.— Toledo.

fancied ship, high above the oonfluence of Clamores and Eresma, rise the ruins of
the Moorish Alcazar, whilst the cathedral, in the centre of the oit}', is supposed to
represent the mainmast. A beautiful aqueduct supplies Segovia with the clear
waters of the Guadarraioia. It is the finest Roman work of this class in Iberia, and
&r superior to the royal palace of San Ildefonso cr De la Granja, in the neighbour-
hood of the city.
. Toledo is the most famous city to the south of the great rampart formed by the

[

t rampart formed by the

mit

THE OASTILEa. LEON, AND E8TBEMADURA.

891

Sierras of Guadurrama, Gr^dos, and Gata. This is the Citulad Im})eriul, the
" mother of cities," the coronet of Spain and the light of the world, as it was
called by Juan de Padilla, the most famous of its sons. Tradition tells us that it
existed long before Hercules founded Segovia, and, like Rome, it stands upon seven
hills. Toledo, with its gates, towers, Moorish and mediaoval buildings, is indeed a
beautiful city, and its cathedral is of dazzling richness. But, for all this, Toledo is
u decayed place, and its famous armourers' shops have been swamped by a
Government manufactory.

Talavera de la Reina, below Toledo, on the Tajo, still possesses some of its
ancient manufactures of silk and faience. Puente del Arzobispo and the other
towns on the Tajo are hardly more now than large villages. The bridge of Almar&z
crosses tlie river far away from any populous town, and the old Roman bridge
of Alcondtar exists no longer. Alo&ntara, — that is, the bridge, — near the Por-
tuguese frontier, still remains a monument of the architectural skill of the
Romans. It was completed in the year 105, in the reign of Trajan, and its
architect, Lacer, appears to have been a Spaniard. Its centre is at an elevation
of 160 feet above the mean level of the Tajo, the floods of which rise occasionally
to the extent of a hundred feet.

All the great towns of Estremadura lie at some distance from the Tajo, and
its great volume of water has hitherto hardly been utilised for purposes of
irrigation or navigation. On a fertile hill nearly twenty miles to the north of
this river, the old town of Plasenoia may be seen bounded in the distance by
mountains frequently covered with snow. C&oeres is about the same distance
to the south, as is also Trujillo, which received such vast wealth from the con-
querors of Peru, but is now dependent upon its pigs and herds of cattle.

The position of those towns of Estremadura which lie on the banks of the
Guadiana is more favourable. Badajoz, close to the Spanish frontier, has lost its
ancient importance as a fortress since it became a place of commerce on the only
railway which as yet joins Spain to Portugal. M^rida, on the same railway, is
richer in Roman monuments than any other town of Spain, for there are a
triumphal arch, the remains of an aqueduct, an amphitheatre, a naumacby, baths,
and an admirable bridge of eig\< ' granite arches, 2,600 feet in length; but in
population it is ^t inferior. to Dc>' Benito, a town hardly mentioned in history,
higher up the Guadiana, at the edge of the vast plain of La Serena. It was founded
in the beginning of the sixteenth century, and together with its neighbour,
Villanueva de la Serena, derives its wealth from the fertility of the surrounding
country. Its fruits, and particularly its water-melons, are much esteemed. The
plains on the right bank of the Guadiana abound in phosphate of lime, which is
exported to France and England.

The towns of La Mancha are of no historical note, and the province owes
its celebrity almost exclusively to Cervantes' creation,' the incomparable "Don
Quixote." Ciudad Real, an industrious place formerly ; Almagro, known for its
point-lace ; Daimiel, near which stood the principal castle of the military order of
Calatrava; Ifanzanares ; and other towns are important principally because of their

892

SPAIN.

trade in com and wine. Almaden, — that ii, "the mine," — in a valley on the
northern slope of the Sicrru Morena, has become famous through its cinnubur
mineH, which for moro than threes centuries supplied the New World with
mercury, and still yield about 1,200 tons annually.

Fig. 146.— Madrid and its EiiviROMi.
Sou* 1 : 900,000.

.SMOm.

Eastern Castile, being at a considerable elevation above the sea- level, and
having a rugged surface, cannot support a population more dense ihan either La
Mancha or Estremadura. There are but few towns of note, and even the capital,
Cuenoa, is hardly more than a third-rate provincial city. Picturesquely perched

THI-J CASTlLEfl. LEON. AND ESTREMADURA.

808

n a vttlloy on the
rough its cinnuhur
New World with

ove the sea-level, aad

dense than either La

J, and even the capital,

Picturesquely perched

upon a steep rock overhanging the deep gorges of the Huecar und Jiinur, it merely
lives in the past. The only other towns of note in thut part of the country uro
(iuao..iajttra, with a Roman acqueduct, and Alcal4, the native place of Cervantes
und seat of an ancient university, which at one time saw 10,000 students within its
wiiUs. Both these towns are situated on the Henaros, a tributary of the Tujo,
und either would have been fit to become the capital of the kingdom.

Indeed, at the first glance, it almost appears us if Madrid owed its existence to
tho caprice of a king. It has no river, for the Manzanares is merely a torrent, its
climate is abominable, and its environs present fewer advantages than those of
Toledo, the ancient capital of the Romans and Visigoths. But once having been
Helectod us the capital, Madrid could not fail to rise in importance, for it occupies a
central position with respect to all other towns outside the basin of the Upper Tujo.
Pinto {Punctum), a short distance to the south of Madrid, is popularly supposed to
be the mathematical centre of the peninsula ; and thus much is certain, that the plain
bounded in the north by the Sierra de Ouadarramu forms the natural nucleus of
tho country, and is traversed by its great natural highways.

Toledo occupies a position almost equally central. It was the capital of the
country during the reign of the Romans, and subsequently became the capital of
the ecclesiastical authorities and of the kings of the Visigoths, and retained that
position until it fell into the power of the Moors. During the struggles between
Moors and Christians the latter shifted their capital from place to place, according
to the varying fortunes of the war, but no sooner had the former been expelled
from Cordova than the Christian kings again established themselves in the plain
to the south of the Sierra de Guadarrama. They had then to chose between Toledo
and Madrid. Toledo no doubt offered superior advantages, but its citizens having
joined the insurrection of the eomunerot against Charles V., the Emperor-king decided
in favour of Madrid. Philip III. endeavoured to remove the capital to Valladolid,
but the natural attractions of Madrid proved too strong for him, and the schools,
museums, public buildings, and manufactories which have arisen in the latter since
then must for ever insure it a preponderating position. The railways, which now
join Madrid to the extremities of the peninsula, countervail the disadvantages
of its immediate neighbourhood ; and although the purest Castilian is spoken at
Toledo, it is Madrid which, through its press, has insured the preponderance of that
idiom throughout Spain. Madrid has long been in advance of all other cities of the
peninsula as regards political activity, industry, and commerce, but its growth
having taken place during a period devoid of art, it is inferior to other towns with
respect to the character of its public buildings. The museums, however, are
amongst the richest in Eurqpe, and make it a second Florence. Immediately
outside the public promenades of the Prado and Buen Retire we find our-
selves in a desolate country covered with flints, and this must be crossed by
a traveller desirous of visiting the delightful gardens of Aranjuez, the huge
Escorial built by Philip II., or the villas in the wooded valleys of the Sierra de
Guadarrama. These latter supply Madrid with water, as the neighbouring moim-
tains do with ice. Formerly one of the most secluded of these valleys became

HPAIN.

fliu Hout of u iiio<;k-kin(f<tuiii, nominully indopondniit of the Kingi of Gustilc
During tlio Muoriah invuiiioii thu inhuhituiits of tho plain of Jariirou had nought
abuUer in tho mountuiui, and the ruat of thu world forgot uU about thorn. Thoy
cullod thomMilvoH i'ntoncH, and uloctcd an hereditary king. About the middle of
tho Bovonteonth century tho lunt of tho lino, by trudo a currior, aiirrondered )ii>
wund of authority into thu hundn of u royal otHuer, und the valley waa placed
under the juriwlictiuu of the uuthoritiea ui IToeda.*

III. — ANDALiraiA.t

Andai.uhia embraces the whole of the basin of the Guadalquivir, together with
aome adjoining diatriota. It ia bounded in the north by the Sierra Morena, which

Piff. 147.— Aranjum.

RmI* 1 : 7ft,000,

Mil*.

in the direction of Portugal becomes a rugg^ mountain district of crystalline
formation intersected by tortuous rayines, and rising in the Sierra de Aracena,
north of the mining region of the Rio Tinto, to a height of 6,500 feet. Farther
east the Sierra Morena ascends in terraces above the valley of the Guadalquivir,
and on its reverse slope we meet with districts, such as that of Los Fedroohes
(1,650 feet), hardly less monotonous of aspect than the plains of La Mancha. The

* Population of the principal towns of the Costiles (1870) :—0U Gattik : V tdolid, 60,000 ; Bfirgoa,
14,000; Salamanca, 13,600; Palencia, 13,000; Zamora, 9,000; Segovia, 7,000; Leon, 7,000; Avila, 6,000
Ntw CuttiU: Madrid, 332,000; Toledo, 17,600; Almagro, 14,000; Daimiel, 13,000; Ciudad Real,
12,000; Yal de PeAas, 11,000; Almaden, 9,000; Manzanares, 9,000; Guenca, 7,000; Talavera de la
Rej'na, 7,600 ; Ouadalajara, 6,000. Ettrtwutdura : Badajoz, 22,000 ; Don Benito, 16,000 ; C&ceree, 12,000
Villanueva de la Serena, 8,000 ; Plaaencia, 6,000 ; M£rida, 6,000.

t Area of the basin of the Quadalquivir, 21,000 square miles ; area of Andalusia, 28,370 square miles
population (1870), 2,749,629; density, 91.

ANDAMISIA.

806

tho King! of Ouatilc,
of Jariimu had Huu^ht
ill about thorn. They
About the iniddlo of
urriiT, Burrondored lii^
tho valley wan pluccHl

alquivir, together with
I Sierra Morena, which

district of crystalline
he Sierra de Araoena,
f 5,600 feet. Farther
ly of the Guadalquivir,
that of Los Pedroohes
18 of La Mancha. The

Y tdolid, 60,000 ; B6rgoa,
0; Leon, 7,000; ivila, 6,000.
miel, 13,000; Ciudad Real,
enca, 7,000 ; Talavera de la
lito, 16,000 ; C&ceree, 12,000 ;

idaluaia, 28,370 square miles ;

I'unta de Alinonaru (.'i,J)2() feet), in the Sierra do AlcurAz, in tho oxtrutne cuMt, may
bt< looked u|K)n as tho culminating pint of thin niorra, vthuh i» indebted for its
name of " Hluck Mountain " to the sombro pint's which clothe its hIo|M!h.

The lint) of wutur-parting does not pans through the highest summits of
this range. Most of the rivers rise on tho plateau, und take their course, by
pictures<]ue gorges, right through the heart of tho mountains. Tho most famous
of these gorges is that of Despeilaperros (2,444 feet), loading from the dreary
plains of Lu Manoha to tho smiling valley of Andalusia. This pass ban played a
greot part in every war. At its foot was fought in 1212 tho fearful l)attlo of

Fig, M8.— Till Uakinn of (li'Ai)UNA and OuAnALQiriVIH.
Heals t ; H,nn(),iion.

>? V ;

' 60 Miles.

Navas do Tolosa, in which more than 200,000 Mussulmans are said to have been
slaughtered.

The mountains which shut in the basin of Andalusia on the east are cat up
by deep river gorges into several distinct masses or chains, of which the Calar
del Mundo (5,437 feet), Yelmo de Segura (5,925 feet), and Sierra Sagra (7,675
feet) are the principal. The southern mountain ranges uniformly extend from east
to west. From north to south we cross in succession the Sierras de Maria (6,690
feet), de las Esf^ncias, and de los Filabres (6,283 feet), so famous for its marbles.
In the west the latter two ranges join the Sierra de Baza (6,236 feet), itself attached
to the great culminating range of Iberia, the Sierra Nevada, by a saddle of incon-
siderable height (2,950 feet).

SPAIN.

The Sierra Nevada consists mainly of schists, through which eruptions of
serpentine and porphyry have taken place. The area it occupies is small, but
from whatever side we approach it rises precipitously, and the eye can trace the
succeeding zones of vegetation up to that of perennial snows pierced by the peaks
of Mulahacen (11,661 feet), Ficacho de la Yeleta (11,386 feet), and Alcazaba
(7,590 feet). Vines and olive-trees clothe the foot-hills; to these succeed walnut-
trees, then oaks, and finally a pale carpet of turf hidden beneath snow for six

Fig. 149. — ThI Fa»B of DuPBITAPRHBOg.

months. Masses of snow accumulate in sheltered hoUows, and these ■^ventiaqmros,
rentiacas, or snow-drifts, supply Granada with ice. In the Cotral de la Vekta there
even exists a true glacier, which gives birth to the river Genii, and is tb^ most
southerly in all Europe. The more extensive glaciers of a former age have
disa{^)eared long ago. To the piirliug streams fed by the snows of the sierra the
Yega of Granada owes its rich verdure, its flowers, and its excellent fruits, and the
delightful valley of Lecrin its epithet of " Paradise of the Alpujarras."

rumiiiiiHiHilllllfltirli'

•WMWMa

ANDALUSIA.

897

which eruptions of
supies is small, but
B eye can trace the
derced by the peaks
feet), and Alcazaba
lese succeed walnut-
meath snow for six

No other district of Spain so forcibly reminds us of the dominion of the Moors.
The principal summit is named after a Moorish prince. On the Picaoho they lit a
beacon on the approach of a Christian army, and in the Alpujarras, on the
southern slope, they pastured their sheep. The Galician and Asturian peasants,
who now occupy this district, are superior in no respect to the converted Moori^
who were permitted to remain at Ujijar, the capital of Alpujarras, when their

Fig. 160.— Thb Sibhra Nevada as ribn from Baza.

-'»"*^'5'*2^SJ,iS>.s""~?-T-.

-r-— 1 ■ )'

and these Ntvn<M;u«ro8,
mral de la Vekta there
^enil, and is th' most
of a former age have
snows o£ the sierra the
soellent fruits, and the
Ipujarras."

4^:

•^i

compatriots were driven forth. The natural riches of the mountains remain
undeveloped, and they are surrounded by a belt of detpohladot.

From the Pass of Alhedin (3,300 feet), between Gh-anada and Alpujarra, we look
down upon one of the most charming panoramas of the world. It was here that
Boabdil, the fugitive Moorish king, beheld for the last time the smiling plains of
his kingdom, and hence the spot is known as the " Last Sigh of the Moor," or the
"Hill of Tears." From the highest summits of the nerra, however, the prospect
is exceedingly grand. Standing upon the Picaoho de la Vdeta, we see Southern
99

ifrwi>^i«^''r

SPAIN.

Spain spread out beneath our feet, with its fertile valleys, rugged rocks, and
russet-coloured wilds. Looking south, across the blue waters of the Mediterranean,
the mountains of Barbary loom out in the distance, and sometimes we are even able
to hear the murmuring of the waves as they beat against the coast.

The mountains around these grants of Granada are very inferior to them in
height. The country in the north, which is bounded by the valleys of the Genii,
Guadiana Menor, and Guadalquivir, is occupied by an upland intersected by deep
ravines, and rising now and then into distinct mountain chains, such as the Sierra
Magina (7,047 feet) and Sierra de Jabalcuz, near Jaen (1,800 feet) ; the chain
Alta Ooloma, farther south, with its wild pass, Puerto de Arenas, between Jaen
and Granada ; and the Sierra Susana, close to Granada, which extends westward
to the mountain mass of the Parapanda, the great prophet of the husbandmen of
the Vegfa : — .

" Cuando Parapanda ae pone la montera, '

Llneve, aunque Dios no lo quuiera."

(" When Parapanda pnte on hia cap it rains, though Ood may not \ iah it.")

The mountains extending alonsf the coast are out up by transverse valleys into
several distinct masses. The Sierra de Gata, in the south-east, is a detached
mountain mass, pierced by several extinct volcanoes. Farther west rises the
Sierra Alhamilla, the torrents of which are so rich in garnets that the huntsmen
use them instead of shot. Grossing a rivulet, we reach the superb Sierra de C^or
(7,620 feet), consisting of schists.

The Contraviesa (6,218 feet), which separates the Alpujarras from the Mediter-
ra;.ean, ri8<*o so steeply from the coast that even sheep can hardly climb it. The
Sierra de Almijara, beyond the narrow valley of the Guadalfeo, and its western
continuation, the Sierra de Alhamd (7,003 feet), present similar features. The
mountains on the other side of the Pass of Al&mate or de los Alazores (2,723
feet) constitute the exterior rampart of an andent lake bed, bounded in the north
by an irregular swelling of ground known as Sierra de T^guas. The road from
M&laga to Antequera crosses that rampart in the &mous Pass of El Torcal (4,213
feet), the fantastically shaped rooks of which bear some resemblance to the ruins
of an extensive city. Archaeologists have discovered there some of the most curious
prehistoric remains of Iberia.

To the west of the basin of Malaga, drained by the Guadalhoroe, the emissary
of the ancient lake referred to above, the mountains again increase in height, and
in the Sierra de Tolox attain an elevation of 6,430 feet. Snows remain here
throughout the winter. From the Tolox mountain chains ramify in all directions.
The Sierra fiermeja (4,756 feet) extends to the south-west, its steep promontories
being washed by the waves of the sea ; the wild " Serrania " de Ronda (6.085 feet)
extends westward, and is continued in the mountain mass of San Oristobal
(5,627 feet), which sends branches southward as far as the Capes of Trafalgar and
Tarifa. The rock of Gibraltar (1,408 feet), which rises so proudly at the ent|«nce
of the Mediterranean, is a geological outlier attached to the mainland by a strip of
sand thrown up by the waves of the ooeau.

l l l L-lUJH.Lllj.l i mu.i. l t« i

-im i<iw m . )Wj > i iw #' i

■KMNIWplPI

), rugged rocks, and
ji the Mediterranean,
imes we are even able
coast.

' inferior to them in
valleys of the Genii,
1 intersected hy deep
as, such as the Sierra
800 feet) ; the chain
Arenas, hetween Jaen
ioh extends westward
>f the husbandmen of

aot X id» it.")

transverse valleys into
th-east, is a detached
artiher west rises the
its that the huntsmen
uperb Sierra de Gl&dor

rras from the Mediter-
hardly climb it. The
dalfeo, and its western
similar features. The
de los Alazores (2,723
I, bounded in the north
iguas. The road from
188 of El Torcal (4,213
Bsemblance to the ruins
ome of the most curious

adalhorce, the emissary
increase in height, and
t. Snows remain here
ramify in all directions.
;, its steep promontories
" de Ronda (5.085 feet)
mass of San Cristobal
Capes of Trafalgar and
proudly at the entrance
e mainland by a strip of

'&t-„;*j>-3:'Si'-;s

mmimmmtKltmmiim!»09^

GOSaK DE LOS aAITAHKB, BBFIUfi OF afTADALHOBCB.

ijNtJiwMIWW ^i J-'^'i:' ~ '''' - ' ■ JL-:-;..-' ! J-- 1. ■ r; f V' i r i n ~T'"~rTi" -—-■-■■- —-i - -i- — — — ■■' ■■ "»""'*>■' - < m. mi ■■ ..i «■>

ANDALUSIA.

Erosion has powerfully affected the mountains occupying the country hetween
the basin of the Guadalquivir and the coast. Amongst the numerous river gorges,
that of the Gaytanos, through which the Guadalhorce flows from the plateau of
Antequera to the orange groves of Alora, is one of the wildest and most magnifi-
cent in all Spain. Only torrents enter the Mediterranean, and even of the rivers
discharging their Wi 'ers into the Atlantic there is but one which is of some
importance, on account of its great volume and the facilities it offers for navigation.
This is the Guadalquivir, which rises in the Sierra Sagra, at an elevation of 5,900
feet above the sea-level. Having received the Guadalimar, its current becomes

Hg. 1£1. — Tub Hovth op thm Ouai>aiaditib.
Sode 1 : S00,O0O.

ilOlM.

gentle, and it flows through a wide and open valley thus differing essentially
from the rivers of the Oastiles, which, on their way to the sea, traverse narrow
gorges. Its volumo fairly entitles it to its Arab name of Wad-el-Eebir, or " large
river." The geological work performed by this river and its tributaries has been
enormons. Mountain ramparts have been brokeu through, lakes drained, and
immense quantities of toil spread over the valley. Nowhere can this work be
traced more adtan^agdoosly than in the valley of the Genii of Ghunada, for the
fertile district of La Vega was covered by a lake, the pent-up waters of which
opened themselves a passage near Loja.

-wg^eafeajfeiVwaA^

' vi*lli*S'-^'t''i"'^f>i-'

400

SPAIN.

The estuary of the river has been gradually filled up by sediment. The tide
ascends nearly as far as Seville, where the river is about 250 yards wide. Below
that city it passes through an alluvial tract known as the marianuu, ordinarily a
dusty plain roamed over by half-wild cattle, but converted by the least rain into a
quagpnire. Neither villages nor homesteads are met with here, but the sands
farther back are covered with dwarf palms, and lower down a few hills of tertiary
formation approach close to the river, their vine-clad slopes affording a pleasing
contrast to the surrounding solitude.

A contraction of the alluvial valley marks the exterior limit of the ancient
estuary silted up by the Guadalquivir. Sanlucar de Barrameda, a town of
oriental aspect, stands on the left bank, whilst a range of dunes intervenes
between the sea and the flat country on the right bank. The mouth of the river
is closed by a bar, so that only vessels of small draught can enter it. These
Arenas Oordas, or "great sands," are for the most part covered with pineS, and,
except on their exterior face, they have remained stable since the historical epoch.

The Qiiadalquivir is the only river of Spain which is navigable for a consider-
able distance above its mouth. Vessels of 200 tons ascend it as far as Seville, a
distance of sixty miles. Sanlucar was formerly the great port of Spain, and its
coasting trade is still considerable. None of the other rivers of Andalusia are
navigable. The Guadalete, which enters the Bay of C&diz, is a shallow, sluggish
stream ; the Odiel and the Rio Tinto are rapid torrents, and their estuary, below
Uuelva, has been choked up by the sediment brought down by them ; while Palos,
so famous as the port from which Columbus started upon his g^reat voyage of dis-
covery, has dwindled down to a poor fishing village.

But what are these changes compared with the great revolution which joined
the Mediterranean to the Atlantic P There can be no doubt that a barrier of
mountains separated the two seas. The destructive action of the Atlantic appears
to have been facilitated not only by the cavernous nature of the rocks on
both sides of the strait, but also by the fifict of the level of the Mediterranean
having been much lower at that time than that of the Atlantic. Even now the
waters of the latter sometimes rush through the strait with astounding velocity
(see Fig. 6, p. 26). We cannot tell whether the strait has increased in width during
historical times, for ancient g^graphers are not very precise in their measurements.
Thus much, however, is certain, that the general features of the strait have not
changed, and the two pillars of Hercules, Calpe and Abyla, may still be recog-
nised in modem Gibraltar and Oeuta.

The rock of Gibraltar does not form the southernmost promontory of Iberia, but,
being the most striking object along the strait, it has given its name to it. Mariners
look upon it as the true boundary between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic,
and it has been likened, not inaptly, to a crouching lion guarding the gateway
between the two seas. It rises almost perpendicularly on the east, and the town,
with most of the batteries, has been constructed on the western slope, which is
more accessible. The famous rock, though a natural dependency of Spain, has
become, by right of conquest, one of the great strongholds of England, and its

ANDALUSIA.

401

sediment. The tide
) yards wide. Below
riaristnas, ordinarily a
Y tbe least rain into a
here, but the sands
a few hills of tertiary
9 affording a pleasing

limit of the ancient
arrameda, a town of
of dunes intervenes
be mouth of the river
can enter it. These
rered with pineA, and,
le the historical epoch,
vigable for a oonsider-
it as far as Seville, a
port of Spain, and its
vers of Andalusia are
;, is a shallow, sluggish
ad their estuary, below
by them ; while Palos,
is great voyage of dis-

•evolution which joined
ioubt that a barrier of
of the Atlantic appears
ftture of the rocks on
si of the Mediterranean
itlantio. Even now the
rith astounding velocity
ncreased in width during
e in their measurements.
18 of the strait have not
l>yla, may still be recog-

iromontory of Iberia, but,
its name to it. Mariners
ranean and the Atlantic,
n guarding the gateway
a the east, and the town,
) western slope, which i»
lependency of Spain, has
olds of England, and its

importance as a fortress as well as a place of commerce is indisputable. In its
caverns have been discovered stone implements and the skeletons of dolicho-
cephalous men.

The frequent intercourse between Andalusia and the Berber countries on the
other side of the strait is explained by vicinity as well as by similarity of climate.
Algarve, Huelva, and the lower valley of the Guadalquivir, as far as Seville and
Ecija, that " stewing-pan " or " furnace " of Spain, is one of the hottest districts
of Europe, and the coast, from Algeoiras and Gibraltar to Cartagena, Alicante, and
the Cabo de la N&o, is hardly inferior to it. The country around the Bay of
Cadiz and the hilly districts in the extreme south, which are freely exposed to the
eirazon, or sea breeze, enjoy a more temperate climate. In the t^vo torrid coast
regions delineated above frosts are hardly known, and the mean temperature of
the coolest month reaches 54° F. The heat is greatest around the bays exposed
to the full influence of the hot African winds, and least on the Atlantic seaboard,
where westerly breezes moderate it. Contrary atmospheric currents naturally
meet in the Strait of GKbraltar, where the wind is generally high, and tempests
are frequent in winter. Westerly winds prevail during winter, easterly winds
in summer. The two promontories of Europe and Africa are looked upon by
mariners as trustworthy signallers of the weather : when they are wrapped in
clouds or mists rain and easterly winds may be looked for, but when their pro-
files stand out clearly against the blue sky it is a sure sign of fine weather and
westerly winds.*

The dry and semi-tropical climate of Lower Andalusia frequently exercises a most
depressing influence upon Northern Europeans. In the plain and along the coast
it hardly ever rains during summer, and the heat is sometimes stifling, for the
trade winds of the tropics are unknown. At O&diz the land wind blowing from
the direction of Medina Sidonia, and hence known as medina, is suffocating, and
quarrels and even murders are said to occur most frequently whilst it lasts. But
the most dreaded wind is the aolano or levante, which is hot as the blast from a
furnace. A curious vapour, known as calina, then appears on the southern
horizon, the air is filled with dust, leaves vrither, and sometimes birds drop in
their flight as if suffocated.

In the temperate regions of Europe summer is the season of flowers and foliage,
but in Andalusia it is that of aridity and death. Except in gardens and irrigated
fields all vegetation shrivels up and assumes a greyish tint like .that of the soil.
But when the equinoctial autumn rains fall in the lowlands, and snows in the
mountains, the plants recover rapidly, and a second spring begins. In February
vegetation is most luxuriant, but after March heat and dryness again become the
order of the day. lud'eed, Andalusia sufibrs from' a want of moisture. There are
steppes without water, trees, or human habitations, the most extensive being on

Mtsn Amnial

Rutn&II.

BainbU.

BainflOL

Temp.

Y««r.

Get— Harch.

April-Sq>t.

Oranada . •

. . 66" F.

48-6 in.

40-3 in.

8-2 in.

SevOle . . .

. . W„

26-1 „

281 „

3-0,,

Gibraltar . .

. . IV „

28-9 „

20-8 „

8-6 „

15.

^ Ai l ^ '^RM SBy "

^'tr iiitii iiir -

A.S^

4di

SPAIN.

the Lower Oenil, where the depressions are occupied by salt lakes, as in Algeria
or Persia, and cultivation is impossible. Another steppe of some extent stretches
to the east of Jaon, and is known as that of Mancha Real. The barreu tracts on
the Mediterranean slopes are relatively even of greater extent than those in the
basin of the Quadalquivir. The volcanic region of the Sierra de Gkita is a complete
desert, where castles and towers erected for purposes of defence are the only
buildings. Elsewhere the coast is occupied by saline plains, which support a vege-

Fig. 142.— Thi Stippu or Eoua:
B4Ml* t : 700,000.

tation mainly consisting of salsolaoeee, plumbagineos, and cruciferse, five per cent,
of the species of which are African. Barilla, the ashes of which are used in the
manufacture of soda, grows plentifully there.

In the popular mind, however, Andalusia has at all times been associated with
fertility. Its name recalls the oranges of Seville, the luxuriant vegetation of the
Vega of Oranada, tho " Elysian Fields," and the " Garden of the Hesperides,"
which the ancients identified with the valley of the Bsetis. The indigenous flora
entitles Andalusia to its epithet of the " Indies of Spain," and, in addition to

ANDALUSIA.

408

lakes, ai in Algeria
ome extent ^tretchoB
The barrtJii ♦racts on
it than those in the
ie Otata is a complete
efenoe are the only
rhich support a vege-

'P^

the tropical plants from Asia and Africa which grow there spon taneously, we meet
with others which have been successfully acclimatized. Dates, bananas, and bam-
b(x>8 grow side by side with caoutchouc-trees, dragon's-blood trees, magnolias,
ohirimoyas, erythrinas, azedaraohs ; ricinus and stramonium shoot up into
veritable trees ; the cochineal cactus of the Canaries and the ground-nut of the
Senegal do well ; sweet potatoes, cotton, and coffee are cultivated with Ruccess ;
and the sugar-cane succeeds in sheltered places. The coast between Motril and
M&laga is supposed to yield annuallj'^ £20,000 worth of sugar.

The fauna of Andalusia presents, also, some African features. The molluscs
met with in Morocco exist likewise in Andalusia ; the ichneumon may be seen on
the right bank of the Ijower Guadalquivir and elsewhere ; the chameleon is plen-
tiful ; and u species of wild goat is said to be common to the mountains of Morocco
and the Sierra Nevada. Nor should we forget to state that an African monkey

oruoiferffi, five per cent,
which are used in the

lesbeen associated with
uriant vegetation of the
en of the Hesperides,"
The indigenous flora
in," and, in addition to

Fig. 163.— ZoMBs or Vboration on thb Coa»t of Amdalvria.

Until tt IMI* 1k«M

Limta •# Ona^ «WM .

{Inuus aylmnutt) still lives on the rook of Gibraltar, but whether he has been
imported has not yet been determined.

In the dawn of European history Andalusia was probaUy inhabited by an
Iberian laoe akin to that of the Basques. The Bastulse, Bastamse, and Bastease,
in the hills facing the Mediterranean, and the Turdetani and Turduli of the valley
of the Bsetis, bore Euskarian names, as did many of their towns. But even thus
early they must have been a mixed race. Celtic tribes held the hills extending
to the north-west of the Beetis, in the direction of Lusitania; the Turdetani,
who were relatively civilised, for they possessed written laws, permitted Phoe-
nicians, Carthaginians, and Greeks to settle amongst them, and in the end becune
thoroughly Latinised. Municipal charters discovered at M&laga, and more recently
at Osuna {Cotania Julia OeniHva), prove that the cities of this province enjoyed a
considerable degree of self-government.

When the Boman world broke down. Southern Spain was invaded by Vandals,

404

SPAIN.

Byzantines, and Viaigotha, to whom succeeded Arabs, Berbers, and Jews. Tho
influence exercised upon the country by the Moors — that is, by a mixed race
of Arabs and Berbers — has been more abiding than that of their Teutonic
predecessors. They maintained themselves for more than seven centuries, were
numerous in the towns, and cultivated the fields conjointly with the ancient
inhabitants of the country. When the order of exile went forth against their
whole race, Moon'sh blood circulated in the veins of those who were charged with
the execution of this harsh measure. In certain portions of Andalusia, and more
especially in the Alpujarras, where the Moors maintained their independence until
the end of the sixteenth century, the mixture between the two races had made
such progpress that religious profession, and not the colour of the skin, decided
nationality. Numerous Arabic words and phrases have found their way into the
Andalusian dialect, and the geographical nomenclature of many districts is Arabic
rather than Iberian or Latin. Most of the large buildings in the towns are alcanarn,
or mosques, and even the style of modem structures is Arabic, modified to some
extent by Roman influences. The houses, instead of looking upon the street, face
an interior court, or patio, where the members of the family meet by the side of
a cool fountain. No further ethnical element has been added to the population
since the epoch of the Arabs, for the few (German colonists who settled at Carolina,
Carlota, and elsewhere did not prosper, and either returned to their native country
or became merged in the general population.

The Andalusians have frequently been called the Gkisoons of Spain. They are
generally of graceful and supple build, of seductive manners, and full of eloquence,
but the latter is too frequently wasted upon trifles. Though not devoid of bravery,
the Andalusian is a great boaster, and his vanity often oausea him to pass the
bounds of truth. At the same time he is of a contented mind, and does not allow
poverty to affect his spirit. The mountaineers differ in some respects from the
dwellers in the plains. They are more reserved in their manners, and the
Jaetanos, or mountaineers of Jaen, are known as the Galicians of Andalusia.
The beauty of the highland women is of a more severe type, and, compared with
the charming Qaditanes and the fascinating mqf'ag of Seville, the women of
Granada, Quadix, and Baza are remarkable for an air of haughty nobleness.

No doubt there are men in Bsetica who work, but as a rule love of labour is not
amongst the virtues of the Andalusian. The country might become the great
tropical storehouse of Europe, but its immense resources remain undeveloped. To
some extent this is explained by the &ct that nearly the whole country is owned
by great landlords. Many estates, which formerly were carefully cultivated, have
been converted into sheep-walks, and for miles we meet neither houses uor human
beings. The highlands, ton, belong to large proprietors, but are leased to anudl
farmers, who pay one-third of their product in lieu of rent

The magnificent orange groves of Seville, Sanluoar, and other towns, the olive
groves, vineyards, and orchards of M&laga, supply the world with vast quantities
of fruit ; its productive corn-fields have made Andalusia one of the great granaries
of the world ; but it is mainly its wines which enable it to take a share in inter-

""TJBWWiffBiWwlf

ssju^smmti

mmm

ANDALUSIA.

40S

Pi, and Jews. The
I, by a mixed race
of their Teutonic
iven centuries, weru
y with the ancient
forth against their
> were charged with
Lndaluua, and more
■ independence until
two races had made
of the skin, decided
i their way into the
(ly districts is Arabic
\ie towns are alcatarit,
i>io, modified to some
upon the street, face
f meet by the side of
»d to the population

settled at Carolina,

1 their native country

of Spain. They are
and full of eloquence,
lot devoid of bravery,
ises him to pass the
d, and does not allow
me respects from the
ir manners, and the
licians of Andalusia.
I, and, compared with
mile, the women of
l^hty nobleness.
le love of labour is not
^ht become the great
Lain undeveloped. To
hole country is owned
efuUy cultivated, have
her houses uor human
ut are leased to small

other towns, the olive
1 with vast quantities
of the great granaries
take a share in inter-

national commerce. Immense quantities of the wine known as sherry are grown in
the vineyards of Jeres, to the east of C&dii. Many of the vineyards belong to
Knglishmen, and merchants of that nation are busily occupied in blending and
other operations peculiar to their trade. Hevorul wines, however, maintain their
superior oharact«r to the present time. Such are the sweet fintilla of Rotu,
mannanilla, and pq/arate, made from dried grupes. In spite of many mulpructices,
this branch of industry has exercised a most beneficial influence upon thb character
of the population. Santa Maria, on the Bay of Cddiz, is one of the great wine
ports of the world, and Spain has become a formidable rival of its northern
neighbour.*

The ancient manufacturing industry of the country can hardly be said to exist
any longer, but mining is still carried on. Strabo exaggerates the mineral
wealth of the country, which is nevertheless very great. Nearly all the pro-
ductive mining districts of Southern Spain are in the hills. The Sierra de
Q&dor is said to contain " more metal than rook." Hundreds of argentiferous
lead, copper, and iron mines have been opened there, and in the sierras of
Quadix, Baca, and Almeria. Near Lin&res, on the Upper Guadalquivir, there are
lead mines yielding about 210,000 tons annually. The silver mines of Oonstantina
and Ghiadaloanal, in the Sierra Morena, are being worked only at intervals. The
coal basins of Bt^lmez and Espiel, to the north of Cordova, promise to become of
great importance, although the output at present hardly exceeds 200,000 tons a
year. Deposits of iron and copper exist near them.

But of all the mines of Spain those situated in the province of Huelva are
the most productive. The Silurian rocks there are wonderfully rich in pyrites of
copper. The mines of Rio Tinto strike the beholder by their stupendous extent ;
and the existence of ancient galleries, buildings, and inscriptions proves that they
have been worked since the most remote time. The invasion of the Vandals
temporarily put a stop to the work, which was only resumed in 1730. The two
principal deposits have been computed to contain no. less than 300,000,000 tons
of ore. The deposits at Tharsis are much less extensive, but within easier reach
of Huelva. They contain 14,000,000 tons of iron and copper pyrites, and are
worked like an open quarry. The deposit is' no less ihan 400 feet in thickness,
and 6ome of the ores yield, twenty per cent, of copper. Immense heaps of scoriae
have accumulated near the mine, where they are bedded in regular strata dating
back to the time of the Carthaginians. The sulphurous vapours rising from
hundreds of furnaces poison the air and destroy the vegetation. The rivers Odiel
and Bio Tinto run with ferruginous water which kills the fish; yeUow ochre
is thrown up along their banks ; and in their estuary is precipitated a blackish
mud consisting of the metal mixed with the sulphur of decomposed marine
animals, t

• Export of wise from Cbdis and Santa Haiia:— ISfiS, 8,697,000 gaUcuu; 1802, 5,116,000 gaUons;
1S73, 10,446,480 gallons, valned at £2,937,000.

t In 1873 600,000 tona of pyritea were exported from the district of Huelva, of which 340,000 tons
came from the mine of Thanria.

406

sPAiy.

Aiulttlusiu, though tt d«Mrt in comparison with whut it might \m), rivala Italy
in thn fumu and bounty of it* citie*. Thfl names of Orunudu, Cordova, Seville,
and C(u\i-/. awaken in our mind the most pleasing memories, for these old Moorish
towns have iMJconio identified with a grout udvunoo in arts and scieaoe.

ViH. 104.— Thk Minbk of HustrA.

SKOm.

Their advantageous geographical position aooounts for their prosperity, past
and present. Cordova and Seville command the fertile plain of the Guadalquivir,
and the roads crossing the gaps of the neighhouring mountains converge upon
them ; Granada has its plentiful supply of water and rich fields ; Huelva, C&diz,

~ ^■UU^ ! .ca^.J »a ttg^'^^^Vi ■ M ' ^-tuaj.^l;i;jM^W < ll^klffi »^rHl■^r^g^

r their prosperity, past
in of the Guadalquivir,
luntains converge upon
I fields ; Huelva, O&diz,

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IMMMM

ANDALUSIA.

407

M&lag^, and Almeria are considerable seaports ; and Gibraltar oooupies a command-
ing position between two seas. There are other towns less populous, but of
great strategical importance, as they command the roads joining the valleys of the
Genii and Guadalquivir to the sea.

Amongst the smaller towns which have played a part in history are several to
the east of Granada, such as Y^lez Rubio and Y^lez Blanco, on the Mediterranean
slope ; Cdll4r de Baza, with its subterranean houses excavated in the gypsum, on
the western slope of the Vertientes, or " the water-shed ; " Huescar, the heir of an
old Carthaginian city ; and Baza, environed by a fertile plain known as Iloya,
or "the hollow."

Granada, though it celebrates the anniversary of the entrance of Ferdinand
and Isabella, is a very inferior place to what it was as the capital of a Moorish
kingdom, when it had 60,000 houses and 400,000 inhabitants, and was the busiest
and wealthiest town of the peninsula. It is still the sixth city of Spain, but
thousands of its ragged inhabitants live in hideous dens, and close to the picturesque
suburb of Albaicin a mob largely composed of gipsies has settled down in nauseous
caverns. Remains of Moorish buildings are met with only in the suburb named, but
at some distance from the city there still exist edifices which bear witness to the
glorious reign of its ancient masters. The Torres Vermytu, or " red towers,"
occupy a hill to the south; the Oenerali/e, with its delightful gardens, crowns
another hill farther east ; and between both rise the bastions and towers of the
Alhamhra, or "red palace," even in its present dilapidated condition one of
the masterpieces of architecture, which has served as a pattern to generations
of artists. From the towers of this moguifioent building we enjoy a prospect
which indelibly impresses itself upon the memory. Granada, with its towers,
parks, and villas, lies beneath. The course of the two rivers, Genii and Darro,
can be traced amidBt the foliage, whilst naked hills bound the verdant plain
of La Yega, which has been likened to an " emerald enchased in a sapphire."
The contrast between these savage mountains and the fertile plain, between the
beautiful city and precipitous rocks, struck the Moors with admiration, for they
saw reflected in them their own nature — an outward impassivenees and a hidden
fire. Ghranada, to them, was the " Queen of Cities," the " Damascus of the West."
Nor are the modem Spaniaids behind them, in their admiration of Orailhda and
its vicinity.

There are other beautiful towns in the basin of the (Tenil, but none can com-
pare with Granada, not even Loja, a " flower in the midst of thorns," an oasis
surrounded by rugged rocks and savage defiles. Jaen, however, almost rivals
Granada. It, too, was the seat of a powerful Moorish king, the hills surround-
ing it are still crowned with the ruins of fortifications buried beneath luxuriant
foliage, and the aspect of the town remains oriental to this day.

The upper valley of the Guadalquivir abounds in cities. Ba^za had more than
150,000 inhabitants in the time of the Moors, but wars depopulated it, many of
the people removing to Granada. Close by is Ubeda, another Moorish town.
Higher up in the hills is the mining town of Lin&res, hardly large enough to

rnv^ia

408

SPAIN.

shelter 8,000 residents, but actually inhabited by 40,000. In descending the
river we pass Andujar, famous on account of its alcarrazas, and about twenty miles
below the town of Montoro we reach the marble bridge of Alcol^a, celebrated
for the many battles which have been fought for its possession.

Cordova dates back to the dawn of civilisation. It has been famous and
powerful at all times, and the Spanish noblemen are proud of tracing their
origin back to this fountain-head of the " blue blood " {iangre azul) which is sup-
posed to flow in the veins of Spanish nobles. It was under the Moors that
Oordova reached the apogee of its grandeur ; from the ninth century to the close

Fig. IM.— Thb Alhambra.

of the twelfth it had nearly a million of inhabitants ; and its twenty-four suburbs
spread far and wide over the plain and along the lateral valleys. The wealth of
its mosques, palaces, and private houses was prodigious ; but, more glorious still,
Oordova could boast of being the " nursery of science," for it was the greatest
university of the world, abounding in schools and libraries. Civil wars, foreign
invasions, and religious fanaticism led to the dispersion of its libraries, and
Cordova can no longer boast of being the first city of Andalusia. Most of the old
monuments have perished, but there still exists the marvellous menquita, or mosque,
built at the dose of the eighth century by Abder-rahman and his son. The

nrntm"

ANDALUSIA.

400

In descending the
I about twenty miles
Alcol^, celebrated

8 been famous and
ad of tracing their
azul) which is sup-
ider the Moors that
century to the close

ts twenty-four lubnrbs
illeys. The wealth of
lut, more glorious still,
or it was the greatest
«. Civil wars, foreign
I of its libraries, and
Jusia. Most of the old
ras menquiia, or mosqiw,
lan and his son. The

interior was fitted up in the most lavish manner, the floors being paved with silver,
and the walls covered with gold, precious stones, ivory, and ebony, but a con-
siderable portion of the building has been pulled down to make room for a Spanish
cathedral.

The more fertile districts of the province of Cordova are at some distance from
the Ouadalquivir, in the hills to the south. Montilla, one of the towns there, is
noted for its wines, as are Aguilar, Ba^na, Cabra, and Lucena, the latter boasting
likewise of some manufactures. Between Cordova and Seville, a distance of over
ninety miles, following the sinuosities of the river, we do not meet with a single
town of note, for even Palma del Rio, at the mouth of the OtenH, is only a small
place, though of some importance as the outlet of Ecija, a large town higher up the
GenU.

Seville, the reigning queen of Andalusia, boasts of a few remarkable buildings,
including the alcazar, a gorgeous cathedral, and the palace known as " Pilate's
House," in which the Benaissance is admirably wedded with the Moorish style.
But more famous than either of these is Gfiralda'a Tower, with the saint's revolving
statue on the top, like a weathercock. But neither these buildings nor Murillo's
fine paintings have won Seville its epithet of "Enchantress." For this it is
indebted to its gaiety and to a succession of fStes, amongst which bull-fights figure
prominently. Seville became Spanish about the middle of the thirteenth century.
Its citizens valiantly defended their municipal liberties against the King of Castile,
but they were defeated, and most of its inhabitants then fled to Barbary. The
town was repeopled by Christian emigrants. Triana, however, a suburb with
which an iron bridge connects it, is inhabited by gipsies, whose secret tribunal
has its seat there. A short distance to the north of Triana are the ruins of the
amphitheatre of Italica, the old rival of Seville, and the native town of Silius
ItalicuB, and of the Emperors Trajan, Hadrian, and Theodosiu«>, Coria, another
Boman city, which had its own mint during the Middle Ages, lies bcilow Seville.

Seville has numerous potteries, but its silks and eta& interwoven with gold
and silver have ceased to command the markets of tile world. The largest manu-
factory of the place, that of tobacco And cigars, is carried on by Oovemment, and
employs several thousand workmen.

AIo«14 de Guadaira, tQ the south-east of Seville, supplies the latter with btead,
and its delicious springs feed the aqueduct known as Arcos de Carmona, thus
called because it runs parallel with the old Roman road leading to Carmona
(Oarmo).

The towns to the south of Seville are no longer of importance. Utrera, the
most considerable amongst them, is a gpreat railway centre, where the line to
the marble quarries of Moron, and that passing through the fertile districts of
Marchena and Osuna, branch off f^m the Andalusian main line. The town is
well known to qfieionadoa, or sportsmen, on account of the wild bulls which pasture
in the neighbouring mariamaa. Lebrija, with its fine tower imitated from that of
Giralda, is still nearer to these marshes, which "extend almost to the mouth of the
Chiadalquivir.

■I'li-i ' K i .fc. ' /aia a^iaiiii*

«NM

410

SPAIN.

Sanlucar de Barrameda, at the mouth of the Guadalquivir, with its white and
pink houses shaded by palms, is not now the great port it was in the time of the
Arabs. It may justly boast of having sent forth, in 1519, the first vessel which
circumnavigated the globe, but it is now rather a pleasure resort than a place of
commerce. Jerez de la Frontera, in the basin of the Guadalete, is the busiest
town between Seville and C&diz. It is a neat and showy place, surrounded by
immense bodegas, or wine vaults, in which are stored the wines grown in the fertile
valley of Guadalete, and known as sherry. Near Aroos de la Frontera, in the
upper part of the valley, is pointed out the site upon which was fought the famous
battle which delivered Spain to the Mussulmans.

The Bay of C4diz, so wrll sheltered against winds and waves by the tongqe of
land which begins at the island of Leon, is surrounded by numerous towns,
forming, as it were, but a dingle city. Rota, on the northern coast of the bay, is
encircled by walls of cyclopean aspect. It is the resort of fishermen, and its
vintners, though reputed Boeotians, produce one of the best wines of Spain.
Farther south, at the mouth of the Guadalete, is the Puerto de Santa Maria, with
its wine stores, at all times a bustling place. Puerto Real, the Pottua Oaditanm,
lies in a labyrinth of brackish channels, and is now merely a landing-place. The
neighbouring dockyard, known as Trocadero, and the arsenal of Carraoa, are fre-
quently inhabited only by galley-slaves and their gaolers. The salt-pans near that
place are most productive.

San Fernando is the most important town on the island of Leon, to the south
of C&diz. The initial meridian of Spanish mariners is drawn through its observa-
tory. Looking across the navigable channel of San Pedio, which separates the
island from the main, we perceive the villas of Ghiclana, famous as the training-
place of the toreros, or bull-fighters, of Andalusia. Turning to the north, we reach
the narrow ridge of the Arrecife, which may be likened to a stalk with Cidiz as
its expanded flower. Boatmen point out the supposed ruins of a temple of
Hercules, now covered by the sea ; and thus much is certain, that the land is at
present subsiding, though this subsidence must have been preceded by an upheaval,
as the peninsula upon which C&diz has been built rests upon a foundation of shells,
oysters, and molluscs.

We pass several forts, cross the ramparts of the Cortadura, erected in 1811,
and at length find ourselves in the famous city of G&diz, the heir of the Gadir of
the Phoenicians, called Gadira by the Greeks, and Ghides by the Romans. O&diz
was the leading city of Iberia when that country first became known. Like other
cities, it has known periods of decay, but its g^reat geographical advantages have
always enabled it to recover quickly. It is the natural outlet of an extensive and
fertile region, and its position near the extremity of the continent enables it suc-
cessfully to compete with Lisbon for the trade of the New World. Palos may
boast of living sent forth the earacelas which discovered the West Indies, but it
was C&diz which reaped all the advantages of this discovery, more especially
since the Tribunal of the Indies was transferred to it fh>m Seville (1720). In
1792 C&diz exported merchandise valued at £2,500,000 sterling to America,

iiii>im»ii,"'

•^rtigpi

r, with its white and
ras in the time of the
the first vessel which
esort than a place of
dalete, is the busiest
place, surrounded by
!S grown in the fertile
le la Frontera, in the
ras fought the famous

aves by the tongue of
by numerous towns,
n coast of the bay, is
of fishermen, anci its
best wines of Spain,
de Santa Maria, with
the Portm Oaditanus,
a landing-place. The
j1' of Carraoa, are fre-
The salt-pans near that

of Leon, to the south
m through its observa-
o, which separates the
uncus as the training-
; to the north, we reach
a stalk with C&diz as
ruins of a temple of
tin, that the land is at
receded by an upheaval,
n a foundation of shells,

adura, erected in 1811,
bie heir of the Gadir of
by the Romans. O&diz
tme known. Like other
phioal advantages have
itlet of an extensive and
lontinent enables it suc-
ew World. Palos may
the West Indies, but it
soovery, more especially
^m Seville (1720). In
K) sterling to America,

8M)...ilMW*Ui " " ''"'"?'

^.JkiilWIW

msm

mmm

412

SPAIN.

and received precious metals and other articles of a value of £7,000,000 in
return. Soon afterwards Spain paid for a commercial monopoly maintained
during three centuries by the sudden loss of her colonies, and C&diz found itself
dependent upon its fisheries and salt-pans. But recently fortune has again smiled
upon the city, and its harbours are crowded with merchantmen.* C&diz, with the
towns surrounding its bay, has a population of 200,000 souls. The site of the city
proper is limited by nature, and its houses have been built to a height of five and
six stories. The inhabitants are fond of pleasure, vivacious, and quick at repartee.
They have at all times shown themselves to be good patriots, and it was on the
island of Leon that the Cortes met to protest against the occupation of the country
by the French.

Almeria, on the Mediterranean coast of Andalusia, rivalled C&diz in importance
as long as it remained in the possession of the Moors, but prosperity fled the place
immediately the Spaniards occupied it. Subsequently the town suffered g^atly
from the pirates of Barbary, as is proved by the fortress-like cathedral built in the
sixteenth century. The aspect of the place, with its narrow streets and old kaeba,
is quite orientaL

The towns to the west of Almeria have a tropical climate and tropical produc-
tions. Dailas, said to be the first permanent settlement of the Arabs, is famous for
its raisins ; to it succeed Adra, at the mouth of the Bio Orande of Alpujarra,
Motril, y^lez M&laga, and M&Iaga, embosomed in gardens watered by the
Guadalmedina.

M&laga, like most of the ports on that coast, is of Phcenician origin, and the
most populous town of Andalusia., Less rich than Granada, Cordova, and
Seville in Moorish monuments, or than C&diz in historical traditions, it is indebted
to its port and to the fertile country surrounding it for its commercial pre-
eminence. Its exports, consisting of raisins {paaoH), almonds, fig^ lemons, oranges,
wine, olive oil, &o., are the product of the immediate vicinity. There are foundries,
sugar refineries, and factories. Seen from the sea, the cathedral appears to be
almost as largie as the rest of the town, but in the latter must be included not
only the houses standing at the foot of the citadel of (Hbralfaro, but also the
numerous villas dotting the surrounding hills. Nay, even the picturesque towns
and watering-places in the neighbouring mountains, such as Alora, Alhaurin,
Carratraca, and Albam&, oAy be looked upon as dependencies of the city, for
scarcely any but Malagvmot resort to them.

Antequera and Ronda, in the interior of the country, belong to the basin of
the Mediterranean, for the one stands on the Ghiadalhorce, which enters the sea
near M&laga, whilst the other occupies a position in the upper basin of the
Goadioro, which washes the foot of the hills of San Roque, to the north of
Gibraltar. Antequera is one of the ". c^^ ancient towns of Spain, and acts as an
intermediary between M&laga and tUo valley of the Guadalquivir. On a hill near
it stands a curious dolmen, twenty feet in height, known as Cueva del Mengal.

* In 1874 3,630 veaMli, of 616,060 tona iHuden, eateced ; the impoitg had a ndiu of 4488,700, the
ezporta (ooniriiiting for the most part of wine) of £8,116,000.

unimm

mmm

W**^ "'^:'rr-^

'r^'matf

ANDALUSIA.

due of £7,000,000 in
monopoly maintained
md C4diz found itself
ortune has again smiled
men.* C4diz, with the
Is. The site of the city
, to a height of five and
B, and quick at repartee,
riots, and it was on the
ccupation of the country

lied O&diz in impbrtance
prosperity fled the place
e town suflfered greatly
ke cathedral built in the
ow streets and old kaaba,

late and tropical produc-
; the Arabs, is famous for
J Grande of Alpujarra,
gardens watered by the

loenician origin, and the
Granada, Oordova, and
1 traditions, it is indebted
for its commercial pre-
nds, figs, lemons, oranges,
lity. There are foundries,
) cathedral appears to be
iter must be included not
' Gibralfaro, but also the
en the picturesque towns
such as Alora, Alhaurin,
tndenoies of the city, for

ry, belong to the basin of
)rce, which enters the sea
I the upper basin of the
Roque, to the north of
I of Spain, and acts as an
idalquivir. On a hill near
Bwn as Cueva del Mengal.

xntB had a vtatt of £433.700, the

The picturesque Moorish town of Ronda is surrounded on three sides by a gorge
600 feet in depth, 120 to 800 feet wide, and spanned by three bridges, one Roman,
one Arab, and the last (built 1740 — 88) Spanish. Ronda still possesses some

Fig. 107.— OlBBALTAB.
SoUe 1 : 160,000.

vlit-WufrM-

• A*% -SI „

ilXilM.

strategical importance, for it defends the road leading from the valley of the Geml
to that of the Guadi4ro. The Itondenoa are noted for the skill with which they
train horses for mountain travel. They are notorious smugglers, as are also many

414

SPAIN.

of the inhabitanta of the small seaport towns of Marbella, Estepona, and Algeoirus,
near Gibraltar.*

The rock of Oibraltar, of which the English obtained possession in 1704, haa
not only been converted into a first-rate fortress, but is likewise a busy place of com-
merce. Gibraltar produces nothing except a little fruit, and most of its provisions,
including meat and corn, are imported from Tangiers, in Morocco. The inhabit-
ants of the town are dependent for their support upon passing vessels, the EnglJHli
garrison, and a brisk contraband trade with Spain. Gibraltar affords very indif-
ferent shelter, and only one-fourth of the vessels passing through the strait call
there, and even these generally confine themselves to replenishing their stock of
coal. Nor is a residence on this picturesque rock very pleasurable, for fevers
prevail, and the military character of the place entails numerous restrictions.
During the heat of summer many of the English residents — facetiously called
" lizards of the rock " — seek refuge at San Roque, a village to the north of the
bay, the neighbourhood of which affords excellent sport. f

IV. — The Mediterranean Slope of the Great Platbao.
MuRciA AND Valencia *

In a few hours we ai e able to travel from the inhospitable plateaux to the hot
valleys and plains of Murcia and Valencia debouching upon the Mediterranean.

The spurs from the Sierra Nevada, which approach the coast to the north of
the Gabo de data, are separated by ramblat, or torrent beds, and gradVially decrease
in height as we proceed north. The torrent of Almanzora separates the Sierra de
los Filabros from its northern continuation, the Sierra de Almenara, which for a
considerable distance runs parallel with the coast. It sends out a spur in the
direction of Cartagena, which terminates in Oabo de Palos. The inland ranges
run almost parallel with this coast range, and are separated by longitudinal valleys
opening out into the great transverse one of the Segura. These ranges are the
Sierra de Maria, "el Gigante" (4,918 feet), with the Sierra de EspuAa (5,190 feet),
the Sierra de Talbilla, the (Mar del Mundo (6,440 feet), and the Sierra de AloarAk

* Approximate population of the principal towna of Andaluria :—

C&diz, 62,000; Jeres, 35,000; Chiolana, 22,000; Puerto de Santa Maria, 18,000; San Fernando,
18,000 ; SanlOcar de Barrameda, 17,000 ; Puerto Real, 14,000 : Arcof de la Froiiteni, 12,000 ; Algecitaa,
18,000 ; Medina Sidonia, 10,600.

Huelva, 10,000.

Seville (Sevilla), 80,000 ; Ecija, 24,000 ; Carmona, 18,000 ; Ocuna. 16,000 , Utrera, 14,000 ; Lebrija,
12,000 ; Marchena, 12,000.

C6rdova, 46,000; Luoena, 16,000; Hontilla, 16,600; Montoro, 12,000: Aguilar, 12,000; Baena,
14,600; Cabra, 11,600.

Jato, 18,000; Lin&res, 40,000; TJbeda, 16,000; i^a^sa, 16,000; Alcal& la Real, 11,600; And6jar,
9,600.

Granada, 66,000 ; Loja, 16,000; Motril, 13,600; Baca, 13,600.

MiOaga, 92,000 ; Anteqiiera, 30,000 ; y61ez M&laga, 16,000 : Ronda, 14,000.

Almuria, 27,000 ; Vilez R6bio, 13,000.

t Gibraltar in 1871 had 16,464 inhabitants, excluaive of the military: iU annual revenue exceeds
£40,000, and the burden of the veasels which enter and dear annually amounts to 3,600,000 tons.
X Mflrcia .... 10,460 square miles. 660,040 inhalntants, or 63 to a sq. m.

Valencia . . . 8,896 „ 1,401,833 „ 168 „

ami

stepona, and Algecirus,

(osseMion in 1704, hiifi
iae a busy place of com-
, most of ita proviaions,
[oroooo. The inbabit-
ng veaaelB, the English
iltar affords very indif-
tbroagh the strait call
mishing their stock of
pleasurable, for fevers
numerous restrictions,
ants— facetiously called
ge to the north of the

SAT Plateau.

)le plateaux to the hot
1 the Mediterranean.
i coast to the north of
I, and gradually decrease
1 separates the Sierra de
Almenara, which for a
mds out a spur in the
08. The inland ranges
1 by longitudinal valleys
1. These ranges are the
I de EspuAa (5,190 feet),
nd the Sierra de Alcar&a

Maria, 18,000; San Pwiiando,
la Froiltera, 12,000; Algecim,

6,000, ITtrera, 14,000; Lebrija,
,000: Aguilar, 12,000; Bacnm
lc«l& la Beol, 11,600; AndAjar,

14,000.

iry: ita annual revenue exceeds
sounta to 3,600,000 tons,
itants, or 63 to a aq. m.
- ' 168 „

jjuMiMia

•SSSBSgBBSgggB

agjSiiafri',,iwifavXjj.iMg

Jt ^

MH.

D VALENCIA.

and < (At nf the Soguru munt tx) Umh'i' tpoa
Th' y atfjii' fhuir greatest Blfitt^lo i i Ih
torm Hevi I nf)tabl<' promontori"* jitr <tn^r.(
md the C <» d<» In ^'A» and Hi Ai\lv«lo.
m known « oruokl

iit* feature of
•««pect of the

(5,910 feet). The ranges to th* nui

ns continuations of those mentiosicMl

Moncubror (4,543 feet), and their npi

which are the volcanio Peilon de Ifm

Near the latter rises the Mongo (2,337 feet), which huH h^>

trigonometrical station.

The mountains which dominate the valley of the J(i« preHen^
a denuded plateau, above which rise a few isolated sumn, «. The
basin of the Ouadalaviar is far more mountainous. On the west it is bounded
by the sierras having their nucleus in the Muela de San Juan (5,280 feet), and to
the east rise the imposing mountain masses of the Javalambre (6,569 feet) and
PeAa Qolosa (5,942 feet). The summits of the range which extends from the
latter to the great bond of the Lower Ebro, such as the Muela de Ares (4,332 feet),
the Tosul de Encanades (4,565 feet), and Dosch de la Espina (3,868 feet), bear
Catalan names. A range of inferior heights runs parallel with it along the coast,
the interval between the two forming a strath, or vale. This coast range termi-
nates abruptly in the Sierra de Montsia (2,500 feet), dose to the delta of the Ebro,
and before the pent-up waters of the river had excavated themselves a path to the
aea it extended right to the Pyrenees.

All these mountains are for the most part naked, and shrubs appear like black
patches upon their whitish slopes. They stand out clearly against the blue and
limpid sky, whose transpai'ency has won Murcia the title of the " most serene
kingdom." The climate in the valley of the Segura is even more African in its
character than that of Andalusia. There are only two seasons, sununer and
winter, the latter lasting from October to January, but the temperature throughout
the year is equable, owing to the mistral which blows from the cool plateau
and the sea breezes.

The flora, especially along the coast of Mdrcia, is a mixture of tropical and
temperate plants. There are trees which shed their leaves in winter, others which
retain their foliage throughout the year, and by the side of wheat, rice, maize,
olives, oranges, and grapes are grown cotton, sugar-cane, sweet potatoes, nopals,
agaves, and dates. Tropical diseases have found a congenial soil in this country.
Yellow fever has been imported occasionally from America. The putrefying
substances left upon the fidds after floods poison the air, and the brackish waters
of the lagoons, or albu/enu, are the breeding-places of fever. The salt lakes to the
south of the Segura, however, exercise no deleterious influence upon the climate.

■Nowhere else in Spain is the rainfall so inconsiderable. Between Almeria and
Cartagena only eight inches fall during the year; in the environs of Alicante and
Elche the rains are, perhaps, a trifle more copidus ; and at Miircia and Valencia,
which lie at the foot of mountains that intercept the moisture-laden winds, they
are more abundant still, though even there they do not exceed eighteen inches.
Moreover, most of the rain is immediately absorbed by the thirsty air, and only a
very small quantity finds its way through ramblas to the sea. The quantity is alto-
gether insufficient for agricultural purposes, and if it were not for the rivers the

416

SPAIN.

country would bo a doiert. Oultivntion is curried on only along tho riven and in a
few othur favoured ipota. Veritable tteppua extend on both banks of the Segura.
The cam/ton between Almeria and Villajoyoaa, for a diatunoe of 300 milea, are aterilo

FiK lAR,— HTHPfiiii or Muitcu.
Kflil* I : 9IM,0nO.

and bare. The brine and magnesia springs, which rise at the foot of the
saliferous triassic rocks, fill small lakes, which dry up in summer, and in August
the lagoons near Orihuela become covered with a thick crust of salt.

MiiMiii

mnim

MUBOIA AND VALENCIA.

417

\g the riven and in a

bunki of the Segura.

;iUO miles, are Bterilo

►'J'*.

■^1

.»<i^:*>

The beneficent rivers, whose waters are drunk by the hmrtm, or gurdons, nour
their banks, are the Segura, Vinalupo, Jucar, Ouadalaviur (known as Tiiria in its
lower course), Mijaros, and several others. They all resemble each other as
regards the ruggednoss of their upper valleys and the savageness of the gorges
through which they pass. The Hegura forces itself a paswtgn through several
mountain defiles before it reaches the plain of Muroia. The Jucur and Gundalaviar
(Wod-el-Abiad, or " white river ") have fewer obstacles to overcome, but some of
the gorges through which they pass are nevertheless of surpassing beauty.

The volume of these rivers is comparatively small, and the husbandmen dwell*
ing along their banks economize the water as far as possible. Reservoirs, or
pnntano9, havi been constructed at the outlet of each valley, whence the water is
distributed over the fields by means of innumerable canals of irrigation. The
irrigated huertas contrast most favourably with the cultivated oampos in their
neighbourhood. Irrigation has probably been praoti«pd at Valencia since the time
of the Romans, but the Moors appear to have been the first to construct a regular
system of canals. Eight of these, ramifying into innumerable acequituiH, have
converted the environs of Valencia into an Eden. Carefully manured as they
are, these fields are never allowed to lie fallow. Stalks of maize fifteen and even
twenty-five feet in height may be seen in the gardens, the mulberry-tree yields
three or four harvests annually, four or five crops are obtained from the sume
field, whilst the grass is mown as many as nine or ten times. This luxuriant
vegetation, however, is said to be watery, and hence the proverb, " In Valencia
meat is gross, grow is water, men are women, and women nought."

The huertas of the J (lour, though less fumous than those of Valencia, are even
more productive. Orange- trees predominate, and around Aloira and Oaroagente
alone 20,000,000 oranges are picked ann iially, and exported t4> Marseilles.

The oases in the g^reat steppe which extends from Alcuy to Almeria are less
fertile than those on the Jtioar and Guudalaviar. That of Alicante is fertilised by
the Oastalla, the waters of which are collected in the reservoir of Tibi. The huerta
of Elohe, on the Vinolapo, is chiefly occupied by a forest of palm-trees, the
principal wealth of the inhabitants, who export the figs to France, and the leaves
to Italy and the interior of Spain.

The huerta around Oriluiera, on the Lower Segura, cannot boast of a palm forest
like that of Elche, but is more productive. The inhabitants of Mdroia, higher up on
the same river, though they enjoy similar advantages, have failed to profit by them
to the some extent. Their huerta, which contains a third of the total popidation
of the province, is fertile, but cannot compare with that of their neighbours. iN'or do
the fields of Lorca equal them. They have not yet recovered from the bursting of a
reservoir, the freed waters of which carried destruction as far as Muroia and Orihuela.

rise at the foot of the
summer, and in August
ast of salt.

The moral and physical character of the inhabitants of a country exhibiting
such great contrasts could hardly fail to present corresponding differences, and,
indeed, we find that the inhabitants of the fertile gardens and those of the barren
steppes and mountains differ essentially, in spite of their common origin.

sSSsirr

418

SPAIN.

The pecple of Murcia cannot be said to have issued Tiutoriously from the struggle
against barren rocks, desiccating winds, and a dry atmosphere. They abandon
themselves to a fatalism quite oriental, and make hardly any effort at improvement.
Lazily inclined, they take their siesta in and out of time, and even when awake
preserve an aspect of impassiveness as if they pursued a reverie. They are not
much given to gaiety, and, though neighbours of Andalusia and La Mancha, do
not dance. They are full of rancour and savage hatred when ofiended, and have

Fig. 169. — Thk Palm Ouuvb of Elchi..

exercised but small influence upon the destinies of Spain. They cannot compare in
industry with Catalans, Navarrese, and Galicians, nor in intelligence with natives
of any other part of Spain. The Yalencians, on the other hand, are an industrious
race. They not only cultivate their plains, but scale the barren slopes uf the rocks
with their terraced gardens. They are a gay people, famous for their dances.
Ferocious instincts are assorted to underlie this outward gaiety, and a proverb says
that " the paradise of La Huerta is inhabited by demons." Human life is held very

.J^.^.iuOiiliP * ""

nMimilJ l U p

MUBCIA AND VALENCIA.

419

cheaply at Valencia. Formerly that town supplied the courtiers of Madrid with
hired assaMins, and the numerous crosses in and around it are evidence of so many
mun <rs committed in the heat of passion. In Valencia, however, the use of the
kniie is a tradition of chivalry, as are duels in some other parts of Europe. The
conscience of the murderer is perfectly at ease ; he wipes the blood-stained knife
upon his girdle, and immediately afterwards outs his bread with it. The dress of
the Valencians consists of loose drawers confined round the waist by a red or violet
scarf, velvet waistcoats with pieces of silver, white linen gaiters leaving the knees
and ankles bare, a bright kerchief wrapped round the shaved head, and a low hat

Fig. 160.— Tub Palm Ohovb or Elchb and tkb Hubrtas or Orihvbla.

SmUa 1 : 400,000.

lOMllM.

with brim tamed up and ornamented with ribbons. A many-coloured cloak with
a broad fringe completes this costume, and, draped in it, even the meanest beggar
possesses an air of distinction. In their customs and modes of thought the
Valencians differ equally from their neighbours. They speak a Proven9al dialect,
mixed with many Arabic words, but more closely related to the language of the
troubadours than the dialect of the OataUms.

Agriculture is the leading pursuit of Valencia and Mdroia, and a few branches
of industry are carried on. Many hands are occupied in making the white wines
of Alicaut« and the red ones of Viuaroz and Benicurlo ; the grapes of the vine-
yards of D4nia. J&vea, and Gandia, to the north of Cabo de la N&o, are converted

Sip

480

SPAIN.

by a complicated process into raisins ; and the aparto grow growing abundantly on
the sunny slopes of Albacete and Muroia is employed in the manufacture of mats,
baskets, sandals, and a variety of other objects.* There are hundreds of metal-
liferous lodes, but only the lead mines in the hills of Herrerias, to the east of
Cartagena, are being worked on a large scale, and that by foreigners. Zinc has
been worked since 1861, and mines of copper, lead, silver, mercury, and rook-salt

Fig. 161— RuiNi or thi Dtxi or thb Rribhvoik abovi Lorca.

abound at some distance from the coast ; bat, hum want of means of oommuDMWtion,
their exploitaticm would not pay.

Valencia is the more industrial province of the two. Albacete manufactures
the dreaded natx^'as, or long knives ; M6roia has silk-mills ; Cartagena Tope*walkB
and other establishments connected with shipping , Jfttiva has a few paper-mills ;
but Valencia and Alcoy are now the great centres of industry. The former manu-

• 82,000 tons of apnrto gnu* are Mtimatod to have been collected in 1873, of which 07.000 tonsxrere
exported to Kngland,

tHwSv

rowing abundantly on
manufacture of mats,
B hundreds of metal*
rrerias, to the east of
' foreigners. Zinc has
aercury, and rock-salt

■ LOBCA.

means of oommunioation,

Albaoete manufaetures
»; Cartagena rope-walks
k has a few paper-mills ;
Btry. The former naanu-
1873, of which 67,000 ton* were

MUECIA AND VALENCIA. 4ti

faotures the plaids worn by the peasantry, silks and linens, rartheuware and

Fig. 162.— P«AB*NW «p MuRcu.

tiles. Alc(^y supplies moat of the paper for making Spanish cigarettes.

■I

422

SPAIN.

The towna of Albacete und Almansa are important, as lying on the great high-
road which connects the plateau of La Mancha with the Mediterranean seaboard.
Rut they cannot vie in wealth and population with the towns situated on the coast,
or within twenty-five miles of it. Lnrca, the southernmost of these towns, lies
picturesquely on the slopes and at the foot of a hill crowned by a Moorish citadel.
The old town, with narrow tortuous streets and the remains of Arab palaces, has
been given up to Gitanos, and a new town with wide and straight streets built
in the fertile plain irrigated by the Guadalentin. A fine road joins Lorca to the
small harbour of Aguilas, twenty miles to the south.

In descending the valley of the Guadalentin we pass Totana, the head-quarters
of the Gitanos of the country, and Alham&, well known on account of its hot
springs, and finally enter the mulberry and orange groves which surround the
capital of the province. Muroia, though an extensive city, hnrdly looks like it, for
its streets are deserted, its houses without beauty, and the only objects of interest
are the cathedral, the shady walks along the banks of the Segura, and the canals
irrigating the terrace gardens. Far more interesting is the neighbouring Carta-
gena, which was destined by its Punic founders to become a second Carthage
in truth, and its magnificent harbour certainly affords great advantages for com-
mercial and military purposes. The discovery of the rich lead and silver mines
near the town contributed much towards its prosperity. Successive Spanish
Governments have attempted to restore to Cartagena its ancient strategical impor-
tance. They have constructed docks and arsenals, and erected impregnable
fortifications, but, in spite of this, the population of the town is hardly a third of
what it was in the middle of the eighteenth century. The character of its
commerce is almost local, notwithstanding its excellent port, and sparto grass,
mats, fruits, and ore constitute the leading articles of export.

Alicante, though far less favoured by nature, is a much busier place, thanks to
the fertility of the huertas of Elohe, Orihuela, and Alcoy, and the railway which
connects it with Madrid. Only small vessels can approach the quays and piers of
the town, nestling at the foot of a steep rook crowned by a dismantled citadel.
Larger vessels are compelled to anchor in an open roadstead. Other coast towns
of Valencia, such as D4nia and CuUera, offer still less shelter, but are nevertheless
much frequented by coasting vessels. Formerly vessels which entered the Bay
of Valencia during winter were bound to exercise the greatest caution, owing to
violent easterly and north-north-easterly winds and fogs, for there existed not
a single port of refuge. This want has now been supplied by the construction
of a port at the mouth of the Gtiadalaviar, known as El Gr&o (strand) de Valencia.

Valencia, the fourth city of Spain in population, is the natural oeni^re of the I
most fertile huertas. The " City of the Cid " still preserves its crenellated walls,
turrets, gates, narrow and tortuous streets, balconied houses, the windows of which I
are shaded by blinds, and awnings spread over the streets to protect passers-by I
from the rays of the sun. Amongst its numerous buildings there is but one whichi
is really curious : this is the Lonja de Seda, or silk exchange, a graceful structurel
of the fifteenth century. Gardens constitute the real delight of Valencia, andl

■'^|i^**i^

--au

MURCIA AND VAI,ENCIA.

428

ig on the great high-

sditerranean seaboard-
situated on the coast,

t of these towns, lies
hj a Moorish citadel,
of Arab palaces, has
straight streets built

cad joins Loroa to the

tana, the head-quarters
on account of its hot
Bs which surround the
hirdlv looks like it, for
only objects of interest
I Segura, and the canals
;he neighbouring Carta-
)me a second Carthage
at advantages for com-

!i lead and silver mines
J. Successive Spanish
loient strategical impor-
d erected impregnable
bown is hardly a third of
. The character of its

port, and sparto grass,
jrt.

}h busier place, thanks to
% and the railway which
ih the quays and piers of
by a dismantled citadel,
lead. Other coast towns
altw, but are nevertheless
i which entered the Bay
greatest caution, owing to
gs, for there existed not
plied by the constmction
?r4o (strand) de Valencia,
the natural oen:.re of the
erves its crenellated walls,
ses, the windows of which
eets to protect passers-by
ags there is but one which
ange, a graceful structure

delight of Valencia, and

the Alameda, which extends along the banks of the Ouadalaviar, is, perhaps, the
finest city promenade in Europe. The commerce of Valencia rivals that of C&diz.*
To the north of Valencia the cultivable country along the coast is narrow, and
incapable of supporting large towns. Castellon de la Plana, at the mouth of the
Mijaros, has attained a certain importance, but farther north we only meet with
small places inhabited by fishermen and vine-growers. Formerly the coast road
was defended by castles, chief among which was Saguntum, famous for its glorious

Fig, 163. — Tub Harbmvr op Cahtaoina.
Scale 1 : 04.000.

IMlle.

defence agnfnst Hannibal. Its site is occupied by the modem town of Murviedro,
i-e. " old walls," and its ruins are not very imposing.!

V. — The Balearic Iklands.
The Balearic Islands are attached to the mainland of Spain by a submarine

* Value o'r exports and imports in 1867, £2,707.000.

t Population of the principal towns of the Mediterranean slope between Cabo de Gata and the
Kbro :— Valencia, 108,000; Mfiroia, 56,000; Lorca, 40,010; Alicante, 31,000; Caifagena, 25,000; Ori-
Imela, 21,000; Castellon de la Pinna, 20,000; Alc6y, 16,000; Albncete, 15,000; J&tiva, 13.000; Alciim,
13,000 ; Almansa, 9,000.

'^S0^^'-'J^ -mi^mmfl'W-

424

SPAIN.

plateau, and are goographioally as well as historically a dependency of Valencia
and Catalonia. The ranges of hills traversing these islands have the same direction
as those of Murcia and Valencia. On the other hand, the peninsula of La Baila,
at the mouth of the Ebro, extends beneath the sea in the direction of Ibiza, and
from this submarine tongue of land rises a group of volcanic rocks. These are tho
Oolumbretes, from the Latin colubraria, signifying " serpents' islets."

The Baleares are small in area, but favoured by climate, productiveness, and
natural beauty. They are the " Happy Islands " of the ancients, and, compared
with many of the coast lands, are indeed a favoured region. War and pestilence

FiK. 164.— El Obao di Valbxcm.

BOO Yards.

have been no strangers to them, but continual troubles have not interfered with
their development.

The islands consist of two groups, the Pytiuses and the Baleares proper. The
name of the latter is said to refer to the expertness of the natives as slingers ; and,
when Q. Metellus prepared to land upon them, he took care to shelter his men
beneath an awning of hides. The climate is moister and more equable than that
of neighbou; ing Spain. Violent storms occur frequently.

The structures called talayott (watch-towers) prove that the islands were
inhabited before the historic epoch. These were built probably by the same race
to whom the nuraghi of Sardinia owe their existence ; but the present population is
a very mixed one, for every nation of antiquity has successively invaded the island.

.!<MMUI

ifi

il*

lendency of Valencia
ave the aame direction
eninsiila of La Bafia,
irection of Ibiza, and
rocks. Thew are tho
' islets."

e, productiveness, and

icients, and, compared

War and pestilence

have not interfered with

le Baleares proper. The

» natives as sUngers ; and,

care to shelter his men

1 more equable than that

e that the islands were
trobably by the same race
t ihe present population is
ssively invaded the island.

•"^*MXu. »-:

THE DALBABIO ISLANDS.

The language upoken it a Catalan dialect reaembling that of Limouain. The
Majorcans are generally small of stature, but well proportioned, and the women of
tome of the distriots are famed for their beauty and ezpreaaive features. The
peasantry are suspicious and thrifty, but honest and hospitable ; and their dress,
consisting of loose breeches, a belt, a bright-coloured vest, and a goa(«kin cloak, is
picturesque. Dancing to the music of a guitar or flute is their favourite amusement.

Ibiza (Iviza), the largest island of the Pytiuses, is hardly more than fifty miles
from Cabo de la N&o. Its surface is hilly and intersected by numerous torrent beds.
Puerto Magno (Pormany, or Orand Port) lies on the west side, and a similar bay,
the trysting-place of numerous fishing-smacks, on the south side. On its sliore
stands the capital of the island, an ancient Carthaginian colony. A chain of islets
and rocks, similar to the Adam's Bridge of Oeylon, joins the southernmost cape of
Ibiza to Formentera Island. The climate is said to be so salubrious that neither
serpents nor other noxious reptiles can bear it. The population is small, in spite of
the fertility of the island. Watch-towers and castles of refuge near every village
recall the time when the inhabitants suffered from Moorish pirates. The islanders
are happy, for the central Government leaves them pretty much to themselves.

Mallobca, or Majorca, the largest of the group, is the only one which can
boast of a regular range of mountains rising precipitously along the north-western
coast, and culminating in the twin peaks of Silla de Torrella (4,940 feet) and
Puig Mayor (4,920 feet). These mountains are amongst the most picturesque in
all Europe, and from their summits may be enjoyed a magnificent prospect. The
mufflon ia said still to haunt their pine woods and recesses. The greater portion
of the island consists of a plain lying at an elevation of 150 feet above the sea-
level, and dotted over with isolated puig$, or conical peaks, surmounted in many
instances by an old church or castle. The eastern extremity of the island is hilly,
and the Bee de Farruch (1,863 feet) still bears its old Arabic name. Near it are
the wonderful stalactite caverns of Arta, which extend beneath the sea. The
eztremitieB of the most depressed portion of the island open out towards two great
bays, one in the north-east, the other in the south-west. Palma, the capital of the
island, lies on the former of these, though the other, known as Puerto de Alcudia,
would ofier greater advantages were it not for the pestilential swamps which
surround it. On the ironrbo'und northern coast there are no harbours, but coast-
ing vessels frequent the creek of Soller, whence they export oranges.

The peasants, or pageies, of Majorca have the reputation of being good agricul-
turists, but much of the progress made is due to Oatalan immigrants. The island
produces delicious winds (Benisalem), olive c 1, oranges, vegetables, and pigs, all
of which find a market at Barcelona or in France. The com grown is not,
however, sufficient for the support of the population, and Majorcans as weU as
" Mahonian " gardeners are met with in every town of the Mediterranean. Bay-
salt is made at Cape Salinas. Shoes, cottons, linens, baskets, and porous vases are
produced ; but the manufacture of mt^oliea has ceased. Palma is a busy place of
40,000 inhabitants, and its bastioned wallr castle, cathedral, and amphitheatrically
built houses present a fine appearance from the sea. The inhabitants are proud of

l»iW!t»»BW«W4i(B^.';>i.-. ■,*t«,V>:-«K3

426

flFAIN.

their public buildings, unci aHuert that thoir lot\ia is auporior to thut of Valencia.
The Chuctaa, or converted Jewi, are a ourioua oleniont of the population. Thoy
occupy a separate quarter, marry amongst themselves, and have preserved their
race distinctions and mercantile genius. A large portion of the landed property
of the island has paused into their hands. A railway traversing the rich districts
of Santa Maria and Benisalem, to the south of the populous towns of Manacor
and Felanitx, connects Palma with Alcudia.*

Menori'a, or Minorca, twenty-four miles to the east of Majorca, is generally

Fig. 164.— Thi Daliahii; Inlands.
So«la I : S,700,000.

kit r«k<

flO

level, its culminating point, Monte Toro, in the centre of the island, only attaining
a height of 1,171 feet. The strong northerly winds which sweep over its plains
cause the trees to turn their branches in the direction of Africa, and orange- trees
find shelter only in the barrancos, or ravines, which intersect them. The climate isl
less pleasant than that of the neighbouring island, and the soil less fertile, for,|
consisting for the most part of limestone, it rapidly absorbs the rain. There ar
two ports and two cities, one at each extremity of the island, which from time

* Towns of Mttjurca :— Pslma, 40,000; Mans(»r, 16.000; Felanitx, 10,<(00; Llnchmsyor, 8,800 1
Follensa, 8,000 ; loca, 8,000 ; Solier, 8.000 ; Santafly, 8.000

V^ £>5t**s^#S«r^^*i

ARAOON AND PATAI-ONIA.

r to thut of Vftlenoin.
10 population. Thoy
httvo prfeaerved their
(f the landed property
■sing the rich diatricts
ous towns of Manacor

Majorca, ia generally

■^mi

*i I

' the island, only attaining
dob sweep over its plains
: Africa, and orange-trees
sect them. The climate is
the soil less fertile, for,
jrbs the rain. There are
) island, which from time

itat, lO.flOO; Lluchmayor, 8,800;

immemorial have claimwl procfxlunoe. Ciududulu (7,000 iuhul)itttuti4) enjoys the
advantage of cIorov proximity to Mujbi'ca, but its harbour is bad. Port Muhon
(15,000 inhabitants), on the other hund, |M)hNOMos an udmirublo port, und Androiis
Doria says with refoi*enoe to it that " June, July, and Muhon uro the bvnt ports
of the Mediterranean." The English made Muhun a wealthy city, but its trade
fell off immediately when they abandoned it in 1802.

IHg. 166.-- Vmw 1)1' Ibi».a.

VI. — The Valley of the Ebro. Aragon and Catalonia.

The central portion of the valley of the Ebro is as distinctly separated from the
remainder of Spain as is that of the Guadalquivir. It forms a Tiist depression,
bounded by the midland plateau of Spain and the Pyrenees, and if the waters of
the Mediterranean were to rise 1,000 feet, this ancient lake, which existed until
its pent-up waters had forced tliemselves a passage through the mountains of

Hg ' ^l'ff ' .y;

428

SPAIN.

Catalonia, would be converted into a gulf of the sea. The Pyrenees in the north,
the barren slopes of the plateaux to the south and south-west, form well-defined
boundaries,- but in the norlh-west the plain of the Ebro extends beyond Aragon,
into a country inhabited by men of a different race.

Fig. 167.— Ths Pttiubbb.
So Je 1 : 400,000.

6Mite«.

Historically and geographically, Aragon and Catalonia form one of the great
natural divisions of Spain, less extensive than the Castiles, but hardly less impor-
tant» and far more densely populated.* The political destinies of Aragon and
Catalonia have been the same for more than seven centuries, but, in spite of this>

• Catalonia, 12,483 equare milen, 1,778,408 inhnbitantB^ Aragon, 17,676 square milM, 928,718
inhabitants.

AEAGON AND CATALONIA.

429

Tenoes in the north,
8t, form well-defined
mds beyond Aragon,

f *••

Nf-

r to-

form one of the great

but hardly less impor-

atinies of Aragon and

38, but, in spite of this,

17,676 square milM, 928,718

there exist great contrasts, which have not been without their influence upon the
character of the population. Aragon, a country of plains surrounded by moun-
tains, is an inland province, and its inhabitants have remained for the most part
herdsmen, agriculturists, and soldiers. Catalonia, on the other hand, possesses an
admirable seaboard. Its natural wealth, joined to favourable geographical position,
has developed commerce with neighbouring countries, and more especially with
Roussillon and Languedoc. Indeed, seven or eight centuries ago, the Catalans
were Proven9al8 rather than Spaniards, and in their language and customs they
wore closely related to the people to the north of the Pyrenees.

In the course of the great political revolution, the most terrible feature of
which was the war of the Albigenses, Catalonia became a prey to the Castilians.
As long as the Proven9al world maintained its natural centre between Aries and
Toulouse, the populations of the Mediterranean coasts, as far as the Ebro, Valencia,
and the Baleares, were attracted towards it as to their natural centre. Those
Christian populations who foimd themselves placed between Provence on the one
hand, and the Arab kingdoms on the other, naturally gravitated towards the
former, with whom they possessed community of race, religion, and language.
Hence the wide range of the idiom known as Limousin, and its flourishing
literature. But when an implacable war had converted several towns of the
Albigenses into deserts; when the barbarians of the North had destroyed the
civilisation of the South, and the southern slopes of the C^vennes had been reduced
by violence to the position of a political dependency of the valley of the Seine,
Catalonia was forced to look elsewhere for natural allies. The centre of gravity
was shifted from the north to the south, from Southern France to the peninsula of
the Pyrenees, and Castile secured what Provence had lost.

The plateau to the south of the Ebro has been cut up, th ough the erosive
action of rivers, into elongated sierra^ and isolated muefas (molars), and its edge is
marked by numerous notches, through which these rivers debouch upon the plain.
The Sierra de San Just (4,967 feet), now separated from that of Oiidar by the
upper valley of the Guadalope, is a remnant of this ancient plateau, as are the
Sierras de Cucalon (4,284 feet), de Vicor, and de la Yirgen, which join it to
the superb mass of the Monoayo, in the north-west ; and the same applies to the
Sierra de Almenara (4,687 feet), which rises to the west of them.

The granitic mountain mass of the Moncayo (7,705 feet) has offered greater
resistance to the erosive action of the waters than have the cretaceous rocks of the
plateau to the ; east of it. The Moncayo is the storm-breeder of the plains of
Aragon, and from its summit the Castilian can look down upon the wide valley of
the Ebro. To the Aragonese the plateau is accessible only through the valleys
of the Guadalope, Martin, and Jiloca, and it is these which have enabled them to
obtain possession of the upland of Teruel, which is of such strategical importance,
from its commanding position between the basins of Guadalaviar, Jdcar, and Tejo.

To the north of the Ebro rises the snow-ulad range of the Pyrenees, which
separates Spain from the rest of Europe. Several spurs descend from this master
range into Aragon. But there are also independent ranges, one of which, that of
81

fwW i l ' ^

\fm.. ' :iMmwm^

480

SPAIN.

the Bardenas, rises immediately to the north of the Ebro, right opposite to the
gigantic Moncayo. The parallel ridges of the Castellar and of the " district of the
Five Towns" form a continuation of these hillocks to the east of the Arba, and
then, crossing the valley of the Gallego, we reach the barren terraces of the
Mon^gros, upon which rises the insular Sierra de Alcubierra, in the very centre
of the ancient lake of Aragon. A saddle, elevated only 1,247 feet above the
sea-level, connects the latter with the mountains of Huesca in the north.

Several mountain masses of considerable height occupy the centre of the
country, and separate these riverine hills from the main range of the Pyrenees.
They consist for the most part of chalk, through which the bounteous rivers

Fig. 168.— Port Mahon.
Sealel : 00,000

lllile.

descending from the Pyrenees have excavated their beds. These channels, with I
their precipices, defiles, and cascades, form one of the most picturesque mountain
districts of Spain. The most famous of these Pyreneon foot-hills is the Sierra del
la Pena, which is separated from the Pyrenees by the deep valley of the Arogon.|
At the eastern extremity of this chain, high above the ancient city of Jaoa,
the pyramidal sandstone mass of the Pefia de Oroel (5,804 feet), from which wd
are able to embrace an immense horizon, extending from the Pyrenees to th^
Moncayo. The wild district which occupies the centre of this magnificent pane
rama is the famous country of Sobrarbe, held in high veneration by patriotif
Spaniards, for it was there they commenced their struggles against the Moors.

ads. These channels, with
most picturesque mountain
a foot-hills is the Sierra de
deep valley of the Aragon.
e ancient city of Jaca, rises
(5,804 feet), from which we
f^m the Pyrenees to the
re of this magnificent pano-
igh veneration by patriotic
jgles against the Moors.

"~~"'^'^'r-ilMr '*^' ' '■•'»"- -a^'

ARAOON AND CATALONIA.

481

An elevated saddle connects the Sierra de la Pefia with the irregular mountain
mass of the Sierra de Santo Domingo, to the south of it, whose spurs descend in
terraces into the rugged plain of the Five Towns. It is separated hy a narrow
cleft, through which passes the Gallego from the Sierra de Guara, which extends
to the river Cinca in the east, and several minor chains run parallel with it. This
parallelism in the mountain ranges may be traced, likewise, as far as the river Segre.

The Monsech, thus called from its arid calcareous ravines, presents the appear-
ance of an unbroken rampart from the south, but is intersected at right angles by
the gorges of two Nogueras — the Ribagorzana and Pallaresa. The Pena do San
Gervas and the Sierra de Boumort, which rise to the north of it, are much less
regular in their contours, but exceed it in height.

The Pyrenees terminate with the gigantic mountains surrounding the valley of
Andorra, and with the Peak of Carlitte (9,583 feet). The Sierra del Cadi (8,322
feet) belongs to a detached chain hardly inferior to them in height, and culminat-
ing on French soil in the superb pyramid of the Canigou (9,140 feet). Numerous
spurs extend from this sierra towards the sea.

In this rugged mountain region we meet with geological formations of every
age, from the Silurian to the cretaceous. Iron, copper, and even gold abound,
and might be worked with great profit if roads and railways penetrated into the
upper valleys. A coal-field on the Upper Ter, near San Juan de las Abadesas,
is being worked very sluggishly, and others on the western slope of the Cadi
have uot even been touched. The famous rocks of salt at Solsona and Cardona lie
at the foot of the Sierra del Cadi, and that of Cardona alone, though it has been
worked for ceqturies, is estimated to contain nearly 400,000,000 cubic yards.

The abundance of mineral veins is due, perhaps, to the existence of subter-
ranean lava lakes. The only volcanic hills in the north of Spain are those near
Olot and Santa Pau, in the upper basin of the Fluvia. Immense sheets of basaltic
lava have been ejected there during the tertiary age from fourteen craters, one of
them, upon which stands the old town of CastelfoUit, forming a huge rampart of
picturesque aspect. Jets of steam issue even now from many fissures in the
rocks.

The mountains along the coast of Catalonia resemble in every rei^ct those of
Valencia, from which they are separated by the gorge of the Ebro. Near the
mouths of that river the rugged and mountainous region extends about thirty miles
inland, as far as the Llanos del TJrgel ; but farther north it widens, until it finally
merges in the spurs descending from the Pyrenees. The principal summits are
the Mont Sant (3,513 feet), the Puig de Montagut (2,756 feet), the Monserrat
(4,057 feet), and Monseny (5,276 feet). The best-known passes are at the head
of the Franooli, through which runs the railway from Tarragona to L^rida, the
pass at the head of the Noya, and the Pass of Calaf.

Of the last-named mountains that of Monserrat is the most fomous, for
suspended upon one of its flanks hang the remains of the celebrated monastery
m which Loyola deposited his sword. Monserrat has lost its prestige as a holy
place, but still remains one of the most interesting subjects for the study of

482

SPAIN.

geologists. It oonsists of conglomerate, and has been worn by atmoapberio
agencies into innumerable pillars, pinnacles, and earth pyramids surmounted by
huge boulders. Hermitages and the ruins of castles abound, and the prospect
from the highest summit extends from the Pyrenees to the Balearic Isles.

Croseing the valleys of the Llobregat and Ter, we reach the swampy plain of
Ampurdan, an old gulf of the sea, and with it the north-eastem extremity of
Spain, separated from France by the Albdres Mountains. The surrounding hills
abound in the remains uf ecclesiastical buildings. One of these, near Cabo de
Creus, the easternmost promontory of Spain, and the Aphrodision of the ancients,
marks the site of a temple of Venus.

The basin of the Ebro forms a huge triangle, the mountains of Catalonia being
the base, whilst its apex lies in the hills of Cantabria, close to the Atlantic. The
surrounding hills differ much in height, but the nucleus of all consists of granite,
upon which have been deposited sedimentary strata, the silent witnesses of the
gradual filling up of the old inland lake. The river itself traverses the very centre
of this triangle, at right angles to the Mediterranean, and only when it reaches the
mountain barrier separating it from the sea does it wind about in search of an outlet.

The Fontibre, or "fountain of the Ebro," gives birtb at once to a considerable
stream, which, fed by the snows of the Peoa Labra, rushes with great impetuosity
past Reinosa (2,687 feet), then passes through a succession of defiles, and finally,
having received the Ega and Arag^n with the Argo from the north, emerges from
Navarra a great river. Below Tudela (800 feet) it is large enough to feed two
canals, viz. that of T&uste, which carries fertility into the once- sterile tracts at
. the foot of Bardenas, and the navigable Imperial Canal, which follows the valley
down to S^agoza. The ordinary volume of the latter amounts to no less than 494
cubic feet per second, but much of this water is sucked up by the calcareous soil.

The tributary rivers which enter the Ebro in the plains of Aragon compensate
for the loss sustained through canals of irrigation. The Jalon, Huerva, Martin,
and Guadalope join on the right ; the Arba, Gallego, and Segre on the left. This
last is the most important of all, for it drains the whole of the Pyrenean slope
from Mont Perdu to the Carlitte.

The Ebro, after its junction with the Segre, immediately plunge into the
coast ranges of Catalonia, and though the fall thence to the sea amounts to
183 feet in 96 miles, no rapids or cataracts are met with. The suspended matter I
brought down by the river has been deposited in the shapo of a delta which juts
out fifteen miles into the Mediterranean, covers an area of 150 square miles, and I
abounds in salt marshes, lagoons, and dead river arms. A canal, twenty-two milesl
in length, connects the harbour of refuge at Alfaques with the Ebro, but is noti
available for ships of great draxight, owing to the bar which closes its mouthl
The other embouchures of the river are likewise closed by bars.

The volume of the Ebro* decreases annually, on account of the increasing

* Area of the basin of the Ebro, 25,100 Bqnare miles ; discharge during floods, 175,000 cubic feeij
average, 7,100 cubic feet ; during summer, 1,760 cubic feet ; annual rainfall, 18 inches ; surface
1*4 inches ; proportion between the two, 13:1.

«^*^*wii?Sis^iaste^^;ss

ARAGON AND CATALONU.

488

orn by atmoapberio
mids Burmounted by
id, and tbe prospect
(aleario Islea.

the Bwampy plain of

eastern extremity of

Tbe surrounding bills

tbese, near Cabo de
dision of tbe ancients,

ains of Catalonia being
) to tbe Atlantic. The
all consists of granite,
silent witnesses of the
raverses tbe very centre
mly when it reaches tbe
at in search of an outlet,
t once to a considerable
I vnth great impetuosity
1 of defiles, and finally,
the north, emerges from
irge enough to feed two
he once- sterile tracts at
which follows the valley
lounts to no less than 494
p by tbe calcareous soil,
ins of Aragon compensate
Le Jalon, Huerva, Martin,
id Segre on the left. This
le of the Pyrenean slope

ediately plunges into the
)e to the sea amounts to
u The suspended matter
ape of a delta which juts

of 150 square miles, and
A canal, twenty-two miles

with the Ebro, but is not
r which closes its mouth.

by bars.

account of the increasing

« during floods, m.000 cubic feet,
inlall, 18 inches; surface dnunage,

quantities of water which it is called upon to furnish for purposes of irrigation,
and sooner or later it will be reduced to the condition of the rivers of Valencia.

The productiveness of the irrigated fields of Aragon and Catalonia bears
witness to the fertility of the soil. Even saline tracts have been converted into
gardens. Tropical plants, agaves, cacti, and a few feathery pnlms on tbe coast to
the south of Barcelona recall tbe beautiful landscapes of Southern Spain. Tbe
valley of tbe Ebro holds an intermediate position between Murcia and Valencia
and the bleak plateau and mountains of the interior ; but water, except in tbe
immediate neighbourhood of tbe rivers, is nowhere abundant. On some of the
hill-tops may be seen houses the walls of which are dyed red, because it was found
more economical to mix the mortar with wine than to convey thither water for that
purpose. This deficiency of moisture is a great drawback to certain districts in
the lower valley of tbe Ebro. The greater portion of B&rdenas, the Mon^gros, and
the terraces of Calauda are treeless steppes. Cold and heat alternate abruptly,
without reference to seasons, and the climate, in spite of tbe proximity of tbe sea, is
quite continental in its character. The hot wind^, so much dreaded ou tbe coast
of Catalonia, do not blow from Africa, but from the parched plains of Aragon.

The climate of Catalonia, owing to the breezes blowing from the Mediterranean,
is fur more equable than that of Aragon, and to this circumstance, no less than to
differences of race and greater facilities i'or commerce, this province is indebted
for its distinct individuality.*

Catalonia, ].«ing open to invasions from the sea as well as by land, has a much
more mixed population than its neighbour Aragon. On tbe other band, a con-
queror once in possession of the latter had but little to fear expulsion at the
hands of new-comers, and the Moors maintained themselves in Arugon three
hundred years after they bad been expelled from Barcelona.

The inhabitants of tbe valley of the Ebro are ofiensively haughty, of sluggish
minds, g^ven to old customs and superstitions, but they are at tbe same time
singularly persistent, and their bravery does credit to their Celtiberian ancestors.
These fine broad-shouldered men, who follow their donkeys along the high-roads,
the bead enveloped in a silken kerchief, and the waist confined by a violet-coloured
helt, are at all times ready for a fight. Up to the close of last century it was
customary to get up fights between villages in mere wantonness, and tbe rondallas,
a term now employed for open-air concerts, scarcely ever terminated without
hloodsbed. In trifles tbe Aragonese are as stubborn as in matters of importance,
and they are said to " drive in nails with their head." For several centuries tbe
Aragonese struggled with the Moors, and the kings, dependent us they were upon
the support of the people, felt constrained to submit to a considerable limitation
of their power. It was Philip II. of Castile who suppressed these ancient pro-
vincial privileges, and condemned Aragon to lead a life of intellectual stagnntion.

The Catalans are as self-opinionated as their neighbours tbe Aragonese ; noisy
quarrels frequently take place amongst them ; but they rarely come to blows. They

* il(>r<ri7«M ;— Mean temperature, 61'; extremes, 106° and 21*; difference, 85° ; rainfall, 13-6 inches.
Bnrctlona : — Mean temperature, 63°; extremes, 88" and 32°; difference, 66°; rainiall, lA-7 inches

^.^i^.i^-'

484

8PAIN.

are said to be less firm of character than the Aragonese, yet they succeeded in
maintaining their provincial independence much longer. Few towns have stotxl
more sieges than Barcelona, and fewer still have offered a more valiant defence.
The Catalans are undoubtedly industrious. They have not only converted the
irrigable valleys facing the sea into gardens, but have likewise attacked the arid
mountains, and, by triturating the rocka and carrying thither soil from the plain,
have made them produce grapes, olives, and corn. Hence the proverb, "A
Catalan can turn stones into bread." Agriculture, however, does not wholly
supply the wants of so dense a population, and Barcelona with its suburbs has
become a huge manufacturing centre, where cottons, woollens, and other textile
fabrics, hardware, chemical preparations, glass, paper, and various articles are pro<
duced. The province of Barcelona is the chief seat of the cotton industry in Spain,
and fully deserves to be called the Spanish Lancashire.* The Catalans are a
migratory race. Tbey are met with not only in every other province of Spain, but
in all the Spanish colonies. Everywhere they are reputed for their thrift, and in
Cuba are hated as rivals or masters by Creoles and blacks.

The towns of Aragon and Catalonia present the same contrasts as do the inha-
bitants of the two provinces. Those of the former are of solemn and even gluomy
aspect, whilst the picturesque cities of the maritime province are full of bustle
and mirth. The former represent the Middle Age, the latter our modem era.

Zaragoza (Saragossa) is most favourably situated in the very centre of the plain
of Aragon. It has its Moorish alcazar (the Aljaferia), now used as a barrack;
a curious leaning tower similar to that of Pisa ; and fine jiromenades, including
the Coso and shaded walks. But prouder than of all thei>e attractions are the
inhabitants of the epithet " heroic," which was bestowed upon their city in con-
sequence of the valiant resistance it offered in 1808 and 1<^9, when they not]
only defended their homes, but also their patron saint, the Virgen del Pilar.

At Zaragoza a few wide avenues have been cut through the labryinth of tor-
tuous streets, but the other towns of the province have preserved their physiognomy
of former days. Jaca, in the upper valley of the Aragon, between the Fyrene
and the Sierra de la Pefia, with its grey houses, still retains its turreted walls and
ancient citadel. It is the old capital of the kingdom of Sobrarbe, but would hardl^j
be mentioned now if it were not for its position at the foot of the Pass of Oanfranc
and the neighbouring monastery of La Pena. Huesoa, at the base of the hills, tl
Osca of the Romans, recalls the dominion of the Ausks, or Euskarians. Standing iJ
the midst of an irrigated plain, it still enjoys a certain importance. It boasts of [
richly decorated cathedral, deserted monasteries, an old royal palace now occupifi
by the university, and the remains of a turreted wall. Barbastro, near the rivJ
Cinca, occupies a position similar to that of Huesca. The carriage road over tl
Somport connects it with France.

The Arab city of Colatayud, on the river Jalon, is commercially the secoJ
city of Aragon, and replaces Bilbilis of the Iberians, which stood on a hill near [

* In 1873 there were 700 cotton-milla, with 104,000 hands and 1,400,000 spiniUet, conauming 67,20oJ
lbs. of cotton.

AllAOON AND CATALONIA.

yet they succeeded in
Tew towns have stocMl
more valiant defence,
lot only converted tlie
iwise attacked the arid
;her soil from the plain,
ence the proverb, "A
ever, does not wholly
la with its suburbs has
(oUens, and other textile
various articles are pro-
cotton industry in Spain,
* The Catalans are u
er province of Spain, but
>d for their thrift, and in

contrasts as do the inha-
solemn and even glvX)my
rovince are full of bustle
attei" our modem era.
le very centre of the plain
I, now used as a barrack;
ine jiromenades, including
thei'e attractions are the
jd upon their city in con-
and liW9, when they not
the Virgen del Pilar,
mgh the labryinth of tor-
reserved their physiognomy
gon, between the Pyrenees
tains ito turreted walls and
Sobrarbe, but would hardly
bot of the Pass of Oanfranc,
, at the base of the hills, the
or Euskarians. Standing in
importance. It boasts of a
1 royal palace now occupied
. Barbastro, near the river
The carriage road over the

is commercially the second
ifhich stood on a hill near it.

10,000 spiudlM, conmuning 87,200,000

One of its most nauseous suburbs is wholly inhabited by mendicants. Tcruel, on
the Ouadalaviar, the chief town of the Maeztrazgo, with its crenellated wulls and
turrets, resembles a mediioval fortress. The Arab tower of its church is one of the
curiosities of '* untrodden " Spain, and its aqueduct, which crosses a valley on 140
arches, is a remarkable work of the sixteenth century.

Several towns of the interior of Catalonia are equally venerable in their aspect.
"Proud " Puigoerda (P rcerda), close to the French frontier, on the Upper Segre,
is hardly more than a collection of hovels surrounded by a rampart. The Sio de

Fig. 160.— Thi Dilta or thi Ebho.

ftinle 1 : 87^000.

'SMilM.

Urgel, in a fertile portion of the same valley, is no doubt of some importance as a
fortress, but its streets are dirty, its houses mean, and its mud walls dilapidated.

Still lower down the Segre we meet with the ancient city of li^iida, whose
origin dates back to prehistoric times, and which, owing to its strategical position,
has at all times played a pruininent part in military history. The gardens of
L^rida supply much produce for exportation, but the place cannot rise into impor-
tance until the Franco- Spanish coast railway shall have been completed.

Tortosa, a picturesque city just above the delta of the Ebro, and formerly
the capital of an Arab kingdom, commands one of the passages over the Ebro,

486

SPAIN.

and its coinroeroe would inoreaae if tbe river offered greater facilities for navi*
gation.

Tarragona in tbe time of the Romans was the great maritime outlet of the
Talley of the Ebro. Tbe oity was then nearly forty miles in circumference, with
arenas, amphitheatres, palaces, temples, and aqueducts, and a population of hun-
dreds of thousands. The ruins of this ancient Tarraoo have been made use of in
the construction of the modern city, with its clumsy cathedral, towers, decayed
rampnrts, and Roman aqueduct intersecting tbe suburban orange groves. The
manufacturing town of R^us may almost be looked upon as a suburb of it, and is
rapidly increasing in population. Near it is the monastery of PoUet, in which
are depoaited the remains of tbe Kii of Aragon.

Fig. 170. — Thb Stuppu op Araoon.
Aeooidint to WUlkomm. SoU* I t tfiOMW.

fUtOm.

The country between Tarragona and Barcelona is densely populated. We pass
through tbe fertile district of El Panadas, the equally fertile valley irrigated by
the reddish waters of the Llobrcgat, with towns and villages in rapid succession,
until we reach the suburbs of Barcelona. The city proper lies on the sea, at the
foot of the fortifications crowning the steep heights of Monjuich. There is
another citadel of immense size to the east of the city, yet this latter reposes gaily
beneath its batteries, which could easily reduce it t.o ashes. Barodona boasts oi^
being the great pleasure town of Spain. Its peculation is less than that oj
Madrid, but there are more theatres and concert haUs. I'he dramatic performance]
are of a superior class, and the taste of the people is nuHre refined. The publij
promenades, such as the Rambla, occupying the bed of an ancient torrent, thi

,' ' -^i ^.;7«:f y)i-^Mawiiteft^s»S«f^a:^>\ V

Bter facilities for navi-

naritime outlet of the
in circumference, with
1 a population of huii-
e been made uae of in
hedral, tower«, decayed
1 orange grovea. The
» a suburb of it, and is
iry of Poblet, in which

'<^j
'"^J

AUAOON AND CATALONIA.

487

■ ;'f. -y

lee'Wallt, and the uvonuei of treot which wparute B«ro«lona from the oiuuiol and
the luburb of Buroelonetu, uru crowded on Kne ovontnga. Lnrcelona is no doubt
the " unique city " of Cervantes, and porhapa " the li tme of courtesy and of valiant
men;" but we doubt its being the "common centre of all sincere friendships."
Raroclona exceeds all other towns of Spain by its commerce.* The harbour is
exposed to southerly winds, and somewhat difficult of access. Barcelona is ever
renewing itself. There are brood streets of uniformly built houses, and some
quarters, as that of Barcelonetu, on a tongue of land to the east of the port, ore
laid out with all the regularity of an American city. The only architectural
monuments of note are a Gothic cathedral and the old palace of the Inquisition.
But all around the town, beyond the suburbs with their factories and workmen's
dwellings, we meet with numerous villas, oocupjring delightful nooks in verdant
valleys or the steep hill-alopes. No more charming district exists in Spain than
that to the north of Barcelona and Badalona, extending as for as Masnuu, Matar6,
and the river Tordera. Promontories covered with vines, pines, and cork'Oaks,
and sometimes crowned by the ruins of n castle, project into the sea ; the valleys
are laid out in gurdent. enclosed with eloc hedges ; towns and villages follow in
rapid succession ; and il' o boats and n*^ts oit fishermen are seen on the beaches.

Most towns of the province of Barcelona emulate the manufacturing industry
of the capital. Igualada, at the f.ot of the Monserrat; Sabadell, in a valley,
full of factories ; Tarrasa, the old iloman y, neu :■ which are the famous baths
of La Puda; Manresa, on the Oardoner ri . ^.et; Vich, the old primatial city of
Catalonia; and Matur6, on the coast, a. ^ all distinguished for the manufacture
of cloth, linens, silks, cotton »iuo^, ribbons, lace, .. .ither, hats, faience, glass, or
paper. Manufacturing industry has ^l^tewise spread into the neighbouring province
of Qerona, and notably to the city of Olot ; but the vicinity ' f 'lo French frontier,
the practice of smuggling, and the presence of large garrisons in the fortresses
of Gteroua and Figueras have hindered its development. Gerona has sustained
many a siege, and Figueras, in spHe of its huge citadel, has been repeatedly captured.
The walla of Rosas are crumbling to pieces, and every vestige of the Greek city
of Emporion has been buried beneath the alluvium brought down by the river
Fluvia, but it still lives in the name of the surrounding district of Ampurdan.f

The crest of the Pyrenees constitutes for the most part the political boundary
between France tt^, ."pain, but there are exceptions to this rule. At the western
extremity of the chain Spain enjoys the advantage, for the valley of the Bidassoa,
on the French slopes, belongs to it ; but France is compensated in the east by the
possession of Mount Canigou and the valley of the Upper Segre. As a rule,
howeve, ', Tpain has the best of the bargain, and this is only natural, as the Pyrenees
are most accessible from the south, and the population there is more dense. The

* Value of exports and imports in 1867, £10,691,000.

t Populationof the principal towns:— i4ra<7on.- Zaragoza, 66,000 ; Calatajad, 12,000; Huesca, 10,000;
Terael, 7,000. Catalonia (Cataluila) : Barcelona, 180.000 : R^ns, 26,000 ; Tortosa, 22,000 ; Matar6, 17,000 ;
Sabadell, 16,000; Manresa, 14,000; Tarragona, 13,000; L^rida, 12,000; Vich, 12,000 ; Badalona, 11,000
Igualada. 10,600; Olot, 10,000; Tarrasa, 9,000; Oerona, 8,000; Figueras, 8,000.

488

SPAIN

herdsmen of Aragon and the Basque provinces never missed an opportunity of
taking possession of pastures on the northern slopes of the mountains, and these
encroachments were subsequently ratified by international treaties.

The valley of Ar4n, in the very heart of the Pyrenees, is one of these bloodless
conquests of Spain. The French Garonne rises in that valley, but the defile
through which it leaves it is very narrow and easily obstructed. Up to the
eighteenth century the Ar&nese enjoyed virtual independence; and as they are shut
ofi* from the rest of the world by mountains covered with snow during the greater
part of the year, these 21,000 mountaineers would appear to possess more claim to
constitute themselves an independent republic than any other people in Europe.

Farther east there is another mountain valley which, nominally at least, forms
an independent republic. This is Andorra, a territory of 230 square miles, with
6,000 inhabitants. A few pastures on the French slope excepted, the whole of
this valley is drained by the beautiful stream of Embalira, or Yalira, which joins
the Segre in the smiling plain of S^o de Urgel. Most of the mountains of
Andorra have been robbed of their trees, and the destruction of the few remaining
forests is still going on. The vegetable soil is being rapidly washed away, and
the moraines of ancient glaciers gradually slide down the mountain slopes.

The republic of Andorra is said to owe its existence to a defeat of the Saracens
by Charlemagne or Louis le Ddbonnaire, but in reality up to the French Revolu-
tion the valley enjoyed no sovereign rights whatever. It was a barony of the
Counts of Urgel and of Aragon. In 1278 it was decided that Andorra should be
held jointly by the Bishops of Urgel and the Counts of Foix. In 1793 the French
republic declined to receive the customary tribute, and in 1810 the Spanish
Cortes abolished the feudal regime. Andorra thus became an independent state.
The inhabitants, however, continue to govern themselves in accordance with old
feudal customs, which are not at all reconcilable with the principles of modem
republics. The land belongs to a few families. There is a law of entail, and
younger brothers become the servants of the head of the &mily, whose hospitality
they enjoy only on condition of their working for him. The tithes were only
abolished in 1842. The "liberty" of these mduntaineers consists merely in exemp-
tion from the Spanish conscription and impunity in smuggling ; and, to increase
their revenues, they have recently, established a gambling-table. Their legitimate
business consists in cattle-breeding, and there are a few forges and a woollen factory.

The republic of Andorra recognises two suzerains, viz. the Bishop of Urgel,
who receives an annual tribute of £25, and the French Govemnaent, to whom
double that sum is paid. Spain and France are represented by two provosts, the
commandant of G^o de Urgel exercising the functions of viceroy. The provosts
command the militia and appoint the bailiffs, or judges. They, together with a
judge of appeal, alternately appointed by France and Spain, and two rahonadores,
or defenders of Andorran privileges, form the Cort«s. Each parish is governed by
a consul, a vice-consul, and twelve councillors elected by the heads of families. A
General Council, of which the consuls and delegates of the parishes are members,
meets at the village of Andorra. But in spite of these fictions Andorrta is an

~JW^~'

rsw^S-t

BASQUE PROVINCES, NAVAHRA, AND LOGEOSo.

480

)d an opportunity of
mountains, and these
;atiea.

one of tbese bloodless

ralley, but tbe defile

tructed. Up to the

and as tbey are shut

iw during tbe greater

possess more claim to

people in Europe.

ninally at least, forms

130 square miles, with

ixcepted, tbe wbole of

or Valira, wbich joins

of tbe mountains of

1 of tbe few remaining

dly wasbed away, and

ountain slopes.

defeat of tbe Saracens

to tbe Frenob Revolu-

I was a barony of tbe

ibat Andorra shduld be

L. In 1793 tbe Frencb

in 1810 tbe Spanisb

) an independent state.

in accordance witb old

i principles of modern

.8 a law of entail, and

imily, wbose hospitality

Tbe titbes were only

usist-s merely in exemp-

gling ; and, to increase

iable. Their legitimate

3S and a woollen factory.

!. tbe Bisbop of Urgel,

Govermaent, to wbom

«d by two provosts, tbe

viceroy. Tbe provosts

Tbey, together with a

in, and two rahonadores,

lb parish is governed by

le beads of families. A

e parishes are members,

e fictions Andorra is an

integral part of Spain, and tbe carabineers never hesitate to cross the frontiers of
this sham republic. By language, manners, and customs tbe Andorrans are
Catalans. Exemption from war has enabled them to grow comparatively rich.
Tbey are intelligent and cunning, and well know bow to assume an air of astonish-
ment when their interests are at stake. Acting tbe fool, in order to take some
one in or avoid being ensnared, is called by their neighbours " playing the
Andorran." Andorra, a neat village, is tbe capital of the territory, but San Julia
de Loria is the most important place, and tbe head^quarters of the smugglers.

VII. — Basque Provinces, Navarra, and LooroSo.*

The Basque provinces (Yascongades) and the ancient kingdom of Navarra, though
scarcely a thirtieth part of Spain, constitute a separate region, not only on account
of geographical position, but also because tbey are inhabited for the most part by
a distinct race, having its owh language, manners, and political institutions.

Looked at from a commanding position, the bills connecting the Pyrenees
with the Castilian plateau resemble a sea lashed by contrary winds, for there are no
prominent mountain ranges. Even the Pyrenees have sunk down to a mean height
of 3,000 feet, and the Lohihulz (3,973 feet), where tbey cease to form the frontier,
scarcely deserves to be called a mountain. Tbey extend thence to the Pass of
Azpiroz (l,8f)0 feet), where they terminate. The vague range beyond is known as
Sierra de Aralar (4,330 feet), and still farther west by a variety of local names.
These mountains are traversed by several low passes, facilitating communication
with the valley of the Ebro, the most important of which is tbe Pass of Orduna
(2,134 feet), which is crossed by the railway from Bilboa to Miranda, and dominated
by the Pena Gorbea (5,042 feet) and the Sierra Salvada (4,120 feet).

Tbe spurs which descend from these mountains towards the Bay of Biscay are
likewise very irregular in their features. Most of them are connected by trans-
versal chains, through which the rivers have only with difficulty forced for them-
selves an outlet towards the sea. The Bidassoa, for instance,. sweeps far to the
south, through tbe valley of Baztan, before it takes its course to the northward, in
the direction of its estuary at Fuenterrabia. Within its huge bend it encloses a
detached portion of the Pyrenees, the principal summit of which is the famous
Mont La Rhune (2,954 feet), on the Frencb frontier. Equally isolated is the
Jaizquibel (1,912 feet), which rises from the plains of Irun, close to the mouth of
the Bidassoa, and from whose summit there is a view of incomparable beauty.
It terminates in Cape Higuer, or Figuer, tbe northernmost point of Cantabria.

The maritime slope of the Basque countries presents a great variety of geolo-
gical formations, including Jurassic limestones and chalk, granites and porphyries.
The mineral resources are immense ; copper and lead abound, but tbe great wealth
consists in iron. The mines of Mondragon, in Guipfizcoa, have long been famous,
but the most productive minipg district is Sommorostro, to the west of Bilbao.

* Navam and Basque provinces, 6,828 square milea, 790,676 inhabitants ; Logrofio, 1,9M square miles,
182,941 inhaUtants.

WMi O i 8 M

IM*

440

SPAIN.

The sierras of Aragou running parallel with the Pyrenees extend also into
Navarra and the Yascongades, and are frequently connected with the main range by
lateral branches. To the west of Pamplona they spread out into a rugged plateau,
surmounted by the Sierra de Andia (4,769 feet), the labyrinthine ramifications of

Fig. 171.— Thb Emtiboni or Bahcblona.
8«le 1 : 100,000.

which occupy the district of Am^zcuas, a region offeriug great advantRges to partisan
warfare. The southern chain, not so well defined, bouhds the Garrascal, or " country
of evergreen oaks," in the south. This region, too, has frequeuily been the scene of
civil war. Farther west the famous defile of Pancorbo leads through the Montes

;*STPW<WA*#i*^>*!

BASQUE PB0V1NCE8, NAVAREA, AND LOGEOSO.

441

Obordnes (4,150 feet) to the plateau of Castile. The saddle of Als&sua (1,955 feet),
over which passes the railway from Yitoria (1,684 feet) to Pamplona (1,378 feet),
connects the Pyrenees with the Sierra de Andia, whilst as to the mountains of the
province of Logrofio, they are spurs of the mountain masses forming the northern
edge of that plateau, viz. the Sierra de la Demanda in the west, and the Sierra de
CeboUera in the east, the latter giving birth to the Sierras de Camero.

Several of the mountain districts are quite Castilian in their asperity and
nakedness, for the forests have been cut down to feed the iron furnaces. In Southern
Navarra we meet with veritable deserts. But in the Basque countries and Western
Navarra, where it rains copiously, the hills are clad with forests, the valleys with
turf, end rivulets wind amongst groves of elder<tree8. Naked precipices of sand or

Fig. 172. — Tub Sand-banks op Hatahu.
Soalr 1 : ISft.OOO.

.#?-

^f^-:'

I'lit

SIUm.

limestone contrast well with this verdure, from which peep out the small white
houses of villages embosomed in orchards, and scattered in the valleys and hill-sides.
Moist north-westerly winds are frequent in the Bay of Biscay, and account for
the equable temperature of the country. It rains abundantly, and in all seasons.
The climate resembles that of Ireland, and, though damp, it is healthy and most
conducive to the growth of vegetation. The country is rich in com, wine, oil,
and cattle ; the northern slopes are covered with fruit trees of every kind, and
sagardua, or cider, is a favourite drink ; and in the more remote valleys of the
Pyrenees we meet with some of the most magnificent forests in Spain. That of Yal
O&rlos (valley of Charlemagne), near the famous Pass of Boncevaux, or Roncesvalles,
though none of the largest, is reputed for its beauty and legendary associations.

( •"

B>! ^U» !i ;jlM.!iJWIWMM*/tlWU » 8a j«WK « l'!Bi . ' Ji»U i <W^

442

SPAIN.

Who are the Basques, whose bravery is traditional ? What is their origin ?
What their relationship to the other peoples of Europe P All these questions it i^
impossible to answer. The Basques are a mysterious race, and can claim kinship
with no other nation. It is not even certain whether all those who p^ss by thai
name are of the same race. There is no typical Basque. No doubt most of the
inhabitants of the country are distinguished by finely chiselled features, bright
and firm eyes, and well-poised bodies, but the differences in stature, form of skull*
and features are very considerable. Between Basque and Basque the differences

as great as between Spaniards, Frenchmen, and Italians. There are tall men
uad short, brown and fair, long skulls and broad, and almost every district has its
distinct type. The solution of this problem is daily becoming more difficult, for,
owing to a continual intermixture with their neighbours, the original type, if there
really existed one, is gradually being obliterated. It is possible that at some remote
time the remnants of various races occupied this country, and adopted the language
of the most civilised among them. Instances of this kind abound in every people.

Leaving out of sight the differences existing between the Basques of Spain and
those of French Navarro, the Basques may be described as having broad foreheads,
straight noses, finely shaped mouths and chins, and well-proportioned figures.
Their features are exceedingly mobile, and every sentiment is reflected upon them
by a lighting up of the eyes, a movement of the eyebrows, or a trembling of the
lips. The women especially are distinguished by the purity of their features; their
large eyes, smiling lips, and small waists axo universally admired. Even in the
towns, where the race is least pure, most of them are strikingly beautiful and full
of grace. There are districts where obesity is a veritable phenomenon. Men and
women carry themselves nobly ; they are polite to strangers, but always dignified.

The Basques call themselves Euskaldunao, or Euskarians, and their language
Euskara, or Eskuaro. The exact meaning of these terms is not known, but in all
probability it is " speech." This speech of the Basques differs in its words and
structure from every other language of the world ; but many words have been
borrowed from neighbouring language. Everything with which they became
acquainted through foreigners, all ideas imported since prehistoric times, are
designated by words not forming part of the original stock of the language. Even
the names of domestic animals and metals are of foreign origin. The lan-
guage may, perhaps, be classed with the polysynthetic languages of the American
Indians, or with the agglutinant idioms of the Altai, and belongs, consequently, to I
the most remote period of human history. As to the Basques themselves, they [
declare their speech to be superior to every other, and according to some it was!
in Euskara that man first saluted the sim.

For the present we are compelled to look upon the Basques as the last!
remnant of an ancient race. There are not wanting proofs that the EuskaldunacI
formerly occupied a far wider territory. No monuments, no inscriptions, nor evenl
legends give a clue to this ; but we find it, .after thousands of years, in the names o^
mountains, rivers, and towns. Euskarian names abound in the' Fyrenean valleys
of Ar&n, Bastan, Andorra, and Querol, and in the plain to the north of them.

What is their origin 'i

Ul these questions it i^

and can claim kinshi])

hose who p^ss hy that

No doubt most of the

iiselled features, bright

stature, form of skulL

Basque the differences

There are tall men

>8t every district has its

ming more difficult, for,

le original type, if there

ible that at some remote

id adopted the language

abound in every people.

he Basques of Spain and

having broad foreheads,

ell-proportioned figures.

it is reflected upon them

rs, or a trembling of the

;y of their features; their

r admired. Even in the

ikingly beautiful and full

I phenomenon. Men and

ers, but always dignified.

rians, and their language

I is not known, but in all

I differs in its words and

I many words have been

vith which they became

36 prehistoric times, are

;k of the language. Even

sreign origin. The lan-

mg^ges of the American

belongs, consequently, to

Basques themselves, they

Eu;cording to some it was

the Basques as the last
wfs that the Euskaldunac
, no inscriptions, nor even
s of years, in the names of
in the Fyrenean valleys
to the north of them.

BASQUE PHOVINCES, NAVAllRA. AND LO()R()?Jo.

Most writers on Spain identify these Euskuriana with the Iberians of the
ancients, and they have been credited with being the authors of various inscriptiuns
upon coins written in unknown characters which have been discovered in Spain

m^mm\

448

and Southern France, and which M. Boudard has shown to be really in Euskarian.
They must thus have occupied the whole of the peninsula and Southern Franco,
and even in Africa traces of their presence have been discovered.

dte'i,lti,iiijijiiii

444

SPAIN.

The extent of territory occupied by Basque-speaking populations in the time
of the Romans is not known, but probably it was not any greater than it is
now, for the Euskarians have ever since maintained their independence, and
nothing compelled them to adopt the language of their despised neighbourH.
Bilbao has almost become Spanish, as have also the towns in the plain of Alavu.
Pampeluna, the Irun of the Iberians, is Euskarian merely by historical tradition,
whilst farther east Basque is only spoken in the upper valleys of Roncevaux,
Orbaiceta, Ochagavia, and Roncul. The Peak of Anie marks the extreme limit of
Basque on both slopes of the Pyrenees. Out of four Euskarian provinces there is
only one — viz. Quipdzcoa — where Basque predominates ; but even in that province
the inhabitants of the cities of St. Sebastian and Irun speak Oaatilian. In the south
of Navarra and of the so-called Basque provinces the inhabitants have spoken a Latin
dialect from time immemorial. Spanish and French are slowly but surely supersed-
ing the Basque, and the time when it will be a thing of the past is not very distant.*

Striibo speaks of the Gantabrians, the direct ancestors of the Basques, with an
admiration akin to horror. Their bravery, love of freedom, and contempt of life he
looked upon as superhuman qualities. In their wars against the Romans they killed
each other to escape captivity, mothers strangled their children to spare them the
indignities of slavery, and prisoners nailed to the cross burst into a chant of victory.
The Basques have never been wanting in courage. History shows that they were
superior to the surrounding nations in uprightness, generosity, love of independence,
and respect for personal liberty. The serfs of the neighbouring provinces looked
upon them as nobles, for in their abject condition they fancied that personal liberty
was a privilege of nobility. This equality, however, existed only in Guipdzooa and
Biscay, whilst in A lava and Navarra, where the Moors gained a footing, and Oastilian
influences made themselves felt later on, there originated a feudal nobility, with
its usual train of vassals and serfs. However, all the provinces have jealously
watched over their local privileges. At a period when European history was
one continual series of wars, the Baaques lived in peace. Their small common-
wealths were united into a fraternal confederation, and enabled to resist invaders.
They were bound to sacrifice life and property in the defence of their common
fatherland, and their standards were emblazoned with three hands joined, and
the motto, Irurak bat, i.e. " The three (provinces) are but one."

Nothing exhibits more strikingly the comparative civilisation of these Euska-
rians than their respect for personal liberty. The house of a Basque was
inviolable, and he could not be deprived of his horse or his arms. At their
national meetings all voted, and in some of the valleys even the wovzba were
permitted to take part in the discussions. It was not, however, customary for the
women to sit down at the same table with the etcheco-jauna, or nuister of the
house, and his sons^; they took their meals separately by the side of the hearth.
This old custom is still observed in country districts ; and so strong is the force
of tradition, that the wife would almost consider it a disgrace to be seen sitting by

* In 1875 Basque was spoken by 666,000 individiials, vis. by 116,000 in France, by 340,000 in th(
tb^ee Basque provinces of Spain, and by 100,000 in Navarra.

BASQUE I'BOVINCES, NAVARRA, AND LOOROSo.

445

lopulationi in the time

\ay greater than it w

eir independence, and

r despised neighbourH.

in the plain of Alavu.

by historical tradition,

valleys of Roncevaux,

ks the extreme limit of

arian provinces there in

lit even in that province

Oaatilian. In the south

ants have spoken a Latin

wly but surely supersed-

past is not very distant.*

of the Basques, with an

, and contempt of life he

it the Romans they killed

lildren to spare them the

it into a chant of victory.

)ry shows that they were

ity, love of independence,

souring provinces looked

cied that personal liberty

ed only in Guip<izcoa and

ed a footing, and Oaatilian

3d a feudal nobility, with

provinces have jealously

n European history was

i. Their small common-

)nabled to resist invaders.

lefence of their common

three hands joined, and

; one."

rilisation of these Euska-
house of a Basque was
) or his arms. At their
jrs everv the women were
wever, customary for the
y-jauna, at master of the
by the side of the hearth,
and so strong is the force
;race to be seen sitting by

00 in France, by 340,000 in the

the side of her husband on any other occasion than her wedding-duy. On f6te-
days the women keep apart ; they dance amongst themselves, allowing the men
to engage in ruder sports. If a nation may be judged from its pastimes, the
Basques deserve ti> rank high in our estimation. They are fond of athletic sports,
und mysteries and pastoral pieces are still performed in the open air.

Fig. 174. — JAiZQViHitin
Sotte 1 ! MiMno.

>r^-'

SI:

,CP'

^<Uyi

.tUt

>iS?

.sr

'-#^Jt%-'T\

5>v /'. i

-^ t:

But the Basques have their faults. Anxious to retain their ancient privileges,
or Juero9, they have become the champions of despotism. These fueros date frwn
1332, when deputies from the provinces went to Burgos, and offered the title of
Lord to Alfonso the Judge, King of Castile. In accordance with the treaty then

~^i)mmmm>si.-ms

SPAIN.

concluded, the loyereign is pruhibited from poMeMing any fortreu, villitge, or
even house within the territory of the KuBkarians. The BaHquet are exempt from
the conBcription, and their militiamen, or miqueletea, remain within the provinccN
except in time of war. The taxes can only be levied with the consent of the pro-
vincial juntaa, and must be expended within the provinces, except what may be
granted as a " gift." Commerce is not subjected to the same restrictions as in the
rest of Spain, and there are no monopolies. The municipalities enjoy absolute self-
government, carried on by an alcalde, an ayuntatniento, or town council, and parientvn
mayoren, or elders. In appearance this organization is qu'^e democratic, but in
reality there exist many feudal usages. In some places the town councils are self-
elected ; in others they are elected by persons poying a specified amount in taxes,
or by nobles of a certain category; in others, ag^n, they are appointed by the lord
of the manor. The provincial juntas are elected in most diverse ways. The
franchise, far from being universal, is a privilege, and its exercise is attended with
puerile formalities. The laws of precedence are rigidly adhered to.

It is quite clear that the exceptional position of the Basque provinces cannot
be maintained. Navarra was assimilated with the rest of Spain in 1839, and this
process is progressing irresistibly in the other provinces. If the descendants of the
Euskariuns decline to share free institutions with the rest of Spain, they can never
maintain them on their own behalf. Twice already have they been defeated on an
appeal to arms; but more powerful than war is the influence exercised by industry,
commerce, and increased facilities for intercommunication. This fusion is being
hastened by emigration and migration, for the Basques not only seek work during
winter m tbe more hospitable lowland districts, but they also emigrate in thousands.
They are very clannish, and at Madrid and elsewhere have founded " Patriotic
Societies," but in spite of these they soon become merg^ with the rest of the
population. The few towns are principally inhabited by strangers, for the Basques i
prefer a country life. Their homesteads are scattered over hill-slopes and through
the valleys, and beneath the oaks in front of them the inmates mdet after the]
day's labour to pass their time in music and dancing.

Bilbao, the largest town of the Basque provinces, has at all times proved al
rival of Valencia, Santander, and C&diz. Its exports consist principally of ironi
ores from neighbouring mines. Most of its inhabitants are Spaniards, and during
the Carlist wars the environs of the town were frequently stained with blood. M
was under its walls that Zumalacareguy, the Carlist leader, received his deadl}
wound. The river Nervion connects Bilbao with its harbour at Fortugalet«.

St. Sebastian, the largest city of Ouipiizcoa, is likewise Spanish. A seapor
and fortress defended by a Costilian garrison, it resembles in aspect and languag
the towns of the interior of the peninsula. Monte Orgullo (475 feet), crowned bj
the Castle de la Mota, and bristling with fortifications ; the beautiful Bay of
Concha, to the west of the town, with its fine beach ; the river TJrumea, whic|
flows to the east of the citadel, and struggles at its mouth with the foam of tl
sea; shady walks and an amphitheatre of verdant hills dotted with villages, rendJ
St. Sebastian a delightful spot, the favourite resort of worn-out and idle cosmj

'k^4jtt'/i . --niilHiW

ly fortresa, villug©, or
iHquei are exempt from
iu within the province
the consent of the pro-
as, except whftt may hv
ne restrictionB an in the
itie« enjoy absolute self-
vu council, and parienUx
^u'^e democratic, but in
e town councils are self-
ecified amount in taxes,
re appointed by the lord
lOHt diverse wuyB. The
exercise is attended with
ihered to.

Basque provinces cannot
f Spain in 1839, and this
If the descendants of the
; of Spain, they can never
they been defeated on au
Qce exercised by industry,
)n. This fusion is being
lot only seek work during
Jso emigrate in thousands,
have founded "Patriotic
.ged with the rest of the
strangers, for the Basques
rer hill-slopes and through
le inmates meet after the

, has at all times proved a
consist principally of iron
I are Spaniards, and during
ttly stained with blood. It
leader, received his deadly
irbour at Portugalet«.
cewise Spanish. A seaport
bles in aspect and language
jullo (475 feet), crowned by
B ; the beautiful Bay of La
l; the river Urumea, which
nouth with the foam of the
, dotted with viUages, render
f worn-out and idle cosmo-

BARQUE PROVINCES. NAVABRA, AND LOORoSo.

447

poUtans. The towu itaclf in devoid nf interest, fur since its dvrttruotion by the
Knglish ill 1813 it bait been rnbuilt with monotonoun regularity. Its hurbour,
though frequented by coasting vessels, in NhuUow and insocun^ The mttgniHcent
Bay of Possges, to the east of the town, i/r>;ht have been converted into a splendid
harbour, but its great advantages have never been uppreoiatod, and its mouth
is now closed by u bar of alluvium brought down by the Oyurzun.

Delightful Fuenterrabia (Fontarubie), with its esoutoheonod houses, in likewise
shut off from the sea by a bar, and is indebted for such importance as it possesses
to its sou bathi and the vicinity of France, which iit visible from its battered
walls. Irun, the terminal station of the Spanish ruilwoys, close to the French
frontier, is an important strategical position ; and Tolosu, with its factories, is the
capital of Quipdiuoa. Zaraus, Ouetaria (on the neck of a peninsula), tmd Lequeytio
are seaside resorts. Zumaya, at the mouth of the Urola valley, has quarries of

Fig. 17l!l«— AiooiTM ANii AiriiTU.

I Id*.

gypram, which furnish excellent cement. Near Yergara are ferruginous springs,
and a famous college found'ed in 1776 by the Basque Society. The convention
which put a stop to the first Carlist war in 1839 was signed hero. Durango, like-
wise, has frequently been mentioned in connection with the civil wars carried an
in the north of Spain. Guernica, in Biscay, boasts of a palace of justice and an
old. oak beneath which the legislature is in the habit of meeting; but, like all
other Basque towns, it is hardly more than a village.

The centres of population are not more numerous on the southern slope of the
Pyrenees. Yitoria, the capital of Alava, on the railway connecting Madrid with
Paris, is a commercial and manu&cturing town. Pamplona, or Pampeluna, recalls
the name of Pompey, who rebuilt it. It is a fortress, often besieged and captured.
Its cathedral is one of the finest in Spain. Tafalla, faflor de Navarra, the ancient
capital of the kingdom, has the ruins of a palace, which Carlos the Noble, who

448

SPAIN.

built it, desired to unite by means of a covered gallery with the palace of Olite,
three miles lower down in the same valley. Fuente la Beina is celebrated for its
wines. Estella, one of the most charming towns of Navarra, commands several roads
leading to Castile and Aragon, and its strategical importance is consequently consider-
able. The Oarlists, during the late war, transformed it into a formidable fortress.
Tudela, abounding in wines, Oolahorra, and Logroilo, all in the adjoining province
of Logroilo, are likewise of some value from a military point of view, for they com-
mand the passages over the Ebro. Calahorra, with its proud motto, "I have prevailed
over Carthage and Rome," was the great bulwark of defence when Sertorius fought
Pompey, but was made to pay dearly for its heroism. Besieged by the Romans, its
defenders, constrained by hunger, fed upon their women and children, and moat of
them perished. Though situated in th^ fertile district of Rioja, beyond the frontiera
of the Euskarian language, the history of Calahorra is intimately connected with that
of the Basque provinces, for upon its ancient laws were modelled the fueros of Alava.*

VIII. — Santandek, the Asturias, and Galicia.

The Atlantic slope of the Cantabrian Pyrenees is a region completely distinct from
the rest of Spain. Mountains, hills, valleys, and running waters succeed each other
in infinite variety, and the coast throughout is steep, with bold promontories and
deep inlets, into which flow rapid torrents. The climate is moist and salubrious.
The Celto-IbeHan inhabitants of the country have in most instances escaped the
commotions which devastated the other provinces of the peninsula, and the popu-
lation, in proportion to the cultivable area, is more dense than elsewhere. This
region, being very narrow compared with its length, has been split up into several
political divisions, in spite of similarity of physical features. The old kingdom
of Galicia occupies the west, the Asturias the centre, and Santander the east.t

The mountain region of Santander begins immediately to the east of the
Sierra Salvada and the depression known as Talle de Mena. The Cantabrian
Mountains slo^ down steeply there towards the Bay of Biscay, whilst their
height above the upland, through which the Ebro has excavated its bed, is but
trifling. The Puerto del Escudo attains an elevation of 3,241 feet above Santander,!
its southern descent to the valley of the Yirga hardly exceeding 500 feet. The PassI
of Reinosa (2,778 feet), farther west, through which runs the railway horn MadridI
to Santander, is eveti more characteristic. An almost imperceptible height oi
l&nd there separates the plateau from the steep declivity which leads down to the
coast, and by means of a canal sixty feet deep, and a mile in length, the waters
of the Ebro might be diverted into the river Besaya, which enters the AtUutid
at San Martin de Su&nces. This height of land forms the natural outlet o|

* Population of principal towns (approximately) •.—Bucay (Yiacaya) : Bilbao, 80,000. CMpi
St. Sebaatian, 16,000; Toloaa, 8,000. ^Awa ; Vitoria, 12,500. Nmarr» : Pamplona, 22,000;
6,000. Zoyrono; Logrofio, 12,000; Calahona, 7,000.

t Santander .... 2,113 sq. m. 241,S81 inhaUtanta lUtoasq. m.
Aaturiaa .... 4,091 „ 610,883 „ 162 „

Oalida .... 11,344 „ 1,989,281 „ 176 „

SANTANDEE, THE ASTUBIAS, AND (JALIOIA.

449

th the palace of Olite,
ina is celebrated for its
commands several roads
s consequently consider-
a formidable fortress,
n the adjoining province
It of view, for they com-
motto, " I have prevailed
e when Sertorius fought
[eged by the Romans, its
ad children, and most of
ioja, beyond the frontiera
ately connected with that
jUed the fueros of Alava *

Galicia.

completely distinct fi-om
waters succeed each other
th bold promontories and

is moist and salubrious,
ost instances escaped the
peninsula, and the popu-
se than elsewhere. This
been split up into several
tures. The old kingdom
Santander the east.t
Ltely to the east of the
I Mena. The Oantabnan

of Biscay, whilst their

excavated its bed, in but
1,241 feet above Santander,
seeding 500 feet. The Pass
s the railway from Madrid
it imperceptible height of
y which leads down to the
mile in length, the waters

which enters the Atlautic
trms the natural outlet of

iya) : Klbeo, 80,000. Ouipiuteo*,
rr»: Pamplona, 22,000; Estella,

ta 114 to a sq. m.
162 „
176 „

the Castiles to the sea, and its possession is as important to the inhabitants of the
plateau as is that of the mouth of a river to a people dwelling on its upper course.
Immediately to the east of this pass the aspect of th mountains changes. They
rise to a great height, piercing the zbne of perennial snow, and their southern
cjarpments are of great steepness. The Fena Labra (8,295 feet) dominates the

Fig. 176.— Twa Entirons of Bilbao.
Soale 1 : SOO.OOO.

M"^

#«^i^

mw>.-

4'^i:^'|-

SWilM.

first of these mountain massee. Rivers descend from it in all directions : the Ebro
in the east, the Fisuerga in the south, and the Nansa, or Tinamenor, in the north-
west. Farther west the Pefia Prieta rises to a height of 8,296 feet, its snows
feeding the Oarrion and Esla. It is joined in the north to a mountain mass even
more considerable, which bears the curious name of Penas de Europa, or " rocks

i'SvMi'SIRsasSSffi

SPAIN.

of Europe," and culminates in the Torre de Cerredo (8,784 feet), covered with
snow throughout the year, end boasting even of a few glaciers, due to the excessive
amount of precipitation.

The yalley of La Li^bana, at the eastern foot of the PeAas de Europa, resembles
a vast caldron of extraordinary depth. Shut in on the west, south, and east by
huge precipices rising to a height of 6,500 feet, it is closed in on the north by a
transversal chain, through which the waters of the Li^bana have excavated for
themselves a narrow passage. The village of Fotes, in the centre of this valley,
lies at an elevation of only 981 feet above the level of the sea. In Santander and
the Asturias, even more frequently than in the Basque country, we meet with
secondary chains running parallel with the coast. These are composed of triassic.

Fig. 177-— St. Sibabtiam.
Soale 1 : SOyOOO.

€ii^:

m^ w -A- it

Jurassic, and cretaceous rocks, and rise Hke advanced walla of defence in ftont o^
the main ran'^e of the mountains, wMoh conaiBt of Silurian slates upheaved hy
granite. It results from this thai^ the course of the rivers is most erratic. Oi
leavirg their upper valleys, where they frequently form cascades, their farthej
progress is arrested by these parallel ranges, and they twist about to the east an|
west until they find an outlet through which they m^y escape.

The two funnel-shaped valleys of Yaldeon (1,529 feet) and Sajambre ar
enolosed between -spurs of- the Fefias de Europa. Their torrents drain into tl
Bay of Biscay, but they are most readily accessible from the plateau. Farthe
west the mountains decrease in height, and their main ciest gradually reoed^
from the coast. They are crossed here by the Pass of Pajaree (4,471 feet
which connects Leon with Oviedo.

/^.

SANTANDER, THE ASTUEIAS, AND GALICIA.

451

tM feet), covered with
era, due to the excessive

ias de Europa, resembles
west, south, and east by
ed in on the north by a
)ana have excavated for
le centre of this valley,
sea. In Santander and
country, we meet with
are composed of triassic,

The Asturian Mountains are objects of veneration to every patriotic Spaniard.
Beautiful as they are, their lower slopes being covered with chestnut-trees, walnut-
trees, and oaks, whilst higher up forests of beeches and hazel alternate with
meadows, their beauty is enhanced by the fact of their having afforded a refuge to
the Christians whilst the Moors held the rest of the country. Mount Ansena
sheltered St. Pelagius and his flock, and at Oovadonga he built himself an abbey.
These " illustrious mountains " do not, however, merely boast of historical associa-

Fig. 178.— St. Sbbastun.

"'■•(tV,

>l i I

'*-^'

1 '.;«;:

-?%;.^:- •?,jp»T*'^

'^""^■^P

rails of defence in front of
lurian slates upheaved by
ivers is most erratic. On
rm cascades, their farther
twist about to the east and
escape.

9 feet) and Sajambre are
dr torrents drain into the
om the plateau. Farther
lin ciest gradually recedes
8 of Fajaree (4.471 feet),

tions, delightful villages, herds, and pastures; they hide within their bowels a rich
store of coal, one of the principal sources of wealth to the Asturias.

Galioia is separated f^m the Castilian plateau by a continuation of the Can-
tabrian Pyrenees, which here swerve to the south, and through which the Sil has
excavated its bed. To tho north of that river they culminate in the Pico de
Miravalles (6,362 feet), and are crossed by the Pass of Fredrafita (3,600 feet),
through which runs the main roaJ from Leon to Qalioia.

In Galioia the hills rarely foric well-defined chains, and mostly consist of

ixtudSHcM^aiJcaaSffi^^^i-

ts rising a few hundred
ion of the small ranges

(Minho) terminate in the famous promontories of Toriilana and Finisterre, or
" land's-end." This latter, a steep cliflf rising boldly above the waters to the west
of the wide Bay of Corcubion, formerly bore a temple of the ancient gods, since
replaced by a church dedicated to the Virgia.
33

.'"i

464

SPAIN.

The coast of the Asturias abounds in small bays, or riaa, bounded by steep cliffs.
In Galiuia these rias assume vast proportions, and are of g^eat depth. They may
fitly be likened to the fiords of Northern Europe, and their origin appears to be
the same. The marine fauna of these Galician rias is Britauuio rather than Lusi-
tanian, for amongst two hundred species of testacea collected by Mr. MacAndrew
there are only twenty-five which were not also found on the coasts of Britain.
Moreover, the flora of the Asturian Mountains is very much like that of Ireland ;

Fig. 181.— Pass of Rbinosa.
SeeOe 1 : 800,000.

^^^i^

!i|i

"M^

til -^. . -^ ■_. ,

V!»\ '<w: s,v '1:1% &

HiV

K^r^-^ifi'L/fi^. H

1 J

SlOlas.

and these )';?7t5 go far in support of the hypothesis, started by Forbes, tnat tl
Azores, Ireland, and Galicia, anterior to the glacial epoch, were connected by lanj
The climate, too, resembles that of Great Britain. The rainfall on the exteri{
slopes of the mountains is abundant, whilst to the south of them, in the arid ]
of Leon and Castile, it hardly rains at all. There are localities in the Astui
where the rainfall amounts to more than six feet annually, a quantity only aga
met with on the western mountain slopes of Scotland and Norway, and on
southern declivities of the Swiss Alps. There is no season without rain,

SANTANDEB, THE ASTURIAS, AND GALICIA.

456

bounded by steep cliffs,
reat depth. They may
,eir origin appears to bo
,annio rather than Lusi-
sted by Mr. MacAndrew
tt the coasts of Britain,
uoh like that of Ireland ;

itarted by Forbes, that the
ch, were connected by land.
The rainfall on the exterior
h of them, in the arid plains
e localities m the Asturias
aally, a quantity only again
d and Norway, and on the
lO season without rain, and

droughts are exceedingly rare. Equinoctial storms are frequent m autumn, and
render the Bay of Biscay dangerous to mariners. The temperature is equable,
and fogs, locally known as bretimaa, are as frequent as in the British Islands.
These fogs exercise a strong influence upon the superstitious minds of the Oalicians,
who fancy they see magicians, or nuveiros, ride upon the clouds, expand into mists,
and shrink back into cloudlets. They also believe that the bodies of the dead are
conveyed by the mists from cemetery to cemetery, these fearful nocturnal proces-
sions being known to them as eatadeaa, or estadhinaa*

In spite of an abundancu of running water, the Cantabriun provinces cannot
boa''t of a single navigable river. In the Asturias the littoral zone is too narrow,
and the slope too coi.siderable, to admit of torrents becoming tranquil rivers. Nor
are the Tambre and UUa, in Galicia, of any importance ; and the only true river of
the country is the Mino, called Minho by the Portuguese on its lower course, where
it forms the boundary between the two states of Iberia. The MiAo is fed from
both slopes of the Cantabrian Mountains, the Miiio proper rising on the western
slope, whilst the Sil comes from the interior of the country. The latter is the
main branch. "The Mino has the reputation," say the Spaniards, "but the Sil
has the water." The Sil, before leaving the province of Leon, passes through the
ancient lake basin of the Yierzo, now shrunk to a small sheet of water known as
the Lago de Oarrocedo. It then passes in succession through a wild gorge, a
second lake basin, the tunnel of Monte Furado ("pierced mountains "), excavated by
the Bomans to facilitate their mining operations, and finally rushes through a
gorge intersecting the Cantabrian Mountains, and one of the wildest in all Spain,
with precipitous walls more than 1,000 feet in height. Immediately below the
confluence with the Miuo a second gorge has to be passed, but then the waters of
the river expand, and flow into the sea through a wide estuary. Below Tuy, for a
distance of about twenty miles, the river is navigable. But though of small service
to navigation, the Mino is nevertheless one of the eight great riveia of the Iberian
peninsula, and proportionately to the extent of its basin it is the most copious, t

The water of this and other rivers is not needed for agricultural purposes, for it
rains abundantly in Galicia and the Asturias, aad the emerald meadows of these
provinces are as famous as those of England. The flora, however, is upon the

* Climate in 1858 : — Ovitdo : 750 feet above the sea-leyel, mean temperature, 40-4A'' F. ; extremes, 23-9*
and 82°; rainfall, 81-3 inches. Santiago : 720 feet above soa-level, mean ten.perature, 59-07° ; extremes, 28°
and 95° ; rainfall, 42-7 inches.

Area of

LeDgOiof

Catohnwnt

Main

Baidn.

Bnsch.

8q. m.

HUei.

t Mifio (and SO) . . 9,650

190

Duero 38,610

Tejo(Tagu8) . . . 28,960

Ouadiana (andZfincara)23,170

Goadalqaivir . . . 21,240

Segura .... 8,500

817

Jficar 5,800

818

Ebro 26,100

Total

161,080

Avetase

Inches.
47
20
16
14,
19
12
18
18

Average

Diaotiug*.

Cub. {t. peraec.

17,700

2-2,050

11,600

5,680

9,220

710

880

7,100

Soi&oe Dninag*
in Froporticm to

Bainfall.

Percent.

76,810

•an^^

466

SPAIN.

whole more southerly in its features than that of the countries to the north of the
Bay of Biscay. The orchards produce not only apples, chestnuts, and walnuts,
but also oranges, and in a garden at Oviedo dates ripen in the open air. The
great moisture, however, prevents certain plants from attaining the commercial
importance they would otherwise possess. The mulberry flourishes, but the culture
of silk-worms has only yielded indifferent results, and even the grapes, except iu
a few favoured localities, yield but sour wine of disagreeable flavour. Cider, on
the other hand, enjoys a high reputation, and is even exported to America.

Fig. 182.— Thi Fbnab db Eubofa.
soOa 1 : aao,ooo..

?^-;S^^'^^ b-^ ^-

^^i^^>|^s^^^^^^^^~=^^S

lOlCiles.

The Asturian boasts of having never submitted to the yoke of Mussulman
Some of the mountain districts preserved their independence throughout, ai
nowhere could the Arabs maintain themselves fox- any length of time. Ovie
was called the " city of bishops," from the groat number of prelates who found
refuge there. The Galiciaus were equally successful in their resistance to tl
Moors, and the blood of the Celtic inhabitants of these remote provinces is tl
purer than anywhere else in Spain.

In some districts the customs are said to have remained unchanged

SANTANDER, THE A8TUBIA8, AND OALICIA.

467

fries to the north of the

chestnuts, and walnuts,

in the open air. The

taining the commercial

ourishes, but the culture

en the grapes, except iu

Bttble flavour. Cider, on

irted to America.

to the yoke of Mussulmans.
Ippendence throughout, and
ly length of time. Oviedo
her of prelates who found a
il in their resistance to the
ise remote provinces is thus

) remained unchanged since

the time of the Romans. The herdsmen, or raqiieroH, of Leitiiriegos, on the Upper
Narcea, form almost a distinct tribe. They keep apart from the rest of the Astu-
rians, and always marry amongst themHelvoH. Old dialects maintain their ground.
The peasants on the coast of Guntabria talk their hable, and in Galicia the dialects
differ even from village to village. The gallego, especially as spoken near the
Miilo, is Portuguese rather than Spanish, but a Lusitunian is nevertheless unable
to understand a Galician, owing to the curious sing-song intonation of the latter.

The country supports a dense population, but there are few towns. Many of
these consist merely of a church, a town-hall, and an inn. The homesteads are
scattered over the whole country. This may be due to an innate love of nature,
or perhaps, as in the Basque provinces, to the security which the country has
enjoyed during centuries. Foreign and civil wars have scarcely ever affected these
outlying provinces of Spain. The manners are gentle, and the bloodthirsty buU-
iights of the Oastilians unknown. • The isolation and peace in which the Cantubrians
were permitted to exist did not, however, prove of advantage in all respects.
Elsewhere in Europe, nobles, priests, citizens, and the peasantry, when threatened
by danger, felt constrained to make concessions to each other. Not so in the
Asturias, where the peasants were reduced to the condition of serfs, and sold with
the land. At the commencement of this century nearly the whole of the land in
the two Asturias was in the hands of twenty-four proprietors, and in the neighbour-
ing Galicia the conditions were not much more favourable. Matters have changed
since then. The lords have grown poor, the monasteries have been suppressed,
and the industrious Asturians and Ghilicians have invested their hard-earned savings
in land. Formerly the feudal lords leased the land to the cultivators, who rendered
homage and paid a quit-rent, the lease remaining in force during the reign of two or
three kings, for a hundred years, or even for three hundred and twenty-nine years,
according to the custom of different districts. These leases, however, frequently
led to disputes ; the leaseholders, on the expiration of their leases, often refused to
surrender possession, and in numerous instances the law courts sustained them
in this refusal.

The Gtdioians on the coast divide their time between the cultivation of the
land and fishing. During the scnason no less than 20,000 men, with 3,000 or 4,000
boats, spread their nets in the Bays of La Corufia, Arosa, Pontevedra, and Vigo,
where tunny-fish and sardines abound. .i.he local consumption of sardines is enor-
mous, and Xa Cornna alone exports about 17,000 tons annually to America. These
pursuits, however, are not capable of supporting an increasing population, and
thousands of Galicians emigrate annually. Thrifty and clannish, they usually
succeed in amassing a small competency, and those among them who return exercise
a civilising influence upon their less-cultivated countrymen. Ignorance and poverty,
with all their attendant evils, are great in Galiciu, and leprosy and elephantiasis
are common diseases.

One great hindrance to the development of the resources of the country consists
in the paucity of roads and railways. A beginning has been made, but, looking
to the financial condition of Spain, progress will hardly be rapid.

468

BPAIN.

Moat of the towns of th^.- Aaturlafl arc close to the coast. Cattro-TJrdialcs,
Laredo, and Santonu, immecivately to the west of the Basque provinces, hiivo
frequently served as na/al stations. The roadstead of Santoila is one of the most
oommod ious and best sheltered of the peninsula, and when Napoleon gave Spain
to his brother Joseph he retained possession of that place, and began fortifications
which would have converted it into a French Gibraltar.

The grout oommeroial port of the country is Suntander, with its excellent
harbour, quays, docks, and war ^Louses, built upon land won from the sea. San-
tander is the natural outlet of (.}ic Ciistiles, and exports the flour of Yalladolid and

Fig. 183.— Bias or La Cosvma and Fshbol.

SiMla 1 : 110,40^ /

SMUat.

jPrtlencia, as well as the woollen stuffs known as sorianaa and koneaas from t£
placo.1 where they are manufactured. It supplies the interior with the colonu
produce of Cuba and Puerto Rico, and its merchants keep up regular intercom
with France, England, Hamburg, and Scandinavia.* The ship-building ya
at the head of the bay have lost their former importance, and the manufacture |
cigars is now the great industry of th<> country. Rardinero, a bathing- pla
to the north of the town, and the hot springs of Aloedo, Ontaneda, Las Cal^
de Besaya, in the hills to the south, are favourite places of resort.

Along the coast to the west of Santander, as far sua GKjon, we only meet

* Imports (1873), <2,348,720; exports, £2,341,360.

coast. Castro-TTrdialos,
Basque provinces, hiivo
intofta is one of the most
len Napoleon gave Spain
and began fortifications

nder, with its excellent
,.. from the sea. San-
flour of Valladolid and

won

Oh.

rianas and konesas from the
e interior with the colonial
keep up regular intercourse
• The ship-building yards
ance, and the manufacture of

Pardinero, a bathing-place
Llcedo, Ontaneda, Las Caldas
ces of resort.

as Gijon, we only meet with

S2,34l,360.

8ANTANDEB, THE A8TUBIAS, ANa> OALICIA.

469

villages, such as San Martin de la Arena (the port of the decayed town of Santillana),
Hun Vicente de la Durquera, Llanes, Rivadcsella, and L&strvs. Nor is Qijon, with
its huge tobacco factory, a place of importance, though formerly it was the capital
of all Aflturias. It exports, however, the coal brought by rail from Sumu (Langres),
and with Aviles, on the other side of the elevated CbIk) de I'oilas, enjoys the
advantage of being the port of Oviodo, si^.uated in a tributary valley of the Nulon,
fifteen milus in the interior. Oviedo has flourishing iron-works, a university, and a
fine Gothic cathedral, said to be richer in relics t'lan any other church in the
world. The mountain of Naronca shelters the town against northerly winds, and
its climate is delicious. The environs abound in delightful spots. At Cangas de
Onis, which was the first capital of the kingdom, founded by St. Polagius, but
now merely a village in a charming valley, are the caverns of Covadonga, in which
the ashes of the saint have found a Inst resting-place, and which are consequently
objects of the highest veneration to patriotic Spaniards. Trubia, the Government
gun and small-ai-ms factory, lies seven miles to the west of Oviodo.

Cudillero, Luaroa, Navia (a place said to have been founded by Hum, the
son of Noah), CuHtr' ', and Galioian Rivad^a are mere fishing villages, and only
when we reach tl „'nificent rias opening out into the Atlantic do we again

meet with real towns. The first of these is Ferrol, which was only a village
up to the middle of last century, but has since been converted into a great naval
station and fortress, bristling with guns, and containing dockyards and arsenals.

La Coruila, the Groyne of English sailors, depends rather upon commerce, manu-
factures, and fishing than upon its military establishments and fortifications. It
is ono of the most picturesque towns qf Spain, and its favourable geographical
position will enable it, on the cc ipletion of the railway now building, consider-
ably to extend its oommeroe, which at present is almost confined to England.*
On a small island near it stands the Tower of Hercules, the foundations of
which date back to the Romans, if not Phoenicians. It was from the ria of Coruila
that the " Invincible Armada " set out upon its disastrous expedition.

Each of the rias of Southern Galiola has its port or ports. That of Corcubion
is sheltered by the Cape of Finisterre ; on the ria of Noya are the small towns of
Noya and Muros; that of Arosa.is frequented by vessels which convey emigrants
from the ports of Padron and'Carril to La Plata; the ria of Pontevedra extends
to the town after which it is named ; and farther south still, the towns of Vigo
and Bayona rise on the shore of a magnificent bay, protected by a group of
islands known to the ancients as " Isles of the Gods." Vigo, with its excellent
harbour, has become the great commercial port of the country, t but is, perhaps,
better known on account of the galleons sunk by Dutch and English privateers.

Three of the principal inland towns of Galioia — viz. Lugo, Orense, and Tuy —
rise on the banks of the Miiio. The old Roman city of Lugo (Lucus Augusti)
is enclosed within medisBval walls, and has warm sulphur springs. Orense, with its
superb old bridge, is likewise celebrated for its hot springs, or burgcu, which are

* Imports (1873), £310,227; exports, £210,S32.
t Imports (1873), £873,286 ; Exports, £381,636.

460

SPAIN.

mid to ruiiH) Honsibly tho temix' lure of the plain in wintor, und supply tho whol
town with water for domeHti purponeii. Tuy, opposite the Portuguese town c
Yalen^u do Minho, is iiiipc • >unt only us a frontier fortress. Hantiugo do Com
postela, tho famous old capital of Qalicia, on a hill near the winding banks of th
Saria, in tho most populous town of North-western Spain. It was here the grave c
St. Jumcs tho apostle was discovered in tho ninth century. The attraction whici
it formerly exorcised upon pilgrims was immense.*

IX. — Thk Prksbnt and Futdhr op Spain.

CoNTEMPORANBOUM Spain is full of disorder. The political, financial, and socio
machinery is out ct' joint, and civil war, active or latent, is can' 1 on almost ii
every province. The ruin wrought by these incessant domestic war.; ' iralcultiMt

Fig. 184.— Santona ani> Hantamdbb.
Sealt 1 : MO.OOO.

Successive (iovemments have lad recourse to miserable expedients without beij
able to disguise the bankrupt c< tndition of the country. The creditors of the St
no less than the Government officials, remained unpaid, and even schools had I
be closed because the pittance d ue to the schoolmaster was not forthcoming.

But in spite of this apparent ruin real progress has been made. In orderl
fairly judge Spain we must remember that the period when the Inquisition
permitted to commit its judicial murders is not very remote. In 1780 a woi
of Seville was burnt at the stake for " sorcery and witchcraft." At that time
greater part of Spain was held in mortmain, and the cultivation of the remaii

* Population of towns:— Santander, 21,000; Oviedo, 9,000; Gijon, 6,000; Santiago de Comp
20,000 ; La CoruRa, 20,000 ; Ferrol, 17,000 ; Lugo, 8,000 : Vigo, 6,000 ; Orenae, 6,000 ; Pontevedra. 4,1

itor, und supply the wholo
the Portugueao town of

ItroiM. Santiago de Cum*

the winding banks of the

It was hero the grave of

Lry. The attraction which

Spain.

itioal, financial, and social
it, is oair' 1 on almost in
imesticwai-i . iralcuiublo.

lonoKff

ft*:.\i

le expedients without being
, The creditors of the State,
id, and even schools had to
was not forthcoming.
18 been made. In order to
)d when the Inquisition was
remote. In 1780 a woman
chcrafb." At that time the
3ukivation of the remainder

jon, 6,000 ; Santiago de Compooteia, i
D ; Oreiue, 6,000 ; Pontevedra. 4,200.

■- -tt'2*S!??/ I

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

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=as= Itt B£ 12.2

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Sciences

Corporalion

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m

Canadian Inatituta for Hiatoricai Microraproductions / inatitut Canadian da microraproductiona hiatoriquaa

THE PEESENT AND FUTURE OF SPAIN.

461

was very indifferently attended to. Ignorance was universal, more especially at
the universities, where science was held in derision.

The great events in the beginning of the nineteenth century have roused the
Spaniards from their torpor, and the country, in spite of temporary checks, has
increased in population and wealth. Labour is more highly respected now than it
was formerly, and whilst monasteries and convents have been emptied, the factories
are crowded with workmen. For much of this progress Spain is indebted to
foreigners. Millions have been invested by them, and, though the expected profits
have scarcely ever been realised, the country at large has permanently profited from
this inflow of capital. The English have given an immense impetus to agriculture
by buying the wines of Andalusia, the com and flour of the Castilians, and the
cattle of the Galicians. They have likewise developed the mining industry of
Huelva, Lin ires, Cartagena, and Sommorostro. The French have vastly aided
the manufacturing industry. Foreign capitalists and engineers have established
steamboat lines and railways. The small towns of the interior are awakening
from their lethargy, and modern life is beginning to pulsate through their veins.*

In intellectual matters Spain has made even greater progress. Ignorance is
still a great power, especially in the Castiles, where schoolmasters are little
respected, populous towns are without libraries, and catechisms and almanacs are
the only literature of the peasantry. But the position which Spain now holds in
literature and the arts sufficiently proves that the country of Cervantes and
Velasquez is about to resume its place amongst the other countries of Europe. In
science, however, Spain lags far behind, and Michael Servetus is the only Chris-
tian Spaniard whose works mark an epoch in the progress of human knowledge.
But the spirit of inquiry at one time alive amongst the Afoors of Andalusia may
possibly revive amongst their descendants.

It is very much to be desired that intellectual progress should mollify the
manners of the people. t It is a scandal that the " noble science of bull-baiting"
should still meet with so large a measure of support in Spain. These bull-fights, as
well as the cock-fights so popular in Andalusia, are sports unworthy a great nation,
and should be put down, just as the auto-da-fia have been put down.

Since a generation or two Spain has got rid of most of her colonies, which only

• Of the total area 26-1 per cent, consists of arable land, 2-8 of vineyards, 1-7 of olive plantation, 13-7
of meadows and pasture, 16'3 per cent, of woods : 3»-4 per cent, are uncultivated. The total value of
agricultural produce is estimated at £80,000,000.

The produce of the mines i i 1871 represented a value of £6,271,000.

In 1866 there were enumerated 680,373 horses, 1,020,612 mules, 1,298,334 asses, 2,967,303 heads of
homed cattle, 22,468,969 sheep, 4,631,736 goats, 4,631.228 pigs, and 3,104 camels.

The producU of manufactures are estimated by Oarrido at £63,480,000 :— Imports (1871), £22,780,000,
(1874) £15,280,000 ; exports (1871), £17,688,000, (1874) £16,120,000.

Commenial marine (1874), 2,836 sea-going vessels (inclusive of 212 steamers), of 626,184 tons, besides
6,498 lighters (26,000 tons) and 12,000 fishing-boats.

Railways, 3,602 miles in 1876.

t Educational statistics (1870) :— _ .

Hen. Women. Total.

Able to read and write .... 2,414,000 716,000 3,130,000

Able to read only 317,000 389,000 706,000

Illiterate 6,036,000 6,803,000 11,838,000

m SPAIN.

hindered her moral and material progress. The metropolis is no longer called

Fig. 186.— OviEDo AND Gmon.
Boole 1 : 800,000.

SMilM.

upon to uphold slavery, the Inquisition, commercial monopolies, and similar
institutions, " devised to insure the happy government of these colonies." These

SPAIN.

as adding to the wealth of Spain, and large sums have certainly been paid by
them into the treasury. But these results have been achieved at the cost of
fearful suffering and demoralisation to governors and governed, and unless Spain
adopts the colonial system of England, by granting self-government to i ilouies, it
will to a certainty lose the last shreds of its colonial empire, after having exhausted
its strength in vain efforts to maintain it.

But though the colonies be lost, the influence of Spain upon the rest of the
world will endure for centuries. Spain has impressed her genius upon every

Fig. 187.— RiA DH Vioo.

flcsle 1 : »0,000.

ft«lfe'1l.*flr

TS^

MMd- , ^^

SMilM.

country subjected at one time or other to her power. Sicily, Naples, Sardinia,
and even Lombardy still exhibit traces of Spanish influence in their architecture
and customs. Tn Spanish America we find towns inhabited by Indians which
iare quite Spanish in their aspect, and almost resemble detached portions of Badajoz
and ValladoUd. The Indians themselves have adopted the Castilian tongue, and
with it Oastilian manners and modes of thought. A vast territory, twice the size
of Europe, and capable of supporting millions of inhabitants, is occupied now by
Spanish-speaking peoples.

==w;

GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION.

465

y been paid by
at the cost of
[id unless Spain
nt to I ilouies, it
taving exhausted

the rest of the
iiu8 upon every

y, Naples, Sardinia,
a their architecture
I by Indians which
[ portions of Badajoz
iastilian tongue, and
itory, twice the size
is occupied now by

X. — GoVERNMKXr ANn Am rNISTRATION.

SiNCK September, 1868, when u revolution upset tho Government of Isabella II.,
Spain has passed through a series of revolutions and convulsions, terminating in
December, 1874, in the accession of Alfonso XII., a son of Isabella. Soon after-
wards the revolt in the Basque provinces raised by Don Curios, the " legitimate "
king of the country, was suppressed, und the work of internal organization could
begin. The legislative power is vested in the King and the Cortes. These latter
include a Senate and a House of Deputies. The Senate consi&ts of hereditary

Fig. 188. — Railboads or thr Ihrkian Peninsvla.
Scale 1 : 10,800,000.

MKfHCr

0*Cr.

members (such as royal princes and grandees), of life members chosen by the
King, and of senators elected by corporations. The members of the House of
Deputies are elected for five years. The President and Y ice-President of the Senate
are appointed by the King, who enjoys the right of dissolving the Cortes on con-
dition of fresh elections being ordered within three months.

These governmental revolutions scarcely affected the administration of the
cotmtry. The treasury is always empty, the annual receipts do not suffice to pay
the interest upon the national debt, taxes have increased, the conscription demands
more men than ever, and the schools diminish in numbers.*

* Revenue (1876-7), £26,300,069 ; estimated expenditure, £26,251,518, of which more than half is for
army and navy ; national debt, £420,322,000.

lllliaMiiiniBHaal

466

SPAIN.

The political and administrativo divisions of tho country have remained tho
same since 1841. Spain is divided into forty>nine provinces, including tho
Canaries. Each province is subdivided into didtricts, and has its civil governor.
The communes are governed by an alcalde, or mayor, assisted by an ayuutamiento, or
municipal council, of from four to twenty-eight members. The judicial adminis-
tration is modelled on that of France. There are 9,400 justices of the peace (one
for each commune), about 500 inferior courts, 15 courts of appeal, and a supreme
court sitting at Madrid.

For military purposes continental Spain is divided into twelve districts, each

Fig. 180.— FORBION COMMIKCB OF THB IbIRIAN FbNINBVLA.

• I I • • HUliM* (T lb«a Hidkj.

under a captain-general. These are New Castile, Catalonia, Aragon, Andalusia,
Valencia with Muroia, Oalioia, Granada, Old Castile, Estremadura, Bdrgos,
Navarra, and the Basque provinces. The Balearic Isles, the Canaries, Cuba,
Puerto Bico, and the Philippines constitute five additional districts. Military
service is compulsory, but substitutes are admitted on payment of a heavy ransom.
The annual levy varies exceedingly, and as many as 80,000 men are officially stated
to have been levied in a single year, though 60,000 would appear to be the utmost
the population can supply. Tho term of service is seven years in the cavalry and
artillery, eight years in the infantry, of which three are passed in the " provincial
militia." About 100,000 men are supposed to be actually under arms in the

' .^.kujm ii

#—

GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTBATION.

467

^e remained tho
, including tho
i civil governor.
I ayuntamicnto, or
judicial adminis-
j£ the peace (one
I, and a supreme

ve districts, each

(•rcflloi

;'^

Aragon, Andaluna,
tremadura, Burgos,
the Canaries, Cuba,

districts. Military
t of a heavy ransom.
m are officially stated
pear to be the utmost
rs in the cavalry and
jd in the " provincial
' under arms in the

peninsula, 130,000 are on furlough, -und 70,000 men are stationed in the colonies,
mostly in Cuba, where about one- fourth of the total strength perish annually.

The principal fortresses are St. Sebastian, Suntoila, and Santunder, on the Bay
of Biscay ; Ferrol, Lu Oorufia, and Vigo, on the rius of Galicia ; Ciudad Rodrigo,
on tho Portuguese frontier; C&diz and Tarifa, at the entrance of the Strait of
Gibraltar ; Mklaga, Cartagena, Alicante, and Barcelona, on the Mediterranean ;
Figueras, Pamplona, and Zaragoza, at the foot of the Pyrenees.

The navy consists of 123 steamers, propelled by engines of 24,694 horse-power,
armed with 755 guns, and manned by 14,000 sailors and 5,500 marines. Six
of these vessels are ironclad frigates. The number of superior officers is exceed-
ingly large, and their salaries weigh heavily upon the treasury.

Fig. 190. — DiAORAX EXHIBITING THE EXTBNT OF THE CaSTILIAN LaNOUAOE.

Boale 1 .- 8e,00OiX)O.

Officially tl privileges of the nobility have been abrogated. The number of
" noblemen " is, t- jrhaps, larger in Spain than anywhere else in Europe, for the
population of entire provinces, such as the Vascongades and the Asturias, claims
to have "blue blood" in its veins. In 1787 no less than 480,000 "gentlemen"
were enumerated, not including minors, and if the proportion is the same now,
there must exist at the least 3,000,000 Spaniards who claim to be hidalgos, or
" sons of somebody." About 1,500 grandees are privileged by custom to remain
covered in the presence of the King, and about 200 of these belong to the highest
rank. All of these do not, however, owe their rank to birth, for many plebeians,
taking advantage of the financial miseries of the country, have succeeded in getting
themselves ennobled. The order of the Golden Fleece, founded in 1431 by Philip
the Good, is one of the distinctions most coveted by princes and diplomatists.

mmm

408

SPAIN.

The Roman Catholio religion is that of the State, and its prelates enjoy great
privileges, but all other confessions are supposed to be tolerated. The sohoolH,
unfortunately, still remain in the hands of ecclesiastics, who likewise exercise a
censorship with respect to pieces to be produced on the stage. Formerly Spain
was the most priest-ridden country in Europe. At the close of last century there
were 144,000 priests, 71,000 monks, and 35,000 nuns, but only 34,000 merchants.
War and revolutions played havoc with the conventual institutions, but as recently
as 1H35 thoy still harboured 50,000 inmates. Subsequently the whole of them
were suppressed, and in 180'J the last Spanish monk retired from the Charter-
house of Qranada to Hnd a refuge in Belgium. Since then, however, the laws of
the land have again been relaxed in favour of monks and priests. There are
archbishops and 54 bishops.

AuiA

AKD Population of

Shaw and m Colonikr.

Area.
Bq. m.

FopnUtion

(1870).

DeMtty.

Area.

N<]. m.

Populntlon

(IWO).

Dwui

Nkw Castilc

Caitilla) :-

Catalonia (Cataluflii) : -

Miidrid . .

. . 2,907

487,482

162

L^rida . . .

. 4,776

330,348

Tolodo . .

. . 6,686

342,272

Gorona . . .

. 2,272

.326,110

143

Ouadalttjiti'ii

. . 4,870

208,638

Uaruvlona . .

. 2,986

762,565

266

Cuonca . .

. . 6,726

238,731

Tarragona

. 2,461

350,80J

118

Ciudad Real

. . 7,840

264,649

Akaoon:—

Oi-ii Castile ;-

Iluomui . . .

. 6,878

274,623

Bantandor .

. . 2,113

241,681

114

/uragoza (Sara

liCirgoB . .

. . 0,660

353,660

goMa) . .

. 6,607

401,804

Logroflo .

. . 1,946

182,041

Toruel . . .

. 6.401

252.201

Avila . .
Sogoviu
86ria . .

. . 2.981
. . 2,714
. . 3,836

176,219
150,812
168,699

60
63
41

Navauha and Basque Phovincih (Va*-
congados) : —

Paloncia .

. . 3,126

184,668

Kavarra . .

. 4,046

318,687

ValladoUd .

. . 3,043

242,384

Vizeaya (Biscay

840

187,026

221

Leon:—

Guip6zcoa

728

180,743

248

Salamanca

. . 4,940

280,870

Alava . . .

. 1,206

103,320

Zamora

. . 4,136

260,068

ASTUHIAS : —

Leon . .

. . 6,167

360,092

Oviodo . . .

. 4,001

610,883

152

ESTIIEMADUKA

—

G ALICIA : —

C&ceros

. . 8,013

302,466

Orense . . .

2,739

402,796

147

Badajoz

. . 8,687

431,022

Pontevedra .

. 1,739

480,146

282

Akiialvsia : —

La Corufla

. 3,079

630,604

210

Almeria

. . 3,802

361,553

110

Lugo . . .

3,787

476,836

126

C&diz . .

. . 2,809

426,400

162

Total Spain

192,959

16,835,606

C6rdova .

. . 6,190

382,662

Granada .

. . 4,937

485,346

Afhica : —

Huelva . .

. . 4,122

106,460

Canaries . .

2,808

283,859

101

Jaen . .

. . 5,184

302,100

West Coast .

850

36,000

Mfilaga . .

. . 2,824

606,010

130

Ambrica : —

Seville . .

. . 6,295

616,011

Valencia : —

Cuba . . .

. 46,983

1,400,000

Pucito Rico .

3,696

626,000

178

Castellon d

B la

Plana .

. . 2,446

206,222

121

OCBAMU : —

Valencia .

. . 4,362

665,141

163

Philippines

66,870

6,000,000

Alicante .

. . 2,098

440,470

210

Carolinas . .

634

18,800

Murcia:—

Pelew Islands

346

10,000

Albacete .

. . 6,972

220,073

Marianas . .

417

8,000

Miircia . .

. . 4,478

430,067

Total Colonies

120,403

8,380,669

Baleakic Iblb
Baleares .

s: —
. . 1,860

280,225

166

Spain and '^
Colonies >

313,362

25,216,166

'TsiSRai^

elates onjoy greot
od. The nchoolH,
ikewiao exorcise a
Formerly Spuiii
last century there
34,000 merchants,
ons, but as recently
he whole of them
from the Charter-
jwever, the laws of
•iestB. There are {»

PORTUGAL.*

I. — Genrrai. Aspects.

m. (1870).

I7«

330,348 69

3'2fi,llO 143

762,666 266

360,39) 113

274,623 47

307 401,894 61

491 262,201 46

KOVINCI8 (Vas-

,046 318,687 80

849 187,926 221

728 180,743 248

,206 103,320 86

,091 610,883 162

!,739
1,739
},079

vr87

J^59

2,808
860

402,796
480,146
630,604
476,836

l(i,83d,606

283,869
36,000

16,983 1,400,000
3,696 626,000

6,000,000

18,800

10,000

8,000

liaSoiMo

.20,403

J13,362 26,216,166 80

ORTUQAL, one of the smallest states of Europe, was nevertheless
during a short epoch one of the most powerful.

It might appear at the first glance that Portugal ought to be a
member of a state including the whole of the Iberian peninsula ;
but it is neither to chance nor to events purely historical that
Portugal owes its separate existence. The country is one by its climate, fuuna, and
vegetation, and the inhabitants dwelling within it naturally adopted the same sort
of life, nourished the same ideas, and joined in the same body politic. It was by
advancing along the coast, from river to river, from the Douro to the Minho and
Tejo, from the Tejo to the Guadiana, that Portugal constituted itself an independent
state.

Soil and climate mark off Portugal very distinctly from the rest of the Iberian
peninsula. Speaking generally, that country embraces the Atlantic slopes of the
plateau of Spain, and the limit of the heavy rains brought by westerly winds
coincides very nearly with the political boundary between the two countries. On
one side of the line we have a humid atmosphere, frequent rains, and luxuriant
forests ; on the other a brazen sky, a parched soil, naked rocks, and treeless plains.
These abundant rains convert the feeble streams flowing from the plateau into great
rivers. The natural obstacles, such as rapids, which obstruct the principal amongst
them, are met with near the political frontier of the country. The harbour of
Lisbon was the kernel, as it were, around which the rest of the country has become
crystallized. Its power of attraction proved equal to that which caused the rest of
the peninsula to gravitate towards Madrid and Toledo.

As frequently happens where neighbouring nations obey different laws and
are made to fight eaoh other at the caprice of their sovereigns, there is no love
lost between Spaniards and Portuguese. The former, being the stronger, sneer at
"Portugueses pocos y locos" (small and crack-brained). The Portuguese are far
more demonstrative in giving expression to their aversion. Formerly " Murderer

* link und Hoffmaniuegg, "Voyage en Portugal;" Minutoli, "Portugal nnd leine Kolonien;"
Vogel, "Le Portugal et im Colonies;" Lady Jaokion, «Fair Luutania;" Latouohe, "Traveli in
Portugal"

410

rOUTUOAn.

of the Ca»tuiuin " wu» a favourite ■ign-bourd of houws of entertainment, and thf
national pnotry broathca pauionato hatred of the Spaniard. This animosity must
interfere with the Iberian union, advocttto<l only by a handful of people.

Ancient liUsitaniu wha inhabited by Coltio and Iberian tribea, who resisted for
a considerable time the conquering arms of Rome. Those dwelling near the couHt
had been subjected to the influence of Greek, Phconician, and Curthuginiun
colonists ; but the influen<-o exercised by the Romans, who forced their language
and form of government upon the people, was far more durable. Suevi and

Fig, 101.— RArxrALL or tiir Ihrhian P*Nii««t-LA.
AooordloK to Jdlnek and Hum. Buid* 1 : 10,800,000.

krlWrfCr

CSi3 Ul fO J,, uu

Visigoths have left but few traces of their presence. The Mohammedans of
various races have largely modified the blood and manners of the inhabitants,
especially in Algarve, where they maintained themselves to the middle of the
thirteenth century. The numerous ruin - of fortresses existing throughout the
country bear witness to the severe struggk ^ which took place between these races
before uniformity of government and religion was established.

The Kings of Portugal, taking the advice of the Inquisition, expelled all heretics.
The persecution of the Moors was pitiless, but the Jews were occasionally granted
a respite. The Spanish Jews settled near the frontier, having outwardly embraced

OENKRAIi ABPKCTS.

471

(rtainmcnt, and th-
his animosity muBt,
f jHJoplo.

,«8, who roiintcd for
'lling neur tho couHt
und Curthoginiuii
reed their lunguago
uroble. Suevi und

■MV

Itar—UnA,

t V

The Mohammedans of
era of the inhabitants,
B to tho middle of the
ixisting throughout the
ace between these races

led.

ion, expelled all heretics,
ere occasionally granted
ring outwardly embraced

tho Christian religion, wore p<<nnitt«d to romiiin ; but tho more connoiontious
Jews kvpt true to thoir fiiith, and carried tho knowledge they poNHOHsvd to other
fountrioH of Europe und to tho Kant. At tho timo of thoir oxilo thvy woro
engaged in literature, niodicino, and hiw, uh well uh in connnoroo; ut liisbon they
hud founded an academy of high repute ; it was a Jew who introduced tho art uf
printing into Portugal ; and Spinoza, that noble and powerful thinker, was a Jew
of Portuguese extraction.

But tho Portuguese have not only tho blood of Arabs, Berbers, and Jews in
their veins, they are likewise much mixed with negroes, more particularly in the
Houth and along the coast. The slave trade existed long before tho negroes uf
Guinea were exported to the plantations of America. Damianns a Goes estimated
the number of blacks imported into Lisbon alone during tho sixteenth century at
10,000 or 12,000 per annum. If contemporary eye-witnesses can be trusted,
the number of blacks met with in tho streets of Lisbon equalled that of tho
whites. Not a house but had its negro servants, and the wealthy owned entire
gangs of them. The immunity of Portuguese immigrants who face tho deadly
climates of the tropics is sometimes ascribed to this infusion of negrf^ blood, but
erroneously as we think. Most of these immigrants come from tae mountains of
the north, where the race is almost pure ; and if the Portuguese become accli-
matized more rapidly than individuals of other nations, they owe it to their sobriety.

At the present day it is the Galicians who exercise most influence upon the
population of Lusitania. They immigrate in large numbers to Lisbon and other
towns, where they gain their living as bakers, porters, doorkeepers, and domestic
servants. Being ridiculed on account of their uncouth language and rustic
manners, they mix but little with the rest of the population. Their numbers,
however, are ever increasing, and their thrift and industry soon place them in a
position of ease.

The mixture of these diverse elements has not produced a handsome race. The
Portuguese possess but rarely the noble mien of the Spaniard. Their features,
UH a rule, are irregular, the nose is turned up, and the lips are thick. Cripples
are rare amongst them, but so are tall men. Squat and short, they are inclined to
corpulency. The women cannot boast the fiery beauty of the Spaniards, but have
brilliant eyes, an abundance of hair, animated features, and amiable manners.

Travellers speak highly of the manners, civility, and kindness of the peasantry
not yet contaminated by commerce. The cruelties committed by Portuguese
conquerors in the Indies and the New World have given the nation a bad reputa-
tion, though, as a rule, the Portuguese has compassion for all sorts of suffering.
He is a gambler, but never quarrels ; he is fond of bull-fights, but takes care to
wrap up the bull's horns in cork, in order that the animal may be saved for future
contests ; and he is exceedingly kind to domestic animals. In their intercourse the
Portuguese are good-tempered, obliging, and polished. To tell a Lusitanian that
he has been " brought up badly " is to offend him most seriously. Their oratory
is elegant, though ceremonious. Even the peasants express themselves with a
facility and command of words remarkable in a people so badly educated. Oaths

'|j»f I'ORTUGAL.

and indecent expreBsions scarcely ever pass their mouth, and, though great talkers,

Fig. 192. -POHTUOUESE Types: Peasant or Ovau; Woman of Leqa ; Peasant Woman ov Afmfe.

-^^*

rs^

- Mrjr\N

^ j^/<^i^

and even boasters, they are most guarded in their conversation. Portugal has

-■'■tr'<-*^-trf'f0mmiimtiim0m

-'-^^ - "---—nm

«'

VALLEYS OF THE MINHO, DOURO, AND MONDEQO.

478

lough greut talkers,
AMT Woman ov Affile.

produced great orators, and one of her poets, Camoes, is amongst the most illus-
trious the world has ever seen. On the other hand, Portugal has given birth
to no great artist, for Gran Yasco is a mythical personage. Camoes himself avows
ibis when he says, " Our nation is the first because of its great qualities. Our
men are more heroic than other men ; our women better-looking than other women ;
and we excel in all the arts of peace and war, excepting in the art of painting."

Portuguese is very much like Custilian as far as root-words and general
construction are concerned, but is far less voluminous and sonorous. Nasal and
hissing sounds, which a foreigner finds it difficult to pronounce, abound, but there
are no gutturals. Arab words are less numerous in Portuguese than in Castilian,
but the Lusitanians, as well as the Spaniards, still swear by the god of the
Mohammedans — Oxala (Oj'ald) ; that is, " If Allah wills it."

The Portuguese cannot compare in numbers with the other nations of Europe,
and their influence upon the destinies of the world is consequently small. At one
time of their history, however, they surpassed all other nations by their maritime
enterprise. The Spaniards certainly shared in the great discoveries of the fifteenth
century, but it was the Portuguese who made them possible by first venturing to
nirvigate the open ocean. It was a Portuguese, Magalhaes, who undertook the
first voyage round the world, terminated only after his death. A similar pre-
eminence amongst nations will never be met with again, for the increased facilities
of communication exercise a levelling influence upon all. Portugal, therefore, can
never again hope to resume the national status which she held formerly, but her
great natural resources and favourable geographical position at the extremity of
the continent must always insure her an honourable place amongst them.

sc««?i

'^<r

•<*.>• 'j

iversation. Portugal has

II. — Northern Portugal. The Valleys of the Minho,

DoURO, AND MONDEGO.

The mountains of Liisitania are a portion of the great orographical system of
the whole peninsula ; but they are not mere spurs, gradually sinking down towards
the sea, for they rise into independent ranges ; and the individuality of Portugal
is manifested in the relief of its soil quite as much as in the history of its
inhabitants.

The mountains rising in the north<eastem corner of Portugal, to the south of
the Minho, may be looked upon as the outer barrier of an ancient lake, which
formerly covered the whole of the plains of Old Castile. From the Pyrenees to
the Sierra de Gata this barrier was continuous, and the breaches now existing date
only from a comparatively recent epoch, and are due to the erosive action of
torrents. The most considerable of these breaches, that of the Douro, coiild have
been e£feoted only by overcoming most formidable obstacles.

The most northern mountain mass of Portugal, that of the Peneda of Gavieiro
(4,727 feet), rises abruptly beyond the region of forest, and commands the Sierra
Penagache (4,066 feet) on the Spanish frontier to the east, as well as the hills of
Santa Luzia (1,814 feet) and others near the coast. Another mountain mass rises

474

PORTUGAL.

immediately to the south of the gorge through which the Limia passes after leaving
Spain. This is the Serra do Gerez (4,815 feet), a range of twisted, grotesquely
shaped mountains, the only counterpart of which in the peninsula is the famous
Serrania de Ronda. This range, together with the Larouco (5,184 feet), to the
east of it, must be looked upon as the western extremity of the Oantabrian Pyrenees,
and like them it consists of granitic rocks.

The flora of these northern frontier mountains of Portugal much resembles that
of Galicia, and on their slopes the botanist meets with a curious intermingling of
the vegetation of France, and even Germany, with that of the Pyrenees, Biscay, and^
the Portuguese lowlands. On the southern summits, however, and more especially
on the Serra de Marfto (4,665 feet), which forms a bold promontory between the
Douro and its important tributary the Tamega, and shelters the wine districts
of Oporto from north-westerly winds, the opportunities for examining into the
arborescent flora are but few, for the forests which once clad them have disap-
peared. The schistose plateaux to the east of them and to the north of the Douro
have likewise been robbed of their forests to make room for vineyards. Most
wild animals hare disappeared with the forests, but wolves are still numerous, and
are much dreaded by the herdsmen. The mountain goat (Capra CB^,agru«), which
existed until towards the close of last century in the Serra do Gerez, has become
extinct. The name of the Serra da Cabreira (4,196 feet), to the east of Braga, is
probably indebted for its name to these wild goats.

If the Serra do Gerez may be looked upon as the western extremity of the
Pyrenean system, the magnificent Serra da Estrella (6,540 feet), which rises
between Douro and Tejo, is undoubtedly a western prolongation of the great
central range of Spain which separates the plateaux of the two Castiles. These
" Star Mountains " are attached to the mountains of Spain by a rugged table-
land, or mesa, of comparatively small height. The great granitic Serra da
Estrella rises gently above the broken ground which gives birth to the Mondego.
It can easily be ascended from that side, and is hence known as the 8erra Mama,
" the tame mountain." On the south, however, above the valley of the Zezere,
the slopes aro abrupt and difficult of access, and are known for that reason as Serra
Brava ; that is, " wild mountain." Delightful lakelets, similar to those of the
Pyrenees and Carpathians, are met with near the highest summit of the range,
the Malhao de Serra. The tops of the Serra da Estrella remain covered with snow
during four months of the year, and supply the inhabitants of Lisbon with the
ice required for the preparation of their favourite sherbet. The orog:«phi'><al
system of the Estrella ends with the Serra de Lousao (3,940 feet), for the hills
of Estremadura, which terminate in Cabo da Boca, a landmark well known to
mariners, belong to another geological formation, and consist for the most part of
Jurassic strata overlying the cretaceous formation.

The mountains of Beira and Entre Douro e Minho are exposed to the full
influence of the moisture-iaden south-westerly winds, and the rainfall is consider-
able. The rain does not descend in torrents, as in tropical countries, but pours
down steadily. It is more abimdant in winter and spring, but not a month passes

VALLEYS OF THE MINHO, DOURO, AND MONDEGO.

476

>a8ses after leaving
wristed, grotesquely
aula is the famous
(5,184 feet), to the
mtabrian Pyrenees,

nuch resembles that

us intermingling of

yrenees, Biscay, andi

and more eupeoially

lontory between the

the wine districts

examining into the

i them have disap-

e north of the Douro

)r vineyards. Most

e still numerous, and

^apra (Bi,agrm), which

io Gerez, has become

) the east of Braga, is

tern extremity of the
►40 feet), which rises
mgetion of the great

two Oastiles. These
B by a rugged table-
jat granitic Serra da
jirth to the Mondego.
m as the Serra Mama,
le valley of the Zezere,
"or that reason as Serra
imilar to those of the

summit of the range,
aain covered with snow
its of Lisbon with the
bet. The orogi«phi''.al
940 feet), for the hills
admark well known to
jist for the most part of

,re exposed to the full
the rainfall is consider-
cal countries, but pours
, but not a month passes

without it. Fogs are frequent at the mouths of valleys and along the coast as far
south as the latitude of Coimbra. At that piece as much as sixteen feet of rain
has fallen in a single year, an amount only to be equalled within the tropics.

The humidity of the air accounts for the great equability of the climate of
Northern Portugal. At Ooimbra the difference between the coldest and warmest
month amounts to but 20'' F. Frosts are severe only on the plateaux exposed to
the north-easterly winds, and the heat becomes unbearable in deep valleys alone,
where the air cannot circulate freely.* At Penafiel, where the rays of the sun are

Fig. 193. — Thb Valley of thi Limu, or Lima.
Soale 1 : 800,000.

SMilM.

thrown back by the rocky precipices, the heat is almost that of a furnace. This,
however, is an exception, and the climate generally can be described as temperate.
Running water is abundant. Oamoes has sung the beauties of the fields of
Coimbra watered by the Mondego, the charms of cascades sparkling amidst foliage,
and the purity of the springs bursting forth from rocks clad with verdure. The
Vouga, the affluents of the Douro, the Ave, C&vado, and Lima, likewise take their

• Temperature of Ck>imbr» (according to Coello) :— Year, 61-r ; winter, 62-2 ; spring, 63 ; sunimer,
68-9 , autumn, 62'3 ; coldest month (January), 80-2 ; hottest month (July), 69-4 ; difference, 19'2 F.
Temperature of Oporto (according to D'Lnie, mean of eight years) :— Year, 60-2; winter, 611;
spring, 68-6; summer, 69-8; autumn, 61-2; coldest month (January), 60-2; hottest month (August),
70-3 : difference, 201 F.

i 'i

1 J!

M.tJlLii.mLiJJMI-1!

476

POETUGAL.

Fig. 194. — DUNBB OP AVBIBO.
Boale 1 : 400,000.

devious courses through Bmiling landscapes whose beauties are set o£f by rocks and
mountains. The Lima, whose delights might well cause Roman soldiers to forget
the rivers of their own country, is the only river of the peninsula still in a state
of geological transition. All others have drained the lakes which gave birth to
them, but in the case of the Lima that old lake basin is still occupied by a swamp,

known as Laguna Beon, or Antela, the
only remains of a mountain-girt inland
lake as large as that of Geneva.

The current of the rivers of Northern
Portugal is too great to permit of their
being utilised as high-roads of commerce.
They have ports at their mouths, but the
Douro, which drains nearly a sixth of the
Iberian peninsula, is the only one amongst
them which facilitates access to an inland
district. Mariners dread to approach the
coast when the wind blows on shore.
Between the Minho and Cabo Carvoeiro, a
distance of 200 miles, the coast presents
features very much like those of the
French landes. Its original indentations
and irregularities have been obliterated
by barriers of sand. The lower valley of
the Yoiiga was formerly an inlet of the
sea extending far inland. The basin of
Av^iro resembles geologically that of
Arcachon. It^ waters aboimd in fish, but
the Douro is the southernmost river of
Europe visited by salmon. The abun-
dance of life in certain localities of it is
figuratively expressed by a Spanish pro-
, verb, which says, " The water of the
Douro is not water, but broth."

The rectilinear beach of Beira-mar is
lined for the most part with dunes, the
old gulfs behind which are gradually
being converted into insalubrious swamps,
fringed by heath, ferns, strawberry-trees,
and broom, whilst the neighbouring forests consist of oaks and pines. Formerly
these dunes invaded the cultivated portions of the country, as they still do in France,
where like geological causes have produced like results. But long before a similar
plan was thought of in France these Portuguese dunes were planted with pines,
and as early as the reign of King Diniz "the Labourer," at the beginning
of the fourteenth century, they had ceased to " march."

VALLEYS OF THE MINHO, DOURO, AND MONDEGO.

477

et oflf by rocks and
n soldiers to forget
aula still in a state
hich gave birth to
supied by a swamp,
on, or Antela, the
ountain-girt inland
if Geneva.

rivers of Northern

to permit of their
■roads of commerce,
eir mouths, but the
aearly a sixth of the
he only one amongst

access to an inland
read to approach the
ad blows on shore,
iod Cabo Carvoeiro, a
58, the coast presents

like those of the
original indentations
ave been obliterated

The lower valley of
nerly an inlet of the
aland. The basin of
geologically that of
srs abound in fish, but
wuthemmost river of
salmon. The abun-
rtain localities of it is
led by a Spanish pro-

"The water of the
, but broth."
beach of Beira-mar is

part with dunes, the
which are gradually
to insalubrious swamps,
ferns, strawberry-trees,
and pines. Formerly
they still do in France,
ut long before a similar
ire planted with pines,
br," at the beginning

The population of the cultivable portions of the basins of Minho and Douro is
very dense, and in order to maintain themselves the inhabitants are forced to
work zealously. Their country is the most carefully cultivated of the peninsula.
In a large measure this industry is due to the fact of the peasantry being the
owners of the land they cultivate, or at least affarados — that is, copyholders —
\ ho only pay a few shillings annually to the lords of the manors. Many of
the peasants are wealthy, and the women are fond of loading themselves with
jewellery, amongst which necklaces made in the Moorish taste are most pro-
minent. The cultivation of the fields is attended to with scrupulous care ; and
the most ingenious methods are employed for the irrigation of the upper slopes
of the hills, which are frequently cut up into terraces, or geios. These Northern
Portuguese are as distinguished for moral excellence as they are by industry.
Their sweetness of disposition, gaiety, and kindliness are the theme of universal
praise, and as regards their love of dancing and music they are veritable Theo-
critan shepherds. Challenges in improvised verses form one of the amusements
of young men. Nor is the population devoid of physical beauty. The women
of Av^iro, though often enfeebled by malaria, have the reputation of being the
prettiest in all Portugal.

The cultivation of the vine and the making of port wine constitute the principal
branch of industry of the country. The chief vine-growing district, ordinarily
known as Pats do Vinho, lies to the north of the Douro, between the Serra de
Marao and the Tua, and is exposed to the full force of the rays of the summer sun.
In the middle of the seventeenth century the cultivation of this district had hardly
begun. The English had not then learnt to appreciate these growths, and were
content with the various Portuguese wines shipped from Lisbon. It was only
after the treaty concluded by Lord Methuen in 1702 that the cultivation of the
vine assumed certain dimensions in the district of the Douro, and ever since the
reputation of port has been on the increase. The Marquis of Pombal founded a
company for the production of wine, and the small town of Pezo da Rdgoa, on the
Gorgo, then became famous for its wine fairs, at which fortunes were lost and won,
and a town of wine cellars and stores sprang up opposite the town of Porto, or
Oporto, near the mouth of the Douro. For more than a hundred years port and
sherry have kept their place.on'the tables of English gentlemen, and nearly all the
wine produced on the banks of the Douro finds its way to England or to British
colonies. Indeed, up to 1862 the best quality, known as " factory wine," could
be exported to England alone. Next to the English the Brazilians are the best
customers of Oporto : they receive nearly 1,000,000 gallons of wine annually.*

The breeding of mules and fattening of Spanish cattle for the London market
yield considerable profit. Early vegetables are forwarded not only to London, but
also to Rio de Janeiro. Manufactures were already of some importance in the

* Froduction of wine in Portugal before the appearance of oidium, in 1863, 106,600,000 gallons.
Average annual produce of the ^nneyards of Alto-Dciuro (Oporto) in 1848, 11,726,000 ; in 1870, 11,374,000
gallons. Exports to England, 3,718,000 gallons; Brazil, 904,000 gallons. In 1874 Oporto alone exported
6,623,000 gallons, or more than ever before.

SSttOs^

478

PORTUGAL.

Middle Ages, and have recently been much developed by enterprising English
capitalists. Oporto has cotton, linen, silk, and woollen mills, foundries and sugar
refineries, and its jewellers and glove-makers enjoy a good repute. But agricul-
ture, industry and legitimate commerce, and even the smuggling carried on in
the frontier district of Braganya do not suffice to support the ever-increasing
population, and thousands emigrate annually to Lisbon and Brazil.

Northern Portugal may be described as the cradle of the existing kingdom,
and it was Porto Cale, on the site of Yillanova de Gaia, the southern suburb
of Oporto, which gave a name to all Lusitania. At Lamego, to the south of
the Douro, the Cortes met, according to tradition, in 1143, and constituted the
new kingdom of which Oporto became the capital. When the country recovered
its independence after the short dominion of Spain, the Dukes of Bragan9a were

Fig. 105. — Oporto amd thb Paiz do Yinho.
Scale 1 : 1,000,000.

10 MilM.

invested with the regal power. Though Lisbon occupies a more central position
than Oporto, the latter frequently takes the initiative in political movements, and
the success of any revolution is said to depend upon the side taken by the energetic
population of the north. If we may accept the estimate of the Portuenaea, they are
morally and physically the superiors of the Liabonemes. They alone are the true
sons of the great people whose vessels ploughed the ocean during the ag^ of dis-
coveries, and there can be no doubt that their gait is more determined, their
speech and their glance more open, than those of the inhabitants of the capital.
In vulgar parlance, people of Oporto and Lisbon are known as tripeiroa and
alfaainhoa ; that is, trip*) and lettuce eaters.

Porto, or Porto, the "Port " par excellence, is the natural capital of Northern
Lusitania, the second city of Portugal on account of its population and commerce,
the first in manufactures. As seen from the banks of the Douro, here hardly

k more central podtion
>litioal movements, and
taken by the energetic
tbe Portuenaea, they are
rhey alone are the true
I during the age of dis-
nore determined, their
ftbitants of the capital,
known as tripeiroa and

oral capital of Northern
•pulation and commerce,
the Douro, here hardly

s.u^.^£ aA

VALLEYS OB' THE MINHO, DOUBO, AND MONDEOO.

470

more than 200 yards in width, and spanned by a magnificent railway bridge, it
rises like a double amphitheatre, whose summits are crowned by the cathedral
and the belfry doa Clerigos, and the narrow valley separating them covered with
houses. The lower town has broad streets, intersecting each other at right angles,
but the streets climbing the hills are narrow and tortuous, and even stairs have
frequently to be ascended in order to reach the more ele\'ated quarters of the town.
Cleanliness is attended to throughout, and the citizens are most anxious in that
respect to insure the praises of their numerous English visitors. Oaia, a long
suburb, occupies the opposite side of the river. It abounds in factories and store-
houses, and its vast cellars are stated on an average to contain 80,000 pipes of wine.
Beautiful walks extend along the river bank and its terraces, and the long reaches
of the stream are covered with shipping, and fringed with gardens and villas. The
hills in the distance are crowned with ancient convents, fortifications, and villages
half hidden amongst verdure. Avintes, famous for the beauty of its women, who
supply the town daily with broa, or maize bread, is one of them. Suburbs extend
along both banks of the river in the direction of the sea. The river at its mouth
is only two fathoms in depth during low water, and dangerous of access when the
wind blows from the west. Even at Oporto vessels of 400 or 500 tons are exposed
to danger from sudden floods of the river, which cause them to drag their anchors.
The port of the Douro has therefore to contend with great difficulties in its rivalry
with Lisbon.*

The small town of Sao Joao da Foz, at the mouth of the Douro, has a light-
house, but carries on no commerce. Near it are Mattozinhos and Le9a, the latter
of which boasts of an ancient monastery resembling a fortress, and is much frequented
on account of its fine beach and refreshing sea breezes. Espinho, to the south of
the Douro, is another favourite seaside resort, in spite of the all-pervading smell of
sardines. The small ports to the north of the Douro are frequented only by coasting
vessels or by seaside visitors. The entrance to the Minho is defended by the castle
of Insua, on a small island, as its name implies, and by the insignificant fortress of
Caminha. The river is accessible only to vessels drawing less than six feet. The
mouth of the Lima, though even more difficult of access, is nevertheless occupied by
a town of some importance- — coquettish Yianna do Castello, beautifully ensconced
amidst the verdure of its fertile plain. Other towns are Espozende, at the mouth
of the C&vado, and Yilla do Gonde, at that of the Ave. Formerly most of the vessels
engaged in the slave trade and those employed in the great maritime enterprises
of the Portuguese were built here, and it still boasts of a few ship-yards.

Amongst the inland towns of Entre Douro e Minho are Ponte de Lima, famous
for the beauty of the surrounding country ; Barcellos, overhanging the shady
banks of the C&vodo ; and Amarante, celebrated for its wines and peaches, and proud
of a fine bridgpe spanning the Tamega. But the only towns important on account
of their population are Braga and Guimaraes, both placed on commanding heights
overlooking a most fertile country. Braga (Bracaraugusta), an ancient Roman
colony, the capital of the Galicians, then of the Suevi, and later on the residence of

* Imports and exports about £4,000,000.

480

PORTUOAIi.

the Kiiijfs of Portugal, bocume the primutiul city of the whole of the peninsula when
the two kingdoms were teraporurily united under the wrae sovereign. Hut Hrugo
is not only a town of the past, it in even now u bustling place, where hats, linens,
urmH, and beautiful filigree ore manufactured for exportation to the rest of Portugal
and the Portuguese colonies. Quimarues is equally us interesting as Bragu on
account of its monuments and mediivvul legends. Visitors are still shown the
sacred olivo-tree which sprung from a seed placed in the soil by King Wamba,
when still a common labourer ; and Affonso, the founder of the Portuguese

Fig. 196.— 8Ao Joio da For, anii thb M(>(tii or IH« DoVKO.

monarchy, was born in the old castle. Guimarnos is a busy manufacturing town ;
it produces cutlery, hardware, and table-linen, and English visitors never fail to
purchase there a curiously ornamented box of prunes. Near it are much-
frequented sulphur springs, known to the Romans as Aqua Leva. But the
most famous mineral springs of modem Portugal are the Caldas do Gerez, in a
tributary valley of the Upper Cavado.

The towns of Tr&z os Montes and Beira Alta are too far removed from high-
ways to have attracted a considerable population. Villa Real, on the Corgo, is the
busiest place of Traz os Montes, owing to the vineyards in its neighbourhood.

munaneiMMa

VALLKYS OF THE MINIIO. DOURO. AND MONDEOO.

4tl

be peninsula when
reign. But Brugu
where httts, linens,
be rest uf Portugal
iting us Dragu on
e still Mhown the
by King Wambu,
oi the Portuguese

UMO.

^.^■\'>^:-'iH'v>

.Southern
3eMth

manufacturing town ;
visitors never fail to
Near it are much-
[qu(B Lecce. But the
Caldas do Gerez, in a

r removed from high-
1, on the Corgo, is the
in its neighbourhood.

Chaves, an old fortress near the Spuninh frontier, bounts of one uf thoso Itoniun
bridges which have rendered the century of Trajun t'umous: it was fonncrly noted
for its mineral springs {Aqtup Flanw). Bragan^*a, the old provincial citpitul, has a
commanding citadel, and, owing to its geographical iwsition, is an im|M)rtant place
for smugglers, the legitimate exports fluctuating regularly with the custonis' tariff.
It is uhe most important place in Portugal for the production of raw silk. Lamogo,
a picturesque town to the south of the Douro, opposite the Paiz do Vinho, enjoys
a great reputation for its hams ; Almeida, which keeps in cheek the garrison of
Spanish Oiudad Rodrigo, was anciently one of the strongest fortresses of Portugal ;
and Viz^u is an important station between the Duuro and the Mondcgo. Its fairs
are more frequented than any others in Portugal, and in its cathedral may be seen
the famous masterpiece painted by the mythical Oran Vasco. The herdsmen
around Yiz^u are noted for their strength and beauty. Their uncovered heads
and bare legs give them an appearance of savagery, but their manners are aa
polished and dignified as those of the rest of their countrymen.

Coimbra {^minium), in Beira-mar, is the most populous town between Oporto
and Lisbon. It is known more especially for its university, whose professors and
students impart to it the aspect of a mediteval seat of learning. The purest Por-
tuguese is spoken there. The environs are delightful, and in the botanical garden
the plants of the tropics mingle with those of the temperate zones. From the banks
of the Mondego, upon which the city is built, visitors frequently ascend to the Quinta
daa Lagritnos (" house of tears "), the scene of the murder of the beauteous Inez
de Oastro, whose death was so cruelly revenged by her husband, Peter the Judge.

Few countries in the. world can rival the beautiful valley of the Mondego, that
" river of the Muses " held dear by all the Lusitanians, because it is the only one
which belongs to them exclusively. Oondeixa, a town near Coimbra, fully
deserves to be called the "Basket of Fruit," for its gardens produce most
exquisite oranges. In the north the ruins of the monastery of Bussaco occupy a
mountain terrace covered with a dense forest of cypresses, cedars, oaks, elms, and
exotic trees. This delightful place and the hot springs of liuso, near it, are a
favourite summer residence of the citizens of Lisbon and Coimbra.

Figu^ira da Foz, the port of Coimbia, is well sheltered, but, like most other
ports of 'Northern Portugal, is obstructed by a bar of sand. It is nevertheless
much frequented by coasting vessels, and amongst its exports are the wines of
Barraida. Ovar and Av^iro, in the " Portuguese Netherlands," on the banks of a
lagoon separated by a series of dunes from the high sea, are the two other ports
of this part of the coast. They were important places during the Middle Ages,
but the shifting bars, which render access to them difficult, have put a stop to their
prosperity. The seamen of these two places have a high reputation for daring.
They engage in sardine-fishing, oyster-dredging, and the manufacture of bay-
aait*

* Towns of over 5,000 inhabitants in Northern Portugal (1864) : — Sntre J)6uro t Minko : Oporto,
86,267; Braga, 19,613; Pavoa de Yandni, 10,110; Ouimariea, 7,865 ; ViUanova de Uaia, 7,517; Vianna
do Caatello, 6,040; Mattodnhos, 5,080. IVdt ot Monttt : Chafes, 6,382; Bragan^a, 5,111; Villn

483

I'OR'nJOAL.

III. TlIK V\I,LEY or THE Two (TaoLH).

Thr lower couno of the Tejo, oiiUod Tajo in Spain, aepanitea Portugal into two
ptirtiona diiforing much in their (i^nerul aiipoct, climate, and soil. The valley
itself in a aort of intermediary between the north und south, and the vast estuury
into which the river discharges itself.

Where the Tejo enters Portugal, below the magnificent bridge of Alc&ntara, it
is still hemmed in between prooipitoui banks, and is neither navigable nor available
for purposes of irrigation. Having traversed the defile of Villa Velha do iiixliu,

Fig. 197.— COINMRA.

^^m.

■^.' i^'**!

«^.

ij«i/' tU."..

r~l]

^ ^ r T " ■ "■ '

its valley gradually widens, and after having received its most considerable
tributary, the Zezere, it becomes a tranquil stream, abounding in islands and sand-
banks, and is navigable during the whole of the year. Below Salvaterra the
river bifurcates, its two branches enclosing the marshy island of Lozirias. The
vast estuary which begins below this island is an arm of the sea rather than a
river, its waters are saline, and between Sacavem and Alhandra there are salt-
Real, (,097. Beira: Coimbra, 18,147; Orar, 10,374; Covilha, 9,022; Lamego, 8,638; Ilhayo, 8,215;
Murtoca, 7,666 ; Yis^u, 6,816 ; Caatello Branco, 6,083 ; Aviiro, 6,6(7 ; Mini, 6,014 ; Soure, 6,866 ; Lavw,
6,837 ; Miranda do Corvo, 6,261 ; FtdSo, 6,097.

* '»>0 > »«iL» »Hi

■MtiMai

w! -i* iijnviijHjii..

VALLEY OP THE TEJO.

46a

pann. Tho Tvjo affonU ono of tho moot atriking inatancoa of a rivor oncrooohing
upun ita weatcm bank, which ia atuop und hilly, whilat tho loft bunk ia lour.

The irregular range of hilla which forma tho back-bouo of tho |HUiinNula
unclosed by tho Lower Tojo and the ocean is attuchu<l to the mountain of Ksirella
by a ravinod plateau of trifling elevation, crossed by the railway connecting Coimbra
with Sunturem. From the summit of the Horra do Aire (*' wind mountain," 2,'22'i
f(H-t) we look down upon the verdant valley of tho Ti<jo and the reddish-huod
pli ns of Alemtejo beyond it. Monte Junto (2,185 feet), further south, ia another
commanding summit. The rocky promontory of Curvoeiro is joined to the main-
Fig. 108. — KitTUAHV OV THR TiMO (TaUVi).
BimUI i M0,000.

BMilW.

land by a sandy beach. Upon it stands the little fortress of Peniche, whose
inhabitants lead a life of seclusion, and are engaged in the manufacture of lace.
A submarine plateau connects this promontory with Berlinga Island, with an old
castle now used as a prison, and with the Farilhaos, dreaded by mariners.

The hills on the narrow peninsula to the north of Lisbon are of small height,
but, owing to their rugged character, they present great obstacles to intercom-
munioation. It was here Wellington constructed the famous lines of Torres
Vedras, which converted the environs of Lisbon ivto a vast entrenched camp. To
the south of these rise the beautiful heights of Cintra, celebrated for their palaces,
shady valleys, delightful climate, and historical associations. Sheets of basalt,

.;SCK

484

POETUGAL.

ejected from some ancient volcano, cover the hills hetvreen Lisbon and Sacavom,
and the great earthquakes of 1531 and 1755 prove that subterranean forces were
then not quite extinct. The second of these earthquakes was probably the most
violent ever witnessed in Europe. The very first shock destroyed 3,850 houses in
Lisbon, burying 15,000 human beings beneath the ruins ; a minute afterwards an
immense wave, nearly forty feet in height, swept o£E the fugitives who crowded
the quay. Only one quarter of the town, that anciently inhabited by the Moors,
escaped destruction. The Marquis de Pombal erected a gallows in the midst of the
ruins to deter plunderers. From the focus of vibration the oscillations of the soil
were propagated over an immense area, estimated at no less than 1,000,000 square
miles. Oporto was destroyed in part, the harbour of Alvor in Algparve was silted
up, and it is said that nearly all the large towns of Morocco tumbled into ruins.

The gully which connects the open ocean with the inland sea of Lisbon, and
through which the Tejo discharges its waters, separates the cretaceous hills of
Cintra from the isolated Serra da Arabida (1,537 feet), to the west of Setubal,
which belong to the same geological formation. These two groups of hills were
probably portions of one range at a time when the Tejo still took its course across
what are now the tertiary plains of Alemtejo, and reached the sea much farther to
the south, through the estuary of the Sado.

Lisbon (Lisbua), though the number of its inhabitants is less than half what it
was in the sixteenth century, exhibits no trace of the havoc wrought in 1755. Even
the central portions of the town have risen . from the ruins, and huge blocks of
houses, imposing by their size, if not by their architecture, have taken the places
of the older structures. The present city extends four miles along the Tejo, but
including its suburbs, between Poco do Bispo to the Tower of Belem, its extent
is nine miles. The city stretches inland a distance of two or three miles, and,
like Rome, is said to be built upon seven hills. A boautiM promenade connects
it with Belem. As seen from the Tejo, or from the hills opposite, Lisbon, with
its towers, cupolas, and public walks, certainly presents a magnificent spectacle,
and there is some truth in the proverb which says —

" Que nilo tern visto Lisboa, NSo tern Tigto cosa b6a ! "

(<< Who has not seen Lisbon has not seen a thing of beauty.")

Unfortunately the interior of the superb metropolis does not correspond with
the imposing beauty of its exterior. Lisbon has a noble square, called Largo do
Comercio ; it has all the various buildings which one expects to meet with in the
capital of a kingdom and an important maritime town ; but, with the exception of
the chapel of S£o Joao Baptista, not one amongst them is remarkable for its
architecture. The only important structure outside the city is the famous
aqueduct Os Arcos das Agoas, which was built by Jofio Y., the Eei Edificador,
in the beginning of the eighteenth century, and sustained no injury during the
earthquake of 1755. On approaching the city it crosses a valley on a superb
marble bridge of thirty-five arches, the highest of which is 246 feet in height.

Lisbon is relatively poor in interesting monuments, but few towns can rival it
in natural advantages of soil, climate, and geographical position. Its situation is

"^"IST^

I Lisbon and Sacavom,
ibterranean forces were
was probably the most
jstroyed 3,860 houses in
a minute afterwards an
fugitives who crowded
Inhabited by the Moors,
lows in the midst of the
le oscillations of the soil
IS than 1,000,000 square
or in Algarve was silted
10 tumbled into ruins,
land sea of Lisbon, and
) the cretaceous hills of
to the west of Setubal,
;wo groups of hills were
bill took its course across
. the sea much farther to

-H ?

FiiJM

u: ' >

i is less than half what it
wrought in 1755. Even
lins, and huge blocks of
re, have taken the places
ailes along the Tejo, but
iwer of Belem, its extent
two or three miles, and,
iiful promenade connects
Us opposite, Lisbon, with
a magnificent spectacle,

bSa!"

y of beauty.")

does not correspond with
e square, called Largo do
pects to meet with in the
t)ut, with the exception of
em is remarkable for its
the city is the famous
io v., the Rei Ed^ficador,
led no injury during the
sea a valley on a superb
is 246 feet in height,
but few towns can rival it
position. Its situation is

III nil 1111

Ilia— 1111*11 • "1

fs,mmw"

VALLEY OP THE TEJO.

485

most central ; its harbour, at the mouth of a navigable river, is one of the most
excellent in the world ; and its entrance can be easily defended, the principal works
erected for that purpose being Fort Sao Julifio and the Tower of Bugio.

Lisbon is important not only as regards Portugal, but also, on account of
its position, with reference to the rest of Europe — nay, of the entire world.
As long as the Mediterranean was the theatre of human history it remained in
obscurity, but no sooner had mariners ventured beyond the columns of Hercules
than the beautiful harbour at the mouth of the Tejo became one of the principal
points of departure for vessels starting upon voyages of discovery. Lisbon became

Fig. 190.— Pbnichb and thk Beblinoa8.
Soale 1 : 14a,8ao.

the most advanced outpost of Europe on the Atlantic, for it offered greater facilities
than any other port for voyages directed to the Azores, Madeira, the Oanaries, and
the western coasts of Africa. The achievements of Portuguese mariners have passed
into history. Vast territories in every quarter of the globe became tributary to
little Portugal, and it needed the epio force of a Camoes to celebrate these wonder-
ful conquests.

That age of glory lasted but a short time, for proud Lisbon, which had become
known to Eastern nations as the " City of the Franks," as if it were the capital of
Europe, lost its pre-eminent position towards the close of the sixteenth century.

l yj ifek ayfe^ ::

m ^ t> tfi t l t m t0mMtiii*mmi/0m'Mmm

mm^

466

PORTUGAL.

Portugal capsized suddenly, like a small barge overcrowded with sails. Crushed
by the terrible reign of Philip II., enervated by luxury, and grown disdainful of
honest labour, as slaveholders always will, Lisbon was constrained to see much of
its commerce and most of its valued colonies pass into the hands of Spaniards and
Dutchmen. But, in spite of these disasters, Lisbon is still a commercial port of
great importance, although as yet no direct line of railway connects it with Madrid
and the rest of Europe. England occupies the foremost position amongst the
customers of the town, and the firazilians, whose severance from the mother
country was at first looked upon as an irremediable disaster, follow next.* Spain,
though it borders upon Portugal for several hundred miles, scarcely enters into
commercial relations with it. Oivil wars have, however, driven many Spanish

Fig. 200.— MouTR OF THi Tbjo (Taous).
Scale 1 : l«i,400.

SIIOm

exiles to Lisbon, and these have already exercised a considerable influence upon
manners. Formerly only men were to be seen in the streets of Lisbon, the women
being confined almost with the same rigour as in a Mohammedan city, but the
example set by Spanish ladies has found many imitators amongst their Portuguese
sisters. The towns in the immediate vicinity of Lisbon are celebrated for their
picturesque beauties.

Portuguese Estremadura, which neither suffers trom northern frosts nori
from fogs and aridity, can boost of a climate approaching that of the fabled]
Islands of the Happy. At Lisbon snow, or " white rain," as it is called, falls]

* In 1874 Lisbon exported 6,900 tons of potatoes, 447,450 gallons of olive oil, 4,400,000 gallooR
wine, 167,200 bushels of salt, 200,000 tons of copper ore, figs, almonds, oranges, &c : 4,092 vessels enti
the harbour.

"' "" '" '*' ' *-IM> I IWMUIW'a ipi >JW i .MMB|

VALLEY OP THE TEJO.

487

th saiU. CrttBlied
^wn disdainful of
ned to see much of
Is of Spaniards and
commercial port of
lects it with Madrid
«ition amongst the
e from the mother
illow next.* Spain,
scarcely enters into
riven many Spanish

iriderable influence npon
sets of Lisbon, the women
(hammedan city, but the
amongst their Portuguese
a are celebrated for their

torn northern frosts nor
whing that of the fabled
rain," as it is caUed, falls

of olive oil, 4,400.000 ff^J^
orang«h &o. : 4,092 ve-eta entered

rarely, but it may be seen glittering on the eummits of the Serras da Estrella
and de Lousao. Its fall near the sea-coast is looked upon as an evil omen, and
u heavy snow-storm, as recently ac last century, frightened the inhabitants of
Lisbon to such an extent that they fancied the day of judgment had come, and
rushed into the churches.

The regular alternation between land and sea breezes is likewise an advantage
possessed by the neighbourhood of Lisbon. From the beginning of May through-
out the fine season the wind blows from the land in the morning, by noon it has
shifted to the south, in the evening it blows from the west and north-west, and
during the night from the north. Hence its name of niento roteiro; that is, " rotary
wind." As to the winds forming part of the regular system of atmospheric
circulation, they blow with far less regularity. The polar winds, stopped by the
transversal mountain ranges of the country, either follow the direction of the
coast or are diverted to the plateaux of Spain, and make their appearance in
Portugal as easterly winds. It is these latter which render the summer oppres-
sively hot. At Lisbon the thermometer rises occasionally to 100° F., and in 1798
even 104'' were observed. Experience has taught us that although the heat at
Rio de Janeiro is in excess of that of Lisbon, the dog-days at the latter place are
more unbearable.*

The vegetation of the happy district where the climate of North and South
intermingle is twofold in its aspect. The date-palm makes its appearance in the
gardens of Lower Estremadura ; the dwarf palm g^ws in the open air along the
coast ; the agave raises its candelabra-like branches as on the coast ol' Mexico ;
the camellias are more beautiful than anywhere else in Europe ; and the hedges are
composed of prickly cacti {Nopal), as in Sicily and Algeria. The fruits of the
Mediterranean ripen to perfection ; and even the mango of the Antilles, only
recently introduced, has found a congenial climate. The oranges are known as
portogalH in several countries as far as Egypt, as if the inhabitants of Portugal
had been the first to whom these golden apples were known ; and even the word
chintarah, or chantarah, by which the orange is known in some parts of India, is
supposed to be a corruption of the name of the Portuguese town of Cintra.

Belem (Bethlehem) is the nearest of the suburban towns of Lisbon, being
separated from it merely by a rivulet named Alc&ntara, after an old Moorish
bridge. It is the first place beheld by a mariner approaching Lisbon, and its
square tower, built by Sing John the Perfect, is seen from afar. It was hence
Vasco da Gama Aarted upon the memorable expedition which taught the Portu-
guese the road to India, and a mag^fioent monastery, now converted into an
educational institution, was built in commemoration of this glorious event.

Oeiras, at the mouth of a small rivulet coming down from the heights of
Cintra, defends the entrance to the Tejo by means of Fort Sao Juliao ; Carcavellos,
noted for its wines, lies farther on ; and Oascaes, with a small harbour defended by
a citadel, brings us t<o the open ocean. The coast beyond this is protected by

* Mean temperature of July, Wt' F. ; extremes of temperature, 27 6" and 102°
days, IflC.

F. ; clottdleBS

BBWssssmsesssBsww**-

' ■ WJ j' AW'i i V'.* ' *'

nmni JI 'i W ' l ' i ;UHi l»i . Mw u . j, «B H^l iiii«ill»^"

WHMiriMB

488

POBTUOAL.

towers, but there are no inhabitants. The hills of Cintra, howeve are one of
the most populous districts of the country, and they are much frequented by
foreigners. Whether we follow the carriage road or the tramroad from Lisbon,
we pass the castles and villas of Bomfica, the royal palace of Queluz, and
the country seats of Bellas, the fountain of which supplies the capital with water.
Cintra itself is surrounded by hotels and gardens. On a hill to the south
of it stands the sumptuous Castle de la Penha, whose eccentricities of archi-
tecture are softened down by luxuriant masses of vegetation. Strangers likewise
visit the ruins of an old Moorish castle and the caverns of the " Monastery of

Fig. 201.— Zones op Vbobtatiom m Fobtuoal.
B«ae 1 : 6,000,000.

100

Cork," thus named because its walls are covered with cork as a protection ag^ainst
damp. The prospect from all the surrounding heights is magnificent, and most
so from the cliffs terminating in the famous Cabo da Rooa, the westernmost point
of continental Europe.

The city of Ma^ ->> occupies a sterile plateau not far from the seaside resort of |
Eric«ira. Like Ci::«ra, it boa&ts of an immense palace, the Escorial of the kings of i
the house of Bragan9a, now used as a military school. Joao Y., who erected this
structure, with its numerous churches, chapels, and cells, expended, for that!
purpose all the coin he could command, and when he died there was not enough]
money left in the treasmy to pay for a mass for the repose of his souL Far morel

laea

VALLEY OF THE TEJO.

489

loweve are one of
luch frequented by
imroad from Lisbon,
uce of QueluB, and
le capital with water.
a hill to the south
centricities of archi-
Strangers likewise
the " Monastery of

KTS"

:h.

k as a protection against
is magnificent, and most
aa, the westernmost point

Vom the seaside resort of
le Escorial of the kings of
Joao T., who erected this
cells, expended for that
ied there was not enough
jse of his soul. Far more

curious than this immense barrack, with its 5,200 windows, is the forsaken
monastery of Alooba9a, about sixty miles farther north, which was built in the
twelfth century to commemorate the victories over the Moors. Near it stands
the monastery of Batalha, which recalls the defeat of the Custilians in the plain of
Aljubarrota in 1385. The portals, cloisters, chapel, and chapter-room abound
in sculptures of marvellous finish, though of doubtful taste.

Leiria, the town nearest to Batalha, occupies a fine site at the confluence of the

Fig. 202.— Gastli di la Pinha di Oimtra.

rivers Liz and Lena, and is commanded by a Moorish castle, the old residence of
King Diniz the " Labourer," who planted the pinhal of Leiria, the finest forest
in Portugal. After a long period of decadence this portion of the country has
entered upon a new epoch of activity. At Marinha Grande, near it, there are large
glass-works, which communicate by rail with the circular harbour of Concha
(shell) de Sao Martinho.

Thomar, formerly famous on account of its monastery, stands on the eastern

ojiiima ww ww* ' ! ! " ' ""

"'■^•^g^JJ^SBBPW*^- "

■Mi

490

rOETUOAIi,

alope of the hills commanding the plains of Batalha and Alcoba9a. It is the
capital of the Knights of Christ, to whom was conceded the privilege of conquering
the Indies and the New World. They performed great deeds, but in the end
their rapacity led to the decadence of their native country. Thomar is a town of
cotton-mills now, but commerce is more active in the places on the Tejo, and
notably at Santarem, which, from its " marvellous " hill, looks down upon the
verdant isles of the river and the plains of Alemtejo. Santarem and the neigh-
bouring fo^ 'sss of Abr&ntes supply Lisbon with vegetables and fniit, and the
country around them is a veriti^ble forest of olive-trees.

The sandy soil and shallow rivers bounded by marshes of the country to the
south of the Tejo oppose serious obstacles to the establishment of important towns,
and if it were not for the vicinity of Lisbon it w^uld probably be uninhabited.
Almada, opposite Lisbon, Seixal, Barr^iro, Ald^a Gallega, and Aloochete are mere
suburbs of the capital, and share in its prosperity or adversity. Setdbal, or
St. Ives, however, which lies farther to the south, on the estuary of the Sado, and
which has an excellent harbour, suffers from too great a proximity to Lisbon, for
Portugal is not rich enough to feed two ports so close to each other. Cezimbra,
on the steep coast which terminates in Cape Espichel, to the \\ est uf Setubal, is
likewise a decayed place, and Troja, which preceded Setubal as the emporium of
the Sado, now lies buried beneath the dunes. Excavations recently made on its
site have led to the discovery of Roman mosaics and of a street laid out, perhaps,
by the Phoenicians ; and Link, the botanist, who visited the spot at the end of last
century, still found there the ruined courts of Moorish houses.

Setubal, though its commercial activity is very much inferior to that of Lisbon,
still exports muscat wines, delicious oranges, and salt procured from the ponds in
its vicinity.* The sea near Setubal and Oezimbra abounds in fish and other
marine animals, and in comparison with it the Mediterranean and Bay of Biscay
may almost be described as deserts. Long before scientific men explored the bottom
of the sea the fishermen of Setubal hauled up from a depth of 300 fathoms
immense sharks. Ordinary fish are caught in myriads, and the inhabitants of
Cezimbra feed their pigs upon sardines. When Portugal was at the height of
its commercial prosperity it supplied a considerable portion of Europe with fish,
and almost enjoyed a monopoly in cod, which was exported even to Norway.t

IV. — Southern Portugal. Alemtejo and Aloarve.

The mountains beyond the Tejo rarely assume the aspect of chains. For the
most part they rise but little above the surrounding plateau. This region is
the least attractive of all Portugal, and between the Tejo and the mountains
of Alg^rve there are only plains, monotonous hills, woods, and naked landes.
Human habitations are few and far between. The lowlands along the Tejo and

* In 1870 Portugal produced 320,000 tons of aalt, of which 184,000 tons wore from Setfibal.

t Towns of Estremadura having over 6,000 inhabitants (1864) :— Lisbon, 224,093; Bet&bal, 13,134;
Santarem, 7,820; Torres Novas, 6,878 ; Caparica, 6,311 ; Palmella, 6,260; Cezimbra, 6,797; Abr&ntes,
6,600; Cartaxo, 6,218 ; Lourii^l, 6,182.

ALEMTEJO AND ALOARVK.

4U1

.lcoba9a. It ib the
vilege of conquering
leds, but in the end
Thomar is a town of
SOS on the Tejo, and
ooks down upon the
arem and the neigh-
and fruit, and the

•f the country to the

of important towns,

>ably be uninhabited.

ad Alcochete are mere

versity. Setfibal, or

uary of the Sado, and

9ximity to Lisbon, for

ach other. Cezimbra,

the \\ est o£ Setubal, is

al as the emporium of

18 recently made on its

treet laid out, perhaps,

J spot at the end of last

les.

iferior to that of Lisbon,
(ured from the ponds in
unds in fish and other
Lean and Bay of Biscay
aen explored the bottom
depth of 300 fathoms
and the inhabitants of
\ was at the height of
ion of Europe with fish,
d even to Norway.t

> Aloarve.

Bct of chains. For the
ilateau. This region is
Tejo and the mountains
oods, and naked landes.
mds along the Tejo and

ina wore from S«tfibal.

sbon, 224,063; Betfibal, 13,184;

; Cezimbra, 6,797 ; Abrtote*.

the coast are covered with a thick layer of fine sand resting upon clay, and they
still exhibit clumps of maritime pines and holm-oaks, the remains of the ancient
forests which formerly covered the whole of the country. Further inland we
reach the great landes, or chamecaa, covered with an infinite variety of plants.
There are heaths growing sometimes to a height of six feet, rock- roses, juniper-
trees, rosemary, and creeping oaks. But the g^eneral aspect of the country is dreary,
in spite of the whit»' '«d yellow flowers which cover it until the middle of winter,

F!ff. 208.— MoNAsruiT or thk KNionn up Ciihimt at Tiiomah.

•;^^--"

-▼^■->*».tit

%}i^m^^

*^^Tp^

"•^.v

r^y

7r^

i--V-.--Vi

U«W'

...v^-

.y.

vC^

4^.

for there are hardly any cultivated fields. The hills consist for the most part of
micaceous schists, and are covered with a monotonous growth of labdauum-yielding
rook-roses. This is a western extension of the zone of j'arales, which covers so many
hundred square miles of the Sierra Morena and other mountain regions of Spain.

The Serra de S£o Mamede (3,363 feet), on the confines of Portugal, between
the valleys of Tejo and Quadiana, is the highest m^ untain mass of Southern
Portugal, but its granitic ridges, enclosing narrow valleys between them, hardly

■i

-au

■ fillm il lMlMH mllpW I I -.|il<IBi

•

49S

THDRTUOAL.

rise 1,600 feet above the generul level of the plateau. A second granitic moun-
tain moss rises to the south of the depression crossed by the railway from Lisbon
to Badajoz. This is the Serra do Ossa (2,1*30 feet). An undulating tract of
country joins it to other serrus, forming steep escarpments towards the valleys of
the Ouudiuna and SadSo, and the monotonous plain known as Campo de fieja
(870 feet). The famous Cumpo de Ourique (700 feet), upon which 200,000
Moors, commanded by five kings, were defeated by the Portuguese in the middle
of the twelfth century, forms a southern continuation of that plain. This battle,
and the massacres which succeeded it, have converted the plains to the south of
the Tejo into deserts.

The hills of that portion of Alemtejo which lies to the east of the Guadiona

Fig. 204. — Ehtvart op tub Sado.
Sckk 1 : aim,ooo.

belong to the system of the Sierra Morena of Spain. The river which separates
them from the hills and plateaux of the west is confined in a deep and narrow
gorge. At the Pulo do Lobo (" wolfs leap ") it still descends in cataraoti, and
becomes navigable only at Mertola, thirty-seven miles above its mouth.

The hills of Southern Alemtejo and Algarve, to the west of the Guadiana, are
at first mere swellings of the g^und known as eumeadat, or " heights of land," but
in the Serra do Malhao (1,886 feet) and the Serra da Mezquita they attain some
height. A plateau, traversed by the upper affluents of the Mira, joins the range
last mentioned to the Serra Caldeirfio (1,272 feet), supposed to be named after some
ancient crater, or " caldron," which terminates, to the north of Gape Sines, with
the Atalaya, or Sentinel (1,010 feet). The principal range continues towards the
west, and in the Serra de Honohique (2,963 feet), a mountain mass filling up the

MWlilllllWI

iiiiiiiiiiiMii

nd granitic raoun-
ilway from Lisbon
idulating tract of
ard« the valley« of
tB Campo de Beja
on which 200,000
pieae in the middle
lain. Thii battle,
lins to the south of

at of the Ouadiana

river which separates
in a deep and narrow
ends in cataracts, and
9 its mouth,
at of the Guadiana, are

"heighteofland,"hut

squita they attain some
a Mira, joins the range
to be named after some
rth of Cape Sines, with
[6 continues towards the
tain mass filling up the

SOUth>W6«l«ffD

known as Hspinii

of the OapoH oi .s

The latter wh

ALEMTEJO AND ALQAJtVK

'I of ^^ortugiU, it attiiins itH culiiiinut.
> de * 'to I " A'^'n back "), extend* fnn
'iiuflnt n ^vagres.
fleeted by iL'Ury tlic Navigator » tli

poiiH. A «((<ep ridge,
he li' Ut in the direction

"■ ■ t of tW* nuval school

founded by him, and from iti heijjfljli * wtttchc for tiu r.'tum of the vessels
which he dispatched on explonitory Mtton«, .tsooiutiuii'^ nuch as these are

far more pleasurable than those connet i with th< leighbouring Capo 8t. Vincent,
where Admiral Jervis, in 1797, destrt 'I a Hpiuimh fleet.

The hills of Sagres are of volcanic origin, un4 the subsidence of portions of

Fig. 'liOA.— Sghiu ub M^ncmiuui anu Phomuntuhv or Saokw.
Sou* 1 : M0,ooo,

f r|iw«* rlw ••[♦ff

••|m'

1 ^■r^.-J-' '"'* :

ifi

, 'p '"^ii

^Bl^^Hb^^K' '

^ '^m

WmBL

msm

■

1 rlw ••;»»

rjw'

IOXOm.

the coast of Algarve appears to prove that subterranean forces are still active.
Wherever this subsidence has been observed the coast is fringed by sand-banks,
thrown up by the waves of the sea, the channel separating them from the main-
land being navigable for small vessels.

If a traveller ascend one of the culminating points of the mountains of Algarve,
he cannot fail to be struck with the remarkable contrast existing between the districts
to the north and south of him. On the one side he looks down upon vast soli-
tudes resembling deserts; on the other he perceives forests of chestnut-trees,
numerous villages, towns bordering the seashore, and fleets of fishing-boats rocking
upon the blue waves. The contrasts between the inhabitants of these two districts

— . .J....._U Will- ,

PORTUGAL.

are Miarcoly Iom ttrikinfj^. Tho Inhabitanta of Alemtejo are the moat solemn of
Portugueiie, and ovon objoot to dunoing. Very thinly aoattered over the lundeit
which they inhabit, they engage either in agriculture or follow their herds of pigs
and sheep into tho forests of holm-oaks and thickets of rook-roses. In summer
they cross the Tujo with their pig", and pasture them in the mountains of Deira.
The population of Algarve, on tho other hand, is thrice as dense uh that of Alem-
tejo, and not only ure Holds, vineyards, and orchards carefully tt*nded, but the soa
likewise is mudo to yield a portion of its food. The contrast between the two
provinces is partly accounted for by the fact that most of tho great battles were
fought on the undulating plains of Alemtejo. When tho Komuus hold (he country
Alemtejo supported a numerous population, as is proved by tho large number of
inscriptions found.

Differences of altitude and geographical position sufficiently account for the

Fig. 20e.— OioLooY or Aloarvs.
Boato 1 1 1,1)00,000.

I. I Tirbmry , A U ur i um
SB0E3 SUitrUufi Crmitd

differences of climate existing between the two provinces. Alemtejo, with its
monotonous plains and stunted vegetation, is almost African in its aspect, whilst
Algarve, with its forests of olive-trees, groves of date-palms, agaves, and prickly
cacti, presents us with tropical features. The mean temperature near the coast is
probably no less than 68^ F. The Serra de Monohique bars the cool winds of the
north, whilst the sandy islands fringing a portion of the coast keep off refreshing
sea breezes. The hottest wind of all is that which blows from the east. It is
often laden with fever-breeding miasmata, and a proverb sayt:, De Eapanha nem bom
tento nem bom caaamenio : " Neither good winds nor good weddings are bred in
Spain."

Villanova de PortimSo, to the south of the Serra de Monohique, has long been
looked upon as the hottest place in Europe ; there are, however, several localities
in Spain which rival it in that respect. Thus much is certain, that Algarve, with

ho most solemn of
od over tho lunde*
their herdi of pig«
rosea. In summer

mountuins of Beiru.

ise tti* that of Alom-
tended, but the sea

ist between the two
great battles were

Mm hold ^he country

tho large number of

utly account for the

». Alemtejo, with its
an in its aspect, whilst
ms, agaves, and prickly
lerature near the coast is
urs the cool winds of the
coast keep oflF refreshing
vs from the east. It is
lye,, De Espanha nem horn
i weddings are bred in

onohique, bas long been
lowever, several localities
rtain, that Algarve, with

AI.KMTKJO AND ALOAIIVE.

the lower valley of tho Guadalquivir und the southern coasts of Aiidulusiu and
Murcia, constitutes tho most torrid iM>rtiun of Kurope. The Arabs wore <|uite right
when thoy doHignutcd Southern liusituiiiu und the opposite nhoro of Mor'xico by the
same name of "el Qharb;" that is,- the two Algurves, or "eusturn districts."
Portuguese Algarve, in spite of the convornion of its inhabitants to Christianity,
has retained its ancient MooriHli name, and the Berber und Semitic blood is very
conspicuous there.

In Upper Alemtejo there are but few towns, und those would be altogether
insignificant if it were not for the overland commerce curried on with Spain.
Crato, which is the most considerable station on the railway which joins the Tejo
to tho Guadiana, and its neighbour Portulegre, were formerly important stages on
the grout overland route. Elvas, farther to the south, is surroundod by orchards,
and defended by forts which were looked upon in the last century us maHterpieces
of military architecture. It faces the Spanish fortress of Budajoz, us well oa
01iven9a, which was assigned to i'ortugul by the treaty of Vienna, but never
lurrendorod by Spain. Estremoz, on a spur of the Serra de Ossu, is famous
throughout Portugal for its hiicaroa — elegantly modelled earthen jars which
diffuse a sweet odour. Montemor looks down from its hill upon vast landes and
monotonous woods. Evora, likewise built on a hill, commands an extensive plain.
It was a populous place during the dominion of the Romans, and in the Middle
Ages became the second residence of the Kings of Portugal. There exist now only
a Roman aqueduct, the ruins of a temple of Venus, Oorinthian columns, and the
remains of medieoval castles to remind us of its ancient splendours.

Beja, the ancient Pfi-Ji- Julia or Coloiiia Pacenm of the Romans, has likewise
lost its former importunce, but Minas de Sdo Domingos, on the peninsula formed
by the confluence of the Guadiana and theOhanza, is rapidly increasing, (hanks to
its mines of pyrites of copper and other minerals, which are being worked by an
English company. The ore is conveyed by rail to Pomarfio, on the Guadiana, and
thence on barges to Villa Real de Santo Antonio, at its mouth, formerly a mere
fishing village, but now a busy port. Castro Marim, where the expeditions against
the Moors used to be fitted out, is close to it.

Silves, the ancient Moorish capital of Algarve, lies in the interior of the country,
far removid from the present highways of commerce. Faro, the modem capital,
has the advantage of lying on the seashore, and of possessing a seoure harbour,
whence small coasters are able to export fruit, tunny-fish, sardines, and oysters.
Tavira possesses the same advantages, and exports the same articles : it is said
to be tho prettiest town of Algarve. Loul^, in a delightful inland valley, is a
pretty place, and, when invalids have learnt the road to Algarve, may obtain
some importance as a winter resort. The Oaldas (warm baths) de Monchique (600
feet) enjoy a world-wide reputation even now, not only because of their efBcacy, but
also on account of the delicious climate and charming environs. This district is said
to produce the best oranges in Portugal.*

* Towns of Southern Portugal having over 6,000 inhabitants (IR64) •.—Alemtejo: l!vora, 11,965;
tlyaa, 11,086; Estremov, 7,274; Beja, 7,060; Portalegre, 6,731; Serpa, 6,606; M6ura, 6,469; Castello

ittM

^V.l **_ r^^

496

PORTUGAL.

V. — The Present and Future of PoRTUOAt.

Little Portugal no longer shares with her neighbour, Spain, in the dominion of
the world, as in the fifteenth century. The secrecy observed with a view to the
retention of the monopoly of trade with countries newly discovered proved in the end
most injurious to Portugal. Other nations appeared upon the stage which the
Portuguese had dreamt of occupying for ever, and though the latter still hold
colonies vastly superior in area to the mother country, this is nothing in comparison
with what has been irretrievably lost. Yasco da Gama discovered the ocean high-
road to India, but the few settlements which Portugal still holds there she owes to

Fig. 207.— Fabo and Taviba.
Soale 1 : fiOO,000.

SMilM.

the favour of England. In the Malay Archipelago Portugal has been supplanted
almost completely by the Dutch, and Macao, at the entrance of the Canton River,
was hardly more than a slave market until quite recently, from which Chinese
" emigrants " were exported to Peru. In Africa Portugal holds vast possessions,
if we are to believe in official documents and maps, but in reality only a very
small tract of territory is under the dominion of the Portuguese, and most of
the commerce is carried on through Dutch and other foreign houses. As to Brazil,
it now surpasses the mother country in population and wealth. Madeira and the

de Vido, 6,286; Campo Maior, 6,277. Algarve : Loul6, 12,166; Tavira, 10,903; Faro, 8,361; Lagoe,
7,771 ; Olhio, 7,026 ; Alportel, 6,043 ; villanova de Portimito, 6,631 ; Sio Bartholomeu de Meaairei,
6,318; Monchique, 6,261 ; Silves, 6,103.

tfk

THE PBESENT AND FUTUBE OF POBTUGAL.

497

JAL.

in the dominion of
i with a view to the
red proved in the end
bhe stage which the

the latter still hold
othing in comparison
ered the ocean high-
ilds there she owes to

Azores, the first conquests made by Lisbon navigators, are looked upon as integral
portions of Portugal ; they enjoy the same rights, and are quite equaf to it in
wealth.*

When Brazil was lost to Portugal that small country found itself in a position
of lamentable prostration. Exhausted by foreign and internecine wars, its finances
utterly rained, and without roads to enable it to export its produce, it might have
disappeared from our maps without any interests, except those of a few English
vine-growers and Spanish smugglers, being affected. Even in 1851 there only
existed a single carriage road in the country, namely, that which connected Lisbon
with the royal palace at Cintra. No attention whatever was paid to education,
and about a generation ago a girl able to read was a phenomenon. At the same
time we must not forget that these illiterate Portuguese knew how to discuss a

Fig. 208. — QB00B4PHICAL EXTINT OF THB PoRTCOUBBIi LaNOITAOB.

al has been supplanted
B of the Canton River,
y, from which Chinese
holds vast possessions,
in reality only a very
trtuguese, and most of
I houses. As to Brazil,
dth. Madeira and the

10,903; Faro, 8,361; Lago^
3o Bartholomen de MeaauM,

&: ■ " «.-.

rill

. <

0.0-

»»•'.

*»•■

»'

^^uf^

♦

^mk

\ "*

1 l^''*iiSK$n!!MI

■

■I ^^1

^^^

tf t^^

\<f

' t^'

?oi>

' uf* '

subject without quarrelling, had great command of their language, and were
able even to improvise verses of gpreat poetical merit, in all of which respects they
contrasted favourably with the peasantry of Northern Europe.

In the course of the last generation education has made much progress in
Portugal ; t and in other respects, too, the country has gradually assimilated with the
rest of Europe. Roads and railways have be^n con8tructed,:t and the latter connect
Lisbon not only with the leading provincial towns, but also with Spain. The com-
merce with the latter country increases regularly with the occurrence of civil war,
when Portugal profits at the expense of the Spanish ports of the Mediterranean.

* For a list of Portuguese colonies see p. 600.

t In 1874 there were 2,049 elnmentary and middle-claas schools, attended hy 122,004 painli^ heaides
a university and nine special schools, with 4,300 students.

X In 1875, 2,237 miles of royal high-roads, 600 miles of railroads.

■■wpp

49S

POETUOAL.

Fig. 209. — ^Tbliobaph pkom Lisbon to Kio de
Janbiko.

Much of the ordinary commerce with Spain never appears in the customs' registries,
for it is carried on by smugglers, who glory in evading the vigilance of the frontier
police.

The commerce of Portugal has increased very much in the course of the last
thirty years. More than half of it falls to the share of Great Britain, a circum-
stance not to be wondered at when we bear in mind the relative geographical posi-
tion of the two countries, for Portugal lies upon the direct route followed by

English steamers proceeding to the
Mediterranean, Western Africa, or
Brazil. The assistance which England
rendered Portugal during the penin-
sular war has cemented these com-
mercial bonds.

The commercial relations with
Brazil, now joined to Lisbon by a
submarine cable, are likewise the
natural result of the relative positions
of the two countries and of the common
origin of their populations. Portugal,
in &ct, participates in every progress
made by its old colony, and its com-
mexoe will assume immense propor-
tions when slavery is abolished in
Brazil, when the solitudes of the
Amazonas resound with the stir of
industrious populations, and the coasts
of the Pacific are joined to the Atlantic
by means of railways crossing the
Andes.*

But, after all, it will be Spain with
which the most intimate commercial
relations must finally be established, in spite of national prejudices and dynastic
interests. The two nations will in the end become one, as the Aragonese and
Oastilians, the Andalusians and Manchegos, have become one. It is merely a
question of time ; but who can doubt that community of industrial and social relations
will lead to a political union. We only trust that this union may be brought
about without a resort to brute force, and with due regard to special interests.

VI. — Government and Administration.

Portugal is an hereditary and constitutional monarchy. In accordance with the
Carta de L^y of 1826, as revised in 1852, the King is charged with the executive,

• Value of exports and imports in 1S40, £4,016,320; in 18S6, £8,127,400; 1876, £12,019,020.
The conunercial marine consisted in 187ff of 483 vessels (induaive of 23 steamers), measuring 111,200
tons.

•PB*

i ' , ' W...,.| i g ' .,

".. 1 1 . i xw rnmammemmsmmv

GOVEENMENT AND ADMINISTRATION.

490

;he customs' registries,
gilanoe of the frontier

the course of the last
eat Britain, a circnm-
tive geographical posi-
ect route followed by
rs proceeding to the

Western Africa, or
listance which England
i;al during the penin-
cemented these com-

eroial relations with
ined to Lisbon by a
le, are likewise the
f the relative positions
tries and of the common
Mpulations. Portugal,
mtes in every progress
d colony, and its com-
^ume immense propor-
iavery is abolished in

the solitudes of the
ound with the stir of
)ulation8, and the coasts
,re joined to the Atlantic

railways crossing the

til, it will be Spain with
)st intimate commercial
prejudices and dynastic
, as the Aragonese and
Q one. It is merely a
istrial and social relations
union may be brought
to special interests.

noN.

In accordance with the
rged with the executive,

M27,400; 1876, £12,016,020.
3 rteamera), measuring 111,260

and shares the power of making laws with two chambers. He receives a civil list of
£144,000, enjoys the income from certain Crown lands, and possesses magnificent
Crown jewels, amongst which the " diamond of Brag^n9a " is the most famous.
In default of male heirs the crown descends in the female line. " His most faith-
ful Majesty " still claims to be " King of the two Algarves, Lord of Guinea and of
the Conquests." The seven ministers of the Crowu are responsible for the King's
actions; they may be impeached by the Chamber of Deputies, and are judged by
the Chamber of Peers. A Privy Council of an indefinite number of members,
appointed for life, advises the King in all questions of administration. The heir
presumptive takes part in its deliberations on attaining his eighteenth year.

The Chamber of Peers consists of about a hundred members, some of them
hereditary and others appointed by the King. Its meetings are presided over by
the Patriarch of Lisbon. The Chamber of Deputies is elective, and the dis-
cussion of the budget and granting of supplies are specially reserved to it. All
males more than twenty-five years of age are entitled to the franchise if they pay
4s. 6d. in direct taxes, or 22s. from real estate. Graduates of universities, certified
teachers, officers, and priests are not required to possess any property qualification,
and they, as well as all married men, become enfranchised on completing their
twenty-first year. All electors are eligible as deputies if they pay 18s. in direct
taxes, or 90s. from real estate. Every 25,000 inhabitants are represented by a
deputy. The President of the Chamber is selected by the King from five
candidates presented by the deputies. The latter are entitled to remuneration.

For judicial purposes the country is divided into twenty-six districts, or
comareas, with eighty-five courts. Tliere are courts of appeal at Lisbon and
Oporto, and a supreme court at Lisbon. Parish judges (Juiz eleito), elected by the
people, exercise the inferior jurisdiction. Juries give their verdict on questions of
fact in civil as well as in criminal cases. The principal codes still in force are the
" Codigo Alfonsius " of the fifteenth, century, the " Codigo Manoelino " (1613),
and the " Codigo Filippino," introduced by Philip lY. of Spain. A Commercial
Code was published in 1833.

The Roman CathoUo religion is that of the State, but Protestant places of
worship are suffered to exist in the seaports. The hierarchy includes a patriarch
residing at Lisbon, two archbishops at Braga and i^vora, and fourteen bishops.
The Inquisition was abolished in 1821, and the monasteries, 750 in number, as well
as most of the convents, were suppressed in 1834, and their revenues confiscated
for the benefit of the State.

The army numbers 1,650 officers and 38,000 men, of whom about two-thirds
are under colours during peace. On a war footing it is to be raised to 2,4x8
officers and 70,687 men. All men are obliged to serve either in the army or in
the reserve, and exemption can no longer be purchased. The fortresses are
numerous, but only a few of them are capable of being defended against modem
artillery. The most important are Elvas, Abr&ntes, and Yalen9a, near the Spanish
frontier, the fort of Sao Julia and the citadel of Peniche on the coast. The navy
no longer numbers a thousand vessels, as it did when King Sebastian started for

PORTUGAL.

tbe invasion of Morocco. It consists now of twenty-seven steamers, including an
ironclad corvette, and eleven saiUng vessels, manned by 3,000 men and armed

with 171 guns. . ,oo,i .i.

The pubUc revenue approaches £6,000,000 sterling, and ever smce 1834 there
has been annually a deficit, which has resulted in a national debt of more than
£80 000 000, a burden almost too heavy for a small country like Portugal. The
revenue is, however, increasing, a balance between income and expenditure has
been estabKshed within the last year or two, and the wretched expedient of
deducting from 5 to 30 per cent, of the salaries of Government officials could be
dispensed with for the first time in 1876.

Political Divwionb, Abba, and Population.

Diatriota.
I Vianna
Entre Douro e Minbo ! Braga .
I Porto

i Villa Real .
' \ Braganqa .

!Av£iro
Viz«u .
Coimbra
f Goarda
' \ Oastello Btanco

Area, Sq. MUm.

864
1,054

908
1,718
2.673
1,216
1,922
1,600
2,148
2,660
1,348
2,661
2,936
2,497
2,740
4,198
1,876

Fopnlatiaii, 1874.
221,040
346,429
461,212
239,691
177,170
272,763
898,477
306,237
234,912
178,703
194,044
217,316
491,206
109,192
112,477
164,327
193,877

Daiuitr.
266
629
600
140

60
207
.03
100

146
82

168
44
41
87

104

4,208,881

Colonial PoBsissioNa.

Ana. Sq. HUM.

Asoras ...•••*■*

Afbica:— ..-

Madeira . . • • «

Cape Verde Island '•*»'

Senegambia . .fi

St Thome and Prindpe . • «»•

FortAjttda • , • • • ,' • • ^,„Jx

Angola, Benguela, and MoMamedee 'irSSJ

Mozambique and Sofala .... 40,000

^"(i^.ftc i.»»5

Damio ™

Diu . *»

Timor and Eambing »•*•*[

Macao J*

Coloniet . . . 362.140

Total, Portugal and Colonies . . . 396,842

TapaiMUaa.

Danalty.

60,072

118.609

383

90,704

9,282

344

31,692

700

2,000,000

800,000

474,234

389

40,080

1336

12,303

1026

260,000

71,834

47-^8

3,460.410

7.769,291

steamers, including an
3,000 men and armed

. ever since 1834 there
snal debt of more than
;ry like Portugal. The
B and expenditure has
wretched expedient of
iment officials could be

Uatian, 1874.
221,049
346,429
461,212
■239,691
177,170
272,763
398,477
306,237
234,912
178,703
194,044
217,316
491,206
109,192
112,477
164,327
193,877

Dnuitr-
266
629
600
140

4,208,881

filM.

124

TopaUMoa.

Donlltr

60,072

118.609

883

90,704

9,282

344

31,692

700

2,000,000

800,000

474,234

389

40,080

1336

12,303

1026

260,000

71,834

47-^8

3,460.410

7.769,291

Abrtiite8,490

Abruzzoe, 268

AohelouB, 48

Adrianofle, 106

iBgadian Idonda, 334

Mgeaa Sea, 69, 96

iBgina, 66

.Sgium, 67

Mohta. IsUnda, 331

.£tolia,63

^toliko, 49, 53,

Aitone, 366

Ajacdo, 866, 369

Albacete, 420

Albania, 116

Albaniana, 44, 119, 120; in Italy,

296
Albano, 260
Alcalb, 393
Aloftntata, 391
Alc6y, 420
Alecaandria, 170
Alemtejo, 490
Algarve, 490
AUaina.422
Alhambra, 407, 408
Alicante, 417, 422
Almaden, 302
Almapo,39l
Almeida, 48l
Almeria, 412
Alpheiu, 61, 63
Alps, 10
Alptyama, 397
Amarante, 479
Anadoli>faiyak, 104
Ano(ma,282
Andalnaia, 804
Andona, 438
Androa,72
Anio, 273
Anteqneta, 412
Antimiloa, 71
Antipuoa, 71
Apennines, 267
Aqui]a,284
Aragon,427
Aragon Steppes, 486
Alto. 438
Aiaiuaei, 393. 894
Arcadia, 68, 66
ATeuo,262

INDEX

Argentaro, Monte, 248
Argolis, 69, 66
Aiioa,68
A^ostoli, 79
Anano, 306
Aimoiians, 102
Arno, 210
An>fla,469
Arta, Gulf of, 48, 63
Aspromonte. 288
ABtorga,387
Astanaa,448
Aatypalaea, 94
Athena, 64
Athoo, Mount, 108
Attica, 63
Av^iio, 476, 481
ATila,389
Asooitia, 447
Asof , Sea of, 26

Badges, 391

Batea,407

Balagna, 366

Balearic Islands, 423—427

Balkans, 183

Bafamn, 169

Barcellos, 479

Barcdona, 486

Ban, 806

Barletta, 306

Basque Provinces, 430

Basques, 372, 442

Bastelica, 386

BaBtia,8e8

Batalha, 489

Batnecas, .387

Bayona, 469

BeJB,496

Belem,487

Belgrad, 174

Belb8,4S8

Benevento, 306

Berda, 179

Berici, 193

Berlingas, 483

Bessarabia, 164

Bidaasoia, 437

Bientina, 246

Kffuglia,868

^bao,44e

Biscay, Bay of, 441

Black Sea, 26
Boeotia, 63
Bologna, 228
Bolaena,269
Bomflca,488
Bonifacio, 369
Bomia, 127
Boephorua, 98
Botosani, 169
Braga,479
Braganqa, 481
BnJla, 170
Brenner, 222
Brindisi, 306
Bucharest, 168
Biilgaiia, 131
Bulgarians, 138
BArgos, 388
Bussaco, 481
Butrinto, 76
Buyukdere, 103

Cabo da Boca, 488

Cfrcere8,391

C&diz, 401, 410

Calabria, 287, 296, 296, 808

Calahorra, 448

Calamata, 67

Caktayud, 434

Calvi, 369

Caminha, 479

Campania, 289

Ctoipo dell' Oro, 366

Campo de Ouriquo, 492

Can(fia,90

Canea,92

Cantabrian Pyrenees, 461

Capri, 302

Capua, 304

Carcavellos, 487

Cardona,43l

Ow%hese,366

Gasabianda, 366

Caso&es,487

Caserta,304

Canno, 304

GaateUolUt, 431

Castel-Qandolfo, 361

Ca8tUes,877

Castro Marim, 496

Catalonia, 427

Catania, 32(>

602

CaUnnuri, 309
Celtiberiana, 872
CelU, 372
Cephalonia, 78
CephinuB, 61
Cerigo, 69
Ceeimbra, 490
Chalcidice, 107
Chalcis, 70, 71
Chaves, 481
Chiaiia,244
Cintra, 483
Circaauanii, 142
Citheron, 47

Ciudad Br>al, 891

Civita Vucchia, 281

Coimbra, 481

ColumbretoB, 424

Comacchio, 220

Como, 198

ConBtantinople, 88, 98, 160

CopaiB, 61, 62

Oorcubion, 469

C6rdova, 406, 408

Corfu, 76

Corinth, 67, 66

Corsica, 363

Corto, 366, 869

Conxnna, 469

Cosenza, 309

Cotrone, 309

Cranz, 66
Crato, 496
Crete, 90
Cuenca, 392
CycladeB, 70
Cyllone, 67
Cythera, 69
Cythnos, 71

Daimiel, 391
Danube, 136, 169
DardanelleB, 106
Dede Aghaoh, 107
Delos, 71, 74
Delphi, 47

Despeflaperros, 396, 3»»
Dobruja, 134, 142
Dodona, 118
DolondteB, 192
Dora Baltea, 197
Douro, 478
Drin, 116
Drina, 174
Duero, 883
Durango, 417
Durasso, 1'''6

Ebro, 427
Ebro Delta, 432
Ecya,402
Elba, 266
Elche, 417—419
Eleuids, 66
EIiB,69

fl ToicaU 898
Ivas, 496
Etna,-311
Epakto, 63
EpidauruB, 68
Epinu, 116, 117
Erasinuii, 61
ErytnanthuB, 67
Eflcorial. 398
EBpinho, 479
E^wBoadfi, 479
. Eatrella,483

Egtromadura, 377
Estrenioz, 496
EtruBcanii, 248
Eub«ea, 70, 71
Euganoan Ililla, 198
EuripuB, 70
EurotaB, 62, 67
EuBkarianB. 442
Evora, 49o

Fttlticeni, 169
FarilhSoB, 483
Faro, 496
Ferdinandea, 816
Fnrrara, 228
Ferrol, 469
Figu6i» da Fez, 481
Fiumidno, 271, 278
Florence, 261
Foggia,806
Fontibre. 432
Fucino, 262
Fuenterrabia, 447

Oaeta, 804

Oaia, 479

CkOazidi, 68

GaUtz, 169

Qalicia, 448

Oallipoli, 106, 308

Gastuni, 63, 64

Gata, Sierra de, 381

GaytanoB, 399

Genoa, 234

Gtorania, 48

Gerona, 437

Gibraltar, 400, 413

Gibraltar, Strait of, 26

Giion, 469

Oipmes, 373

Girgenti, 329

Giurgevo, 170

Giurgiu, 170

Golden Horn, 98

GoUolino of Amo, 240

Granada, 407

Grand Paradis, 191

Grfeo de Valencia, 424

GtMob, Biem de, 880

Greece, 86

Greekfl in Turkey, 102, 114,141,

Guadalajara, 398

GuadaUviar, 416, 417

Guadalquivir, 896, 399

Guadarrama, 378

Guadiana, 896, 883

Gubbio, 282

Guernica, 447, 468

Guetaria, 447, 462

Goimariiem 479, 480

GuipAiooa, 446

Gyttiioa, 66

Hagio Rumeli, 91

H^con, 47

HellenM, 41

HeUeBpont,10«

Hercules, Tower of, 469, 468

HermopoliB, 74

Herzegovina, 127

Huelva, 406

Hydra,60

Hylice,61

Hymettus, 48

Iberia, 869
Iberians, 872

163

Katovothras, 48
Kilia, 160
Kraguyevats, 174
Kia5ia,129
KrushevatB, 178
Kutzo-Wallaohians, 44

I.AConia, 69

La Corufia, 469

Lairo MaKgiore, 108

L«ioonsofVenice,202,207

LaMancha, 378, 886, 891

Lamego, 478, 481

|junia,66

Larouco, 480

Laurium, 48

Lebrya. 409

Le^479

Leooo,308

Leghorn, 266

I.^ria,489

LcmnoB, 97

Lentini, 316

Leon, 377, 387

Lepanto, 68

Lerida,436

Leuoadia, 77

Lezirias, 4H2

li^bana, 460

Liguria, 280

lima, 476

Limans, 161

Limia, 476

Linfcres, 406, 407

lipari, 381 h

Lisbon, 484

Livadia, 6ft

Ii<H^o, 489, 448

Ixaoa, 417

Ixnwto, 283

Loul6, 496

Lucca, 263

Lugo, 469

.'jycaena, 68

Haocalubas, 817
Macedonia, 98
Madrid, 892, 893
Maffia, 821
Hafra,488
Magra,264
Mamotes,48
Huorca, 4<6
MUaga,412
Malaria, 247
Malea, 67
MaUorca,426

INDEX.

S08

,25, 427
tno, 309
127
96
<79
Iiles, 15

291

182

,169

183

,78

426, 427

a, 394

libel. 439, 440

40«, 410 ,

416, 417

othr8a,48

169 I

lyevats, 174
A, 129
levatE, 173
).WBllachian«, 44

iia,69

>rafla, 469

MaKK>ore, 198

BiM of Venice, 202,207

Anoha, 378. 886, 391

)go, 478, 481

a, 66

uco, 480

ium, 48

ija. 409

,479

0,308

toni,266

ia,489

n(M,97

ini, 316

I, 377, 387

iiato, 63

da, 436

oadia, 77

iriaa, 482

)ana,460

aria, "iSO

ia,476

lanB, 161

da, 476

tree, 406, 407

an, 381 h

bon, 484

adia, 6A

pfofio, 439, 448

rca,4l7

reto,288

116, 496

cca,263

cteiis, oH

ujcaluboB, 317
icedoiiia,98
idrid, 892, 893
iffia, 321
ifra,488
Bgra,264
amotea,43
aioTca, 4<6
Saga, 413
[alalia, 247
[alea, 67
rallc«ca,426

Malta, 886
Malvoiiie, 67
Mancha Real, 402
Hanfredonia, 306
Mantinea, 61. 62
Mantua, 227
Haiathon. 66
Marathoniai, 66
Marchena, 409
Marchem 267
Maremma, 246
Mariana, 367. 868
Maritaa, 136
Mam -.%, Sek ot, 104
Manala, 826
Matapan, 69
Matai6, 437
Mattodnhoa, 479
Medina del Campo, 889
Me<OteiTanean, 23
Megara, 66
Mega^Spileon, 67
Menorca, 426
Merida, 391
Merinoa, 386
Meaaenia, 66, 68
Moaaina, 32)
Meaaina, Strait of, 309
Heteora, 113

Methone, 69

MUan, 226

MUoa,72

Minho, 466, 473

Hiflo, 466

Minorca, 426

Mirdita, 116, 123

Misaolonghi, 49, 68

Mirtra, 68

Moldavia, 167

Moncavo, 429

Monomque, 496

Mondego, 473

Monjmoh, 436

Monaenrat, 431

Monte Ointo, 363
i Monte Oargano, 287
I Montenior, 496
> Montenegro, 179

Monte Pellegrino, 316

Montepnldano, 263

Monte Viao, 189

Montieri, 242

Hontilla, 409

Moora in Spain, 872
i Morava, 127, 173
I Morea, 66

! Mflicia, 413, 417— 420
' Myoens, 68

Kaplea, 286, 800
Nuenta, 128
Naupactua, 68
Navarino, 67
Navana, 439
Kavaa de Toloaa, 896
Nasoa, 71, 74
Nsa Kaimeni, 72
Negroponte, 71
Neiiiea, 68
Nicosia, 326
Mish, 143
Noya, 469
Numancis, 879
Nuniantia, 387

Oeiraa, 487
Okhrida, 116

Olite, 448
Olivonca, 496
Olot, 437
Olto, 168

Olympua. Mount, 110
Oporto, 478
Orense, 469
Orecza, 368
Orihuela, 417, 419
Orvieto, 282
Oatia, 271, 273
O8una,409
Otranto, 306
Ovar, 481
Oviedo, 469

t>ieatum,-303
Paia do Vinho, 477
Palatine HiU, 277
Palencia, 387
Palermo, 322
Palma, 429
PalmanoTa, 229
Pamiaua. 63
Pantellaria, 334
Pamaaaua, 47
Pamea, 47
Pamon, 67
Paio8,71
Patonea, 894
Patraa, 66
Pelaagiana, 41
Peloponneaua, 66
Polorua, 316
Peflagaohe, 473
Pefiaa de Europa, 449
Peneua, 64, 113
Penha de Gintra, 489
Peniche, 483
PentelicuB, 47
PergUBa,817
Perugia, 268, 282
Peaaro, 288
Peso da B^goa, 477
Phanar, 102
Phenea, 63
PheneuB, 60
Phigalia,68
Phlegrean Fielda, 290
Phoma, 60
Piave, 101, 206
Pietra Mala, 194
Pindua, 46. 116
Pimataa, 63
Picaighettone, 860
Flaa^oia, 391
Po, Biver, 210
Po, Valley of, 180
PomaHlo, 496
Pompeii, 301
Ponte de lima, 479
Pontevedra, 469
Pontine Marahea, 267
Poroa, 69
Portalegre, 496
Port Mahon, 427
Porto, 478
Portugal, 469
Potensa, 308
Poaaaoli, 290
Prato, 263
Prereaa, 126
Priarend, 126
Procida, 291
Pruth, 169
Pnigoerda, 436
i PyloM,66

Pyreneea, 420
Pywoa. 67
Pytiuaea, 424. 426

Quoluz. 488

Raacia, 129

Ravenna, 228

Reggio, 294, 800

Remoaa Paaa, 464

Reni, 169

Reno, 208

Rhium, 63

Rhodope, 136

Riaa of Oalida, 464

Rimini, 222

Rioja, 448

Rio Tinto, 406

Riviera, 230

Rocca d'Anfo, 860

Rodoato, 108

Roman Campagna, 266

Rome, 274

Ronda, 413

Roaaa,437

Uota, 406

Rumania (Roumania), IM

Kumaniana, 162

Rumili-kavak, 104

Ruphia, 63

8ado,492

Magre8,493

Suimtum, 423

S^imanoa, 388, 380

Salamia, 66

Salerno, 302

Saloniki, 109

Salpi, 306

.Salvaterra, 482

Samothrace, 96

San Fernando, 410

SanlOcar, 400, 410

San Marino, 284

Santa Maura, 77

Santander, 448, 468

Santarem, 490

Santiago de Compoatela, 460

Santofia, 468

Santorin, 72

SSo Jo&o da Foa, 479

Saragoaaa, 434

Sarayevo, 130

Samo, 303

Sciacca,330

Scutari, 116, 136, 180

ScyroB, 70

Sebino, 200

Segovia, 389,890

Segre, 431

Segura, 416, 417

Serbelloni, 201

Serohio, 242, 263

Serena, 391

Sereth, 169

Serra da Eatrella, 474

Serra de Moncbique, 492

Serra do Oerea, 474

Servia,172

Serviana, 110

Set&bal, 490

Seville, 409

Sbil, 168

l^oily, 309

Sierra Morena, 396

Sierra Nevada, 396

Sil.466

804

gflvMh m

Sobiwbe, 430
Hofla, 148
Boria, 387
Spain, 360
Bpaniarda, 878
Sparta, 68
Spartaiu, 65
Sperohiuis <0
Spesia, 89, 287
Sphakiotea, 9a
Spoleto, iS-i
Sporadea, 70
St. Florent, 86^
Stromboli, 388
Strymon, 136
St. Sebastian, 448
Stymphalus, 61
St. Yuste, 381
Styx, 67
SuUna, 188
Suliotea, 119
SybarLi, 808
Syra,74
SyraouM, 827

Tafalla, 447

Tagliamento, 191, 20A

Tagua, ae« T^o and Tejo

Ti3o, 383, 482

Tula vera de la Reina, 891

Taranto, 307

Tarragona, 486

Tayira, 496

Tavogliere of Poglia, 286, 299

Taygetiut, 68

Tejo, 482

Tempe, 111

Tend, 470,282

Thairit,406

INDEX.

Thaaoa, 04
Thebes, 66
Thera, 72
Therapia, 103
Thennia, 71
Thermopylu, 60
Theaialy, 98, HI
Thomar, 489
ThnK!ia,98
Tiber, 267, 268
Tierra de Campos, 865
Tirgovist, 170
Timova, 188
Tivoli, 271
Toledo, 890, 89S
Tolowi, 447
Topino, 269

Torres Vedraa, 488

Tortoaa, 486

Tn^an'B WaU, 161

Trani, 306

Transylvanian Alps, 167

Trapani, 826

Tnurimeno, 264

Trichoma, 48

Tripolis,66 .

Tripolitita, 66

l^illo, 891

Tudela, 448

Turin, 224

Turkey in Europe, 87

Turkish Empire, 161
Turks, 147.
Tnmu Severinu, 170
Tuscans, 248
Tuscany, 289
Tny, 469
Tyrrhenian S«s, 248

medB,407

Urbino, 288
Vtrora, 409

Valdeon, 460

ValdonieUo, 866

Valencia, 418, 419, 423

Valladolid, 888

Vardar, 186

Vendetta, 867

Venice, 202, 207. 220

Verbano, 197

Vergara, 447

Verona, 220

Vesuvius, 28b, 291

Vianna do Oastello, 479

Vigo, 469

ViOcof, 169

ViUa do Oonde, 479

VUlanova de Portimfto, 494

Villa ReiO, 480 , ^.

Villa Real de Santo Antonio, 495

Vitosh, 182
Vis£u, 481
Vo«titBa,67
V6uga, 476
Vuloano,883

Wallaohiana, 120, 168

Talomitsa, 161
Yanino, 116, 126
Taasy, 168
\uruks, 107

Zamora, 388'
Zante, 79
Zaragosa, 484
Zesere, 482
Zinsares, 114, 119
Zyria,67

SND OF VOL. I.

UEApll

mmflmmmmfmmmat

ii|. .B' iliii I I i.iMii

^ i mt}iW}

^ ' ."'!' ' .^-i'i.;ijj.W ! jaM^" '

bo, 28S
mi, 400

leon, 4M

loniello, S66

Diici*, 418, 410, 433

ladolid, 888

dar, 18«

idetU,867

lice, 203, 207, 320

iMao, 197

gM%447

olu^330

uviiu, 28b, 201

ana do Outollo, 479

[0,469

tat. 180

U do Ooode, 479

lanova de Portimlo, 494

]aBMl,480

la Real de Saoto Antonio, 495

»ab, 183

■£tt,481

ititia,67

ittga,478

doano, 88S

^Hn «t»Ut,«i, 120, 188

domitaa, 181
mino, 116. 12S
iMjr, 168
lundn, 107

uuon, 888
inte, 70
aragvia, 484
esere, 483
inaarea, \14, 11*
i7ria,07

tt ii «m