^^^* IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ^'^4*^ i.O 1.1 125 lis ^^ W^M Ui Uii 122 :s[ u£ 12.0 u u ||l-25 llliL |l.6 «l 6" » Hiotograidiic Sdences Corporation 23 WIST MA«N STRUT VVIBSTn,N,Y. :*zw (71«)t7^-4S03 '^ i CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHIVi/ICIVIH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Instituta for Historical IVIicroraproductions / Institut Canadian de microraproductions hittoriquas Tachnieal and Bibliographie Notaa/Notaa tachniquaa at bibliographiquaa Tha Inatituta haa attamptad to obtain tha baat original copy availabia for filming. Faaturaa of thia copy which may ba bibliographicaily uniqua, which may altar any of tha imagaa in tha raproduction. or which may aignificantiy changa tha uaual mathod of filming, ara ehackrd balow. □ Colourad covara/ Couvartura da eoulaur pn Covara damagad/ Couvartura andommagAa □ Covara raatorad and/or laminatad/ Couvartura raataurte at/ou palllcuMa D n n n Covar titia miaaing/ La titra da couvartura manqua rn Colourad mapa/ Cartaa gAographiquaa mt eoulaur □ Colourad ink (i.a. othar ttian blua or black)/ Encra da eoulaur (i.a. autra qua blaua ou noira) r~n Colourad plataa and/or illuatrationa/ Ptanchaa at/ou illuatrationa 1% eoulaur Bound with othar matarial/ RaliA avac d'autraa doeumanta Tight binding may eauaa ahadowa or diutortion along intarior margin/ Lar«Uura sarrAa paut cauaar da I'ombra ou da la diatoraion la king da la marga IntAriaura Blank laavaa addad during raatoration may appaar within tha taxt. Whanavar poaaibia, thaaa hava baan omittad from filming/ II aa paut qua eartainaa pagaa blanclMa ajoutAaa iora d'una raatauration apparalaaant dana la taxta. maia, ioraqua cala Atait poaaibla. eaa pagaa n'ont paa *t4 film«aa. Additional commanta:/ Commantairaa supplAmantairaar L'Inatitut a microfilm* la maillaur axamplaira qu'il lui a it* poaaibla da ta procurar. Laa details da cat axamplaira qui sont paut-4tra uniquaa du point da vua bibliographiqua. qui pauvant modiflar una imaga raproduita. ou qui pauvant axigar una modification dana la mithoda normaia da filmaga aont indiquia ci>daaaoua. r~~| Colourad pagaa/ Pagaa da eoulaur Pagaa damagad/ Pagaa andommagAaa Th to □ Pagaa raatorad and/or laminatad/ Pagaa raataurAaa at/ou palliculiaa Pagaa diacolourad. ttainad or foxad/ 0^ dAcoloriaa, tachatiaa ou piqutes Th po of fill Or ba thi ak ot fin ale or □ Pagaa datachad/ Pagaa dAtachtea rni Showthrough/ Tranaparanea Quality of prir QualltA in^gaia da I'impraaaion Includaa tuppiemantary matarii Comprand du material supplimantaira Only edition available/ Saula MItion diaponibia r~| Quality of prim variaa/ pn Includaa tuppiemantary material/ rn Only edition available/ Th ah Til w» Ml dif en be( rig re< mc Q Pagae wholly or partially obacurad by errata alipa. tiaauea. etc.. have been refilmed to eneure the beat poaaibla image/ Lea pagaa totalament ou pertiellement obacurciea par un fauiilet d'arrata. una palura, etc.. ont it* filmiea i nouveau da fa^on i obtanir la mailleure image poaaibla. Thia Item ia filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document eat film* au taux da rMuction indlqu* ci'daaaoua. 10X 14X 18X 22X 2IX 30X y i 1 1 12X 16X 20X a4x 28X 32X ils u lifiar ne The copy film«d her* has b««n raproduead thanks to tha ganarosity of: National Library of Canada Tha iriagas appaaring hara ara tha bast quality possibia considaring tha condition and lagibility of tha original copy and in kaaping with tha filming contract spacif ications. L'axamplaira filmA f ut raproduit grica i la g4n*rositi da: BibliothAqua nationala du Canada Las imagas suivantas ont MA raproduitas avac la plus grand soin, compta tanu da la condition at da la nattati da l'axamplaira film*, at an conformit* av*c las conditions du contrat da fllmaga. Original coplas in printad papar covars ara fllmad baginning with tha front covar and anding on tha last paga with a printad or illuatratad impras- sion, or tha back covar whan appropriata. All othar original coplas ara fllmad baginning on tha first paga with a printad or il'iustratad impras- slon, and anding on tha last paga with a printad or iilustratad imprassion. Las axamplairas originaux dont la couvartura wx papiar ast imprimAa sont fiimte an commandant par la pramlar plat at an tarminant soit par la darnMra paga qui comporta una amprainta d'Imprassion ou d'illustration, soit par la sacond plat, aaion la cas. Tous las autras axamplairas originaux sont fiimto an commandant par la pramlAra paga qui comporta una amprainta d'Imprassion ou d'illustration at un tarminant par la darnlAra paga qui comporta una talla amprainta. Tha last racordad frama on aach microficha shall contain tha symbol ^^ (moaning "COI\l- TINUED"). or tha symbol ▼ (moaning "END"), whichavar applias. Un daa symbolas suivants apparattra sur la darnMra imaga da chaqua microficha, salon la cas: la symbols -»- signifia "A SUIVRE", la symbols V signifia "FIN". Maps, piatas. charts, stc may ba filmad at diffarant raduction ratios. Thosa too larga to ba antiraiy includad in ona axposura ara filmad baginning in tha uppar laft hand corner, laft to right and top to bottom, as many framas as raquirad. Tha following diagrams iilustrata tha mathod: Las cartas, planchas, tabiaaux, ate, pauvant Atra fiimAs A das taux da reduction diff Arants. Lorsqua la documant ast trap grand pour Atra raproduit an un saul clichA, 11 ast film* i partir da i'angia supAriaur gaucha, da gaucha A droita, at da haut an bas, an pranant la nombra d'imagas nAcassaira. Las diagrammas suivants iiiustrant la mAthoda. ita ure. ] 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 ( THE BESOURCES AND PROSPECTS OF AMERICA. .Am/iofafk S/ifi [.(// /•/y/,/.s rmrm/.j / :/ . y I I n ' I I •^r-*~^t-'t-'-rr r-mr- 00 CC' o o o d ^3 Z o a ^ u o < O t. en ' o < 'niK EE8OUE0ES AND PE0SPE0T8 OF AMEEIOA ASCERTAINED DURING A VISIT TO THE STATES JN THE AUTUMN OF 1865. m SIE 8. MOETON PETO, BART. MP FOR BRISTOL. ALEXANDER STRAHAN, PUBLISHER, LONDON AST) NEW YORK. 1866. LONDON ; H. .t.AT SON, /ND TAYLOII, PRI^•T^:F^ BRKAD STREET HILL. TO MY AMERICAN FRIENDS WHO RECEIVED ME WITH 80 MUCH KINDNESS AND HOSPITALITY DURING MY RECENT VISIT Cfeis Motix ON THE RESOURCES AND FUTURE OF THEIR COUNTRY IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED. PEEFACE. During my visit to America in 1865, a large number of volumes and other documents, abounding in statis- tical information relating to the resources and progress of the United States, were placed in my hands by members of several departments of the Governmeiit and other authorities. Some time after my return to England I was asked to read a paper on America to the Statistical Society of London; and having recourse to my books and papers with a view to such a com- pilation, I found that I had been placed in possession of a mass of information not generally accessible to the British public, and which appeared to afford valu- able subjects for reflection. It was thus that the present volume arose. In its compilation I have received nnich assisuaice from American friends thoroughly acquainted Mitli tli,. various topics 1 "have undei'taken t.. trc.t, and whose Vlll Preface. ;. r 1 corrections and suggestions have been extremely valuable. * It will be observed, that I have carefully confined myself to my subject — the "Resources and Pro- spects OF America." As far as possible, I have avoided all political allusions; and I have not at- tempted any descriptions of the country, or of the manners and habits of the people, which have been rendered familiar to us by far abler writers than myself. That which I have been anxious to afford my fellow-countrymen is an opportunity of forming a more correct judgment than that at which many have hitherto arrived, of the progress, means, and probable future of the great nation on the other side of the Atlantic, with which, by every tie of fraternity, we ought to be so closely allied. In portions of this work I have drawn largely upon the several volumes of " Eeports issued by the Com- missioners of the Census of the United States, 1860." At the commencement of my task I resorted to those Reports merely as books of reference, but I soon found that, on many points, they were of far higher value and importance. For the greater part of my statis- tical information I am indebted to those Reports, and I have followed the calculations of the Census even where I have found its figures liable to be disputed. L Prefixce. IX Let me add, however, that in arriving at conclusions with reference to those statistics, I have by no means permitted myself to be led blindly by the Census Reports, or by the feeling prevailing in America which in many cases they reflect. On the contrary, -it will be observed that, on several very important topics, I have recorded my entire dissent from the conclu- sions arrived at by the Commissioners, and especially from those relating to the manufacturing industry and commerce of the country. My book bristles with figures, and I fear will scarcely commend itself to those who think that there was wisdom in the emphatic enunciation of the Eastern Pacha, who is reported to have declared to some one making inquiries relating to his Govern- ment, that he was sixty years old, and had governed a province for five-and-thirty years, but had never even thought of counting the tiles upon the roofs of the houses or the number of donkeys within his pachalik. It may, possibly, be thought by some who do not fully appreciate tho force and value of sta- tistics, tnau I have made unnecessary use of them : in reply, I havo only to observe that I have written principally for those who do find in figures a source of valuable information. In submitting the volume to criticism, not only i ■ X Prefiwe. on the European but on the American side of the Atlantic, I will only ask leave to make one elaim. However my conclusions may be judged of in America, I do claim that I have written with a friendly feeling towards a people from whom, during my visit to them, I received nothing but attention, hospitality, and kindness. 1 should be very un- grateful, indeed, did I not entirely reciprocate the feeling shown towards me by all classes in America ; and, however much my views may differ from those of many persons in the States, I trust they will find in no single observation I have made a ground on which to charge me with a want of due sense of their kind consideration. 13, Kensington Talace Gardens, London, \Wi March, 1866. ^ide of tJio one claim, fed of in 'w with a M» during attention, very un- )cate the , "^nierica ; >ni those ^viJl find 5und on Bcnse of CONTENTS. 8kctio\ I. I'OPULATlOy. ' CHAFTEK I. PRKIilMlNAllY '''*"'.^- CHAPTER^II The Population ,., CHAPTEll III. Diffusion of tiik Population .>, CHAPTER IV. Occupations of thk Pkopli.; ^^^ ( I }< /' xii Contents. Section II. AGlilC ULTV RK. CHAPTER I. PAOF. AOIUCULTURAL DEVELOPMENT 47 CHAPTER II. The Export Grain Trade 56 CHAPTER III. General Produce 66 CHAPTER IV. The Provision Trade 77 Section III. MA NU FA GTU H E S. CHAPTER I. Agricultural Implemknts OU CHAPTER II. Textile Manufactures ll'i CHAPTER III. Machinery 1^^ CHAPTER IV, (Ieneral Manufactures 144 PAOR 47 56 66 77 yy 11, 'i 128 144 Contents. xm .Section IV. \\ MINERALS. CHAPTER I. Thk Precious Mktals '{(I'l CHAPTER II. Iron, At j^r, CHAPTER III. <^«»AL Ig,.^ CHAPTER IV. Petroleum 291 Section V. C M MERC E. CHAPTER I. Shipping g^^g CHAPTER II. Imports and Exports 22'^ CHAPTER III. Internal Trade 234 CHAPTER IV. Trade with the Rritish Provinces 24G '.'/ i I 1 \ ■ 11 i , i XIV Contents. Sr.cn ON Vr. K A I L li (> A 1) S. (JIIAPTER I. Existing Lines 205 CHAPTER II. Railway Management 280 CHAPTER III. The IIailway P'utdre of Ameiuca . 292 Section VII. THE SO U T II. (JHAPTER I. Porui.ATioN AM) I'uon'.inv .'ill CHAPTER II. Southern Prohucts 324 CHAPTER III. The Future op the South .'53.5 Co))tents. XV Skotk.x VIII. CHAPTER T. Hevkn-ur and Expenditure /'AGE 351 Taxation- CHAPTEK II, 364 Section IX, Conclusion- . . 385 'h J » / I SECTION I. POPULATION. B V '■'■! ■ j f '1 i' I :j c ii w II .t; 7'( I AMEEICAN EESOUECES, S^e. SECTION I.-POPULATION. CHAPTER I. ri!ELLMIXAi;Y. TIEN I visited tlio United States in T.Krmr, (V tiic autumn of last year (iSd.j), tlie ^^•'"■ ^ Civil War — a war of unpfirnlleled magnitude and severity— had only just been brought to a termination. The position ofthe country gave rise to considerations of unequalled interest. To what extent had it suffered? how long was it likely to languish under the eft'eets of war ? It was a happy eireumstane,>, that, throughout this f',„ulitio„ i„ unequalled civil contest, peace was preserved with idtAnilJiri every foreign nation. Int(>rnal order also was main- ■ tained throughout the North :-- the laws had l.e.ni respected and obeyed. Although a million of the ].opulalion had been withdrawn from their industrial '"'•'upidioiis (o assiimo arm., tl,.. pi ng,vss of p.^reful i; J ii 1 t( Prcsiilcnt Liiii'iilu's de- scription. Sustoiitiition (if Creilit iliu'in;^- the War/ Aniericaii Resources. [Skct. I industry had not been arrested. In the words of tlic late President of the United States : — "Tlic axe has cnhirged the Lorders of our settle- " nients, and the mines, as well of iron and coal, as of " the precious metals, have [during the war] yielded " more abundantly than before. Population has " steadily increased, notwithstanding the waste that " has l)ei'n made in the camp, the siege, and in the " battle-field. The country, now rcvjoiciiig in the con- " sciousness of augmented strength and vigour, is " permitted to expect continuance of years AAith large " increase of prosperity and freedom." To this may be added the most remarkable feature of the Civil War hi the United States, — namely, the marvellous sustentation of credit in the North, through- out the whole period of the rebellion. On the European side of the Atlantic, the enquiry was constantly repeated, " When will the finances of America collapse ?" Speculations were made in the money markets on the assumption that the American resources must inevitably fail. Yet on the American side, not only was there no idea of failure, but, despite tlie increase of debt, which accumulated with a rapidity al).s(>lutL'ly unknown in auy pi'cvious history, the pres- sure of taxation was untiiuchiiigly boriii', and the payment of interest was regularly made. Nor was this all. Although tlie countiy miglit have l)een ex- pe(.'ted to have liei'U drained !)otli of men and stores, to sui)ply the immense ;irmi(.'s which were sustained, the requirements of the entire population were met without any iiiere:i;-!e of prices beyond that mIucIi re- sulled iVoni a ilepl'eeiiitiiin i')!" I he "■ULTeliey. Thl'oUgll- I Chap. I.] Preliminary, 5 out the war the nation gave evidence of rapidly of our settle- md coal, as of war] yielded pulation has ic waste that ?, and in the ^ in the con- id vigour, is irs M'ith laro'c o ■kal)le feature -namely, the )rt]), through- . the enquiry 3 finances of Made in the le American le American l)ut, despite til a rapidity y, the prcs- 1', ;ind the Nor was e Ijcen ex- and stores, e sustained, I \vere met t wjiich re- increasing wealth. Til roll gii- Proljably, the jiarallcl of this is not to Le found m Historically the world s history. All records, ot whatsoever period, show, that during fierce and desolating struggles, the populations engaged in them have .suffered fearful l)rivations and miseries, and that protracted periods have elapsed before they have been able to recover from their effects. America, which in so many respects has shown herself supi'iior to ordinary rules, has, in regard to the effects of war, shown that the heaviest and most costly civil conflict can be boiiio not only without exhaustion, but even with an increase of national prosperity. If I am asked to account for this, I can only do -i'"^ 'ittri- '' butiiblo to the SO by attributing it to the wonderful elasticity of the Kksources -r, TT a of America. Resources of the united States. In my travel through the United States in the Ainmaance •^ ^ of those re- autumn of last year, the abundant resources of the sources. country was the feature which struck me most forcibly. It appeared the key to everything else. I saw wild territories, both of forest and prairie, being cleared and populated : I saw villnges s})ringing into towns, and towns into cities, with a rapidity so marvellous, that one's first idea was to attribute it all to the work of some powerful magician : I passed through A\hole regions where every description of grain seeiiu'd to spring up spontaneously : I went over lines of railwiiy seemingly constructed for the express purpose of con- veying this produce to ports from which it could be shipi>ed to countries where there Wiis a superaljumlant >L '! i\ Hi it fV i A mt' riccf n Re so u i 'ces. [Sect. I, The National Debt. Its enormous Total. population to consume it : I passed down immense rivers, swarming with steamboats and other vessels, filled with produce : I was brought into commu- nication with the merchants who conducted the varied commerce to which all this gave rise : and, looking at all I met with, I could not fail to be struck, as a practical man, with tlic extraordinary and wonderful character of American resources, surpassing, by far, anything of which we have the slightest expe- rience in the old A\'orld, great as are our own products, and remarkable as is the industry of our teeming population. It is mainly with the desire to draw the attention of my fellow-countrymen to this remarkable feature of America, that I have undertaken the task entailed on me by this publication. But, before I enter upon any details respecting American resources, I must offer some particulars relating to the debt. Commercial men and otliers, who are abou to embark in the great trade which America will speedily open up, will natu- rally desire to look, in the first ii-st.ince, at the Dr. side of the account, and examine the extent of the indebtedness, before they proceed to consider the means the nation has at its disposal of meeting its liabilities. The deljt incurred by the war amounts to an enormous item, as expressed in arithmetical figures. On the 31 st of May, 18G.5, at which date the war may be taken to have ceased, the public debt of the United States was oiiicually declared by j\lr. McCulloch, now Secretary of the Treasuiy, to amount to $2,(j3.'5,205,75;3, equal, at the ordinary rate of five dollars to the pound, to upwards of :l*52 7,000,000 of English money. The [Sbct. I. own immense other vessels, into commu- ondueted the ve rise: and, ot fail to be iiordinary and L's, siupassing, tightest exjje- )wn products, our teeniino- s attention of Ic feature of i- entailed on ter ujDon any I must offer Commercial in the great p, A\'ill natu- ', at the Dr. 'itent of the er the means s liabilities, unts to an ical figures, he war may the United ulloch, now 3.5,205,753, ' the pound, oney. The <-'"AP. I.] Pt'eUmuianj. 7 interest upon this debt was comimted at $124,0:38,874, equal to i"24,i)27,775 of our money. Besides the interest-bearing debt there were, in circulation, nearly (iO'O millions of doUars (jf "Legal Tender Notes" (better knoAai here by the title of "Green Backs"), which were legally receivable for all dues to the nation, except Customs. Adding to tlie del>t ot:" .£527,000,000, the jirovision which nnist l)e niadc on account of these and other liabilities, we liave a total indebtedness on the part of the Govern- ment of the United States, in round numbers, of 63,000,000,000 (Three Thou.^and ]\Iillion DolLii's), or £000,000,000 (Six Hundred Millions) of our money. -"^ At the connnencement of the war, the National De])t of the United States amounted to only $(;5,000,000, its mi^idiu- or £13,000,000 sterling. Tiie official statements show •-'''""• its increase as follows : — 25 April, 18r>2 sr)2:'.,l>'J!j,0 l.") 1<^ „ l^'fi:^ !)••!!), l!)7,;5.")!-» -^> » li^'il l,o:»(j,yi.-).l(i:) 31 March, 1805 2,;iG(J,'JDr),07: It will be seen, from these figures, that the ijicrease of the del)t was l)yfar the greatest durnig tlu' last }(\ir of the war. Between 1802 and 18(;3 the (lcl)i increased * .Since tlii.s chapter was written, tlie 'Tioport of the Secrelary of the Treasury on the state of the Finances" for the year iSd'} has been presented to Con-'ress. ]t suhstantially conlirnis these csthnates. Tlio debt on the ."Jlst Uetolu'r, iSd:,^ incliidini;' lliu I'nited States or Legal Tender ^'oles, Avas dtMdared to he S:-',8nS,r)tl), l;?7 ; and tlie .Secretary says, "wlien all our lialnliljes shall he ascertained, it seems safe to estimate it at TIuxl Tkoiiminl MiKion Dollars." \_Vnh- jiv.-sf. fSix. Fnuinri-.] ^^ 8 Amerlcait Resources. [Sect. I. It il I I \ f /I I Rate of In- terest at which it was incurred. nt tlio rate of $1,180,1:35 a day; but between 1864 anil 1805 it increased at tlie rate of $2,094,808 a day ! Nothing can sliow more forcibly than such statistics the efforts which were capable of being made by a country which many persons considered must have already exhausted its resources. It is a very remarkaljle fact, that all this accumulation of debt was incurred at rates of interest absolutely lower than those which prevailed prior to the commencement of the war. In 18G0 the current rate of interest upon the national securities was 6 per cent. ; and it is said that the then Secretary of the Treasury was borrowing money at nearly double that rate of interest. In 1863, liowcver, the average rate of interest on the greatly increased debt was only 3 "8 9 per cent, and the highest rate (for a comparatively small sum) was only 7"30 per cent. At the close of the war, the average rate of interest on the whole debt is actually less than it was at the commencement of the war, being only 5 '5 5 per cent. 276 millions were at 5 per cent, 1,117 millions at 6 per cent., 156^- millions (or the compound interest notes) at 6'46 per cent., and 301 millions at 7'30 per cent. The two last items of the debt were convertible into 6 per cent stock in August 1867 and 1868. This appears, undoubtedly, to show a skilful administration of financial affairs. Almost the It is another noticeable fact that almost the entirety held by Ame- of this del)t is held by Citizens of the Republic. During rican citizens, ^j^^ ^y.^^,^ ^j^^ financiers of the United States were not, indeed, in a position to negotiate their securities out of the country, except at excessive and unreasonable sacrifices. The whole of the debt incurred had, there- 'M Ti CiiAr. I.] Preliminanj. 9 twcen 18G4 ,808 a day ! 3h statistics made by a must have jcumulation lutely lower Lmcnccmcnt terest upon d it is said ij borrowing . In 1863, the greatly the highest dy 7-30 per age rate of than it was ly 5 '5 5 per 1 7 millions md interest at 7-30 per convertible 868. This ainistration he entirety lie. Durino; 3 were not, urities out ireasonable had, there- fore, to be raised within the territory. It is insisted by those who have turned their attention to the ques- tion in America, that this was effected by Mr. Chase ^'^^ Cluise's •' nniuicial with great skill and judgment, and by the adoption of policy. a system which tended to place the financial position of the country on a peculiarly sound and satisfactory basis. This part of the question, however, is mainly of local interest. The principal means employed was the authorization of National or United States Banks (instead of separate State Banks), as Banks of Issue ; the circulation of such new Banks he'um secured to the public not only by private Capital, but by adequate deposits of United States Stocks with the Government. The new arrangement, which mate- rially interfered with vested interests, was, in the first instance, greatly opposed, and after a Session of eight months in 1861, Congress failed to adopt it. But when the State Banks in 1861-2, found it necessary to suspend specie payments, the country came round to Mr. Chase's plan, and adopted " An Act to provide a National Currency, secured by a pledge of United States Stocks, and to provide for the circulation and redemption thereof," upon the basis of which enact- ment the whole financial system of the country has since been conducted. In Great Britain, where our Debt is £800,000,000 Kcsolve of and the Annual Interest payable upon it £26,000,000, cmisMITiqUi- we have been accustomed to hear constant complaints '^''^"^ ^^^^ '^''^*' of "the biu'den of the del)t," without one syllable ever being uttered, that I can remember, respecting its liquidation. Nothing struck me more forcil)ly in America than the different tone of the population i «' . I if ^ 10 A merican liesources. [Sect. I. respecting their liabilities. With a debt of £000,000,000, involving an Annual Interest of (say) c€.:i 5,000,000 (nearly as heavy a payment as our own), the cry of the whole population is that " The Debt must be paid, '* and CAN be paid." " The faith of our Nation is " pledged for its discharge," is cried on one side. " We " arc financially able to pay," proclaims another party. I was referred by several parties to the past ex})erience of the nation. Thiy told me that the debt entailed l)y the War of 1812, was wholly discharged, from the ordi- nary sources of revenue, in a period of nineteen years ; and that practically the burden of that debt had never been felt by anybody, though, considering the difference in the numerical population, the cnpital wealth and the future prospects of the country, it was almost as great a debt, in proportion, as the present. In fact, from the President at WAshington, down to the humblest agriculturalist in the far West, I found but one prevailing feeling respecting the debt. Emphtiti- cally the whole population said — "It viust be paid: ■' it can be paid : it i^hall be paid : and it tviU be paid." Everybody seems to have his own scheme for effecting the object : in fact, the Americans are just now almost as great financiers as the Birmingham people used to be in the days of Mr. Thomas Attwood. In almost every town there is some Stock-broker or IJanker, or Financial Agent, who has made and published his Periotl as- ctdculatious on the subject. The most sanguin(3 ealcu- siiiiied fur its , , . <• i • -i o redemption, kite tlie payment of the amount to cover a periotl or twenty years : others estimate that twenty-five or even thirty years will be needed. The President of the United States in liis j\h%sage to Congress, and the Chap. I.] Prcliminanj. 11 B6'00,000,000, £.:.' 5,000,000 \), the cry of MUST be paid, ur Njitioii is lie side. " We notliei' party. ist expei'i(^iiee •t entailed by i-om tJie ordi- leteeii years ; ;bt had never the dift'ereiice wealth and as almost as nt. Id fact, '\vn to the I found but . Emphati- ^s'^ be paid : nil be paid." for effectinof now almost 'ple used to In ahnost ■ Bankei', or iblished his ^'uine ealcu- a period of five or evt'ii ^<-'iit of the w, and the ■Si Secretary of the Treasury in his last Annual Report, assume that "the whole will be liquidated within a "period not exceeding thirtij years." But, whatever the period assigned for the total redemption of the liability, there is but one feeling as to the necessity of liquidating it, and there seems to be but one faith in the capability of accomplishing the object. I own that, without being sanguine at the outset, Tlic Nation I at length brought my own mind to a conclusion tle^'iulblujjl'. equally strong with that of all the Americans I encoun- tered, that the Nation could well bear all her liabilities, and was quite equal to the payment of them within a reasonable period, if necessary. To this conclusion I was brought, more especially, by an examination and estimate of the Resources of the United States : the subject which I j^ropose to treat. i . I f 1 I if The Poru- LjVTION. Its unequal- led increase ; Owing to Im- migration, CHAPTER n. THE rOPULATlON. The population of the United States lias increased in tlic following rapid ratio : — 1800 5,305,925 1810 7,239,815 1820 9,G38,121 1830 12,8Gfi,020 1840 17,009,453 1850 23,191,876 1860 31,429,891 There is nothing in the old world to equal this rate of progress. The population of Great Britain and Ireland in 1800 was 16 millions, and in 1861 was under 30 millions. Since 1830 the population of the United States has increased 19 millions, whilst that of our kingdom has increased less than 6 millions. The cause of this great increase of population in America is attributable to immigration, — a cause which does not appertain to any of the older European nations. AVhilst the increase of the population in Great Britain represents almost exclusively the natural increase of a populous and thriving country, the increase in the population of the United States repre- sents an entirely different element. VUAV. II.] The Population. Id ]uis increased 5,925 ),8ir> ^,121 ),020 ),453 ,876 1,891 qual this rate ; Britain and in 1861 was Illation of the wliilst that of illions. popuhition in Lon, — a cause der European wpuhition in ly the natural country, the States repre- It has been mathematically demonstrated that if the to which ono- Uiiited States since the year 1800 had been in the jSnfpopu- same eircumstancx'S as Great Britain— that is, if there ''*t'"" i» ^l"^"' had been no immigration, and the increase of her population had arisen from natural causes only — the free white and coloured people of the United States Avould, at the present time, have only numbered 1(),4G;},000, or one-third of the whole jwesent popu- lation. In fact, it is estimated that, of the whole poi)ulatiou in 1863, the immigrants of the present century, and their descendants, number more than 21,000,000, or two-thirds of the whole. Prior to 1820, no returns were taken of the number Statistics of 18 11 181.-, 111,371 1^ .m.wo'sum'^mmmmmn \ i ■» y -ill M A merican Resources. [Sbct. I Vcai-. lnimi}{iinit,s. IHtr, 1M,410 1847 234,9(58 1848 220,527 184!> 297,024 1850 309,980 1851 379,40(5 1852 371,003 1853 308,045 1S54 427,833 Yonr. linniigrants. 1855 200,877 1850 200,430 1857 251,30(5 1858 123,120 1859 121,282 1800 153,040 Total ...5,002,414 Proportidii r)f Sexes. Deceiininl pro])ortiniif!. Of this total there were — Males 2,977,003 Females 2,035,530 Sox not stated 49,275 Total 5,002,414 This (lis])roportion of sexes amongst the immigrants maintains itself in the United States generally. At the census of 1860 there was an excess of 730,000 males over the females ; just the reverse of the case in Great Britain and Ireland, where, with about the same population, the females outnumber the males by 877,000. This is a curious fixct, as showing how wisely and accurately Providence has proportioned the sexes in different j)'^rts of the glol)e : our dispro- portion being obviously the result of emigration to America and Australia, whilst the obverse dispropor- tion in both those countries is due to their immigration of European males. Classifying this immigration in decennial periods, we find that it has increased in the following pro- portions : — [Sect. I Immigrants. 200,877 200,4.'{fi 2r> 1,306 123,12(5 121,282 ir)3,r,40 5,002,41-1 7,0)03 5,53(5 9,275 2,414 ;he immigi'.ants generally. At ss of 730,000 sc of the caso with about ihcr the males showing how proportioned } : our dispro- cmigration to Tsc dispropor- ir immigration 'nnial periods, ollowing pro- |rii.\r. 1 1. 1 Tlic Poj)iihflon. Iiiiiiii;{i'niits. Fii Uio lOycnraoniliii},' IH21) 128,502 In „ „ 1831) 538,381 In „ „ 18J!) 1,427,337 In the II yoivrs „ 1800 2,'J08,lt)4 5,002,414 15 It is of gTcat advaiitiige to the United States that Ages of Im- jhy fiir the grejiter proportion of the immigrants are of ""^''^" **• [the age at which they are hest fitted for lal)Our. Tlie records shew that upwards of 50 per cent of the whole were l)et\veen 15 and 'M years of age. Only 10 per jceut. were above 40, and only alwut 8 per cent, under 5. Great Britain and Ireland have contributed most Oonntries ilarselv to this immigration. Our own emigration winch have ' o '' f^ o contributed returns show that, between 1814 and ISGO, no less tothepopu- than 4,244,727 persons have emigrated to the United States and Canada. Of tliese the United States officials claim to have received directly 2,759,874, or, with Hhose who came througli Canada, about 3,250,000. It is certainly a fact that excites some wonder as regards our own country, that we should have been able to epare such immense masses of our population (com- ;prehending upwards of 5,04G,000) as have gone forth, tnot only to people the United States and Canada, 'but Australia, New Zealand, the Cape of Good Hope, land the numerous other possessions of Great Britain. f'That we should have l)een able to people the world in •this way, and yet have made such unequalled strides in tlie ac(piisition of material wealth at home, remark- 'ably illustrates the force of our manufacturmg power and of our commerce, as well as the industry and |enterprise of the British peo|)le. II 16 American Resources. [Sect. I. Stiitlsties. But it is not Great Britain alone wliieli has con- tributed to the population of America. It will be seen from the following table, that more or less of the population of almost every European country have been attracted to the shores of the United States. ■« ■(. i 1 1 1 1 IMMIGRATION, 1820-1860. Great Britain ami Ireland 2,750,874 (Jevmany 1,48(5,014 France 208,003 Prussia G0,432 China 41,443 West Indies 40,487 Switzerland 37,733 Norway and Sweden 3G,129 Holland 21,579 Mexico 17,7GG Spain 10,248 Italy 11,202 IJelginm 9,802 South America G,20l Denmark 5,540 Azores 3,242 I'ortugal 2,G14 Sardinia 2,030 Poland 1,059 Kussia 1,374 Weiilth in- It hiis becii ctilculated, th(High on very imper^oct thennmi-''^ (lata, that each immigrant who lands in America ynuit.^. brini>s with him an average sum of (kS dollars, or (.'lay) £i:] 12.S. sterling. But tliesi' returns were obtained from amongst tlie poorest class (.)f immigrants. Among cabin passengers thii average amount would evidently be mucin higher ; and from returns made to tlu; (Jovernment^-; of Prussia and ikivaria, for seven y(\'irs, by ciiiig' :it.~. who left iliose counlrics ',\ith otiieial i Cii.vi'. 11,] 'The Population. 17 which has con- fi. It will be I or less of the country have ;ccl States. 2,750,874 1,480,014 208,003 00,432 41,443 40,487 37,733 30,129 21,579 17,700 10,248 11,202 9,802 0,201 5,540 3,242 2,014 2,030 1,059 1,374 rory iinper^oct s in America ollnrs, or (say) wore ol)taine(.l •juits. Among )nl(l evidently made to the ir sc^'vcn yenrs, '.'.'itii iitiiciiil permission, it appears tluit they each carried to America an averao<' amount of 180 dollars, or £.'3() of our money. The United States otHcials calcidate that the inuuigrants have brought into the United States not less than 4()0,()00,0()0 of cash dollars or (say) .£8O,O0(),()U0 sterling, besides the much superior values represented by their physical, intellectual, and moral powers. The causes which have led to the great emigration Cmii5cs of the (• r« 1 TT • T fi • AIT MX'Xc hini- ii'om Lui'ope to the United States arc very various. W e (rration iinni all know that the early setth^'s in America, were impellcMl ^{',|',^>l,•^.„_'^' to seek a refuge there from religious bigotry and political ijeiiuious antl exclusion at home. Those causes are not now gene- |.ii,^jj,i^. rally operative. Tt is probable that the tide of emi- gration to America which commenced to set in strongly about 182."}, was occasioned by the opening out of tla; north-western States in that year, and by the prospect Low juicos of aflbi'il 'd of obtaining htnd in tlui country at exceeil- ingly low rates. It will be observetl that a great and sudden rise in the immigration occuired iii 18.S2. This may have been occasioned both by the success of the settlers of tlu; seven prcA'ious Vv-ars, and by the un- settled condilion of Eur.)pe at that time. Another The Fotaio accelerated movement, attributed to the loss of the jtotalo c;'o]i in hviaiid, began in 18-17 ; and for several years IVom that period the immigration was swollen by the continental revoUitioiis of 18-18, and the dis- Tlu' Coia covery ot gohl ui (.ahlornia. Alter the year 18.-)4, the emigrat'on from Europe declined, which isaserilu'd tIic veiont to the Crimean war, and afterwards to the outbreak of '\^''^,lZy'^\,,^, the Indian mutiny, absorbinu;lar<'-e numbers in Euroiiean •■'.•^^'"""''■'l iiiKiii's. Subse([Uently the constructi(»n (»f new rail- c ^'^ Sims n 1;1 I \ ■.I 1 ' i 1 i M 'i ;• I II '^ 1\ il Occupations of the Immi- grants. 18 American Resources. [Sect. I. roads created a remunerative demand for labour at home. And after 1860 the civil war in the United States, and the effects it occasioned, greatly affected the immigration. It is to be regretted that the occupations of im- migrants have not been very perfectly registered in America. Out of five millions of immigrants, the oc- cupations of tliree millions are not stated. Most of these, no doubt, were women and children, but it is also possible that a considerable number, ])eing pre- pared to turn their hands to anything, considered it undesirable to define that they followed any particular occupation. Of the .3,000,000 whose occupations are stated, we fiud the following registration : — OCCUPATIONS OJ' IMMIGRANTS. Labourers 872,317 Farmers 764,837 Mechanics 407,524 Merchants 231,852 Servants 49,494 Miners 39,9(;7 Mariners 29,484 Weavers and Spinners 11,557 Seamstresses and ^lilliiiers 5,240 Physicians 7,109 Clerfjymen 4,326 Clerks 3,882 Tailors 3,634 Shoemakers 3,4" t Manufacturers 3,120 Lawyers 2,676 Artists 2,490 Masons 2,310 Knj,'ineers 2,01 6 Teachers 1,528 m [Sect. I. I for labour at in the United greatly affected ipations of im- y registered in ligrants, the oe- ated. Most of Idren, but it is ber, being pre- ;, considered it . any particular )ccupations are s. 872,317 764,837 407,524 231,852 49,494 39,907 29,484 11,557 5,24G 7,109 4,326 3,882 3,034 3,474 3,120 2,076 2,490 2,310 2,010 1,528 CuAP. II.] The Population. 19 Ijiik'jrs 1 079 ••■•■■■••(.,(.1,1 *j*rf|w Butchers 945 Musiciiais 729 Printers 705 Painters (347 Millers G31 Actors 588 Tlirougliout the entire period of immigration, New Districts to ^ York h IS been the principal port for the reception of Smlgn'nts I in:migrants, and continues to be so to this day. This P""?/^'^"^ .|is to be accounted for by the superior facilities f of transit to nnd from that great commercial cmpo- ^-x'.nm Dut of the 8,300 immigrants in 1820, New i*di received 3,834; and out of 153,G40 in 18G0, she received 131,.jG5. Their ultimate destination is, no doubt, very materially affected by the port at which they arrive. We are not, therefore, to be surprised at finding that 8 to 1 settle in the Nor- tliern States, and that of these 8 to 1 a very laroc proportion settle in the districts most adjjicont to the place of landing. Until recently the State of New York itself contained the largest percentiigc fof English aiul Irish in comparison with the native Ipopulation. i •* ^'^^cntly, the proportions have altered. iCalifornia, ;•!! I ;h; gieat agricultural territories of IWisconsin and Mim-jsota, are now the principid re- sorts of foreigners. Wisconsin has been dcn'eloped by Proportion;. English and Irish, Minn- ota by Germans, Califbrnia v'^^!^ by the introduction of Chinese. The following table will show tlie proportions of native and foreign popuhitionp in sixteen of the prin(-ipal States of the Union : — C 2 „J^ i'ij I This taltlc shows liow laru'cly the tidc^ of inimioi-a- tioii has spread in the Northeiu in comparison witii tlio Southern States. P.iit tor the purpose of tliis Pmi^ortion of ai'o'unient, k't me show liow it lias spread in tlie latiuu most lloui'isluno- cities oi tix' State-;. 1 lak'e some o[ the most popuh)Us — those tiumix'i'ino' owr 40, ()(»() inhahitants : — tiic nifat Cities New York I'liiladcl] livook r.aii )liia Vll (.V.)'.) iniiiK^ IJoston X»!\v Orleans- ("incinn.ili . St. I 28.93 ) 21 39.22 21.71 35.88 38.31 15.71 59.7(1 [Kect. I. VUAV. II.] 2'he Pojmhitioii. 21 IS'S .V(;c()I!I)IN(i Tf) 47.!).S .... ;'..■).()!) .... 3.-5.7.S .... 25.7:3 .... 21A2 .... 2\^:^ .... 19.01 .... 18.07 2.10 1.42 1.01 1.2S l.iO l.OS 0.8(i 1(! of iuimioi-;i- iui);iiis(ni w'nh uposo of til is Hproad ill tlic liikc some, ()( over 4(),(M)() II. 17 :50 <'.) n 11 II I'lTi'fllt.i;;!' oC Km-cign. ... 47.(;2 ... 2cS.O:] ... .'50.22 ... 24.71 ... ;3r).ss ... .'3s.;?i ... 4.-.. 71 ... 50. 7(; Tntill ' i''^'' roimliition. I'()i'ci:;ii. <'l'icaKO 1O0,2(iO 54,024 P.uffalo(.V.r.) .sl,liMj .0.7,084 .. iS'cwiirk (AV«N/ey.sr//) ... 71,014 2(i,()25 Liuisville (A'-wZ/'c/v/)... n8,();53 22,018 7\lliany (XJ'.) (i2,;5(i7 21, (UO .. Wa.sliington 01,122 10,705 San Francisco 50,802 28,454 l'ro\'u]encL'(/,'h()(f('/s/,iii(/) 5(),00(i 12,570 PitLsLurn- (/'„.) 40,217 18,003 .., l.'oclicstrr (,V.)') 48,204 18,8!)7 .. 1 )ctroit {Miduijdii) 45,01 21 ,340 ]\Iil\va)iki() (H7.^•(v,/^^•//,) . 45,240 22,848 ('levelau.l (W/,;o) 43,417 10^437 ... Cliarlcstou 40,578 0,311 I'.'ivciitii.^-i^ of l'\iri'i^ii. .. 40.00 .. 40.44 .. 37.02 .. 33.73 .. 34.00 .. 17.01 . 50.00 ,. 24.80 . 30.70 . 30.20 . 40.70 . 50.40 . 44.70 . 15.55 Tliii.s we so(! that ^v]liLst the newly settled cities Increase of of^ the North and North-We.st, such as Cliicag.., Korlh' '" Milwaukie, and Buffalo, have the larov.st proportion ""*' ''^'"'^'' pp. , , T , ., -^ "^ contra.sted. ol loreign settler.s, and Avlnlst New York itself and the cities in that State have the largest nHinhev of such residents, the City of Charleston, though situated , on the sea-board and a great port of commerce, has l)y far the smallest resident foreign population of all the cities in the United States nund^ering ovci- 40,()()() I inhabitants, and conse(piently has increased in i)opula- ftion in the smallest ratio. This fact is very suggestive. I shall have to deal Tl.e C'oloure.l hvith the subject more at length when I come to speak '''"''""• especially of the Southern States. In the meantime, 1 1 may observe that I ha%e not thought it iicce.s.sarv [in this chapter to consider, at length, the disproi>or- tions between the various races in the Unitr'd States, or the variations in their respective rates of increase. As tlie information, however, is not altogether forei<.ij wm 22 A merlcan Resources, [Sect. I. t.i i 1' ;is 'U i; 1 ' II Tlirir propor- tidii ot in- crease. Iinjirovomciit of the Iniini- grants' po- sition. States chiefly selected for settlement by different nations. The Endish. to tho, subject, it may 1)o statod tlmt, in 18G0, the Free (V)Lc)Ui{Ei) i)opulation of the United States numbered 482,122, and their then Slave popuhition 3,95:3,587. The whites, between 1850 and 18()0, inereased 38 pen- cent. ; the shaves 23 per cent. ; and the free coh)ur(Ml somewhat less than 11 percent. These statistics still further sustain the position that it is to immigration thiit America owes the rapid increase of her popu- lation. Tlie great mass of the immigrants to the United States are known to have changed their circumstances for the Letter. This is shewn by the very large amounts of money remitted, annually, from America to Europe. ]')etween 1850 and ISGO no less than £10,000,000 of money is hioivn* to have been remitted through the agency of the Banks and large JMercantile houses, by settlers in North America to tlieir friends in Europe. A large proportion of this amount has, doubtless, been destined to assist relatives and friends to emigrate : but for whatever purpo.ie sent, the amount shews the extent to which the immigrants themselves profited by their settlement in the new world of their adoption. The largest numl)er of foreigners reside in the following States in the order named : New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Massa- chusetts : the smallest number reside in North Caro- lina, Florida, Arkansas, Oregon, Mississippi and Del; I ware. Tl) j^reatest number of English reside in the States of New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, Wisconsin .IS * « IIow iniicli sent tlirongh private hands is not known." [Sect. I. SCO, the FitEK ates iiumLerod ion 3,95;3,587. :;ronscd 38 per free coloured ! stiilistics still 3 immigration of her popu- io the United circumstances c very large from America no less than been remitted je JMercantile their friends amount has, 3 and friends '3e sent, the 3 imiuigrants in the new Chap. IL] The Populatio7i. 23 and Michigan : the least in Florida, Arkansas, Oregon, North Cai-olina, South Carolina, and Mississippi. Tlie greatest number of Irish reside in New York, Irish, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Illinois, Ohio and New Jersey : the smallest reside in Florida, North Carolina, Oregon, Arkansas, Texas and Kansas. The greatest number of Germans reside in New Germans. York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Wisconsin and Missouri : the smallest number in Vermont, Maine, New Hampshire, Florida, North Carolina, and Rhode Island. Thus we see that it is no distinction of Nationality Objects or Religion that makes any difference in the settlement Sned'by" of the country. What, then, do the people seek ? Obviously, the opportunity of settling themselves in districts where land can be obtained which they can cultivate v.^th profit, and where the reward of industry Is, consequently, certain. the Immi- gnmts. cside in the New York, and Massa- North Caro- iissippi and in the States 0, Wisconsin lot known.' vo V -J 't i H /i ' ArtM ofllR- I'liitcd StiltCS. Varictios of Climato. CHAPTER riT. DIFKrsiOX or TMK roi'UI-ATloN. Includixu lukos {iiul rivers, tlit! area of tlu; Ignited States is ;3,25(>,()00 S([ujn'e miles, an extent of surface larger than all Euro})e. Deducting lakes and livers, the land-surface of the country is ;},01(),370 sijuare miles, giving 1,I)2G,()8G,S00 acres of land.'"' This terri- tory is compact and contiguous. For the most part it is united by lines of communication, Avhich consist of lakes, rivei's, canals, railroads, and telegra])hs. By the settlement of California and Oregon the country has now the immense advantage of fronting the two great oceans — the Atlantic and Pacific. As regards climate, the avIk^Ic of the United Sttites is within the temperate zone. The settler, however, in selecting his residence, can have any temperature he chooses from St. Petersburgh to C^antoii. He may settle in a cold or warm climate, according to his health, his habits, his predilections, or the object which he seeks : whether he desires to farm, to fish, to hunt, to graze cattle, to cultiA ate garden lands, or to propa- gate the vine. He can select the shores of the lakes or of the ocean ; live on the tidal waters or above the ViiJc " i;t'})i)i't of S(.'(Ti'tai'y of Interior to Congross," 1, "•;;() jdiAi'. lfl.| Diffnslon of the Populalioit. 2.) f tlio United 'lit of .surface s and livers, 0,370 stjuare "■ This terri- lic most part tvliich consist ['gra])lis. By the country tino' the two Jnited States ler, liowever, teni|terature »ii. He may rding to his ohject Avhich fish, to hunt, or to propa- of the hikes or above the ross," ISi'.O. jtidal waters of nianiiificeiit rivers; and liav<' liis choice [of mountain (»r of \alh'V. Of the :},2.3(),()()() s(|uare miles, wliich constitute the The Soil. terriloiy of tiui United States, the puhHc hinds emhrace |aii area of 2,2()5,():^;j s(|uare miles, or 1,4.50,000,000 iicres. Tiiis domain eniltraces soil capahh' of yielding- the richest and most varied productions in the greatest alnmdance. Nearly one-third of this land (say 441,000,000 acres) has becm surveyed, and about J:)5,000,000 acres disposed of by sales and grants.'" riie lands are surveyed by the Government : divided fiovonnuent ;., 1- n • •! ^ ^• • ^ -\ • . divisions of into townslups oi six miles square: subdividetl mto the Lnnds. %ectioiis, and these into quarter sections of KiO ac^-es eacli, which are set apart for homesteads. The system of "squares," by Avhicli every section and quarter section is divided by lines running due north and south, east and west, precludes all disputes as to l)oun- . dary or title. As the country is filled up and settled :n(!W surveys are made, and undoubtedly one of the 'great attractions of the United States is, that there is BO l)ouiidless an exptinse of territory that the price of |land is not likely to be unduly raised by an immi- ■Jgration however great, or by other means than the Dolication of in Fl'P ■itry to the cultivation of the soil. There is no description of produce, European or riodmt [tropical, which may not be raised in this territory. [Every j)art of the country produces wealth. ■ The [Western, North-Western, and Pacific States afford abundant crops of the two great cereals, Avheat and ions. Indii in corn, with the additional advanttioe that tl le * IJciiDi't of " Cdimuissioiier of tiio Laiid ()llii;i>," ISt'iO, 2G A mci'ican Jfctiourcos. [Sect. I. :^ '^\ Settlement of Iiuiui<;i'tintii accoriiiii}^ to their Nation- alities. The " IIoiiic- Bteud Law.'' Wasres. The low price of Lund. first of tlioso is jT^atliorcMl in tlio Hummor .'iiid the otliL-r ill the fall, thus aflordiiig a double harvoHt to the farmer. The Southern and South- Western States f^row sugar, cotton, rice, tobjicco, corn, and the grjipe. Other parts of the territory afford immense mineral resources : and on the plains of Kansas, Texas, and other States, are the widest grazing grounds, and the finest herds of cattle in the world. The settler in the United States has an opportunity of selecting a locality peo})led, to a great extent, by his own countrymen. He can have either an Irish, a German, Scotch, English, Welsh, Swiss, Norwegian, or American neio;libourliood. He can be near a church of his own denomination. Freedom of conscience is complete. He pays no tithes or church-rate, except voluntarily. If he is the head of a family, or twenty-one years old, and intends to settle and become a citizen of the United States, he can receive at the hands of the G.overnment, substantially as a free gift, a "home- stead," consisting of a quarter section of a square, or 160 acres of land. Each of his children, reaching twenty-one years of age, receives the like advantage : and it is not to be despised. If, instead of taking up his homestead in a distant district, the immigrant chooses to pursue his profession, trade, or business in any of the large cities or towns, or in the country parts of the more densely-peopled States, he ordinarily finds the wages of unskilled labour at least twice as large as those he had in Europe, with, for the most part, cheaper prices of the necessaries of life. The price of Innd is generally so reasonable in [Sect. I. ■ Chap. IIT.| Dijf'iision of the Papulation. 27 nor and the le liJirvest to 'cstcrn States 1(1 tlie grape, ense mineral (, Texas, and iiids, and tlie 1 opportunity it extent, by her an Irish, 1, Norwegian, lear a clmreh conseienee is i-rate, exeept ity-one years citizen of the lands of the t, a "home- a square, or en, reaching ! advantage : lid of takinii: le immigrant business in the country le ordinarily !ast twice as lie most part, easonabje in Aiii(':ica tliat it little exceeds tlie rent piiyiible in Kiighitid. A fjiriucr here cultivates the land of others, and lives in constant remembrance of the rent-day. hi the LnitAul States, he works liis own freehold with- out fear of eviction. In Europe the labourer has little to hope for but seviM'e toil, perpetual poverty, and, as a last refuge, the union workliouse : in America, he is (a'ltain that Ik; can raine more than he can consume, and he can look forward with cheering hope to com- petence, accompanied with the security of a provision foi' each member of his family. Havino- re<2;ard to all these advantages and tempta- New Statps , . „ , . . . / adilcl to tlie tu.iis, the immense extent of the immigration iroin Union since Euroi)e becomes the less surprising. That immigra- tion, however, could only be made profitalile l)y the constant addition of new territories, eml)racing fertile lands, into the field for settlement. Between 18.'5() and 18(!0, three new States, — California, Oregon, and Minnesota, were added to the Union. The name of tlie last, perhaps, has scarcely even yet reached the ears of many people in Great Britain. Yet Minnesota, during the decade, 18.50 — 60, was one of the most flourishing of all the districts of America. jMinncoota w\as organized as a territory of the United Minnesota. States on the 1st of July, 184.0, at which period it con- tained but little over 4,000 inhabitants. The tide of population set in rapidly. In 18 GO, the census num- Rapid in- hered more than 1/2,000, and in 1864 the population StX! "**'"' was estimated at 350,000. The number of acres of ploughed land in the State, in 1850, was 1,.900 and in 18G0, 43;3,276 ; and the produce of grain and potatoes was nearly 15,000,000 laishels. St. Paul, the principal I'^ u ■ 1 I i.-J F'. t i^' 2S AiDci'n'iiii licsoiirrcs. (SKcr. I. town, miml»('n'(] 10,401 iiili;il)itiints in 1 S(»0, iniy forcti of arms in 1S(;2, slic \v;is id)i(' to contriliulc ii(> less limn 15,000 men to tlie annics ol' tin; United Stati's during- the War. WisioNsiN. The adjacent State of Wisconsin is another example of the most sur[>risini>' development. In ls;iO this State only <'ontained 5,;>1S inhahitanls. in 1S40, the population had oidy risen to (),100 ; l>ut in IS.'jO it was ;]0.>,:}!)1, and in IStJO, 77.'5,SS1. The City of The f'iiii's (if INlilwaulvie, Oil I^aki! JMicliigan, which had scarcely an existence^ a. few years ago, now numhei's 4.'3,000 in- habitants, and does the second hirgest com aud Hour shipping- trade of any city in America. (Cincinnati, in Ohio, had a population, in 18(!0, of If) 1,044 ; Chicago, in Illinois, luimhered, at the same period, 10!),2()0. Thi'se com])aratively new [)hices are the two most thrivino- and increasing cities of tlu- West. 1 sliall refer to them hereafter. IJut lot mo first speak of a i)l;ico perhaps not yot heard of in Europe, —a, town called Fort Wayne, in Indiana. On tin; nth of last October (18(J.5), Secretary ^d'Culloch de- livered a S2)ee('li to his fellow-citizens at Fort AVayne. 1 extract the following passages from his g-ra[>hic refer- ences to that hitherto almost unheard-of phice. Scrrctivry " No place," said the Financial Secretary (or Chan- (k'siiiii'i'h.inif eellor of the Exchequer) of the United States, "will Fort Wayne. « ^^,^,^, |,^, g^ j^..^j^. ^^ ^^^^ ,^^ ^^^^ AVayuc. No friendships " will ever be so strong as those I have formed here. Ciiicinniti. Cliii'a;!!). •' Fort AViiviif."' fSKCT, 1. Sdo, jind iniiy I). JMiiiiicHot.'i ' ill 1858, and, () licr tci'ritoiy, t(» lie r('|M'll('(l to (M)iih'il)iil(' of tlm Uiiiti'd other ('.\;iin]>l(' III IHIU) this III IS 40, tli(^ lit ill lyfM) it The City of (1 wjircely tin rs 4.'3,()()() ill- ;oi')i and Hour I, in 18(10, of , at the same e\v [)lact's ai'(! cities of tlie ut let me. first of in Eui'o})e, Ilia. On tile M'CuHoeli de- Foi't AVayiio. graphic refer- [)hice. tiry (or Chan- States, " will ^o frieiidslii^js forirKul here. Chap. in. I Dijl'unioii nj //„• Pojtiihffioil. 2ft I ;iiii, ;is yoii know, one of the ])i(HK'ers of this lienuti- " I'lil eity. When I crossed tlw; St. lM;ny, s\viininin<,^ my " horse hy l!u> .side of a c;inoe, on the liMrd .lime, 18;}:{, •' Fort AViiyne w;is a mere hiimlet. ft continued a few '• liiiiKhcd souls. It was a mere Indian triidiim- fort, — '■ J! mere dot of civiJiz;ition in the heart of the wilder- " ness. I'lider my own eye, ;is it were, it hecjime ji city " of neiirly 20,000 |„.,,|,|,.,_-;i city full ,,f vigour and '■ enterprise ; the si-cond city of our State. I ;im " ])roud (.f Fort Wayne, and of the noble State of liidiiina — a State second to none in the Uni(m in " her devotion to the (Jovernnieiit, iind in the oallantry " witli which her sons have defended it. 1 iini thaiik- " fid that when I crossed the mountains to seek my rtuiie, my feet were directed to Indiana, and ecially to this place." Indiana is, indeed, a remarkaLle illu.stration of tIh> State df American progress : — liulianii !lii iSOd luu' iHipiiIiitioii was 4,!S7.') i''^i" „ '2ur>-2{) I'^^-'O „ 147,178 l'"*-"'*^ „ 3t;i,o;n I'^i') „ G8r),8(;r. I-''"'" „ 988,41(i l^"^*''* „ 1,350,428 f And I must here ol)serve that wlien Secretary .ui iihistra- • M'Culloch alludes especially to t]i<> increased popii- If'tfi'^'pld^ ' latiou and prospi'rity of Fort Wayne, he only sjx'aks 5|Xui',*'' for the, whole State of Indiana, There are in that .: State upwards of l,0f)0 cities, towns, and villages: "* of which more than COO have a population ex(;eedino 1,000 each. Indiana, be it remcm])ered, is a perfectly T^^fT- ^^wpl ;jo A merlcdn Jiesources. [Skct. I. • 1 , i I II . r H' Despite tho Lirjffst con- tributions O'l men and money to the AVar, free State : settled within u jieriod of little more than thirty years. 1 say nothing lure, at present, of its extent or of its various produerions, Imt 1 eontent myself with asking where, in the whole faec of this globe, is thi .e (exeept in Ameriea^ a eorresponding advaneement to be found ? — where can you show an extent of territory so rapidly settled : so rapid a growth of towns and cities and civilization : such a conversion of mere pauperism into iibsolute wealth : such a contribution to the resources of an empire ? Indiana, first incorporated into the Union in 18 id, when she numbered a total population of less than 1()(),00(); contributed tc the armies of the United States no less than 125,000 soldiers during tlu! war, besides a large amount of treasure raised by taxation and voluntary contributions ! Where, again, I ask, is such a record to be found l And 'et, at this time, the very country of which I spt ,,!c, was, and thnnighout the war slie continued to remain, one of the most tluiviiig of the States. She stands sixth of all the States in her production of wiieat, growing nearly 10,000,000 bushels; and llfth in tlie production of Indian corn, growing upwards of 70,000,000 bushels. During tht; I'liil was al)le suiumcr of lf-:()3 tliis State was t'Xposed to a C'onffdc- bLVT '"^ '" ^'•^^^' '''^'*-^ under General John Morgan, " Iio muhtercfl 5,lo0 cavalry, with five pieces of artillery, to invade the best part of the province. Within four-and-twenly hours no less than (JO, 000 voluntct is oifcrcd their services to drive the insadei's from the Slate; and (•!' these l.'3,.'5O0 were iU'cepted, organized, and e<|ui[)[ied. In addition, large liodies of militia and niinuti' iiieii were pi"eed in the ii.'ld to defend their larni'^ Ilidi,' W progressed r.il)idiy. [SixT. I. mm t'liAi'. III.] Dijj'uHion of tlic Popalatwn. ;n le more tluiii )ivsent, of it8 )Ut 1 content L' face of this L;o^l■c^s[)onding you show an : HO rai)icl a ization : .such tohitc wealth : 1 empire ? iiion in 181 (!, I of lesH than f the United iiing the war, d by taxation igain, I ask, is ; this time, tin id tlironghout ! of the iiio.st f all the States ■ly 10,0()0,00(» Indian corn, During the; a (*()nft'(lc- ao mustercfl ry, to in vatic u'-and-twentv oifcred their itatc ; and of ind e(|ni[)[)('il. and ndnnti' 1 their I anus and homesteads, composed chiefly of squads of squirrel hunters, who turned out, armed with their own riHes. The enemy retreated and escapcnl, but the people of Indiana boast tiiat, independently of the force they contrilaited to the regular army, not less than 20,000 armed inhabitants were prepared to drive the invaders froju their soil. Such facts as these reciuire no comment. But they Cfonsidem- . . . 7 . t'""8 «iig- m raise serious consi(lerati(nis, especially amongst our- yeisted by the f , , , ^iT-^i .1 • . • ^1 i.' ext'itions of t selves at home. Without de])reeiatmg the exertions the popu- we could make, were ^^e called upon to do so, in iJij"",!^, defence vf our hearths and homes, let us regard these facts for our own benefit. We have made immense progress here in England during the last thirty years : not, pei'haps, in the way in which progress has been made in America, but even in modes more con- ducive to wealth, and to individual, if not to general, pros}>crity. Yet, in our most populous districts, where can we find the progress and the energy exhibited, in so few years, in any one part of the United States ? I'ake Lancashire, Avith a population nearly double that of Indiana, and with productions and resources, no doul)t, many times greater — what should we expect Lancashire io do under circumstances of war ? Besides e.. rnious taxation for national expenditure, could we hope to raise in Lancashire 120,000 men for external, and 120,000 men for internal warfare, or anything like that mnidter? I fear not. We boast, and with reason, of the numbei's who have joined our volunteer force, but at tlu; highest estimate tliat force conld never count above 1()0,00<> riflemen. And if not in Lanca- shire, where there is every encouragement and induce- ^^^7^ 32 A uierlcan Resources. [Sect. I. ' 1 , .«) ■■: I h! f.' i w Atfoiiipi tfilCC' tilt-' e:lll.sO i)t" tlicir ex- ertions. til raoiit to "xcrtioii in periotls of (litlieulty-— v hero the greatest exertions Avere made for the support of tlic population wlien all the cotton mills were stopped recently — Avhere else, I ask again ? Take the peoples of Hungary or Poland, Avhere the M'liolc populations liavc Ijeen fiolitino- for tb.eir liberties : what analogv can they aftord to this devotion exhibited by one small fraction of the United States ? If either of those countries could have sent 100,000 armed men into the field, besides keeping 20,000 men at home to defend their fiimilics, where w at least, to every head of a family. Where settlements are thus universal, and where ]»au[>crism may be said to lie impossi])k', it is obvious that a very ililfereiir state of feeling must exist from that whicli [irevail- in any country where the population does not exi-t in circumstances of independeiux'. The iude[)eutleiit feeling of the Citi/en of the Ujiited States is, il caunet [Hect. I, m (jjj^p, iiij DlffusioH of tin Population. 33 ■ — V here tlw ipport of the ^verc stopped :o the peoples 3 popuhitioiis kvluit analogy . l)y one small her of those ed men into at home te ivc been the ts like these the resonrees increase Nvitli A'hat shall we to the absence n'c every man dependency, nn Avant. In ins, averagin,!2 ()(),()()0 acre^ n)])roved, l>ut 000 acres U\ ) say, GO aciv> V settlements may be said vciy diU'crciit vhich prevail- ocs not exi-t e incU'peiideul 's is, il caiiiint he doubted, at the root of all his nationality. The desire to achieve liberty is great : but the determi- nation to maintain it is still more effective. Probably had the people of Indiana been as depressed in cir- cumstances as the people of Hungary or Poland, they would have been as liable to be over-run by invaders. It was their resources, and their determination to protect and preserve them, which drew forth their extraordinary exertions : not indeed proportionately more extraordinary than those of other States of the Union, but exertions which, whether we con- sider them individually or collectively, tend to exhibit in a surprising point of view, what can be done, in a moment of apparent difHculty, throughout America. And the exertions which have been made to brinsc the War to a close, are, I apprehend, only indica- tions of those whi(;h will be matle to wipe out every relic of it : from which I argue ^hat the resources and .energies of the United States are more than ample to redeem her liabilities readily, speedily, and without undue difficulty. I) I m CHAPTER IV. , The United States essentially Agricultural, as shown by the occupa- tions of the people. Numhers en- gaged ill various pur- suits. OCCUPATIONS OF THE PEOPLE. The United States is an agricultuial, a commercial, and a manufacturing country, but i^ is by no means i equally agricultural, commercial, and manufacturing. I hope I shall not wound the national esteem of my American friends when I say that I regard their country as essentially agricultural, and by no means essentially commercial or manufactm-ing. But I think their own records establish my position. Of about 8,217,000 heads of families and other individuals, whose occupations were recorded at the period of the Census of 18G0, it appears that upwarcifj of 3,000,000, or more than one-third, were directly occupied in the tillage of the soil. 2,423,895 entered themselves as "farmers"; 795,679 as "farm-labourers." Besides these there were 85,561 entered as "planters": but, I take no account of these, as I am not dealing with the Slave States in the presi-nt argument. On the other hand, the number of " merchants " and "clerks" in America, are only 300,000; ["mer- chants 123,378," " clerks 184,485,"] and of the clerk.s we must assume that a certain proportion arc engaged in retail establishments. The po^julation engaged iii manufactures do not assume a very large "roportion to the whole population. Taking all the " occupations" CuAP. IV.] Occupations of the People. 35 a commercial, by no means nanufacturing. nal esteem of I regard tlieir by no means ■. But I tliink on. Of about pr individuals, s period of the i of 3,000,000, )ccupied in tlie themselves as •ers." Besides »hinters " : but, it dealing with t. " merchants" 0,000; ["mer- d of the clerks jn arc engaged on engaged iu rgc "roportion '■ occupations" of the population in businesses winch number over 100,000 each, I find the account to stand as follows : — Farmers 2,423,895 | Slioomakcrs 104,008 Farm Labourers 795,079 j ]\rorcliants 123,378 ! Miners 14:,750 3,219,574 I Blacksmiths 11!:,3.57 Labourers 909,301 Teachers 110,109 iScrvants 559,008 i C'^'-Tiontcis .., 242,958 Tailors and Tailoresses. 101,8':8 Clerks 134,485 0,037,250 Here are more than G,000,000 of the 8,217,000 , heads of families accounted for ; and the account ui:)pcars very clearly to show the great preponderance of ngricultural over other employment in the States. This fact developes itself the more forcibly when Numbers en- • 1 1 ^ c 1 g'''g^d in pro- wo come to consuler tlie numl)er oi persons engngcd fessions and i^i the principal professional and business occupations. ^^ ^^' It will be found that they are classified as follows : — Judges and Lawyers ... 33,980 Clergymen 37,529 "Physicians and Surgeons 55,055 Civil Engineers 2(,-t37 Public Oflleers 24,093 Students 49,093 Apprentices iJakers Xarbers Ijarkeepcrs 'P)oariling-houso keepers. Pnicklayers > ] h'iukmakers lUitchers Coach makers :|Cabinet-makers 'Carters 55,320 19,00/ 11,140 13,203 12,148 14,311 13,730 30,103 19,180 29,223 21,040 Coopers 43,024 Drivers 19,521 Druggists 11,031 Gardeners 21,323 Grocers 40,070 Harness-makers 12,728 Hatters 11,047 Innkeepers 22,818 Jewellers 10,175 Laundresses 38,033 Lumbermen 15,929 ^lantua-makers 35,105 Masons ■ 48,925 Millers 37,281 Milliners 25,722 Overseers 37,883 Peddlers 10,594 Painters and Varnishers 51.095 ! ! I) 2 36 American Resc rces. [Sect. I. 1 1< . ^M\ Plasterers 13,110 Printers 23,10(5 liaih'oad men 3G,oG7 Saddlers 12,75G Sawyers 15,000 Seanipstresses 90, 1 98 Seven-eifjhths of the popu- latiun dependent on airriciiltiu'al pursuits. Iniportiiiit bearing of this fact on tlie niilional )olicy. Stonecutters 19,825 Tanners 10,491 Teamsters , 34,824 Tinsmiths 17,412 Tobacconists 21,413 Wheelwrights 32,G93 (exchisive of mariners, &c.) Some of those husiiiesses are closely associated with agricultural employment, and all of them must be more or less dependent on the ruling trade of the community. And here we have upwards of another million heads of families engaged in these employ- ments ; so that, exclusive of those engaged in sea- faring occupations, such as — Boatmen numbering 23,816 Fishermen „ 21,905 Mariners „ G7,3GO Ship Carpenters „ 13,392 (or, in the whole, more than 126,000), wc find upwards of sevcu-eujhths of tie entire population of the United States engaged in agricultural pursuits, or iu the various professions and trades materially depen- dent thereupon. I dwell the more emphatically upon this, because the consideration seems to me of the greatest import- ance in r(?gard to those questions of revenue, taxa- tion, &('., with which I shall hereafter have to deal. Amongst some parties in the country there is a cry in favour of high rates of Import Duties for the pro- tection of native manufactures. But if it appears that the manufacturing industry of the country, however important in itself, really represents so inconsiderable a proportion of the industry of America, I apprehend it will l)e admitted that the cry for protection for Ciur, IV.] Occupations of the People. :37 23,816 21,905 67,300 13,392 00), we find filiation of the mrsuits, or in teriali^ dcpcn- tliis, because eatest import- eveime, taxii- liavo to dei)l. there is a cry 3S for tlie pro- it appears that ntry, howevov inconsiderahlc 1, I apprehciul protection for native manufactures loses a large proportion of its force. During my visit to America, I was less impressed TlieAmorican with the manufactures of the country than with its tiio import- agriculture. The people of the United States are "ilc^uts taught to think and speak of themselves as a great manufjicturing community ; but this appears to me to be a mistake. The "stranger" is tohl of the vast aggregate of the annual products of their m;inu- facturing industry. He is assured that in 18 GO they amount'xl to the enormous sum of 2,000,000,000 dollars ior £400,000,000. it is to be borne in mind, however, [that this aggregate includes a vast deal that would coiisidorod. ^not l)e included in what we call " manufactures." For example, one of the principal products of Ame- rican manuflicturing industry is " flour and meal " ; of which the annual product is put down at $224,000,000. On this side the Atlantic we should never think of including the product of flour-mills in an estimate of our national manufiicturcs. Nor is this the only fallacy involved in the estimate : for, inas- much as the corn ground at the mill had already been included in the statistical estimates as a "pro- duct of agriculture," — to reckon its value, a second .time, in the form of flour and meal, as a product of imanuficturing industry, obviously gives an erroneous i. view of the real value of the productions of tlie country. In the same way with very many other items in- "Lumboi deluded in the national computations, as "products of I the leading manuficturcs of the United States/' I Thus, we find "lumber," or the products of the saw- " Flour iiiul meal," wm mmmmmmmm 38 A inericidi Rt'sources. (Sect. I. ('■ f'f I (.'lotliini. mills, put down ;it 8.')(),0()0,000 : wlicroaH, of courrto, only (lie incrcisi'd vjiliie of tlic s;nvn or planed wood over (hat of tlio loi^", tivc, or stick, ought to l)o esti- mated. We find not only 600,500, 000 jnit down as tlie value of "wool" ]iroduced, wliieh is, no douht, correct enough, hut we iind llie value: of a large pro- portion of the raw matcirial inehuh'd in a compu- tation of " woollen goods " which are set down at ,$Gi),000,000, and re]!ri)duce(] a third tinu^ in the form of "clothing" — i.e. the products of sewing machines and the industry of tailors and tailoresses, — which are set down at $70,000,000. Jn tin; same way with leather. We have not only the value of the hides and skins of animals included in the com- putation of the vfdue of agricultural productions under the head of '-animals shiughtered" ($212,871,000), hut Ave liave "leather manufactures' joiv'ited at .s72,00O,0OO, and again given to us ii: .,. form of li(ints";ni(l " hoots aud shoes manufactured," .^1)0,000,000. In none of tlu'se cases should we have u.cludeil the articles computed in an estimate of our maimfacturing jn'oductions. Aud so with a vast nund)er of other items which the Americans include in the list of their national manufactiu'es. They estimate! the value of 1)arley and ho[»s amongst their agi'icultural j)roducts, and then give us the value of their malt, and after- wards of their heer and spirits, as "manufactured produce," mider the respective heads of " spirituous liipiors" and "malt liifaors." In a still more glaring instance, they give us "pap^^'" §1 7,500,000 and re- [iroducc it in tlie form of "printing" $42,000,000. They also include in their mtmufactures the annual " .SIUH'S,'' " Sjiirits, liquors," " rrinthy' CnAv. IV.] Occupations of the People. 39 s, of course, )laiu'd wood : to be csti- )ut down as -i, no doubt, a large pro- iii a coinpu- set down at tiuKi in the 4 of sewing tailoresses, — n the same the vabic of in the eom- letions under !12,H7l,000), 'on^'ited at ., „ form of )0(),00(). In ^t'hidcd the lanulaeturing u'r of other list of their the value of ral ])ro(Uiet.s, It, and after- uanufaetured ^' " spirituous more glariui]; ,000 and re- 842,000,000. the annual I ■"4 value of all their " fisheries." According to our ideas, therefore, of what should be inchided under the head of nianufa(!tured products, it is clear that the Ame- rican computation of 2,000 million dolLirs per anntm is swollen very far beyond the legitimate estimate, and that w(? nmst very largely discount that item in order to arrive at a correct view of the value of the manu- factures of the United States. AVe are told in the "Preliminary Report of the Eighth Census," that "the production of the immense " aggregate above stated gave employment to above " 1,100,000 men and 285,000 women, or 1,385,000 " persons, l^^acli of these, on an average, maintained "21 other individuals, making the whole number sup- " jiorted by manufactures 4,847,500, or nearly onc- " sixth of the whole population. This," it is added, " was exclusive of the number engaged in the produc- " tion of many of the raw materials ; in the distiibution " of their products, such as merchants, clerks, dray- " men, mfuiners, the employes of railroads, expresses, " and steamboats ; of capitalists, various artistic and " pi'ofessional classes, as well as carpenters, bricklayers, " painters, and the mem '' the industrial arts, not " classed as manufticturero. it is safe to assume, then, " that ouc-th'tnl of the ivhole 2^opulatioR is supported, " directly or indirectly, by manufocturing industry." it is ob\ious that this is a most exao-ojerated view. If such a mode of estimate was correct, it might, indeed, be far more truthfully and properly said, not that one-third, but that the whole population is su])portod, directly or indirectly, by ma: .ufacturing industry. For, according to tl:.. '.nierican view, there " Fisheries," included in the aggrefriito of " American nianu- factures." The estimate 0* the Census as to tlie numbers en- gaj^ed in manufactures based on a fallacy. SB 40 Ame ricioi licsources. [Sect. I. ii ;>i; iii. The munliors asssumed to be " iimin- tiiinecl ■' by luannfiic- tiiriiijr in- dustry e|U!illy erro- neous. i«, I suppoHe, no article of i)i'oduce wliich, in some form or other, docs not enter into manufactures. If the flour-miller is to be classed as a manufacturer, why not the baker and the pastry-vendor ; if the painter, why not the cattle-dealer, the butcher, and the cook ? But the idea is obviously carried to the point of absurdity. "The employes of railroads, expresses, and steam- boats" are regarded as quasi-manufiicturers because they are engaged in " the distribution of manufactured products," But, ijiasmuch as the tonnage of agricul- tural and raw j^roducts on railroads, in steamboats, &e. is, at least, I suppose, 20 to 1 of the tonnage of manu- factured goods, ui)on the same principle all these should be classed as agriculturists. " 4,847,500 persons, or nearly one-sixth of the whole population " is claimed as being cUrecthj supported by manufacturing industry, because, it is said, "each of the workers in manufactures maintains, on an aver- age, two and a half other individuals." Now, I venture to doubt this altogether. It is not averred, nor, as the Americans express it, is it even "claimed," that the individuals directly employed in manufacturing in- dustry are all " hea(l"> of families." On the contrary, we know very well tliat a veiy large proportion of those who are engaged in manufactures, especially in the manufacture of textile faljrics, are very young persons, — members, and not heads of fjimilies, — and that their weekly earnings hyq, in a vast majority of cases, only sufKcient for their own sup])ort. But, besides this, we know that the entire popui, iion of the United States which i.s able to Avork is fully employed. It is, therefore, a fallacy and error to put down " (ir<> [Sect. I. some form 3S. If the ;r, why not lintcr, wliy ook ? But absurdity, nd stcam- TS l)ecau.sc inufacturcd of agricul- mboats, &('. re of manu- 3 all these >f the whole f sujiported said, "each on an aver- vv, I venture ed, nor, as imed," that cturing in- \c contrary, ^)ortion of pecially in very young lilies, — and m;ij(jrity of )ort. But, . lion of the ^employed, lown " (h'o Chap. IV.] Occupations of the People, 41 and a half other individuals," as " maintained " by the wages of each manufacturing labourer. I venture to believe that nothing of the sort obtains in the United States. Where heads of families are exclusively employed in manufacturing industry, no doubt they do support, and perhaps principally maintain, two and a half other persons, or even more. But this does not and cannot apply to the whole of the persons so employed, and hence the calculation embodies, in my opinion, a complete error. 1 cannot, indeed, understand upon what principle Realpropor- tion of the even 1,385,000 persons are computed as directly en- population gnged in manufiicturing industry in the United States, nuumfac-" 1 1 is only by including all the fishermen, blacksmiths, j"'^?^ "^" carpenters, tailors, shoemakers, mantua-makers, seam- stresses, painters, varnLshers, printers, hatters, masons, mariners, millers, sawyers, lumbermen, and handi- craftsmen of every sort in the community, that any- thing like that aggregate can l)e arrived at. If we take the Census-tables, and regard the numljers stated to be engaged in what may be properly regarded as manufacturing industry, we shall find that they fall very far short of any such calculation. The following are the principal figures, as far as I can gather them : — iMiners 147,7.50 Factory himds 87,289 Machinists 43,; 2-1 Weavers 3G,178 Moulders 17,077 ]\laiiulactuvers 1 1,283 Jewellers 10,17.5 I doubt A\hether I ought to include the last-mentioned aiiv more than shi[)-carpcntors, shoemakers, or wheel- *f ■■■■ !:;: II . '? Y ?"; f j: ^ ; [ 1' !, , K 42 A me rivan Re sou rces. fflKCT. I. Priiicii);)! Avri^lilH ; l)ut jih jcwclcry is iit llio ])rosont limo cljiimod lo Ik; ii, very coiisidci'iiMc item dI' Aiiici-icjin uinnu- riicliiriiiL!: production, I put down tlic iiundx-r ciii'jiuft'd ill (li.'it bu.sincHS. I5ul, even including IImh r.IasH, wo find lliiit tii(! (otal ])oi)ulation »'Mna_ti;('(l in inannfaclurcfj {infliii/liHj Minin,0()0), us stilted in i\w " I'reliniinaiy lleport," is, in reality, less than ihwo. hundred und fifty-four thousand (iJf) 4,000). y\nd of this number by far tlio largest proportion is engagi'd in j\fiiiinif, and not in 3Ia)inf(ieturii)(j in- dustry, [»roperly so called. Many branclies t)f niauufjicturing industry in "rS'T'S Ani(M-ica, are, at the jnvsent tini(>, very little dcve- yiatia. lojH'd. The manufactures of wliieli they chielly speak are those of agricultural implements and sewing maeliines (of both of wliii^li tliey arc justly proud) ; of cotton and woollen goods (in the production of which they have been making very rapid advances) ; of furni- tur(>, clocks, jewelery, and musical instruments (with which they now mainly supi)ly themselves), and clothing and boots and shoes, which a (piarter of a century ago were almost ;dl imported, and which arc now almost iMJtirely home-made. r>ut there arc^ other articles oi Euro])eaii manu- facture, which the ])eoiile of the United States almost exclusively import. Their iron and steel waivs arc almost wholly takiMi from England : so is their earthcu- vvarc! and glass. They draw large quantities of silk ma- nufactures from Great Uritain and Francje. AVe supjily them also with the better classes of machines, jilthouah they maiuifactiu'c the inferior instruments very largely. tiirod Mi'tii'los wliii'li tliry iiii|i()i't. ISkct. I. (!nAi>. IV.] OccfipntiOnft of the Peojdc. 43 indiistiy in little (levo- cliiclly speak iiiid sewing y proud) ; of ion of which s) ; of furiii- nu'uts (with luUdothing ceiituiy ago uow almost leaii mami- >lates almost '1 wares arc leir cartheu- s of silk ma- We supply les, although very largely. .Iiidgiug from the small miml)cr of instrumont-makers, t\viu(smakers, shot-manufacturers, paiiit-maniifacturers, chau(h'lier-manufa(;tur('rs, and such-like trades, I should apprehend that l>y far th(! larger proportion of the articles produ<'cd in those hranches of manufacture ^vere imported fiom lunopc : and, indeed, it will bo found, if our own list of exports is carefully examined, that Great IJritain has heeii accustomed to export to the United States large and increasing (piantities of mauufac;ure^ ;n the other Chap. I.] Agricultural Development. 49 and we do, produce a husthel of ivheat at much less but the priifluce cost than the most scientific farmer of Lngland can, supoHor, by the most approved method of cultivation, even if he paid no rent." The following figures show the increase in the Natnro of number of farms in the enclosed acreage of the country in America, between 1850 and 1860 : — Acreage in Farms. 1850. I860. Number of Farms of 3 acres and upwards 1,449,073 113,027,514 180,528,000 203 2,044,077 103,110,720 244,101,818 194 Acres of Improved Land in Farms ,, Unimproved Land „ Average No. of Acres to each The farms in the United States are chiefly of from ^y.o of tiie 20 to 100 acres. Thero are not above a fifth of the ' whole number which exceed 100 acres, and there are only about 25,500 which exceed 500 acres. The f largest properties were held in the slave States, espe- f cially in Virginia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Louisiana, Georgia, and Alabama. The greatest pro- portion of small properties, as might be expected, are to be found in the more densely-peopled Spates, such as New York, Pennsylvania, Maine, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts. In those States the average number of acres to each farm does not much exceed, ;; even if it reaches, 100. In the State of New York the ■ average is 106 acres — in Massachusetts only 94. In I these States a very large proportion of market-garden i| and dairy-produce is cultivated. The State of New York contains the largest number IS, " we can, i of ftirm properties, and the greatest average of improved E Tlie Western Stiites out- 50 American Resources. [Sect. II. ; '{ «%• stripping tho l.inds. It has over 197,000 distinct properties on wliicli 14,358,400 acres of land have been improved. In respect of improved land New York stands at the head of all the States ; but during the next ten years it may- be expected that, in this respect, she will be outstripped, the State of Illinois having, between 1850 and 1860, thriven so remarkably as to tread very closely indeed on the heels of the Empire State. The advance of Illinois is most surprising, and I cannot better exem- plify it than by placing in contrast tho statistics of New York, one of the oldest, and Illinois, one of the youngest, States of the Union : — 111 i Illinois the larjfcst Wheat produi'ii'.g Stace in the Union. Number of Farms . . Acres of Land Improved Ditto Unimproved . . 1850. 1860. Now York. Illinois. New York. Illinois. 170,621 12,408,904 6,710,120 76,208 5,039,545 6,997,867 196,990 14,358,403 6,616,555 143,310 13,096,374 7,815,615 Great pro- gress of tiio Western States in Wheat gi'owini;. Bat this is not all. Illinois between 1850 and 18G0 grew into the largest WHEAT-producing district of the United States. Pennsylvania stood at the head of the wheat-growing States in 1850, her produce being fifteen million bushels of wheat, whilst Illinois only produced 9,500,000 bushels. In 1860, however, Illinois produced no less than 23,000,000 bushels, or more wheat than the States of Pennsylvania and New York put together. As wheat-producing countries, the Western States made, indeed, the most remarkable progress during the decade. What can be more wonderful than tho details shown in the follow in o' table : — ( [Sect. II. ies on which proved. In \ at the head years it may ! outstripped, )0 and 1860, losely indeed 5 advance of better exem- statistics of s, one of the Chap. I.] Afjricultund Dtvelopment. dl I860. York. Illinois. 6,990 143,310 8,403 13,096,374 6,555 7,815,615 150 and 18G0 istrict of the head of the ; being fifteen Inly produced Lois produced wheat than Iput together. ;stern States 3S during the 11 than the WlIKAT PUonrCE OF WlCSTKIiN Statks (ill 1'umIicIs). 1850. 1860. Illinois 9,414,575 0,214,458 4,280,131 1,530,581 4,925,889 17,228 1,401 23,837,023 10,848,207 15,057,458 8,449,403 8,330,308 6,928,470 2,180,993 Indiana Wisconsin Iowa Michigan California jVrinnosota The produce of 1^50 and 1800 con- trasted. In 1850, the ten States classed as Western States, with a population of 6,370,000, produced 46 million bushels, or 71 to each inhabitant: in 1860, with a population of 10,219,000, they produced 102 million bushels, or 10 to each inhabitant. The increase of produce, therefore, largely exceeded the increase of population, though the population had increased more than 50 per cent. We shall see, hereafter, that greatly as the means of transport had increased, those facili- ties were far from keeping pace with the increase of production, and the consequent requirements of the country. The prices obtained for corn by the wheat-growers in the Western States materially depend upon the demand for corn in the European markets. An unfavourable crop in Europe naturally occasions a rise in price in America. Prior to the outbreak of the Civil War, complaints were beginning to be made that the growth of Wheat was comparatively imremuncrative : but the large demand occasioned by the War, and the high prices consequent thereon, naturally abated those complaints. In point of fact, the AVestern farmer litis been receiving prices fur his produce, during the hist L 1 Increased 1)ro(luction arnd cultivated, and as ^.ate as ISS^i, that State was the oidy grain- [Sect. II. )f wheat in rd, America half. has always rly in her 5 of Wheat, the growth e Atlantic, onsiclerabie 3, and there Portugal — il are con- ; best grain- 5 that the cgan to be Mississippi the north- mal which with Lake the United Drought by with the rough the avenue," world to hant." slow. A fact to be on Lako cultivated, lily grain- CiiAp. IL] The Export Grain Trade. 59 exporting territory in the West. Michigan soon fol- Michigan, lowed. The first shipment of grain on the lakes of which there 1j any record, was made in the year 1836, Ylvst Sbip- when the brig John 11. McKenzie shipped, at Grand "he"Likcs'! HavcE, Michigan, 3,000 bushels of wheat for the port of Buffalo. It was mentioned in the last chapter, that the first Chicago and shipment of grain from Chicago, consisting of 78 bushels of whor.o in 39 sacks, was made in 1838. The first shipments from the State of Wisconsin were made three years later, in 1841. These shipments consisted of about 4,000 bushels of wheat, purchased at Mil- Milwaukie. waukie on Canadian account. Milwaukie, which was scarcely inhabited five-and-twcnty years ago, now ranks as the second largest grain-shipping port in America. It is interesting to note the rapid rise and progress of that city, as shown by the following account of the shipments of grain and flour : — GiiAiN AXD Flour siicpei) ijiom Milwaukie, Wis. 18U 4,000 bushels. 1W5 113,200 „ 1850 820,03.3 „ 1^^2 1,772,7:.3 „ 185.5 3,7.58,900 „ 18G0 9,9!).5,000 „ 18G2 18,712,380 „ Rapid in- crease of Shipments from Mil- wuiikie. In 1848 the Illinois and Michigan canal was com- Development plctcd, opeiii.ig up another great field of cultivation in the State of Illinois. In 1849 the era of railroad communication was inaugurated l)y the opening of the Chicago and Galena Tniou Ilailroad, traversing a widely mimmmmmmwmmmmm « ; , /' f-; !:■ jf 4 1 1 1 i 1'' I i j , 60 American Resources. [Sect. II. cultivated district. This line of railroad led to a • great and rapid development of the country wLich it traversed. In 1863, nearly eleven and a half million bushels of grain were carried over this line. Shii^nicnts of The total shipments of grain and flour from ports on ports"onLake Lake Michigan up to the most recent accounts are Michigan. shown by the following table. The great bulk of these shipments haV" no doubt, been from Chicago, the great export port of Illinois, but some other ports contribute to the total. ?^iiii'Mi;ni>; Eastwards fkom Mioiiicax IViurs. IHm 27,879,293 Lushuls. 18.59 25,829,753 „ 18G0 43,211,448 18()l 09,489,113 1802 78,214,075 1803 74,710,004 The produc- tions of the^e States tained and incretused Huch a record of progress is probably unparalleled. The production of grain in the North Western States of America is estimated to have increased from 218,463,583 bushels in 1840, to 642,1:20,366 bushels in 1860. The eight food-producing States west of the lakes, emlmice an area of 262,,) 49,000 acres, of whieh • >nly 52,000,000 acres were under cultivation in 1860. Having regaitl to the r;ii)id })rogress of cultivation, tind the immense extent of territory remaining to l)e tilled, I think it is not to be (jucstioned that there is ample room and scope for increased production. In fact, I look upon the ex})ortation of grain from these States as only to be Innited l)y want of facilities for trans- ]K)rtation. Some American writers apjiear to fancy [Skct. II. j oiiAP. II.1 The Export Grain Trade. led to a y wLieh it ilf million m ports oil ;coimts ar(3 it bulk of a Chicago, other ports ;ls. Uparalk'led. tern States ised from (jG InisheLs west of the , of which u ill 1800. atioii, {iiid )e tilled, e is ample 111 fact, I lesc States for traiis- to fancy () 61 that the supply of corn from the Western States will not, presently, equal the demand. 1 am only anxious that the supply should not be checked by want of a sufficient demand. If there is a sufficient demand, and if there are facilities of transpt meet that demand, the resources of these States ar such, that for the next century at least there need be no apprehension of insufficiency of supply, except from some blight or scourge of nature. Prior to the opening of the Erie Canal, the only outlet to the ocean from the North Western territory was by the river IMississippi. During the progress of the Erie Canal it w\as predicted that '* it w^ould never pay," for that " the trade would follow the rivers," and was not likely to be diverted across the con- tinent. It has turned out, however, that the arti- ficial channels of trade, the canals and railroads, have completely diverted the course of the traffic. There are various causes for this. The principal, no doul)t, is the increase of the corn-consuming population in the States of the Atlantic, Other causes are t of tht> most remarkal)1(> transitions in the grain to meet any demand, Facilities of transport. Diversion of the trade from the rivers. Causes of this ehanjfe. The Oniin Tnide of California. m 62 Ame rlcan Resources. [Sect. II. Vi', •i ■ •'«. ,'. ' I; / 'f Hi California a wheat export- ing country. The future gransiry of the Pacific. Exportation in proportion to produc- tion, trade has, however, occurred in California. When the •first rush to the gold diggings occurred, the entire population of that country was dependant upon import for breadstufi's. Eiches, other than gold, have, how- ever, been found upon this soil, and California has now actually become a wheat-exporting country ! Almost every mail from the Pacific conveys intelligence of one or more ships laden with wheat having sailed from San Francisco. In 1861, the export of wheat from San Francisco amounted to 2,379,017 bushels, valued at $2,550,820; and the export of flour to 186,455 barrels, valued at $1,001,894. The cereal exports of California are therefore yielding her a revenue of at least £700,000 a year ; a most remarkable fact in the history of so young a State. It is probable that at no distant period, California will prove to be the great granary of the Pacific Ocean. In 1863, California is estimated to have produced 11,664,000 bushels of wheat, and 5,293,000 bushels of barley, besides 1,057,000 bushels of oats, and other grain. It will, therefore, be seen that the quantity she ex- ported was limited in proportion to her produce. And this, it will be found on examination, is true not only of California, but of the United States at large. The entire export of grain from the United States, at the present time, does not equal the total product of any single State in the Union. For instance, in 1860, the single State of Illinois produced 23,837,023 l)ushels of wheat ; whilst the whole export of wheat from the United States to foreign couuti'ies, (including flour reduced from wheat) was only 17,21:^,133 bushels. Of Indian corn Illinois [troduced in the .same Chap. II.] The ExpoH Grain Trude. 63 year 115,174,777 bushels, whilst the whole export of that description of grain from the United States amounted to only 15,448,507 bushels, — a mere fraction veryfrac- •^ ' tiona.1. of the product of one State. The following table will more completely demonstrate this position : — • American Wheat (in Bushels). Ywir, 1850 18G0 1850 18G0 Produced. Exiioiti'd. 100,485,944 173,104,924 Indian Cokn, 592,071,104 838,792,740 7,535,901 17,213,133 6,59.5,092 15.448,507 Looking at these figures it is obvioxi.s that, large as is the exj)ort trade of the United States, it is a mere nothing compared with her production. She exports less than 40 millions of bushels of corn, out of a pro- duct of upwards of 1,000 millions! Yet it is a fact that the price of wheat in Prices in -nil 1 • f. America Jiingland governs, to a very great exi:ent, the price oi wheat in America. The farmer, naturally, looks to the best market, and the price he (^;ui ol>t;i:ii in that market reg-ulates the price at which he offers his product in any -^ther. Thus it comes that, throughout the United States, the aspect of the weatk<.>r in Engly the deep xnow-fall in the FW'Vere winter months, comes forward rapidly in the '•(i(»l weather of tlie spring, and is just sufficiently advanced inul full of sap when the dry, hot summer innnths commence, in wJiieh it perfectly matures. It is seldom, indeed, that AnK'rica has nut sufficient sun to mature the heaviest crops, to elaborate the juices of the plant, and to give the grain the highest (|uality. Simsliino. LSect, II. Mr. Reiiter's ly record, to r population, Canton and t gives that hich enables ^ain with so itself, it will cultivation, ; the crops ' harvesting il performed cheapness of 3riority as a Cur. II.J The Export Grain Trmk. or, Not that it is intended to be argued that tlie quality of American wheat is all superior. Very f\ir from it. What Nature has provided is too frequently lost l)y man. In many parts of the United States, the harvest- ing is very slovenly and much more care is required in threshing and cleaning the wheat. Too little at- tention, moreover, is paid to the qu;dity of the seed : and, as far as the cultivation is concerned, it has already been observed th[it the growth is almost spontaneous. Jn point of fact, labour in these grain-growing districts is so costly, that the fiirmer has only himseff and his femily to rely on ; which goes very laigvly to account for the smallness of the holdings. Oliarncter of tilt' IiiirvcHt- iiij.- ill Aiiit'ric'ii. will supply ibined with ined where id, the best . In Cali- have com- valleys are wheat in fall in the dly in the sufficiently 3t summer fitures. It ficient sun le juices of ipiality. -'^.■ yoau^ i f'' i i 1 t f ' 11 General List of the Affri- cultural Pro- ducts of the United States. CHAPTER IIT. GENERAL PRODUCE. Besides Wheat, there are various agricultural pro- ductions of the United States, which almost wholly enter into home consumption. The following li"«t of the products of the country may not be unacce|)tal)le. AonicuLTunAi. PnonrcK of tiik United States.— 1860. Cereals. "Wheat Bushels. 173,104,924 Indian Corn „ 8:58,792,740 Oats 172,(54.3,185 Barley „ ir),8-'5,898 Enck Wlicat „ 17,071,818 Teas and Beans 1.5,0()1,99.5 Eye , 21,101,380 Roots. Potatoes Bushels. 111,148,807 Sweet Potatoes „ 42,09.5,026 OtIIKR PliODrcE. Orchard Produce. Value Dollars. 20,000,000 Market ditto „ „ 16,159,498 Wine (iallons. 1,627,242 Wool lbs. 60,264,913 Butter „ 460,000,000 Cheese „ 103,663,927 Hay T.nis. 19,08.3,890 Clover 8eeil Bushels. 956,188 Grass Seed „ 900,040 Hops lbs. 10,991,996 Hemp TouK. 74,493 CiiAr. III.] C/ciifral Pr<>(hic(\ o: tural pro- 'St w] lolly ng li^t of 'cpptalile. 1860. 17.3,104,924 H:?S,792,740 172,()43,185 ir),8:.'r),898 17,071,818 15,0(51,995 21,101,380 11,148,807 42,095,026 20,000,000 10,159,498 1,027,242 00,204,913 00,000,000 03,003,927 19,083,890 950,188 900,040 10,991,996 74,493 I Flax ll)s. Flax Soed J'.usIr.Is. SorTiii;i:\ Pconrci',. Tobacco 11 151. Jvico ,, (iiiinod Cotton llnlcs nIMOO llis oinli. Silk CocoonJ< lbs, Sl-CCADKS. ^Fnple 8tiid increase of a foreign population, there ha.H l)een latterly an annually in(;rease(l demand for bnrl» for m.'ilting pur- nsci fuinialt- poses, and tlie inici lor it is said h' Jiave advanced "' ' more rapidly than thiit of any oidinary grain ciop. At the present time, wondci-ful to narrate, Oalifornia raises Onnvtli of the largest barley cn)p of any Stat' in the Union : a sandy soil having been found favournble to its produc- tion. It is sown just before tlie November rain.i. Owing to tlie general dryness of the climate, the grain dries rajjidly as it approaches maturity, and in harvesting (.'alif.nuia. in its green stale, it is a mn.-t (l(.'li,:ioiis vegetahle. TIktb is no reason why it shouM not be i .tioduced into this country. It is clioap enougli in America, ami it i;(:u'S the voyage here. I have it ire(iuontly at my own tahle, where it is much approved. ■IP IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 4^ tr 1.0 1.1 l^|2£ 125 us itt I u •» i. WUU 14.0 m 11.25 III 1.4 1.6 Hiotographic Sdencei: CorporatiQi 13 WIST MAIN STRUT WnSTM.N.Y. MSM (7l6)t7!i-4S03 '4^ ^^ ^% ,v* ■**%^I^ v* ^ ^ s \ 70 American Resoairea. [Sect. II. Tlio " Vo- lunteer" ciup. Kyo. it " shatters out some." Tins sprouts, and again taking root in a rainy season, yields a crop whieli is called the " volunteer crop," and which is well worth harvesting. In some instances a second " volunteer crop " is pro- duced Ijy the same process, which uftbrds a fair average. Thus, even without the trouble of sowing seed, hun- dreds of thousands of busnels of barley are grown in California. Rye is not largely cultivated in the West. It is grown principally on light sandy soils of the Middle States, in Pennsylvaniti especially, not so much for the Buciv-wlieiit. ovain as for the straw. Buck-wheat is Q-rown exten- sivi'ly in the Middle and Eastern States as an article of food for sheep in winter, and it is said that there are few crops which jtroduce a better profit. " Buck- wheat cakes " are also a popular item of human dietary. Peas and Beans are raised very largely in the State of New York, and also in the Southern States — espe- cially in the Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, and Missis- sijipi. In the rest of the United States these crops are not much attended to. It is to be rei^retted that there is no se})arate return of peas and beans, for they are cultivated and used in the United States for very (UH'erent purposi'S. The bean is used principally as food for man, whilst the jx-a is [)rincipaliy used as food for animals on the farms, or for ploughing under as a green crop for manure. In the South, what is The CuwiH'a. caUed the " cowpea," is of givat importance to the agriculturalist. It occupies in the rotation of crops the place which the turnip occu[)ies hi British agricul- tiii". It giv.uts very luxuriantly, is largely consumed Peas iuiil Be.iii.-i. [Skct. II. Ohap. III.] General Proihice. n in taking tilltJ the rvesting. is pro- average, ed, liuii- •rowii m t. It is Middle I for the II exteii- n article lat there "Buck- hiunan he State s — espe- Mit^sis- rops are at there they are 01' very 3al]y as used as g under what is to the )f crops agi'icul- nsiuned by the cattle, and is also ploughed into the land as manure, for which purj)ose it is highly valued, on . account of the high percentage of nitrogen contained in it. The " cowpea " does not flourish north of Virginia ; it is, however, largely extending itself in California. The cultivation of Potatoes is a very imjiortant item Potatoes. of American agriculture. In the North, the " Irish potato," as it is there called, is the most largely grown, ^\'hilst the sweet potato is principally cultivated in the South. The produce of both is very large : in some cases quite excessive. The State of Maine in 1860 raised ten bushels of potatoes for every inhabitant, and the new State of Minnesota actually produced iieiiYlj Jifteen bushels for each of its population. The Dairy Produce of the United States is very Duiry great, and between 1850 and 18G0, it showed an increase, in butter alone, of nearly 50 per cent. The princi[)al butter and cheese producing States are those Butter, most largely settled, as New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, &c. New York makes nearly one-fourth of all the butter made in the United States, and more than one- third the cheese. Wliilst the butter product has so largely increased. Cheese, the cheese product of the United States has, until very recently, been decreasing. Cheese is said not to enter largely into the dietary of the people of the United States ; and the quantity produced not only meets the demand, but leaves a considerable surplus for exportatiim. The New England States used to produce ne;irh' 10 lb. of cheese for each individual, it Iteiut!; <'stin ;it('(l that not one-fourth of that (juan- 72 American Resources. [Sect. II. 11 h _, II'. 1/ ,1''^ II I m It i ! L' 'I •I I'l ';! Ill J Export (Jhuese. of CllC'CSO ' gl.Mxl MS ; as tity was consumed at home. The clieese exported from these States was not found, however, to meet the tastes of European customers, and consequently the manufacture languished. Very recently a " clieese factory " system has been established in the great dairy districts of the State of New York and parts adjacent. Each farmer sends his milk to the dairy, and is credited for the quantity supplied. Skilled persons are employed at the factories, to make the cheese ; and it has been found that these factories turn out an article of far better quality than used to be made in private dairies. Pains have also been tixkon to suit the requirements of the European market, and tlie result has l)ecn such high rates of profit to the farmers and manufacturers, as have very greatly stimulated the l)usiness.'"" At the time I visited the United States, this stimulus was still further excited by the accounts received there of the prevalence of the Cattle Plague in England, which, it was thought, would occasion a still greater advance in the prices of Ameri- can dairy produce. In a recent article on " (Jhecse as a Staple Article of Export," written by the St'cretary of the JNIaine Board * ^NFossrs. J. and E. Cordoroy and Co., who are amongst our largest provisiou-ineruhiints, state in their circular, under date London, 6th .laiiuiiry, 1800 : — " AVo cannot but be impressed with the increasing ajipreciation of American Cheese on the part of consumers, and the high range of price for the best sorts. The iincst " factory dairies " are equal to almost anything that can be made in England, and now that the prejudices of the public are swept away, we may expect tliat they will successfully compete with other descriptions, quality now being the test of the value of Cheese, without reference to the place of its production." i [Sect. II. exported to meet 3cquently 1 "cheese he gi'eat nd parts be dairy, Skilled tiake the factories lan used Iso been market, »f profit ^ greatly ited the excited e of the I, would Ameri- :"ticle of .' Board ir largest se only bo lolln- ;|s cotton can be cheaply produced, cotton will continu(3 to be " King." The last product that need be referred to is WiNi;. Wiue, The grape is indigenous to America, and wine is reported to have been made in Florida as far l)ack as 15G4. There is no evidence, however, that any tjuaii- tity of Avine has ever been produced until the present century. The enterprise of agriculturalists in ditferent States, has, at different times and especially of late years, led to the culture of the vine with a view to wine produc- tion ; and some varieties of American wine have obtained considerable local reputation. It is contended, and no doubt with truth, that America is as well adapted for wine-making as any other country; that she has in various parts the requisite soil, and climate, and even, in the German vine-dressers, the recjuisite skilled labour for the manufacture of wine. Admitting it all, Pmspect of it does not seem to me that the United States is likely :(^'"^'"""^» to compete successfully with other nations in r(!si)ect «'."'ppting . . ^ with those of wines, or, in other words, to become an expn was oreatly diminished in 18G0 ; but even tlien thciv were! 2 liorses to every 7 persons. The in CivUfomia. horses in California, increased from 21,719 in 1850, to ]G0,()10 in 18G0. Highly bred horses are, however, admittedly very Inferiority of rare in America, and there appears to l)e nothing in the country that compares in any way with Euroi)ean studs. The breeding of horses has not been sufficiently regarded, and consequently the race is comparatively inferi(/r. It is complained that tlie best trotting horses, " Trotters." which a few years ago were the most prized of all American steeds, are, after all, " only the highest type of the mongrel," that they get lame with half the work of an English racer, and that, "if it were not for a dash of superior blood in their veins, it would be found that after a trot they, literally and metaphori- cally, have not a leg to stand upon."""' The *' Conestoga '^^^ " Cones- horse," is, liowever as a beast of Imrden, a very highly prized animal. He dei-ives his name from a valley in Pennsylvania, to whiidi State the original stock is supposed to have been introduced by some of its earliest settlers. The " Conestoga " combines great strength, with lightness and agility. The Philadelphia and Pittsburg mail was formerly horsed almost ex- clusively with this aniniiil, and, although "young America" is said now to require a swifter horse, it is l)elieved that there is no surer, safer, or more lasting one. ■■'■ ViiJc " Iioport on Cavalry Ilorsos in America," in appendix to " Report of the Commission of Agriculture presented to the House of Representative.'!, 1803." 80 A mcrican Jiesottrces. LSkct. II. Mules and ASHOS much used in New Mexico, &c. Advantages of using mules. In the Southorn and Pacific States, mules and ASSES are largely bred as substitutes for horses. The mule is hardier than the horse ; subject to fewer diseases; more j)atient; better adapted for travelling over rugged and trackless surfaces ; less fastidious as to food; much less costly in feeding. He requires less grooming and attention, and usually lives and works to double the age of the horse, A mule is also more muscular in proportion to weight ; and as a troop of mules will follow their leader, if that leader is only provided with a bell, they require on a journey much less attendance than a troop of horses. Hence, in many parts of the United States, mules are largely used as beasts of burden ; their power of endurance and determined persever- ance enabling them to overcome difficulties which are peculiar to that class of service. The Census Report tells us, that, in America — " A good, well-bred mule will do as much work as a horse, whilst it can be kept at one-tliivd the expense. Mules are liable to fewer diseases than horses, and will bear ill-treat- ment better. For careless hands they are more profitable than horses. They require less than half the expense for shoeing ; and it is claimed that an average lot of mules can be disposed of more readily and at better prices than an average lot of horses ; and that, as they cost less to feed, and can be worked a year earlier, they are a more profitable stock to raise." All this appears to be conclusive testimony in favour of the use of the mule, especially in the Southern and less populated parts of the country, and it also accounts for the fact that the number of mules [Skct. II. Chap. IV.] llie Provision I'mdc. 81 LJLES and SOS. Tho to fewer truvelliiig fastidious J requires lives and L mule is lilt ; and r, if that f rt'(]uire a troop e United burden ; pcrsever- vvhieli arc ca — as a liorso, Mules are V ill-treat- itable than r shoeing ; s can be m average nd can be stock to mony in in the itry, and of mules and asses increased, in the United States, upwards of 100 per cent, between 1850 and 18G0. Working Oxen increased in a much smaller ratio. Working The whole increase througliout the States was only '***^"" 32 per cent. : in the Eastern States, indeed, and also in Ohio, there was a decrease in the numljcr of working oxen. This is to be expected ; inasmuch as in districts which become more densely j)eopled and consecpiently more civilized, and (in the case of the United States) more wealthy, horses supersede oxen in agricultural and other operations. Oxen, in fact, are more useful in a new country than where a higher system of agriculture is adopted : and hence we find them in larger use in such States as Missouri, Missis- sippi, Wisconsin, Texas, and New Mexico than in such States as Pennsylvania, or ]\Iarylaud, where, indeed, working oxen are not increased in number, whilst horses and mules are largely increased. The use of improved agricultural implements also diminishes the force required from working oxen, and consequently diminishes their use, as such implements come to be introduced. Thus it, no doubt, occurred that in such States as Iowa, Illinois, and Michigan, the propor- tion of working oxen to population showed a con- siderable diminution. The number of Milch Cows largely increases in Milch cows, those States which are turning their attention to dairy produce : and also in Texas, where the wild (jattle appear to be increasingly domesticated. In the Pacific States there are more than two milch cows to every family of five persons : showing the extent to which those States are becoming breeders of stock. u 82 American Resources. [Sect. II. ii I '•J Tlie move- ment of cattle, with the population, towards the West, It has bceu observed tliat, in proportion to the number of milch cows in the United States, the quantity of butter and cheese brought to market is singuhirly small : but I think this is to be easily accounted for by the large consumption of milk amongst the popu- lation in the prairie districts, by the large number of " other cattle " reared, and by the great waste ; it being deemed unnecessary, as in countries wdiere milk is more valual)le, to keep calves from the cow at their earlier ages.'"' The movement of neat cattle in the United States is a subject that involves considerations of some im- portance. It appears, from the official statistics, that at every period the great herds of cattle have been found gathered around the pioneers of civilization in their march towards the West : in other words that, wdth few exceptions, the inhabitants of the most AVcstern States possess the largest quantities of cattle in pro- portion to population. Thus, in 18(50, such States as New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and JMassa- ehusetts were extremely deficient in cattle in propor- tion to population, whilst the States of Missouri, ]\lississippi, Georgia, Indiana, Illinois, Alabama, and *A breed of sliovt-horiicd cattle, originally imported from tho Valley of the Tecs, appears to be amongst the most liighly-ai^pre- ciated of any breed of cattle now in the United States. The Americans boast that they have considerably improved on this nek, and that Samuel Thorne, of Thorndale (Xew York), "has sliip])ed to admiring purchasers in England the descendants of former importations." Colonel Pennant, ]\I.P. is stated to liave been the purchaser of one of these cattle at a high figure. " Ayr- shires " are much prized in Massachusetts, and have jiassed in sumo numbers into Michigan and the 2s^orth-AVestcrn States. [Sect. II. Chap. IV.] The Provision Trade. 83 le number Liantity of singularly mnted for the popu- lumber of ; it being e milk is V at their bed States some im- cs, that at een found 1 in their :liat, with ; AVestcrn e in pro- ill States d ]\Iassa- Q propor- Missouri, mia, and I from tlio hly-a2>pre- liites. The L'd on this ork), "has icndants of hI to liavo 'c. " Ayr- ed in S(jmo Ohio, had large excesses. It is inferred from this, that as the deficit of the Eastern States is con- stantly increasing, the Western States must be in- creasingly drawn upon to make up the deficiency : and hence capital must move westward to bring cattle eastward, in order to supply the increasing demand and abate the increasing prices amongst the eastern populations. This is an important considera- tion in estimating the prospects of America. Sheep, as mentioned in a preceding chapter, have not been generally reared in the United States, either for their wool or for any other purpose than for the supply of mutton to the home population. Hence the sheep feeding in the more closely peopled States has not kej)t pace Avith the population : indeed, between 1850 and 18G0, the number of sheep decreased throughout the United States from 93 to 71 per cent, of the inhabitants : the total number being 22,471,275 in 18G0 against 21,723,220 in 1850 : an increase of only 748,055. Except in the cases of fancy properties in the Eastern States, and in those districts of the "Western States where large runs of sheep-feeding lands have l)resentcd themselves, very little attention has com- paratively been paid either to the quality or the number of the sheep produced. Nevertlieless (and I regard this fact as very remarkable) a pen of twelve ]\lerino ewes, bred by a gentleman nar.K^d Campl)ell, of Westminster, in the States of Vermont, (;;uTied off .'miums and another hish el involves the movement of capital to the West also. Sheep, their decrease in proportion tv, population. The breed. The Vermont Merinoes take the prizes at the Hamburg Exhibition. P V at the Great International Agrieultund Exhibition, held at Hamburjjf, in 1SG3, against all the best breeds (J 2 L. ■! 'iffl'f 1:1 84 Character of the competi- tion and of the awards. Keport of the U.S. Com- missioner on these facts. American Resources. [Sect. II. of Saxony, Prussia, and Silesia. One of the first prizes was taken for length of staple : the other for weight of fleece. There were 1771 sheep shown, and eighty- six prizes were awarded. England competed with Southdowns, Leicesters, and Cotswolds : the Emperor of the French sent sheep from France America had no other sheep or other animals in the Exhibition ; Mr. Campbell being the only feeder who dared to carry stock over the Atlantic and German Oceans. It is said that nothing excited greater surprise than the fact that the American sheep received the highest awards; but the decision remained uncontested.* * As the result of this Show was so very remarkable, I think I ought to quote the report of the Commissioner sent from the United States to attend it. He says, respecting the sheep, — "All the best breeds of Europe were represented. Here were merinoes from Prussia, Saxony, France, Silesia, and the United States : merinoes with broad backs, full bosoms, and buttocks : with round bodies and short, thick heads and necks : with short legs, wide apart, straight and strong : merinoes with heavy folds and wrinkles, with wide dew-laps, plaited or smooth ; merinoes with heavy folds on the neck, and thick, even wool; merinoes with short staple and uneven, with a combination of thickness and length, with wool low down on their knees and hocks : meri- noes of all sizes and weights, from pens of little Mecklenburghers to pens of tall, heavy French, weighing more than 200 pounds. Every variety of merino was there, and as we laid open the fleeces of sheep after sheep in this class, and noticed the difl'erence in size, weight, and form, and in length, thickness, and quality of staple, Ave wondered if it was possible that this great variety had sprung from the same stock. Beyond, were pens of Southdowns, Leicesters, and Cotswolds, from Great Britain and many continental countries, with longer and closer wool ; some of them of enormous size, too heavy to stand, and too indolent to indicate, either by motion of head or tail, their dislike of the uninterrupted personal exami- nation, of the visitors. The smixU quantity of hay and grain fed w [Sect. II. ^st prizes T weight I eighty- ;ed with Emperor jrica had ion ; Mr. to carry J. It is han the highest itested.''^ e, I think from the P.— Here were le United buttocks : vith short lavy folds merinoes merinoes thickness ks : meri- aburghers ) pounds. he fleeces ce in size, of staple, d sprung iCicesters, sountries, size, too notion of d exanii- grain fed Ciup. IV.] The Provision Trade. 85 After the Exhibition these twelve sheep were sold Prices by Mr. Campbell to Count Shen-Thors, of Silesia, for the Vermont $5,000 (£84 each); thus confirming the conclusion P^iz® sheep, that America had produced the most valuable stock of ewes that could be shown in Europe. These Ver- mont sheep were bred from a stock of true Spanish merinoes, the importation many years back of Messrs. Jarvis and Humphreys. Mr. Campbell states that, in 1839, he purchased twenty of Mr. Humphrey's sheep, direct descendants of his original importation, and that he has no doubt these prize sheep were all direct descendants from this original stock. I think these facts very significant as showing that, with care and attention, the breed of sheep does not degenerate on American soil or in American climate, although the Americans aver that even so great an European authority as BufFon gave his opinion to the contrary .''^ out to these fat sheep was quite surprising. The shepherds from England were very intelligent in matters appertaining to the breeding and blood of sheep, but beyond their occupation had little knowledge of the world." Afterwards, he observes, " the moral influence of our triumph was very great. The thousands who had flocked round the pens of sheep on exhibition from the flocks of Louis Napoleon, deserted the pens of the Emperor, and gathered in equal, if not greater numbers, around the Vermont merinoes. Tliat the result of the Exhibition will be to give America a great trade in Vermont merinoes, and make her one of the leading sources of the world for fine-wooUed sheep, I cannot doubt." I may add that at this International Exhibition a Suffolk bull took the first prize of 200 thalers in his class, and a Suffolk cow tlie first prize of 100 thalers, and a Yorkshire cow the second prize of 50 thalers in their class. * In justice to Count Bufibn, I am bound to say that I am unacquainted with the authority on wliich the Americans rest 86 American Resources. [Sect. II. Great loss of sheep from dogs in America. A great loss of sheep from dogs is complained of in the United States. In Ohio, alone, the average of ascertained damage from this source is stated at $111,548 per annum, at a period when sheep were very low in price : — in 1863 the ascertained loss was $144,658. The Secretary of the New York Agri- cultural Society estimates the loss in that State in 1862 at 50,000 sheep, worth $175,000— £35,000. Higher proportional estimates have ])een made for Maine. The Western States are still more exposed to the ravages of dogs, and it has passed into a pro- verb that " Dogs are the great drawbacks to the full- range system." This is another illustration of the extent to which the United States suffer from tho Avant of laljour. Where labour is abundant there are plenty of shepherds to protect the flocks against the ravages of dogs, or even wolves. But it is cheaper in the States to sacrifice a proportion of sheep to dogs than to keep and maintain an efficient staff of shepherds. this dictum. So far as my own knowledge goes of "Builbn's Natural History " I have no recollection of his having laid down any such position ; and I have been at the pains to have an edition of his works examined, to ascertain Avliat he may have said upon tho subject. In his special article on " TJie Sheep " ho makes no mention whatever of sheep in America ; and in his article on " Tho Ox " he speaks, generally, of " European cattle " as having multiplied in an astonishing manner in South America, "althougli," ho says, " tho Coa^^t of Brazil produces very indifferent cattle, small and with flesh of a bad flavour, most probably owing to tho bad quality of their pasturage." It Avould, therefore, seem that some misapprehension exists in America as to Count Buffoon's opinions ; and I shall be glad if this note tends in any way to correct it. 'i, •I I Chap. IV.] The Provision Trade. 87 Uj)on tlic whole, however, there is reason to believe Sheep-feed- ■ 1. . . , /.,,,••!• • ^ ing for homo that an increasing degree oi attention is being paitl consumption. to sheep-feeding throughout ilmerica. Eailways have promoted this. It is found that where access to good city markets is rapid and cheap, improved " Mutton Sheep" afford profitable returns to the farmer. The mutton-breeds which find most favour are stated to be Leicesters, Cotswolds, and New Oxfordshires : together with the Down sheep, for Avhich, however, it is more difficult to find suitable up-down pasturage. Some French merinoes, imported within the last twenty years, are proclaimed " Mongrels," unsuited to the country, and incapable of sustaining themselves. They have quite gone out of favour. As the rearing Sheep-feed- of sheep comes to be more general, lambing and the better under^ various complaints of the flock, as well as the best ^*°°'^- modes of feeding sheep, are better understood ; and the summer, fall, and winter management of this class of stock is attended to wdth hicreased interest. I have already referred to the amazing increase of sheep in California, where they counted upwards of 1,000,000 sheep in 1860, and boast that they possess more than 3,000,000 at the present time. A large num- l)er of sheep have been brought to California from Australia. I now come to speak of !' ^ animal by which the Swine. Americans have hitherto probably made their largest profits, though it may be doubted, from the increasing demand for l)eef and mutton in the United States, whether this will continue long to be the case. The raising of Swine has proved to be so well adapted to the varied phases of agriculture in the United i\- i 88 American Resources. 1 The climate and produce of Aniericii peculiarly ada]5ted to swine. Number of swine in America. [Sect. II. C States, that there is no district in which it is not carried on, although it is only of comparatively recent years, that the pork trade has become one of com- mercial importance. The growth of this trade has been coeval with the development of the AVestern States. And this is to be mainly accounted for by natural causes. Although the hog, it is said, will live on anything and everything, yet to bring him to maturity rapidly, and therefore profitably, some special natural circumstances are re- quired. First, the animal flourishes best in a temperate climate ; secondly, the country in which he is reared should be peculiarly productive of the most fattening descriptions of food ; and thirdly, in order to effect the processes of cure, with the least exi)ense and the greatest certainty, the climate should admit of a some- what severe winter. All these conditions are realized in the Western States more perfectly than elsewhere. They have a temperate climate in summer, — a soil which produces in tlie utmost abundance luflian corn, which proves to 1)0 the best of all possil)le foods for the hog ; and a winter temperature well suited to every process requi- site to the curing, packing, and export of meat. Thus it comes that such immense numl)ers of swine are bred, fed and annually converted into ookn-fed pork in the AVestern States, and that cities like Cincinnati (or as it is ironically called, " Porkopolis ") have risen into such importance, and flourish so greatly on this trade. The number of swine in the United States in 1860 was taken, as we have seen, at u])\vardsof 33,.'5()0,000: Chap. IV.] The Provision Trade. 89 certainly an immense number. But, large as this number is, strange to say it is by no means so large as it ought to be. In 1850, there were 30,300,000 swine : so that in 10 years, this most prolific animal had only increased throughout the United States to the extent of about 10 per cent, or 1 per cent, per annum. The decrease of swine in proportion to population in all the States (except those in the Pacific) between 1850 and 1860, was very remarkable. It is shewn in the following table, which is otherwise interesting as shewing the very large extent to which Swine arc ])red in some parts of America. \i ! Swine to each 100 States. inhubitants. New England States . . . 1850. 1860. 13 10 Middle „ 41 31 Western „ 181 149 Southern ,, 21.5 175 Pacific „ 23 101 Decrease of swine to population. The ftilling off in the number of swine, in propor- causes of this tion to population, is attributed to the increased facili- d«<='^«»«e. ties for the transport of grain, and its consequent relative advance in price. When grain is cheap in New York it is more profital)le for the Western farmer to feed pigs with it, than to send it to market, because the carriage of a pig is relatively much less than the carriage of the quantity of food which he consumes. Proportionately, the pork may be as cheap as the corn ; 90 American Resources. [Sect. II. Oil !1- Number of " swine used in the pack and, most probably, when the price of grain is low, the price of pork is low. But under the l)est system of feeding, it requires seven bushels of corn to make a cwt. of pork, and as the freight is much less on a cwt. of pork, than it is on seven l)ushels (or say 420 lb.) of corn, it is evidently less costly to the farmer to send his pig to market tlian to send his corn. And we must rememljer how largely the cost of transit enters into the cost of every article sent from the Mississippi or Lake Michigan to New York or to England. The number of hogs annually killed, or as it is more politely expressed in a work of authority in the United ing buaiuess." States, " used in the regular commercial packing busi- ness of the nation," can only Ije approximated. It is believed, however, that in 18.")9-G0, the number reached about 3,000,000, or alxmt 10 per cent, of the Annual value ^tock of pigs. Thc valuc of tlicsc animals (on an of the "pro- average of 2 cwt. to a pig) is computed at 835,000,000 duce." ° , ° ^< ' ) or £7,000,000; about £2. lO.s. per pig. The cost of packing and transport is stated at nearly $15,000,000, (or £3,000,000 sterling) more, giving a total of ten millions sterling annually emi)loyed in this trade. This amount, however, would raise the price of each pig, without profit to the vendor or merchant, to an average of £3 10a per pig, which 1 take to be exces- sive. It is admitted however, by the authors of these figures, that " fair averages are difficult to arrive at, and that those engaged in the business find the most extensive experience furnishes l)ut few data for reliable precedents." The fact, I take to 1 ■, that the pork and bacon trade fluctuates largely with the supply and Chap. IV.] The Provision Trade. 91 doinand, tlic state of the seasons, and a number of other circumstances over wliich the producer has no control.""" I liave mentioned the enormous extent of this trade Cincinnati at Cincinnati : a city on the banks of the Ohio, erected on a site which, witliin the memory of man, was a forest, l)ut which now boasts of 250,000 people. (Cincinnati kills and exports 400,000 hogs per annum. But recently Cincinnati has been quite surpassed as a pork- exporting town by the comparatively new city of and Cliicaoo. Chicago, on Lake IMichigan, in the State of Illinois, Chicago , „ , , . the great Avas a site ac(pured irom tlie Indians by treaty only centres of the at the close of the last century. A wooden fort or frude?^ stockade, called Fort Dearborn, was constructed on the site of Chicaoo in 1804 : alongside of which, in a wooden house, lived the first settler on the spot, one John Kiiizie (probably McKenzie), a trader with the Indians. The place continued to be a mere Indian trading station until 1830, when a town was planned * A very recent monthly report of the "Agricultural Dejjart- nient of the United States," refers to a comparative scarcity of hogs at the present time. " The cause of this decrease," it says, "is obvious enough. The high jnice of corn has induced farmers to sell it rather than to feed hogs." The prospects of the " pork crop" of 18G0 arc much discussed in this puhlication. It was anticipated in many quarters, that as the harvest of 18G5 would give a superabundance of corn, therefore there would be a large pork crop ; but the departmental officers represented it to be fallacious to assume that " the abundance of corn would make an abundance of hogs, when hogs were very scarce." According to the latest accounts, there appeared to be a struggle going on in the West Ijetweon the hog-growers, and the pork-packers, — the one seeking to raise and the other to lower the price of hogs. 92 American Resources. [Sect. II. and laid out, the site being regarded as suitable for commercial development. When, soon after, the tide of emigration began to set towards the West, Chicago became the key of the position. So lately as 1840, however, it numbered only 4,479 inhabitants. But Hapid rise of from that it took a spring. The population of Chicago Chicago. was : — cl H I Hi ' h I In 1845 12,088 „ 1850 28,2G9 „ 1855 80,023 „ 18G0 169,903 „ 18G5 (estimated) 180,000 Nor is it only in population that this wonderful city has thus developed itself. It has become the great Its market, centre of the Northern Eailroads. I was taken, when I was visiting Chicago, to see the new market-place just constructed there. It covers a span of 500 acres ! Every railway that enters the City has a cattle-station in the market, so that the animals may be brought into and, if necessary, taken from it without passing through the city. There are 40 or 50 acres devoted to pens for cattle, and every single pen is lighted, drained, and supplied with water. Even our fine cattle-market at Islington is inferior to it ; in fact, I never saw so fine a market. All the public works at Chicago, it should be recollected, have been going on during the war ; another illustration of the small extent to which the North has been affected by it. The Chicago people are also building an University. [Sect. II. Chap. IV.] The Provision Trade. 93 . The future of Chicago is scarcely to be foreseen : let me confine myself to what she is at present. Chicago has grown to be the largest market in the Extent of the 11 i« .1 n , , , trade of world lor corn, timber, and pork; the three great Chicago, exports of North America. So recently as 1835, a Mr. Clyburn opened the pork trade at Chicago, by packing for export about 300 hogs. The trade de- veloped itself slowly at first, but during the last 12 years it has increased as follows : — Hogs Packed at Chicago. Year. Number. 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 18.59 1860 1861 1862 1863 52,849 72,694 80,380 74,600 99,262 185,000 167,968 231,335 511,118 970,264 904,159 The average yield of lard and weight of hogs packed The average during the year 1863 is stated at ho^. ^ "' Yield of Lard 34 lbs. Average weight of Hogs 192,, A friend who accompanied me in my journey through The process the States has described the process of pig-killing : — curing!"^ ^" " At Chicago," he says, " a million pigs die every year for the benefit of the public. They are all killed by machinery in the quickest and most scientific way. Within twenty ■« 94 A merican liefiOKnrs. [Sect. II. niinutos of llic tlim; of your hcavini,' tlio pij,' squeak, lio is killed, cut up, packed in baiiels and on his way to Euiopo." 1,1 I Piicking. The feet. Bacon and hams. The collateral trade. The process is not (|uitu so rapid ;is is ini])li('(l by tills doscriptioii, for iiftcr they are killed, the hop's are hung in the curiiig-rooni for two days, that all animal heat may he gone before tjuy are cut u]). Every ojjcration as to curing and dressing the meat is per- formed in the most scientific manner. The English meats are usually i)acked in boxes ; the more ordinary meats in barrels. Every market recpiires its own description of pork, and the animals arc cut up variously, in order to suit the demand. The tongues are packed separately in barrels. The feet formerly went to the glue-makers, but during the late Avar great immbers of them were sent to the army suttlers, avIio found a largo sale for them amongst the soldiers. Another mode of preparing the feet is l)y thoroughly cooking them and pickling them in vinegar. As regards the bacon and hams, everything depends upon the mode of curing previously to smoking. The greatest attention, therefore, is given to the character of the curing-house, and the temperature maintained in it. Out-of-doors the temperature sliouhl not be above 50', or in-doors above G:"/ or 70", during the process. AVithout going into the details of this trade further than they are likely to be interesting and instructive, I may say that every item of the animal is turned to account. Not a particle is wasted, and the collateral trade in bristles, lard, oil, stearinc, grease, skins, &c., has grown to be scarcely less important than the original trade in meat. Even the very offal is bought up for Chap. IV.] The Provision Trade. 95 n the manuftieturci of mtimue ; and there is a firm in Cliicaj,'<) Mliicli collects all the boiieiH it can outain for the nianufacturo of animal charcoal. Tims the West not only feeds the people of the Eastern States, but feeds their lands. ila})id as has been the development of this trade, its future promises a growth at even sin increasing ratio. In quest of cheap food, the people of Europe tire learning more and more rapidly to appreciate provisions of American cure ; and upon the increasing demand, and increased competition, follows marked improve- ments in the breed of hogs, their mode of feeding, and their preparation for the market. At the present time, as recent lettei's inform me, a large increase in our demand is anticipated by the Pork-packers of Western Amei'ica, in consequence of the increased j^i'i^'C^ «f provisions in England occasioned by the Cattle-plague; a fact whii.'h shews the mutuality of the interests of England and the great West. The aggregate value of the live stock in the United States was estimated — In ISm at S.''ar),180,.51G III 18G0 1,069,329,915 being an increase over 100 per cent. In the new Pacific States the increase was no less than 576 per cent. ! But I think enough has l)cen said to establish the enormous resources of the United States as a food- l)roducing country. One word as to the benefit we derive from her ex})ort of salted and cured provisions. We have seen how infinitesimal is the proi)ortion of corn we take in England from America, in proportion to her own annual This trnflo likely to iu- creu8e. Aggregate value of Arae- riciin live stock. Export of salted and cured pro- visiona. 96 ATnerican Resources. [Sect. II. production and consumption. With respect to the value of the stock, we see that the live stock on her farms is estimated at $1,089,329,915, or £218,000,000 sterling; whilst the value of animals annually Its small rela- slaughtered is computed at $213,000,000, or nearly £43,000,000 sterling. Now, the imports into Great Britain from the United States, which bore any reference to this production were as follows, in I860:— tivti amount. u Why is rot this trade laiger ? Articles. Estimated Value. Bacon £424,560 Beef(Salte(l) 347,345 Pork (Salted) 108,584 Hides 183,584 '^Vool 92,211 Hams 55,300 £1,211,590 Thus we see the amount exported is as nothing to the production. It certainly cannot be said that this is because Europeans do not want American food, or because the Americans cannot supply the quantity wc require, or because we cannot pay for larger supplies. What is the reason that this trade is not infinitely larger ? I fear we must look to the United States for a reply. They have not yet followed our example, in adopting that system of unrestricted interchange which we designate Free Trade. *•>; [Sect. II. !Ct to the •ck on her 18,000,000 annually or nearly nto Great bore any )llows, in lU(,', G 5 i i I ) SECTION 111. MANUFACTUBES. ing to the at this is food, or mtity we supplies, infinitely States for example, erehange : II SECTION III.-MANUFACTUEES. CHAPTER I. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS, The Agricultural Implement manufacture is in Superior man}'" respects the most important branch of the oftheAgri manufacturing industry of America. It is not, in- impJSJent deed, the largest branch, for the value of the Manufacture. Agricultural Implements produced in 18 GO was only $17,800,000, whilst the value of cotton goods, boots and shoes, &c. were taken at much larger amounts. But the superior importance of this branch of busi- ness, is attested by the fact that the manufacture of Agricultural Implements was the manufacture which exhibited the greatest increase between 1850 and 1860, the quantities produced being — In 1850 SG,842,G11 „ 18G0 17,802,5U Or an increase of no less than IGO per cent, ! II 2 K- 100 X. 1 jnerifiiii Jiesoarccs. LSect. III. fAi As an ai,'ri- cultural country, de- ficient of liibour, the supply of labour-saving machines is greatly sti- mulated in America. Number of patented agricultural implements. It could scarcely, in lact, be otherwise, America i.s an agricultural country. It is an agricultural country suffering under a grievous deficiency in the suj^iDly of agricultural labour. The high rate of wages, find indeed I may say the absolute absence, in many cases, of workpeople to take wages, has stimulated invention. Mechanical contrivances of every sort ai'c produced to suj»ply the want of human hands. Thus we find America producing a machine even to peel apples ; another to beat eggs ; a third to clean knives ; a fourth to wring clothes ; in fiict, there is scarcely a purpose for which human hands have been ordinarily employed, for which some ingenious attempt is not made to find a substitute in a chetip and efticient lal)Our-saving machine. Many of these machines have l)een brought to Europe, and some of them are appre- ciated and largely used in our own country. But wc do not appreciate them as the Americans appreciate them, because they are not of the same value to us. They do not save us, that is to say, the same amount of expenditure in wages, for the simple reason that our wages are not so high. As America is pre-eminently agricultural, it follows tliat the most numerous attempts to produce labour- saving implements have been directed to facilitate the hil)Ours of the farm. Every succeeding year produces new inventions for saving nmscular labour in the farm and household. Up to 1848 the number of patented inventions in the Unitetl States belong- ing to the class of agriculture was 2,04;i ; Init since tliat ycjir they must liiivc; uioi'c tliiiii doiilded, for thfic wciv no less tiuiii 'SoO applications for new CiiAr. I.] Af/)'ienJt7(raI Implemcnti' 101 turc. patents for Agricultural Implements in 1861, a num- ber which had increased to 502 in 18()3. The witli- draAval of nearly a million of agriculturists from their ordinary pursuits to engage in military service, seems to have greatly stimulat'.'d this class of invention — as - was. indeed, not unnatural. It must he admitted that throughout the world the Early offovts implements of husbandry have remained in a very i,"stramcnts rude, and in many cases, a very primitive condition. ^^ -^si-ieiil- The hoe, the spade, and even the ploughshare, are really almost Ixarbarous contrivances.'"" As far back as 1660, our Royal Society felt the importance of im- ]")roved agriculture, and endeavoured to awaken the pulilic mind to the value of mechanical aids in fiirming. Agricultural Societies in America appear to have been estal)]ished, in 1785, in South Carolina and Pennsyl- vania, with the object of " affording encouragement to the making of engines for the propagation of the staples of the colony." The Massachusetts Society for * There was a little hook, published some years ago, by a ffcntlenian who has since obtained some celebrity as an agricul- turalist, Mr. t'handos Wren Iloskyns, •which brought this foct, as I renierabor, very forcibly home to my conviction. It was called " TAi,rA, or, tlie Chronicles of a Clay Farm," and one of the writer's principal olyects was to show the diflficidty of working on certain soils with a plough, and to recommend tlie substitution of some machine for creating the seed-bed such as the mole (Talpa) was provided with. 'J'his little volume, so eminently instructive, and, at the same time, so agreeably amusing, I recommend to the perusal of all my American friends, and especially to those in- terested in the production of agricultural implements. I should not despair of seeing a steam soil cultivator and pulverizer of an efficient character produced upon tlio principles recommended liy ]\rr. Iloskyns in his "Talpa," if some ingenious mind would turn attention to tbo best ukhIo of superseding the plough. mm^ssmmmmm \'~4'; <' Ml I 102 " The Husscy harvester." The Great Exhibition in Hyde Park. Its effects on Iniplcnient Manufacture. American Resources. [Sect. III. Promoting Agriculture made efforts in the same direc- tion in 1792 ; but the principal result of all these exertions was improvement in the form and finish of ordinary farm-tools. In 1833, as we are told, the harvesting of corn by machinery was effected near Cincinnati by a gentleman named Obed Hussey, "who cradled wheat as fast as eight persons could bind it." About the same time State and County Agricultural Societies began to spring up in the United States, and a system of annual fairs and exhibitions instituted by those Societies, powerfully stimulated invention, and made the farmers familiar with the best forms of Agricultural Implements in use. Still, however, inventors in America were without the opportunity of comparing their machines with others in use in the Old World, and meclianics in Europe were comparatively unacquainted with the American implements. It was not until our Great Exhibition of 1851 that an opportunity was offered of comparing ideas on the subject of mechanics as applied to agri- culture. " That exhiljition," the Americans officially report, " exercised a vast influence on this subject, as it did upon all the branches of art." "Although the number of iinplenicuts of each kind exhi- bited by the United States was small, the variety was con- siderable. The general excellence of American plouglis, reapers, churns, scythes, axes, forks, and other implements was acknowledged by the public admission of disinterested judgf: and the particular merits of many by the medals awov' >d, and by the nund)er of orders received at the time by '"> ' manufacturers. The triumph of the "American licapeiti " worked a new era in agriculture and gave a strong Chap. I.] Agricultural Implements. 103 impulse to the inventive genius of Europe and America. The emulation awakened among manufacturers by the London Exhibition was still further stimulated by the Exhibition in New York in 1853-4 when more than 100 manufacturers competed in this department of mechanics." The Report adds that the influence of these exhi- bitions, in furnishing American mechanics with a standard of comparison by which to measure their own implements with those of the world at large, can scarcely be over-rated. The magnitude of the profits resulting from the production of new labour-saving implements of hus- bandry in America must be a great spur to inventors and mechanics. It is stated that a slight improvement in " Straw-cutters " enabled the inventor, in a western tour of eight months, with only a model instrument, to realize $40,000. Another inventor sold a machine for " threshing and cleaning " grain for $60,000. The "M'Cormick Reaper" yields its inventor a princely income. A single manufacturer has paid a patentee $117,000 in a single year for the use of a patent-right on an agricultural machine, which others, at tlic same time, were engaged in making by contract with the owner, and which, therefore, he did not obtain ex- clusively. The American machines are generally exceedingly light and simple. Many of our own implement-makers regard them, I believe, with some disdain in conse- quence, and make frequent endeavours to " improve " upon their by strengthening and elaborating them. But it has to be considered that the great merit and advantage of a machine in America is its simplicity Large profits restUting from the American inventions. Peculiar cha racteristica of the American machines. 104 American Resources. [Sect. Ill Their light- ness, sim- plicity, and cheapness. Mnltiplica- tion of these implements. and lightness. If it were a cumbersome machine it could not ho, to tlie same extent, a labour-saving machine ; if it were a complicated machine, it could not be used, to the same extent, in those regions which are far distant from the cities where alone the frequent reparations consequent on complications can efficiently be made. Above all, a cumljersomc and complicated machine would be unsuited to America, because such a machine must necessarily be an expensive machine ; and where the average size of faniis is less than 200 acres, it is evident that the great ])ulk of the agricul- turists could not afford, even if tlioy required, a highly expensive implement. Lightness, simplicity, and comparative cheapness are absolutely essential to the perfection of an instrument in America, even although those qualities may be obtained at the cost, as some of our implement-makers consider, of strength, comprehensiveness, and elaboration. It is gratifying to find that the production of agri- cultural implements in America follows the path of the population. The New England States, and the States of New York and Pennsylvania., may be regarded, generally, as the great manufacturing States of America ; but although the prodiKition of agricul- tural implements was greatly multiplied in these States during the years between 18. 'JO and 1860, yet it was in the Western States that the great advance; was made. In those States the value of agricultural implements produced was augmented as follows : — 1850 $1,923,927 | 1800 .,$8,707,194 or no loss than 3.52 per cent. The total production of CiiAr. 11 Ai/rie )i It n ral Imple men ^> 105 sive niaim- tiiro in Oil implements in these States was nearly one-half of that of the whole Union ; and nearly equalled thctotal manufacture of the United States in 1850. ■. One illustration to show how naturally this trade Tlicircxtcn- adapts itself to the wants of the population. We should fief, say, probably, that Ohio, as the wealthiest, and Illinois as the most productive, agricultural States of the Union, were those in which agricultural implements w^ould bo most employed, and in which their manufacture would consequently be most extended. We find, accordingly, that the largest manufocturc of tliesc implements in any one district of the United States was in Stark county, Ohio, where fifteen establishments produced $900,480 worth, the largest part consisting of mowers and reapers, threshing-machines and separators. We find, also, that the next largest production was at Chicago (Illinois), where upwards of 4,000 mowers nnd Illinois. and reapers were made, in one year, by a single esta- blishment, the largest of its sort in America. Thus we see, that in the most recently settled districts of the United States, the number of agricultural im- plements in use is the largest : an indication of the increased extent to which machinery is likely to be employed hereafter in farming operations. The value of the agricultural implements and increase of machinery in use on farms in the United States power arisino- amounted, in 1860, to $246,118,141, say £50,000,000. STlU'r"''' This was an increase of more than 63 per cent, ovei- i"'i>lo'"c"t^- the estimate for 1850. It is obvious from this, that an immense increment of productive power accrued to the United States l)etween 1850 and 18G0, in the meclidnical appliances of agvicvltnve alone, a foct of 106 American Resources. [Sect. III. " Improved inventions" still de- manded. American ploughs. great significance and importance in considering the resources and prospects of the country.'''' It is a curious fact that, with all their labour-saving implements, many of which have never found their way into use on this side of the Atlantic, the Americans are continually calling out for improved inventions. "The farmer," says a recent writer of authority,t " must be relieved from the drudgery of hard and " continuous muscular exertion, such as mowing by " hand and cutting the grain with the sickle ; other- " wise his sons will betake themselves to the mechanic " arts, where steam does all the heavy work. The " contrast between the labour of the field and that of " the shop, without a corresponding advance in the " mechanic arts applied to the field, will become so " great, that no labourers will be obtained without " greatly increased wages, and the agriculturist will soon " find himself among the pariahs of the social scale." The great object of the American at the present time appears to be to obtain a new form of instrument in lieu of the plough. Tliis is a fact which shows, as I think, the remarkable advance in the science and enterprize of the people of the United States. For we must bear in miiid that the Americans are cele- brated for their ploughs, and have always been im- proving on them. Jefferson himself exercised his mechanical tastes and ingenuity on ploughs as for back * I should observe that, in the estimate of the value of " Agri- cultural Iniplenienta and Machinery," such articles as cotton gins, scythes, hoes, shovels, spades and forks, are not included. Neither are wagons, carts, or wheelbarrows, the value of which amounted to Sll, 796,941. t The Hon, M. L. Dunlap, of Champaign, Illinois. [Sect. III. Chap. I.] Agricultural Implements. 107 3ring the uf-savinff 111(1 their mericans ventions. Lthoi'ity,t lard and wing by ! ; othcr- nechanic •k. The I that of 3 in the come Ko without ivill soon scale." present trument lows, as ice and For re cele- 3en im- 5ed his ar back f "Agri- ton gins, Neitlier mounted as 1798. In 1815 Judge Peters, then President of the Philadelphia Society of Agriculture, sent to Mr. Robert Barclay, of Bury Hill, near Dorking, two American ploughs, " of great simplicity, lightness of draught, neatness, and cheapness," which, when tried against the best English ploughs, were found to do the work quite as well with two horses as ours did with four. At the plough trial, at Hounslow, during our Great Exhibition of 1851, the American ploughs were approved for the same characteristics — " extraor- dinary cheapness and lightness of draught." It is, curious, therefore, to find the Americans, above all things, anxious to supersede their plough by some new and labour-saving invention. In 1858, tlie Illinois Central Railway Company, Their opinion desiring, no doubt, to fall in with the popular feeling, °[ u^^j/g" offered a prize of $3,000 for the best steam-plough of American manufacture. Three ploughs were tried, but all failed. They were all drawn by traction engines. One of them employed knives instead of ploughshares to slice the earth horizoiitally. The con- clusions to which the best judges arrived respecting steam-ploughs from these trials, were, no doubt, correct. They reported — " First : That the machine cannot pass over soft land, as the soil yields to the motion of the drum, or driving wheels, and, instead of carrying the plough forwards, merely exca- vates for itself a hole into which it sinks beyond its own power of rescue. " Second : When loaded with half a day's fuel and water, the machine is incapable of drawing tlie ploughs. " Third : It cannot rise the ordinary grades of the rolling prairie with the plough at work. lOS /] mrricfin Rc'^OHrcci^. ISKfT. III. . " Fourth : On level land it cannot tin the work as cheaply, under the, most favourahlo conditions of water and fuel, as animal power." m u Different oon- tlitions of Engliuul tiiul America as regards 8team- ploughinjj. «> The " Rotary Spador." The Americans diiiw a distinction l)ctwcen the use of the steam-plough in Europe and America. They say the condition of everything in England is different. Tlie soil in England is, generally, a stiff clay, that requires three or four hoi'scs to turn a furrow. The dampness of the climate, the tenacity of the soil, and the retention of moisture, make it imperative to have perfect drainage and thorough aeration to produce good crops. In America the soil is less tenacious, is easily moved l>y the plough, and, as the climate is warm and dry, is naturally well aerated. Consequently, in America, deep-ploughing and under-draining is not so essential. American farms, moreover, arc small. They are chiefly worked l)y the owner and his sons. \ farmer of 200 acres could not invest in a steam-plough costing $3,.500, Besides, they doubt the economy of using the steam-plough. The plough which at the present time excites most attention in America, is an implement called the " rotary spader." The rotary spader, with four horses, spades the earth 8 inches deep and .3 feet Avido, at the rate of five or six acres a day. It is thus a very labour-saving machine, but its heavy cost ($200) is against it. The Hon. Mr. Dunlap, who I have already (]Uoted, says : " Should this mode of stirring the soil ultimately become popular, it can only be by slow dogroes. Nothing short of the most decided testimony will induce farmer.s to change an implement costing CiiAi'. LI .iyrlcultuntf Tmplementn. 101) 10 or 15 dollarn for one costing 200, to do the Hamc work. The advantage mu.st be hirgely in its favour t«) accomplish this." What the Americana principally appear to aim at, at present, is the construction of a " Sulky Plough," Tho " Sulky that is to say, a plough with all the modern improve- ""^ '" menta ; Ijut having a setit for the driver on the top of it, instead of a man following its fmi'ows and pressing it down by handles. " A large amount of ploughing," it is said, "is done by farmers' sons of the age of 14 " and upwards. To follow the plough in the furrow, " day after day, is very tiresome work, and gives the " boy a heavy, awkward gait, by stiffening the lower " limbs — a condition from which he seldom recovers. " To remedy this, the plough must be made to give the " driver a sulky seat on which to ride. This can ha " done without extra power to move it. A plough "thus rigged can be run by a class of persons who " cannot manage the common plough, either from being " lame or from want of muscular ability to stand the " hard labour of travel over the rough ground, and the " handling of the plough and team." A " Two-horse Cultivator," and what is called a Tho " Two- " Double-shovel Plough," appear to be popular im- vutor." " plements in America, on accoimt of the facilities they afford for easy working. "A boy who is too slender to handle the shovel-plough on foot ; a lame person, who cannot walk to advantage ; an invalid partially recovcrcid from sickness ; or a young lady fond of driving, and who wishes to assist her father or brother in their farming, can do a full day's work with this new and valuable implement." 110 American Resources. [Sect. III. u Difficulty at- tending the SulkyPlough. Reaping and mowing machines. Their exten- sive use in America. Tims we see the aims and objects of the American inventor. Several patents appear to have been taken out for sulky ploughs, but none of them have hitherto proved practicable. This, no doubt, arises from the use of gig-wheels, which sink into the earth and impede the progress of the plough, as in the case of traction engines. The great object seems to be to overcome this difficulty, and it fippears to l)e tJiought that it will be speedily attained. It serves to illustrate the different conditions of the two countri3s, and the consequent aptitude of the one to embrace the opportunity which is rejected by the other, that the American keaping and mowing machines, which are now" being largely used in England, are, in reality, English inventions. In one of our Patent Office publications it has been shown that, of 69 examples of Reaj)ers, 60 were of English inveniion, and 9 of American. Yet the value of these machines never came to l)0 understood or appreciated amongst us until after 1851, when the American machines were exhibited at our Great Exhibidcn. These machines are now universal in America ; indeed, the harvest could not be gathered without them. The Census Report of 1860 says, "their usefulness is now universally acknowledged ; but in our own land, where labour is so high, and where the season is so short, they are indispensahle." " The nature of our climate, the character of oxu* crops, the scarcity of labour, and the extent ot our agricultural opera- tions, all conspire to increase the introduction and use of these and all other implements and macliines that will expe- dite the labours of the farm." 1 [Sect. III. Lmerican I out for proved e use of pede the traction )vercome fc that it Ltions of le of the ectcd by MOWING England, has been 'English of these )reeiated merican libi^icn. indeed, m. The is now I, where short, rops, the 1 opei'a- 1 use of ill expe- OlIAP. I.] Agricultural Implements. Ill The extent to which these machines are used ia dciicribed as " enormous." It is estimated that there are not less than 250,000 in use in the United States, each of which will cut an average of 10 acres in a day of 12 hours. Yet the Americans are far from being content with this machine. They want one which will "cut, gather, and bind up the grain at one operation :" and they expect to get it. On the large grain fields of the west the binding is now done with wire, and a separate machine has been invented for performing that part of the labour. The Americans have also asked for an im- proved threshing machine, and this they appear to have obtained in the form of a machine which not only separates the grain from the chaff, but carries the straw up to the stack, and puts the corn into the sack, after clearing it. " This simple apparatus," it is said, "attracts no notice, except from the English or Con- " tinental visitor, to whom it is a novelty. The English "threshing machines, especially those drawn (/. e. "worked) by steam, have a much more finished ap- " pearance, but for simplicity and efficiency, they are in " no way superior to those of American manufacture. " In ^act, wherever the American luachines have come "into direct competition with those of Briiish and " European constructioii, the American machines have " proved superior." In many of the minor implements of agriculture the Americans have made substantial improvements. Their shovels, spades, hoes, and forks, all present some advantage over those in ccmnnon use. A firm in Philadelphia has lately been manufacturing axes, hoes, Improve- ments in reaping and threshing machines. English con- trasted with American threshers. Minor iinplc* mcnts. ^ 112 Aiiierican Resources. [Sjsct. III. I j! ll aiul shovel The new pick pickw, 1111(1 hIiovcIs, oii iiii entirely new principle. Each instrument is made solid, but the handle with wliich it is to be worked has upon its end an iron socket, through which the pick or other instrument to Ije worked, is put and fastened by an iron wedge. The advantage of tliis new form of instrument is, that the handle, which will answer for any number of tools of the same size, does not become loose, and the l)low made by the pick, hoe, axe, or shovel, is consequently moi'e effectual. These tools a})pear to be especiall}- adapted for miners : and many of them have been sent to California, whei'c they are reported to be highl} prized. Inasnmch as the Americans claim to manufacture these implements clieaper and better than other people, it ai)pears absurd and anomalous that they should levy an import duty upon such articles, ox upon any of the materials of whi'di they are made. It .nust be for the benefit of the American farmer that he should get all his implements of the best de- scription and at the lowest price ; and it is obviously detrimental to the largest class of producers in the country to tax, in any form, the instruments they use in producing those supplies whicli so materially con- tribute to tlic wealth of the community. Every tax that tends to prevent the farmer fnmi obtaining the best forr.i of agricultural implement at the lowest price, ought to be ]'emoved, in the interest of every class, including the agricultural implement maker liimself Ahsurility of any tax whicli iiftV'ctb ;:hese inipleiiients. i [Skct. III. 0. Each til wliicli a socket, it to be ^c. The that the tools of ;he l)low cqueiitly speciall}' ivo been )e highly lufacture r people, ' should pon any It .nust ler that )est de- 'jviously i in the ;hey use lly con- -^cry tax ing the st piici', y class, mself. i ' CHAPTER II. TEXTILE MANUFACTURES. If it Avere not for the want of labour which affects, generally, all the occupations of the United States, it might. ccrtuini> be anticipated that a nation which p:ivison Avitli other countries in which lal)our aiK^ ;''<' necessary machinery are both cheaper, the co' t - /la .ufocture of the United States has not progresser \v an eipial ratio with those couiiti'ies. The .aon woveu in Aiuerici iu the year 1800 was 422,000,00011). valued at about ^50,000,000, or say £11,000,000; but I cannot regard this as a very large quantity. In rlie year ISGO, we imported into England from the ' xited States alone, very nearly 2,000,000,000lb. (tv-o ihouyand million pe mds) of I The Cotton Manufiicture of Anicrica, does not pro- greys ill an eqnal ratio with that of England. ( 'otton Woven in Anieriiu and En ni other itity we of the otton at the cost to the lets, the the re- "cciation easy to 1 goods i3re can, cost of ' goods, it UjiOll merica, 7,585.-'^ in was ucd at of our ules tlio r of the iiaterial. 3(1 twice Qaterial, )f cloth, iiodo in ts" are OlIAP. II. J I'extih Manufactures. 115 exported cotton aL)nc amounted to £40,:}46,342. Our Uritish exports, therefore, nearly doubled the value of the entu-e manuliictured pro(' ctions of the United States. And this, it should be observed, is without reference to a class of goods which we do not consider (though the Americans do estimate them) as "cotton manufactures," and the export of which from England amounted to nearly £10,000,000 additional.* But let us judge of the cotton productions of the Number of United States by the number of spindles in that in ^£0" conij)arison with other countries. I take the follow- i"»""f"ctures. ing statistics from a return hdd before Tarliament, from papers read before the Statistical Society in 18G3, and from the returns contained in the United States Census : — Ykau, I860. Groat Britain United. States France Germany liuHsia Austria Switzerland ... Italy Eelgium Spain No. of Cotton Spindles. 30,387,207 5,235,727 4,000,000 2,000,000 2,000,000 1,500,000 1,300,000 500,000 500,000 300,000 * This was exclusive of cotton yarn, cotton thread for sewing, counterpanes, cotton stockings, and cotton nets, which amounted to nearly ^10,000,000 more. I take 1800 as the year before the civil war in America, and the year with wliich comparison is best instituted. It is to be observed that the declared value of our British exports is always under-rated. 1 2 Number of hands employed. Progress of the Cotton manuticture in America. (Jonclusion as to this manu- facture. Low descrip- tion of the American cotton fabrics. IIG Americau Resources. [Sect. ill. The greatest number of hands claimed to be employed in the cotton factories (of whatsoever description) in America in 1860 was 122,028 : in England, our opera- tives in cotton factories numbered in the same year, according to Parliamentary returns, 405,256. It there- fore appears that Great Britain has more than six times the number of spindles, and nearly four times the number of hands, employed in cotton-spinning in the United States. At the same time, we must not allow ourselves to undervalue the progress of the cotton manufacture in America. The increase between 1850 and 1860 was very great, although by no means so proportionately great as in our own country. The qualities of the raw material used in America were computed as follows : — Raw Material Year. Used. 1850 272,527,0001b. 1860 422,704,975 „ The increase is very large, though very much Ijclow our own. The British imports of cotton from the i.i'uted States alone were, in 1840 487,856,504 lb. 1849 634,504,050 „ 1860 1,955,982,800 „ So that in twenty years we more than quadrupled our imports of the raw material. What 1 gather from all this is that the United States gains a vast deal mov by exporting the raw material than she does by attem^ ng to manufacture it. This position is strengthened by a considera- tion of the descriptions of cotton goods chiefly A CnAr. II.J Ti'xfilc Mamifacturea. 117 manufactured in America. I find tho quantity of cotton spun into yarn and thread, batting, wicking, and wadding, largely in excess of other classes of fabrics. " Cotton cordage," " cotton bags," " seamless bags," and " packing cloths " (chiefly used for packing the raw cotton) formed also a large proportion of the manufacture. The Southern States have been largely in the habit of manufacturing this material for them- selves, and probably many persons will scarcely be prepared for a fact which appears in the United States official returns, that in 1860 the Southern States pro- duced nearly one-third of the whole quantity of yarn spun in the Union. The cotton manufactures of the United States, even with the advantage of a protective duty in their favour, cannot compete with those of other countries even in their own market. Cotton fabrics arc pecu- liarly adapted for apparel in the warmer climates of America — ii fact, every one in the country at some period ot the year wears clothing the greater part of which is made of cotton. This description of clothing, moreover, recommends itself to a large proportion of the population l)y the comparative cheapness of its cost. But the United States do not produce anything approaching the quantity of cotton goods they re- quire for their own consumption. From 1821 to 1839, the average annual value of foreign cotton goods imported amounted to $10,024,687. From. 1840 to 1856, it amounted to $16,795,418. From 1856 to 1860, to $28,811,966. These imports con- sisted chiefly of piece goods from (Jreat Ihiti'iii, The cotton manufacturos of America cannot com- pete with the European mannfactureH in Ameiicivn markets. Vast importa- tion of cotton goods from Kiiropo. 118 American licsources. [Sect. III. Absurdity of attempting to protect this manufacture. American Woollen products. Their small value, estimated, of course, at the lowest possible values, in order that they might pay the lowest possible amount of duty in America. Of plain white British calicoes alone, the importation increased from 10,000,000 yards in 1846, to 85,000,000 yards in 1856 : of printed and dyed calicoes from 13,500,000 yards in the former year, to 97,000,000 yards in the latter ! In 1860, Great Britain sent to the United States no less than 226,776,939 yards of cotton goods, or more than one- fourth of the number of yards of sheetings, shirtings, printing cloths, &c. which America manufactured for herself. With such facts in view, it appears an act of the greatest improvidence to attempt to foster the cotton manufacture of the United States by protective duties. Not only are the Americans thereby unnaturally raising the price of an article of the largest consumption amongst every class of their own community, but they are actually raising this price at their own expense as growers and exporters of the raw material from which these articles arc made. And all this for the protection of an interest which cannot compete with its rivals in its own market, and cannot produce any- thing like the quantity required for the use of its own population ! The position here laid down, is, I think, still further illustrated, when we come to regard the Woollen products of the United States. $68,865,963 (or say £14,000,000) is the declared value of the produce of all the woollen stuffs (including carding, full- ing, and mixed goods) manufactured m the United States in 1860. Now, in that year, the British Chap. II.] Textile Man ufact ures. 119 exports of wool and woollen goods alone, was as follows : — British Exports op Wool and Woollen Goods, 1860. Wool ^877,082 Woollen Cloths 2,996,091 Mixed Stuffs (Flannels, IJlankets, and Carpets) 4,401,936 Stockings 657,053 Worsted Stuffs 4,101,918 Total .£13,034,080 compared with the British pro- ductions and exports of woollen cloths. or little less than the entire production (as estimated) of the United States. 1 may add that of this quantity upwards of one-third was taken by the United States, showing that the Americans stood in the greatest want of the very articles they are struggling to manufacLare. Thirty-five millions and a half of dollars, or upwards Better to ship of £7,000,000, of Capital, are taken to be invested in to make the the woollen manufacturing trade of the United States, ^ °'**" but I question very much whether this capital might not be better employed. Indeed, the ofl&cial reports tell us that "in Ohio, which, in 1850, produced a " greater value of woollens than all the other Western " States, there was a decrease on the product in 1860, " owing to the shipments of wool to Europe, which, in " 1857, ivas found to he the most profitable disposition " of the rapidly increasing wool crop of the State." Here again, then, we find the Americans standing in their own light as producers of the raw material by levying duties, and thereby raising the prices and (onsequently diminishing the consumption of that ■WW" 120 American Resources. I Sect. III. Inferior quality of the Aiiiorican woollen goods. veiy raw material when convcrtcrl into useful articles. Why should the immensely increasing wool production of California be sacrificed to the comparatively limited manufacturing interest of New England ? As in the cotton manufacture, so in that of woollen goods, I apprehend that the produce of America for the most part consists of an inferior article. The official report speaks of the use in this manufacture of very large quantities of "wool flocks," "waste," and "shoddy," which form the basis of "the manufacture of army and navy clothes and blankets in the United States." Shoddy, and Mungo, nianufac- tmod and used in America. " This article consists of cast-off woollen clothes, rags, stockings, carpets, and all soft woollen and worsted articleB, reduced by powerful machinery to their original floccnlent state to be respun and woven, either alone or mixed with new wool, into a variety of fabrics. Hard or superfine cloths, mechanically reduced to filament in tlie same way, produce what is called * mungo,' which means a better class of goods, ' Shoddy ' was originally only iised for padding ; but for some years past has been used for the manufacture of pilot and Petersham overcoats, table and piano-covers, army clothes, &c. White 'shoddy" enters into light-coloured goods, blankets, &c., and the dark-coloured into carpets and close cloths of all kinds, which are dyed to cover the original colours. 'Mungo' is extensively used in tlie production of the clieap Yorkshire broadcloths, which in finisli and appearance when new, are little distinguishable from the best West of England cloths. Those shoddy cloths, on account of their cheapness and decep- tive ap])earance, have been much used in the United States to the injury of our cloth manufacturers. Being, in some respects, better adapted to produce a close, sliort nap than American wool, tliis material has entered into our dome.stic inanulhcturcs of late years. Machines for reducing rags to shoddy iive also in use liero. About the beginning of the liHAP. II.] Textile Manvfactures. 121 current century n machine Avas patented by a Philadiilpliiii niautifacturer for that purpose. Tliore are shoddy mills in several States at this time."* It would appear from this that the claim to the honours and emoluments of " shoddy " is disputed be- tween Yorkshire and Pennsylvania. I think the Ame- ricans might do better than to stimulate this trade at all, especially seeing the cost at which they do so. It Largo profits is officially stated that " the gross profits of the woollen from the manufacture of the United States, after deducting the {^c.*^ *^ ^ "" cost of materials and labour, was upwards of .50 i^o' cent, upon the capital employed, to cover the interest on capital, the wear and tear of machinery, and other incidental expenses." This .50 per cent, profit comes solely out of the pockets of the American people : who are thus made to pay an enormous percentage beyond what they ought to pay for every article of wearing apparel, — cotton or woollen — which enters into their consumption. The remarks which I have made on the woollen Wousteu cloth manufacture of the United States, apply equally ^'"° **' to the other branches of their woollen trade. The manuiacture of Worsted Goods, including delaines, bareges. Cashmere?, alpacas, &c. for ladies' dresses, is limited to three establishments. The manufacture of Hosiery, Hosiery is not considerable, though it is reported as increasing, which it certainly ought to be considering that foreign stockings are taxed to the extent of no loss than 35 per cent, ad valorem! The Carpet Carijets. manufactories number upwards of 200. Carpets of all sorts are in large and increasing demand in the * Report of the fVmnnissioner of (^Vnisns on Manufactures, 1860 If I, i Linen. Cordage. Sewing Twine. " Cotton bagging." 122 American Resources. [Sect. III. United States, but hitherto all the better class of carpets have been imported : indeed, there arc only six American manufactories capable of producing the finer class of carpetings required in the best houses. But the author of the Census Report on Manufactures, writing last year, says : "As the present tariff is nearly pro- " HiBiTORY, we may soon expect to find the market " entirely s^ipplied with carpetings of our own do7nes- " tic manufacture .'" It is admitted that the manufacture of Linen goods has made but little progress in the United States. " A " few mills, chiefly in Massachusetts, made some coarse " fabrics, the two largest producing six million yards "of linen cloth in 18G0. Others arc engaged 'n " making twines, shoe, and other threads." But it is admitted that farmers have grown flax merely for the seed, and thrown out the fibre as valueless — shewing that there is no demand for it in America for any manufacturing purpose. " With the exception of cord- " age," says the Census Report, " our manufactures of " hemp and flax have never been general or extensive. " They are at present confined, chiefly, to two States, and to the production of a very limited number of products. Shoe-thread and sewing-twine seem to be the principal fabrics. In a country where cotton abounds, linen, except for peculiar purposes, cannot be expected to be an increasing manufticture. I ought, perhaps, to mention " cotton bagging " anion ffst the fabrics in this class. It is a coarse stuff*, made of hemp, sometimes mixed with cotton, for the bagging of raw cotton, and it is manufactured in con- siderable quantities in Kentucky and Missouri. I tal ClIAP. II.] I'extile, Manufactures. 123 bolicve, however, that even in this cheap production our British manufacturers arc successfully competing with the Americans in their own market, large quantities of coarse sacking, manufactured from jute at Dundee, having been exported to the States, for the purpose, as I am told, of packing the cotton of the South. There is a limited manufacture of sewing Silks in Silks. America, and there are a few ril)bon and silk-trimming manufticturers in New York and Philadelphia ; but almost the whole of the silk goods consumed in the United States are imported from Europe. Wc thus sec the extent of tlie manufacture of woven The extent of fabrics in the United States. In comparison either turc of woven with the re irements of the countr}'-, or the pro- ^jJi^rLa" ductions oi er nations, this branch of industry assumes comparatively small proportions. I liavc been the more anxious to dissect this branch of manufactur- ing industry, because I have been especially desirous neither to be misled myself, nor to mislead others respecting it. Papers arc issued and publislied from time to time, which shew something most astounding as the result of the manufacturing products of the United States. I think these documents are illusory, and I much fear many of them are issued for party and political purposes. One of the last dociiments submitted to mo gave the value of the products of manufiicturing industry in America in 1860, at nearly £400,000,000 largely over per annum. I do not doubt that this paper was fairly compiled, according to American notions of " manufactures, " — namely, that all the corn that T ' ' MM I « ;|. Kcccnt in- crc'iiso of the lUiimifucture 124 American Resourcefi. [Srct. III. is ground at the mill, all the trees that are sawn and planed, all the fish that arc caugJit out of the seas and rivers, all the boots and shoes that arc inade out of leather, all the pianofortes that arc tuned, all the spirituous liquors that iTC distilled, all the beev tliat is brewed, all the dress-coats and trowsers thf^t are made up, and all the printing, all the gas, all tl..e furniture, jewellery and silverware, soap and candles in America, in addition to all the products of the mines, the coal raised, the iron smelted, the machines erected, and the salt and other minerals produced, are " manufactured articles." In this point of view, c€400,000,000 is, I think, a very moderate ostimate of the products of the manufacturing interest of the United States. But on this side of the Atlantic, we are not accustomed to regard " manufactures " in this point of view. And havinof regard to textile mani'- f.tctures only, I very much doubt if it can be shewn that th3 United States produces more than £ '0,000,000 per annuiii (or one-tenth of what is claimed as the product of her manufacturing industry) in this form : indeed, I think that that estimate is rather in excess than otherwise, of the real figures. And how small ^his gross amount must be to tlie European total, the pic>ctding figures shcAV conclusively. L>'iring the ch'il war in the United States, the production, of textile manufactures, as I understand, considerably increased. This is to l)e accounted for by rvvo circumstances: first, in Eu)- pe, we wei'c deprived of our supply of ct>tton, wliidi occasioned a great increase of price in all our fabrics, <'otto)., woollen and linen : — scconlly. very lieavy Md extending In textile exact pro- Li,ating the n'erything, I life I'rom leyoud this leut in all ness. The inly in the bett. The manu- facture of printing and stationery papers in America, in 1860, was 153,77(),000]1». The stationery we exported, in 1860, was valued at 1*7.5I),3J)1, the printed l)ooks at £100,000 more In 1858, the gross revenue derived in Great Britain from paper, under tbc then re- duced duties, was X' 1,2 44,722. This iiidi'aites a very large production of pnper. At that time we liad ahout 400 mills at work ; hut the numher of mills is >KCT. III. CiiAP. IIT. I Mnchinery. 133 distant ire few 3t class ssential uinerica, )ness of ;li there y newn- ess than Nearly Illation : erson in )digious. :pose of achincry )oses has vements of the ,000 or imagine, in 1858, D nianii- Yinerica, ler}' we printed revenue then re- s a very we liad mills is no criterion of the produce, as some are so much larger than others. No doubt the paper manufacture of the United The British '■ ^ . production States has thriven, whilst our own trade has been depressed by suffering under the burdens imposed, until very recent years, by the Excise Duty upon paper. The clamours of the English paper-makers have madenis all conscious how much, since the rej)eol of the duties, they have suf- delidency of fered from a deficiency in the supply of the raw material. "^^ material. In respect of rn,w material, America possesses, or ought to possess, a far greater affluence than ourselves. I do not affect to know of what all their paper is made, but there are other fibres in the countrj'^ besides cotton, which ought to supply the place of rags.""" I may observe that few things, in respect of American manufactures, struck me more forcibly during my visit than the very great improvements effected in the printed productions of the country. It is not many years since American publications were of the commonest and coarsest quality, the sole object aimed at being cheapness. Specimens of the year 1835, and perhaps of more recent date, will show that notlr'^if^ ^ould be worse * Since the above was written I am more fully informed as to this point. The materials used for paper-making in America are stated to be " not only cotton and linen rags, the waste of cotton, flax and hemp mills and of rope and cordage manufacturies, coir and jute and other fibres (either crude, fibrilized, or in the shape of worn-out bagging, cable-rope, &c.), but also straw, hay, and stahh refuse, various kinds of wood, hemlock, &c., corn-husks, mulberry leaves and bark, and canes and reeds." It is evident that in the list of refuse, from which the Americans make their papev, there are son\e articles tliat could only enter into the , , action of the lowest qualities. ' ill .'I 1:1 I 134 A me rican Resources. [Skct. III. Greiitly im- proved muility of American paper, &o. than the (quality of the paper, the cliaracter of the typography, and the nature of the binding of books in the United States. They would not, at that date, bear any comparison with even the common form of novels then produced in England, which were very indifferent. But all this has undergone a complete change. On the table before me, as I write, I havo an enormous pile of American books, of every variety of size, form, and cost — pamphlets, duodecimos, quarto volumes, publications of Congresft, books got up at cheap rates, and volumes on the production of which no labour, trouble, care, or cost whatever has been s[)ared. Select whichever class of books you will, it will be found to bear comparison with, if not in some respects to excel, our English publications of the same class. I'he qualities of paper in use are most admiral>le ; in most cases the type is perfect ; the work of the printer appears to Ije done Avith the greatest skill and excel- lence ; and in many instances the specimens of binding rival those of the famous Mr. Hayday. I select from the books before me a work got up, not for presenta- tion or special sei-vice, but for general sale and circula- tion throughout the United States. It is called the Tho"Tribute « TiiiBUTE BooK," and is a "record of the munificence, Book. self-sacrifice, and patriotism of the American people during the war for the Union." I do not thiuk 1 have ever seen a book superior to this as regards paper, letter- press, and binding. I do not know what is the price of the volume, for it was kindly given to me by an American friend ; but its preface suffgests that the '&o^ cost of its production has been very large. One of the pr(>pri(;>tors of the New York Times appears to Chap. IIIO Machinery. 1 '.\:> iiiding I have been the projector of this ehiborato woik, and to be responsilJo for itn cost. And it is admittedly published with a view to profit. It ought to be observed that Printing in the United Ampiican States is very largely done by female compositors. In P""*'""" New York one in six of the average number employed in printing productions are women and girls. To a certain extent this is due to the iLse of machines for labour, setting and distributing the tj'pes. These machines are much more used in the United States than in Europe. I apprehend the cause to be, that they are Ami typo- lound to be labour-saving m a branch oi nidustry ni nuicliineiy. which wages are much higher than with ourselves. In Great Britain our principal master printers have set themselves, for a number of years, A'cry decidedly in opposition to all typographical instruments. Major Beniowski's type-setting machine and the various adap- tations of it have been, it may be said, universally ignored. In the same way the employment of female labour in the typograi»hicnI art has been rejected. And I confess that, looking at the question as one of economy, I have seen no reason, hitherto, to doubt the correctness of the conclusions on this subject which our master printers have arrived at. But I am ui- formed, on good authority, that a time may speedily arrive Avlien these views will have to l)e reconsidi-red. The state of the printing trade in England is, at tiie present time, by no means satisfactory. On the sulyect of wages, hours of labour, &c., the compositors and tlu^, master printers in our country appear to be very ray)idly diverging. The masters comjilain that thoy are too much controlled liy the trade associations in I, II i V i Our own Printing linsinoss. Sewing ?Iaciii\euy. imi A iin'rican licfiources. ISkct. III. wliicli the compoHitorH are united. As I have only u general knowledge of the Hulvject, I do not profess to offer an opinion upon the merits of a very delicate question. But J do know, from personal experience, that the public suffer from these differences, and I would strongly recommend both parties to come to a speedy conclusion with respect to them. We find, at the present time, that many of our principal London publishers arc transferring a considerable portion of their printing business to the provinces, to Scotland, and even to the United States. We all know that this must be as inconvenient for authors and publishers jis it must be injurious to master printers and com- positors. If the disputes which lead to such conse- quences are not speedily terminated, it may happen that the London printers may find it expedient in many cases to use type-setting machines and female work-people, as is done in the United States. This would tend still further to reduce the wages of com- positors. At the present time, I do not think that they are under-paid, considering the intelligence, the skill, the time, and the labour required in this magni- ficent l)rjuicli of art. But the printers must consider their position. The sewing-machine is another instrument for which we are entirely indebted to American ingenuity and enterprise ; and which, already, within the space of ten years, has reconmiended itself to all the world. This machine, as the Census Commissioners of the United States have put it, is unquestionably a " revolutionary instrument" in the arts. "It has opened avenues to profitiil)le and healthful industry for thousands of in- ( 'IIAP. III.] Machinery. 13^ (lustrious females, to whom the labour of the neorlle had l)ocome wholly nm'cmunerativc and injurious. Like all automatic powers, the sewing-machine has enhanced the comforts of every class, by cheapening the process of manufactures, without permanently subtracting from the average means of support of any class of the community." The manufacture of these machines has become one Tlieir genoml of considerable magnitude shice 1850. In the year 1860, ll(j,330 sewing-machines were made in the United States, the estimated value of which exceeded $5,600,000. The sowing-machine was eminently calculated for Thoiradup- ^ '' , . tibility to such a population as that of the United States, in the United which all of the mending and very much of the manu- facture of wearing apparel and of articles of household use had to be exccul/cd by the female members of each fomily. But the machine has outgrown the use for which it was designed. It is not only found to l>e an indispensable appendage to every considerable household, but it is found a substitute for labour in large manufactories. It has come to be applied to an immense variety of materials, and in a number of different operations, far beyond those originally con- templated. Improvements are constantly made in it to suit the various purposes for which it is now required ; and it may be anticipated, that this useful instrument will l)o made of still further general appli- cability."'' * Although, from the greater abundance of female labour in England, the sewing machine is not so necessary to ourselves as it is to our cousins in America, and our children in Australia, 188 American Resources. [Sect. III. Revolution Oiic veiy remarkable result appears to have followed effectv d in the the introduction of the sewing-machine into America. supply if clothing. Clothing nianutV..> tUIcii. Twenty years ago nearly all the clothing worn in the country was imported. ; and, indeed, judging from the export of " apparel and slops " to the United States, from England, still valued at nearly a million and a half (pounds) per annum, a considerable proportion of ready-made clothes must be still sent to New York from the East End of London, for consumption, pro- bably, in the ^-^outh and West, as well as amongst the maritime population. Nothing, at one time, was more expensive than clothing, especially cloth clothing, in the United States. But the sewing-machine, if it has not greatly moderated prices has, at any rate, largely operated throughout the Union upon the production of articles of w^earing apparel of almost every descrip- tion (stockings, perhaps, excepted), A number of clothing manufactories have been started, in which articles of vavious descriptions are now produced, whole- sale, by tins machine. The increase of this manufac- ture; we are told, has been genoral throughout the Union. Naturally, it has been largest in the great towns. In the four cities of New York, Philadelphiu., Cincinnati, and Boston, this manufacture, in 18G0, amounted to nearly $40,250,000 (or more than (where women are in a still larger minority,) yet I do not think it can be said that we are indiilerent to the advantages of th'j donibjtic friend. Whilst penning these pnges I happened to come across an advertisement of a " Furnished house to Let " in one of our metropolitan suburbs, amongst the iiiducoinents to take wliich are enumerated, not only a gard<^»>, and a conservatory, but " a billiiird-table, two pianos, and a sciviny nmchuie." I m [Skct. III. 5 followed America, rn in the from the id States, 3n and a )ortion of ew York tion, pro- >ngst the ivas more thing, in if it has \ largely oduction descrij)- piher of which I, whole- lanufac- out the e great l('l[)hi;i, 1 18()(), c than lot think 3 of til -J ■ to come n one of ce which but "a Cbap. III.] Machinery. 139 £8,000,000). " The manufacture of gentlemen's shirts Cloaks and and collars, and of ladies' cloaks and mantillas (a new branch, which has received its principal impulse during the last ten years), and of ladies' and gentlemen's furnishing goods generally, form very large items in the general aggregate of this business." In Troy (State of New York) the value of the shirt collars annually manufactured alone approximates to $800,000.*"" Tliere are 2,800 establishments engaged in the United States in the manufacturing of men's and women's clothing, employing nearly 90,000 hands. We have already seen that the " tailors and tailoresses " in the United States are numbered at upwards of 100,000. The engineering manufactures of the United States Engineering have also becr such a I'HAr. III.] Mavhineri/. 141 progressive country as America ought not, I appre- hend, to fall short of this amount. But we must regard the manufacture of steam-machinery in America as, to a great extent, still in its infancy. It is observable from the official returns, that the character of States which made the largest progress in the produc- nery gene- tion of macliinery between 1850 and 1860, were the theVcst.^ "^ distant States of Iowa, Mississippi, California, and Wisconsin. I infer that the articles classed as "machinery," include some very simple instruments, because it is not to be imagined that a very high class of "steam machinery" could be produced in any of these States : certainly not in the two last, which were settled before the commencement of the decade. Such instruments as butter-churns, cheese-presses, washing-machines, wringing-machines, and mangles, enter, no doubt, very largely into the computation of " machinery " made in the far West. Nor are these machines to be despised. They are all adapted to the one great end of economizing labour; and many of them do so most effectually. It is complained of the American washing-machines, that they very rapidly ^^'il,sllillMr IT , . . , nil- I'liichineis, destroy the linen ; but it is to be recoUeetetl, that in primitive countries, the ordinary mode of washing is to beat the clothes between two large stones in a iiowing-stream : a i»rocess which, I apprehend, must be even more dcstructivi^. I am told that the American Mauyles. wringing-machines and mangles, do not, according to the notions of our washerwomen, give a sufii<'ient "gloss" to the clothes. But they are cheaper and more effective instruments than our heavy Ijox-niangles : and the "gloss'' ie- plying shoes to the British army. His ingenious inventions, probably on account of the cheapness of manual labour in England, never came into common use in this country, and Sir Isambard is reported to have been a considerable loser by them, said to be I believe it is claimed by the family of Brunei and America, their many friends in England, that the machinciy now so commonly in use in America for the manufacture of l)oots and shoes, is based upon Sir Isambard's inventions, and I think this very probable. ]5ut, at the same time, we must not forget that steam machinery lias but steam- been applied to many of the processes n(3W in use in fheTewbil- tlie United States, for the ])roduction of boots and ^I'Sefr^ shoes, and that the *' Sewing-machine," as has iustlv ''""'' *''^"" . . . , J J practical l)een observed, " is the crownnig invention which has value. 146 American Resources. [Sect. III. 'ri 1^' m\ 1- 'I 1 • , t Details of the boot and shoe machinery. Peg machines. Cutting machines. State of the trade. The element of price will control the market. supplemented and given practical value to this pro- duction." As parts of the nuK^liinery employed in the boot and shoe manufacture of America, I may mention a lathe for turning lasts, which are now made to every size, with perfect facility and cheapness. Steam peg machines, for the production of wooden pegs for boots and shoes, have also been introduced, and they turn out pegs l)y the bushel. Another instrument for cutting and blocking boots is found of practical utility; and a sole-cutting machine, which produces any number of soles required in an infinitely short space of time, is growing into general use. AVith all these labour- saving appliances, boot and shoe-making in the States is undergoing a complete revolution, and is becoming a steam factory business, instead of a handicraft. A very large amount of money is invested in the business, and as preceding statistics liave shewn, the boot and shoe trade employs as large an amount of labour as any occupation, except farming, in the United States. In the face of such facts as these, it is quite time that our cordwainers at Staflbrd, Norwich, and Nor- thampton, should look about them. Although we have no duty on leather, the price of l)oots and shoes in England is continually advancing. I am not re- commending pegged Ixjots, or asserting the superior durability of bo(jts and shoes which are made by machinery, but it is certain that the element of price wdll largely control the marlcet in regard to this, as well as in regard to , to the whole interior popuhiti(jn. The result has bc'cni most satisfactory. In the same way, some years ago, nothing aahs to be had in Ireland in the shajie of a l)everage, but whisky and water. The excellent Father Matliew and his coadjutoi-s de- nounced strong di'inks ; anhere is dry and the temperature, during the greater portion of the year, extremely high. In Europe, we do not find that the populations of Spain or Italy desire " high wines," Malt I.iquors have been introduced into the United LagerBeku, States chiefly to suit the palates of the Germans, who form so consideraljle a proportion of tlie population. The number of brewing estal)li^hments in ISGO was 970, and they produced 3;2;3.0,()OO barrels of beer. I believe that this is a larger proportionate increase of consumption even than in the case of spirits. It would, probably, l)e larger still, if the bcei' brewed its quality and was superior in quality and cheaper in price. 1 am ^^^'^ ' sorry to say tliat I believe the malt productions of the Ignited States to be, for the most part, dear and bad. Let us hope that great improvements will be speedily elFected in them. The su]»ply of a really pure, strength- ening, and agreeable beverage to a nation is an object of the first moral and social, and therefore of the first political importance, I think 1 ought not to pass over tiu,' great con- Ick. sumption of l<'i': in America. Though it scarcely ranges under the head of a manufacture', ice is one mf 150 American Resourceft. [Sect. III. r fet- Its universal use. Export of ice. trade. of the most valuable articles of commerce in the States. You find it everywhere, and applied to every- tliinG: : and those who do not know what the heats of summer are, even in the most northern latitudes of the American Continent, will he utterly unable to realize the importance and the luxury of this pro- duction. It has been reserved to the Americans to show the value of ice, and the extent to which it can be carried as an article of commerce. They not only send their ice to all the southern ports of the Union, but to the Spanish Main, South America, the West Indies, the East Indies, China, and Japan. Numerous companies and large amounts of Nature of the tonnage are engaged in this trade. The ice is taken from fresh-water ponds situated at a gi'cat elevation above the sea. It is usually cut into blocks of about a foot thick, and is beautifully transparent and free from air-cells. It is conveyed from the lakes to store- houses by railway carriage. The storage and export is managed in such a way as to avoid waste, and the ice usually arrives at its destination in almost as solid a condition as when it was cut from its native pond. In England, we have not the remotest idea of the ice trade ; and we seem to have the faintest glimmer of the value of ice. The particles which we get at first-rate dinner-tables in London and Paris afford but a faint indication of the ])rofusion with Avhicli ice is served in every house in America, and of its addition to the luxurious enjoyment of a feast, Tlie prevalent moisture, and tlio excessive v; Tlio Enj^lish i,<,'noraiit of tli(M)>f my name or of my exj>erieucr r'Miuion could tor a moment avai' m a country whcr^' ,iolii.si„i, „f I am comparatively so littk known, I woiiKI en- deavour, above everything els'^, to use it for tl purpose of deprecatii; ,■ liie delusion of "proteetit^h, ' as it is called, for iiii'tloiial industry. Tlie experii-nee t)f every nation shows t'. .' fallacy of tiiat. \\\ tried it in Enjiland, and restricted our eoiunieree. Protect i 1)1! I .fv' ■ 11; ! i' i 'I 1/1 ii 1 ! 1 ■ I 158 American Resources. [Skct. III. At the present moment, Spain, the most backward country in all Eiir(jpe, is suft'ering from so-called pro- tection of mamifiicturing industry to an extent which reduces her to a position of contempt amongst the nations. For such a country as the United States, the system is, of all others, the least adapted. The very basis of republican institutions is the principle of the general good, — which involves the principle of buying in the cheapest and selling in the dearest markets. I may be told that, on this side the Atlantic, we want the trade of America opened for our own purposes. Let me, once for all, deny the injurious imputation. We want trade opened, not for our own, but for the World's purposes : for we have discovered that which all Americans ought to appre- ciate, that no nation can prosper which isolates herself from the world. If we have found protection insfijfc ruble in the Old Would, how much more must it prove so in the New. -m ^^,^' if [Sect. III. bcackward ailed pro- Biit wliicli oiigst the d States, :cd. The inciple of nciple of 3 dearest Atlantic, our own injurious for our we have o appre- isolates .'otectiou )re must SECTION IV. M I N E E A L 8. i i» In b( s- tl d. g< c: til p< tl] Ci ha ob en: 1.1.' SECTION IV.-MINEEALS. CHAPTER I. THE PRECIOUS METALS. The minenil wealth of the Unitecl States is more General dif- largcly diffused than is generally known. Gold lias Mineral been found in Virginia ; and at an early period of the throughout present eentury, North and South Carolina, and the ^"i<^"ca. State of Georgia contributed gold so considerably to the Mint of the United States, that it was deemed desirable to institute branch mints for the deposit of gold, and the manufacture of coinage at New Orleans, Charlotte (N. C), and Dahlonega'"" (Georgia). At tlicse three branches gold has been deposited at different periods to the value of upwards of $33,000,000. Since the discovery of the far more productive gold fields of California, the search for gold in the Atlantic States * Dahlonega i.j situated 141 miles N.N.W. of Milledgeville, The gold mines in its neigliLouiliood are very rich, but the hills have been completely riddled by the miners. The gold Avas first obtained from the alluvion of the streams ; afterwards from veins embedded in pyrites of quartz rock. The Indian name of this l)lace, " Tau-lau-ne-ca," signifies "yellow money." M % n J! *i 11 lfi2 yl mer»va n Hesgrcc.s oi" latitiule, from IJritisli Colunihia on the north to Mexico on the south, and tlnougli more than twenty degrees of longitudes from the eastern deelination of tlic Rocky Mountains to the Paeific Ocean. It includt^s two States, California and Oregon ; four entire I'erritories, Utah, Nevada, New Me^xico, and J)acotah.* It forms an area of more than a viillion of si/iunr mi/rs, the wh»»l(5 of which, with com])aratively unimportant exceptions, is the projM'rty of tlie nation. It is rich not only in gold, but in silver, cop])er, iron, lead, and many other valuable minerals. Its product of gold and silver during the current year, 18(>2, will not probably fall very much, if at all, shoit of |>1()(),00(),()0(), and it nuist h)ng continue gradually yet rapidly to increase." A great portion of the region described by Mr. C'hase is as yet unworked ; but enougli is known of its general eharacteristies to estal»lish tlie correctness of bis deseri})tion. From every one of the districts above mentioned, more or less of the precious metals liave indeed been produci'd. Utah, New Mexico, Nevada, Daeotali, (\)lorado, Idaho. Arip^ona, and the Washington Territories on the Pacific, have all sent large (juantities to t]\o United States Mints. In addition to a branch INTint, which was established * I' ndor tho recent apportionment of the territorial domain of ihc United States, Washington, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, and Arizona must 1)0 added. C!HAI'. I.] The Precious Matals. Ifj3 follows l)y *uiy of the 12:-— OS stretches oiu ]5riti.sli tiiul tlirougli tlie cfislern 2i(ic Ocean, lour entire ICOtilll.* It f miles, tJie exceptions, ily in oold, er Viiliiiible the current ^t all, sliort ulually yet iMr. t'hasc VII of its ectiR'ss of 'liwtrit'ts us inotiiis Mexico, Jiiid the ! Jill sent iiits. In ^tahlishod main of the, nd Arizona at 8an J^ruiicis(;o in 1852, and which lias contributed 105 million dollars, (»i' nioi'(; than L*;j:},0()0,000 to the (ioinaffo of the country, hranch IVlhits at JJenver, at Dchvit in the Colora0,U()()) no country in the wot Id produces a more abundant supp of food. Every description of farm, orehai'd, and gar:i she had under cultivation upwards of 10,500,000, mid in 18G;J she produced 850,000 gaUons of whic and brandy, which was estimated in 18G5 to l)o increased to 1,000,000 gallons.-"- * An account I have just received from America estimates the M 2 IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 2f Hi "^ us u lAO L25 iu 2.0 I 1.6 % ^ ^IC/ ^ %* ■> Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WIST MAIN STRKT WIBSTIR.N.Y. I45S0 (716) •7^-4S03 '^^4^ r^% ^\<^\^^ ^^^ ^ 164 American Resources. [Sect. IV. tion. Gold-mining But it is to the mineral produce of Califonjia that I have here to direct attention. She commenced gola mining in 1848, and from that period to the end of 1864, sixteen years, she produced $816,500,000, or £163,300,000. Of this aggregate upwards of $555,000,000 has gone into the United States mints for coinage, so that in 16 years, California has con- tributed nearly £112,000,000 of gold to the coinage of Lands mined, the nation. It is said that about 10,000,000 acres of land have been "mined;" but it is remarkable that these very acres, if no longer produQtive of gold in its natural form, are rendered peculiarly prolific of it in another form. The lands dug for gold lie principally along the foot of the Nevada, and other ranges of Their cultiva- mountains. They have a most delightful climate : and the "pick" of the miner in his search for gold has just disturbed the surfaces sufficiently to render the soil peculiarly adapted for the planting of the vine and other fruits, all of which are so prolific in California. Gold mining in California has suffered little during the five years of the civil war. Now that the war has terminated, the population of the country will largely increase, and with its increase gold will un- doubtedly be proportionately developed. As I was leaving the Bay of New York in November, in Migration to the Scotia, for Liverpool, the " United States MaU Packet," " H. L. Chauncey," carrying passengers from New York to Aspinwall, passing them by railroad from Aspinwall to Panama, and conveying them by steamer of "the Pacific Mail Steam Ship vintage of 1865, in Los Angelos, at 350,000 galls., the Sonora district at 350,000, and in the rest of California at 300,000. Prospects of J California. Chap. I.] The Precious Metals. 165 Company" from Panama to San Francisco, (all at one rate of passage) was departing for her destination. This one vessel had no less than a thousand passen- gers for California, and her way bill amounted to $300,000, or £60,000 ! How strong is the stream of population to California which this fact illustrates, and how large must be the resources of a commu- nity which requires the supply of such quantities of first-class goods ! It may be interesting to record in this place the Production quantities of gold, the produce of the United States, sQver in deposited in the United States Mint, and its several •^"^®"'^ branches up to 1863. The ofl&cial reports give the fol- lowing particulars as the total produce -of the Pacific States. crolj) keoeived into the united sxate8 mint up to the Yeau 1864. state. Quantity. From California „ Colorado „ Oregon „ Utali „ Nevada .. New Mexico $541,674,400 7,646,386 3,980,285 78,559 65,199 63,023 31,451 25,761 7,958 1,«16 Washington „ Arizona „ Dacotah „ Idaho Native Gold received for Coinage. This return shows the large yield of California, and indicates the other diss^^ricts of the United States in wliich the precious n.p*^«l« have been found. I am 166 American Resources. [Sect. IV. ii' !^ i W precious metals in bars, &c. Export of the assured, however, that the figures do not at all express the extent of the Gold Yield of America. The Director of the United States Mint himself reports that " these returns do not assume to give the amount of the entire production of the precious metals." It is stated that considerable quantities of Gold, and still larger quan- tities of Silver, are run into bars, and exported in that state both to Europe and to China without passing through the Mint or any of its branches."'' And the diggers also carry away some quantities in the raw state. It may be interesting to look at the position and progress of the auriferous localities. Colorado, which has produced the second largest quantity of gold of any of the new divisions of America, is situated immediately west of the State of Kansas, and between that and Utah. This country was first explored by Zebulon Pike, at the head of an expedition sent out in the year 1802. He discovered a range of mountains, to which he gave his name, and which culminated in a peak, called "Pike's Peak." The knowledge of this region remained very meagre until 1858. In the summer of that year a few ad- venturers and explorers from Kansas and Georgia, under the leadership of Greene RusseU, an old Georgian and Californian miner, followed up the Arkansas river. Colorado. Its position. * A fact which is reported in the papers of the " United States Army Sanitary Commission" goes to confirm this statement. The people of Storey county, Nevada, made a collection for that Com- mission, which amounted to the sum of $20,226. This contribution was transmitted to the Commissioners " in eight massive silver bars, five of which weighed 111 lb. each." A friend I had the pleasure of making in New York, Mr. W. B. Ogden, received his dividends from mines in Nevada in the shape of a ton of Silver bars. Chap. I.] The Precious Metals. 167 and explored the country at and around Pike's Peak, and northward along the mountain range to the Cherokee pass in the Eocky Mountains. In the bars and banks of the Arkansas river, 250 miles away from the moun- tains, they found certain indications of gold. These indications increased as they approached the range, and, ultimately, to the north of Pike's Peak, near the ei 3tern base of the mountains, they found a very superior quality of washed gold in paying quantities. Close to the spot where this discovery was made, has sprung up the town of Denver, already mentioned, now the capital of Colorado. In May of the following year (1859) the Gregory mines were discovered by an old Georgian miner of that name. Quartz mills were put in operation, and a large emigration soon began to set in to this El Dorado. Last year a further discovery was made of silver mines in this territory, which are reported to be prolific. The yield of the precious metals has, indeed, largely increased in Colorado. In 1863, the district sent $2,893,336 into the United States Mint; and it is said that, in 1864, the yield was very much larger. It is difficult, however, to arrive at any entirely satisfactory account of the yield of this territory, in consequence of the gambling speculations which are going on in the shares of many of the gold mines, and the conse- quently very unreliable character of many of the state- ments published respecting them. One thing, however, is certain. There is an immense quantity of machinery being made for and exported to this district. The gold presents itself in Colorado in large masses of quartz, and it has been generally complained that Discovery of Gold at Pike'8 Peak. The Gregory Mines. Silver mines. The yield of Colorado. Quartz-crush- ing machinery V T 168 American Resources. [Sect. IV. V ^! i I A' \ \ (- h; u il there were no stamping or crushing machines in the being largely locality of sufficient power to extract it. These are •upp led. ^^^ being supplied from St. Louis and Chicago. The whole population of Colorado was only 52,000 in 1860. As the steam engines and crushing machines advance into the territory, they will no doubt be attended and followed by large numbers of gold- seekers, and it may consequently be expected that in a year or two the abundant mining field of Colorado will be much more fully explored and developed than it is at present.* Oregon. The State of OREGON, the third most productive gold State of America, lies on the Pacific, immediately to the north of California. The district was organised in 1848, and admitted into the Union as a State in 1859. It had, in 1860, only about the same population as Colorado. Near the Southern and on the Eastern borders of this State, extensive and rich gold fields have been discovered. Father de Smet, a Jesuit missionary to the Indians, who has traversed the country, and whose name carries, and with justice. * As I write this, an article in a New York paper of the month of January, 1866, affords information as to the "Great Overland Stage Koute," which undertakes the carriage of passengers from Nebraska city on the borders of the State of Iowa to Denver city in Colorado. The system seems complete. The journal in question, speaking of the State of Colorado, writes, "No one, who has observingly traversed her steep sides and narrow valleys, and noted the profusion of their mineral veins, can doubt that they contain more gold than is to-day in possession of the civilized portion of mankind ; and the progress of discovery and the invention of machinery, aided by that of the Pacific Railroad, must very soon render the reduction and separation of the rock and mineral abundantly and extensively profitable." Chap. I.] T%e Precious Metals. 169 great authority, gives the most glowing account of the L fields, and of the district in which The whole country is said to be Fields. Coeur d Al^nc gold fields, and of the district in which The Coeur ° _, ', . ., , d'Al^neGold they are located. auriferous. Utah, the territory in which the Mormons made Utah. their settlement after their expulsion from the State of Illinois, is a part of the district ceded by Mexico to the United States in 1848. It is far more a pastoral than a mining country ; yet gold and silver are found in it, and some mines are worked with advantage, at a place called Egan Canon, on the Overland Mail route, The Egan about 200 miles to the west of the Great Salt Lake. Nevada, the tenitory lying immediately west of Nevada. Utah, and situated between that and California, has proved to be a most prolific territory. This district is said to have been actually untraversed before 1859. In the spring of that year it was explored by Mr. Horace Greely, and in the month of September following by a party of young men from Illinois, who traversed the district on their way to California. Both parties gave a most uninviting report of the district. In the spring of the following year (1860), a discovery was made of an immense mine of silver, now known as the " Comstock Lode," of which it is said that " no de- The Com- scription can give an idea of its wonderful wealth." ^-"ne. ^^'^ " The deeper the mine is worked, the richer and wider is the vein. The lode has been traced for a distance of two miles or more, and is believed to extend much further." It is owned for the distance spoken of by nearly one hundred different Companies, whose claims vary from 25 feet to 2,000 feet each of the lode, each company being entitled to the whole depth and width 170 American Resources. [Sect. IV. New Mexico and Arizona. Washing- ton. of the vein, whatever that may prove to be. A fine city, called Virginia City, has sprung up in close proximity to these mines. The explorations are ex- tending themselves to other parts of the country, and Star City, Humboldt City, Austen City, and Aurora are represented to be all flourishing towns. Austin City has a population of between 5,000 and 6,000"; Virginia City of more than 10,000. Indeed the whole of Nevada is most rapidly increasing in popu- lation, and according to the most recent accounts new silver mines are being opened in different localities. New Mexico and Arizona, which fill up the space between the State of Texas and the Southern part of California, both belonged to Mexico until 1848, when this district was acquired by the United States. Though at present thinly inhabited, they are both old settled territories ; and, in New Mexico especially, mines have long been worked with a view to the production of precious metals. But it is said that some of the most promising districts, especially of Arizona, have not been prospected at all, and others only in the most superficial manner. The " Keport of the Commission of the General Land Office," trans- mitted to Congress in 1863, states that "Arizona is believed to be stocked with mineral wealth beyond that of any territory of equal extent." " The richest mines are yet unfound." New Mexico is most easily reached from New Orleans; Arizona from San Francisco. The Territory of Washington is the most north- westerly of the United States. It lies between the British boundary and the State of Oregon, and borders V [Sect. IV. . A fine in close .3 are ex- mtry, and d Aurora . Austin d 6,000*; ieed the in popu- •unts new ilities. the space n part of 148, when i States, both old jspecially, V to the said that icially of id others " Eeport ' trans- rizona is beyond richest »st easily )m San north- i^een the borders Ohap. I,] Tlie Precious Metals. 171 on the Pacific. "Puget Sound," as this district has been heretofore called, taking its name from the water instead of the land, has been chiefly known as a lum- bering district and fishing station, but it is indisputable that of late years a large and increasing quantity of gold has been discovered in this locality, which will perhaps be regarded as the less extraordinary when we consider its proximity to British Columbia. The popu- lation of this district is at present very small, only numbering 15,000. Idaho, another of the new territories, organised so Idaho. recently as 1863, lies immediately to the east of the Washington district. It is, therefore, as yet only three years old, and a large portion of the territory is un- explored. The miners, however, have discovered three sets of gold fields, called respectively the " Barncock," " Centreville," and " Salmon River " mines, which are all said to be productive, together with the " Owhyhee" silver mines, which lie in the south-east corner of this territory. These mines are said to have produced, in 1864, as much as $6,000,000. There can be no doubt that the mineral discoveries in this district within the last two years have largely attracted the attention of capitalists and miners, despite all the difficulty of reaching so distant a location. I extract from the United States National Almanack of 1864 the follow- ing account of this locality : — " The gold mining regions of Idaho Territory are but the prolongation to the northward of the mineral regions of California and Nevada. Until within the last three years, what is now Idaho was uninhabited, except by Indian tribes. It owes its present activity and rapid progress of settlement to the discovery of the gold mines in the British Possessions 172 American Resources. [Sect IV. north of its boundary. This discovery drew from the gold fields of California thousands of adventurers, who, in search for new fields of wealth, discovered tlie places of Eastern Oregon and Western Idaho. Since then the exploration of this new region has been constantly and rapidly pressed; flourishing settlements and towns have sprung into existence, roads have been opened, rivers navigated, mail-routes estab- lished, and farm improvements commenced ; and, besides all tliis, the Territory has attracted the attention of the monetary and commercial world." Dacotau. Insufficiency of our infor- mation re- specting the auriferous territories of America. The new territory of Montana was recently sepa- rated from Idaho. Although only three years old it is reputed to have produced over twenty million dol- lars of gold and silver. Dacotah, an entirely new territory, is much nearer home. It is the district immediately to the west of Minnesota, and although at present quite unsettled, population will probably flow into it as Minnesota be- comes populated. The Missouri river waters a large part of this territory, and gold, together with other mineral products, has been found in the Black Hills, about 300 miles west of the south-eastern boundary. The district is at present whoUy uncultivated, but if its mineral products prove equal to their promise, it is not unlikely, from the comparative ease with which it can be reached from Iowa and Minnesota, that this territory will speedily " settle up." I have been anxious to give this outline of the localities in which gold is found in the United States, not only because they are important indications of the resources and prospects of the country, but because I believe a large proportion of my fellow-countrymen are entirely unacquainted with the districts I have PlIAP. I.] Tlie Precious Metals. 173 referred to, and in many cases even with their names. If the general idea which prevails in England respect- ing California does insufficient justice to the character of that highly civilized and most productive State, how much less appreciative are many amongst us likely to be of territories so comparatively new and remote as Colorado, Nevada, and Idaho. Yet a day is probably not far distant when the stream of emigration will set towards these and the other gold-producing territories of the United States, in not far less proportion than it has heretofore set to California. The mineral wealth of these districts only requires working. In order that the gold fields may be worked, populations must flow into them. The war in America has, for the last five years, diverted the attention of the bulk of her popu- lation from other to military pursuits ; but now that the struggle is over, the migration for which the Americans are so famous, will unquestionably speedily people territories which afford such abundant promise. We should not be unmindful that the discovery of gold in California has been one of the great causes of the recent development of the United States. It has been said by a philosopher that " wherever gold pours in, an increased abundance, labour, and in- dustry gain life ; the merchant becomes more enter- prising, the manufacturer nioie diligent, the mechanic more skilful, and even the farmer follows his plough with the more alacrity, as he feels that his crops will produce good prices." An influx of money invigorates industry ; and this must be more peculiarly the case in a country where almost every man is his own freeholder, and where the fixed charges on industry are, therefore, Probability of large Emi- gration to these districts. The Gold discoveries a main cause of the recent development and progress of the United States. 'r I J y i 174 American Resources. [Sect. IV, comparatively light. I do not mean to say that the skill and industry of the United States would not have made considerable strides even had no gold been dis- covered in her territories ; but that skUl and industry has, no doubt, been excessively stimulated by the constant and continued influx of gold, and the great accession to wealth thereby occasioned. Vast fortunes have been made in New York by trade with San Francisco, and large proportions of those fortunes are expended in articles of luxury, w^hich never would have been required, and consequently which would not have been produced, had the trade with California not existed. Hence, therefore, we must attribute very mainly to the discovery of gold on the shores of the Pacific the vast development of the States of the Atlantic. The " Secretary of the Interior," in a report to Con- vieid and gress, lias estimated that when a railroad to the Pacific value of theae jg completed, traversing Nevada and other mineral products, r ' o ^ regions, " the annual yield " from the mines will amount to $150,000,000 or £30,000,000 sterling. It is to be remembered that the mines of the precious metals in America are nearly all on the public lands of the United States. Writing on the resources of America, my friend. Governor Walker, who has himself been Secretary of the Treasury of the United States, has publicly declared, — " They are the property of the Federal Government, and their intrinsic value exceeds our public debt," Official esti- mate of the [Sect. IV, that tho not have been dis- industry I by the the great : fortunes with. San tunes are 3uld have not have >rnia not ute very es of the !S of the t to Con- le Pacific mineral nes will ■ling. It precious )lic lands ources of LS himself d States, by of the e exceeds CHAPTER II. IRON, &o. Iron Ore is widely distributed through the United iron-uiininj,' States, but it is only in the old States of Pennsylvania vania"'"*^ and New Jersey that it is, at present, largely worked. On that field there are about 130 establislmients for mining Iron Ore, which give a produce of about 700,000 tons per annum. More than half the capital invested in Iron mining in America is employed in this region. It does not appear that the trade is very profitable. It is admitted that, " it hardly holds its own, in spite of its admirable location, in the present not very condition of the manufacture, owing to the proximity P'^"^**^"^^- of the district to sea-ports which are glutted with foreign Iron." I apprehend this to mean that iron can be imported into the United States at cheaper rates than it can be produced there. And having regard to the enormous quantities and comparatively low prices of iron produced, during many years, in England, AVales, and Scotland, this is not a circumstance calculated to excite surprise. The quantity of Iron Ore raised in America is, how- Extent of the ever, less to my present purpose than the extent of the America. ^^ field in which this mineral is located. Besides the several iron-fields of Pennsylvania, iron is raised and rF= ■i 176 American Resources. [Sect. IV. Mi \[ ! Iron in the Southern States. Missouri. Its iron mountains. Pilot Knob. worked in different parts of the States of New York, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Mary- land, and Ohio. In the South there is an old iron- producing district in Virginia, and both the Carolinas have a considerable number of forges and furnaces at work. In northern Georgia, passing into Alabama, along the line of the river Chattahoochie (so celebrated in the great march of General Sherman) there is a district which is officially represented to " possess incalculable, inexhaustible abundance of the richest ores, though its production of iron still remains at a minimum." We shall probably hear more of this district at a future date. But the State which presents the greatest field for Iron Mining is the State of Missouri. This dis- trict appears to possess an inexhaustible supply of the very best ores. Iron in Missouri is represented not to be found, as with us, far below the surface of the earth, but in immense masses, or " mountains," tower- ing above the ground. " Iron Mountain " is the largest mass. It is composed exclusively of iron ore in its purest form. The height of this mountain is 228 feet, and its base covers an area of 500 acres; which is calculated to give 1,655,280,000 cubic feet, or 230,187,375 tons of ore. There is every geological reason to believe that this deposit extends downwards, enlarging as it descends ; but, on the supposition that the base is not extended, every foot of descent below the surface will give 3,000,000 tons of ore. " Pilot Knob," distant about six miles from " Iron Mountain," is another of these stupendous masses. It rises 581 feet out of the valley in which it stands, and [Sect. IV. Chap. II.] Iron, &c. Ill New York, iut, Mary- L old iron- 3 Carolinas furnaces at I Alabama, celebrated is a district icalculable, though its lum." We it a future jatest field This dis- supply of represented rface of the ns," tower- the largest ore in its is 228 feet, es ; which c feet, or geological ownwards, sition that cent below ■e. "Pilot VIountain," It rises ands, and covers an area of 360 acres with almost a solid mass of iron. There are several other " Mountains " in this region, and it is computed that there is iron ore enough in Missouri to furnish 1,000,000 tons per annum of manufactured iron for the next two hundred years. This district has naturally attracted the attention of Difficulty at- ■ T 1 • IT- 11 tending iron- capitalists and mmers, and duruig the last decade minin<,Mn several furnaces were put in blast. Unfortunately, however, it is deficient in its local supply of suitable coal, and the railway-system of Missouri has been too incomplete to enable coal to be brought into it.'^' A. considerable amount of capital has been invested Micihoan. during the last ten years in iron-mining in Michigan, which raised, in 1860, 130,000 tons of ore, or more than any other State in the Union excepting Pennsyl- vania and New Jersey. The business in this State is quite in its infancy, but the quantity of ore already produced shows what may be anticipated on the shores of Lake Superior, where minerals are said to The minerals abound, not alone in the American States which superior. touch it, but, more especially, in the British territory. At the present time the bulk of the ore of Michigan and Lake Superior is brought as ballast to the port of Cleveland, on Lake Erie, from whence it is carried l)y the Atlantic and Great Western Kailway to Pittsljurg to be smelted. This ore is pure, of good quality, and Their '. ^^ul)eriority. * I hear that the "St. Louis and Iron Mountain E^ilway" is now open. If it is not already, it is intended to lie, carried on tur mills, other of liich are •e exelu- g in fuel ) United n might 1 manu- is been, I have of coal thorities raising ;. Un- a very of aa 1850, iod in the >pears in pplies to y large— idance of •poses of h heat as nt affirm ;he same snts. per ncluding h is two , besides . mill in } kind of y other." Chap. III.] Coal. 187 ten years preceding; but still 14,000,000 tons of coal, looking at the population and manufactures of America, appears singularly small. In order to form a duo estimate of this, we must in comparison look at the coal supply of other countries. No great Great Britain, reliance is to be placed on estimates of our own coal- mining earlier than 1854, when the " Mineral Statistics of Great Britain," collected by Mr. R. Hunt, were first published. The following, however, is believed to have been the produce in that and several succeeding years : — Coal Produce of Gukat Britain. Year. Tons. 1854 1855 64,661,401 64,453,070 66,645,450 65,376,706 66,109,603 71,979,765 18.50 18,57 1858 1859 The total produce of the various countries of the world may be taken as follows : — Coal Pkoduce of the World. Countries. Great Britain (1859) United States (18G0) Prussia, Saxony, and Hanover. „ Belgium „ Franco Sjiain Japan, China, Borneo, Australia British Possessions, North America . . . Austrian Empire liussian Empire Tons. 71,979,765 14,333,922 12,000,000 8,900,000 7,900,000 3,000,000 2,000,000 1,500,000 1,162,900 1,500,000 Coal produce of the world. 'il 188 American Resources. [Sect. IV. 1 \* • It i h [ ' i^i ' iiiii Vnst extent of the American conl-fields. Surface in- dications of coal in Illinois, in Ohio, giving a grand total of about 121,000,000 tons as the coal produce of the world. Now, when we consider that the coal-fields of North America are computed to be thirty-six times the size of those of Great Britain and Ireland, and that they are equivalent, as the official reports state, "to " nearly three-fourths of the coal-areas of the principal " coal -producing countries of the world," 14,000,000 tons appears an absurdly small produce. The Ame- ricans speak very much of the extent of their coal- fields. "The relative amplitude of the coal-seams of "our own and other countries may be made more " appreciable by taking the amount of workable coal " in Belgium as our unit : then that of the Britannic " isles becomes rather more than 5 : then that of all " Europe, 8f ; and that of North America, 111." But what is the use of this 1 1 1 if they do not work it ? No one who has visited America can doubt the coal-producing capabilities of the country. Surface indications of coal meet the eye almost everywhere. Its existence on the Illinois river was reported, as early as 1679, by a French Jesuit missionary, Father Heimepin, who visited the country to convert the Indians. In 1763, Colonel Coghlan, a British officer, sent on an expedition to the natives, noticed on the south side of the Wabash river, "a high bank in which are several fine coal-mines." In the map of Captain Hutchins, published in London, fourteen years later (1777), coal-beds were marked as existing on the western side of the Ohio river, and bituminous coal-seams were noticed as cxistmg in the great basin of the Ohio. The great coal-field, extending Ciur. III.I Coal. 189 on both sides the James river from Petersbiirjr to a distance of fifteen or twenty miles above Richmond (Virginia), was first discovered l)y a l)oy whilst iu Viiyinia. digging for cray-fish. In fact, in travelling through the country it is scarcely possible, in a day's journey, not to come upon some spot where there are indica- tions of coal. From the earliest period, almost every observant traveller has noticed them. The great Pittsburg (Pennsvlvania) coal-seam, which The Pittsburg has been the mam stimulus to the manuiacturmg prosperity of that city, was first purchased as a tract of land from the Indians in 1736 by the family of Penn. The extent of the bituminous coal-field around Pittsburg has been estimated at 8,6*00,000 acres. The upper scam alone of this area is estimated to contain 53,516,000,000 tons of coal. About one-sixth of our coal in England is supposed to be blown away in generating steam-power. But this steam-power is said to be equivalent to the power of fifty-five millions of men. This is far more than doubling the power of the population of our country ; and, having regard to the fact that the whole popu- lation of America is employed, it is singular that they should not employ their coal in larger proportions, especially considering how much greater profit they ought to be able to derive from the use of it. The States in which the coal is w^orked in America Profitable number, at present, only sixteen. But there is every capital in reason to believe that the mineral is to be found in ;^"f"^'*f„„ L'Uitl*' 1 1 1 111 llli^. several other States, where it may be worked with advantage. I can have no doubt that a profitable 190 American Resources. [Sect. IV. t !»■ *k Improved machineiy required. field for capital exists in various parts of America in connexion with coal mining. Improved machinery might be introduced with advantage, especially in below-ground mines, which are comparatively little understood. Prior to 1836, indeed, few if any of the mines in the United States were below water level, nor were steam-engines applied to them until nearly ten years later. A system of cheap and simple machinery by which coal could be raised to the pit's mouth and put into the truck ready for delivery by one process would insure fortune in America to its inventor. \- l! V [Sect. IV. merica in cecl with les, which to 1836, ted States m-engines later. A which coal .t into the lulcl insure CHAPTER IV. PETROLEUM. The discovery of "Petroleum," or rock oil, in Peiin- Petroleum. sylvania, is of such recent date, that to many persons |l some particulars respecting it may be novel. Rock oil is 'i said to have been known to the ancients, and it is stated Its general that in Sicily, especially, it was used at a very earl)- period instead of fish oil. There is said to be an oil- spring, still flowing, in the island of Zante ; and it is also said that the Persians use petroleum obtained from the shores of the Caspian. On the banks of the Irrawaddy, in the Rangoon district, oils are derived from the rocks, with which the Burmese largely supply themselves ; and our own colony of Trinidad has b^en long known to contain pitch lakes, which, at various times, eiForts have been made to develop, — and once, notably, by the late enterprising Earl of Dandonald. It remained, however, for the Americans to show Used by the the way to the profitable application of rock-oil. The medlcirally. existence of the product in Pennsylvania was known to the Indians, who employed it for medicinal purposes. There are evidences in the " Oil Creek Valley," of pits having been dug to obtain it. In 17!)1 an article in the " Massachusetts ]\Iagazine," described 192 American Resources. [Sect. IV. ;i i > I Its first prac- tical employ- ment. The Eock Oil Company. The first oil- well. fe the oil-springs in that valley, and stated that a body of American soldiers, in marching that way, had stopped at the springs and collected the oil, which they had found good for rheumatism, and also as a gentle purgative. A Mr. Paterson, of Pennsylvania, appears to have been the first person who turned petroleum to a practical purpose. In the year 1845, he took a sample in a bottle to a cotton factory at Pittsburgh, and the manager of the spinning department having pronounced that it was as good a lubricator for machinery as the best sperm-oil (which cost nearly a dollar and a half a gallon), the proprietors of the factory determined to use it, and contracted with Mr. Paterson to supply them with two barrels per week, which was for a long time used in their establishment without the difference being discovered. Twelve or thirteen years ago some attention was directed, in different parts of the world, to the subject of rock-oil, and "Oil Creek" became the object of examination. A Company was formed in New York, under the style of the " Pennsylvanian Rock Oil Company," Professor Silliman being at its head. The cperations of this Company were, however, limited to collecting the surface oil, until, in 1858, a Colonel Drake visited the valley, and set about sinking a well. After one unsuccessful attempt, his drill struck an oil cavity at a depth of 71 feet; and, on the tools being withdrawn, oil rose to within five inches of the surface. This well yielded at once four hundred and afterwards a thousand gallons a day. I take the following account of what followed, from [Sect. IV. Chap. IV.] Petroleum. 193 t a body vay, had il, which also as a 3 to have um to a J took a 'ittsburgh, Qt having cator for } nearly a rs of the with Mr. per week, iblishment ntion was he subject object of ^ew York, Rock Oil ead. The limited to a Colonel ng a well. ick an oil ools being le surface. iftei'wards wed, from n. very useful little work on the Petroleum wells, Flowing wells written by Mr. J. H. A. Bone, and published by '^^^'^ ' Messrs. J. B. Lippincott and Co., of Philadelphia : — "The excitement was veiy great. Every one who lield land in the vicinity of the ' Drake ' well made preparations for sinking wells on his own account, or leased to others a right to sink them, on payment of a royalty. Some of the wells were successful, but by far the larger proportion sunk contained no oil at all, or in such small quantities as to he unremunerative. Still several of the adventurers Avere making fair wages ; wlien, suddenly, the whole business was revolu- tionized by the discovery oi—floimig vxlls. " The first flowing well ever struck was on the McElhinnv The Funk AV W or Funk Farm, and was known as the 'Funk Well' Funk was a poor man when the well was sunk. It was struck June, 1861, and commenced flowing, to the astonishment of all the oil borers in the neighbourhood, at the rate of two hundred and fifty barrels a day. Such a prodigal supply upset all calcidation, but it was confidently predicted that it Avould soon cease. The oil, however, continued flowing, with but little variation, for fifteen months, and then stopped, but not before Funk became a very rich man. Long before the Funk Well had given out, there were new sensations — the Tarr Farm, yielding two thousand barrels daily, and the Empire Well, yielding three thousand barrels daily." The discovery of the Empire Well (.'aused, in the The Empire first instance, a glut in the oil market. The supply was already in advance of the demand; which had, to a large extent, to be created. The price of oil foil to 20 cents a ban'cl, then to 15, then to 10. Great diffi- T)imciilties culty arose from the want of barrels, which could not ti',p 'flow of" be made fast enough. The owners of the wells tried "''• to stop the flow of oil, but the wells would not cease to flow. " Oil Creek " became literally what its name imported, for the oil was necessarily allowed to run to mmmmmm I hi f i ( m fl ■ I l.h Want of means of transport. 1 I i i 1 i 194 Artierican Resources. [Sect. IV waste into the stream, the surface of which was covered with oil for miles. Besides all this, there was great difficulty as to con- veyauce. No railway, at that time, had penetrated the locality. The oil-casks were obliged to be floated down the creek to the river Alleghany, and thence shipped by steamer or flat boats to Pittsburg. The supply of flat boats was far from meeting the require- ments of the trade. In some cases, to mitigate the deficiency of barrels, the flat boats were made oil-tight, and the oil was conveyed in them in bulk. But this practice proved to be attended with much danger : the oil, in several cases, having taken fire, and burnt everything around.*"" * The great danger arising from fire in this district is forcibly illustrated in The Times' Commissioner's account of the "United States " well at Pithole. He says : — "The 'United States' pipe pours oil into its tanks with immense force, for about thirty seconds, and then has a thirty seconds' pause, during which it only pours forth gas of the most terribly inflammable nature. So bad is this vapour even for Pithole, that the tanks of this well are covered with huge wooden lids, each having a wooden spire-shaped chimney rising from its centre to take off the gas as high as possible. I have spent many hours in great powder magazines, yet, on the whole, I would rather pass a month in them than a day by the great wells in Pithole, which are simply as dangerous as any powder stores without one of their precautions. It is true that at every turn one meets the warning notices, *I^o smoking,' 'Beware of smoking,' ' Smokers will be lynchied,' &c. Yet, in spite of every- thing, smoking does go on on the sly, when teamsters and others can slip into the brushwood and furtively light their jiipes, even though, like miners who do the same in fiery j^its, they know that they do so at tlie risk of their own lives and those of all around tliem." A melancholy story is told of the loss sustained by the widow of one of the original owners of the soil at Oil Creek in consequence of a fire ; — I Sect. IV Chap. IV.] Petroleum. 195 lovered to con- letratecl floated thence y. The i-equire- ;ate the »il-tight, 5ut this jer : the 1 burnt is forcibly " United tiks with a thirty the most lour eveu ith huge ley rising I have he whole, le great powder at every eware of of every- ad others les, even ey know jso of all widow of isequence / )| In the .si)i'ino- of 1862 another ffrcat flowing well The Shemiun 1 o o r> Well was found. A Mr. Sherman, the owner of the laud, had commenced to sink it with very limited means. He was nniil)le himself to procure an engine, and obliged to admit to shares in the enterprise two men who possessed one. Soon after, the funds of the united speculators were exhausted, and they offered a sixteenth share in the well for $100. No one would purchase it at the price ; and it was ultimately disposed of for §00 and an old gun. A horse became necessary for the work, and another share was disposed of for that animal. At length, their means being exhausted, the enterprise was about to be abandoned, when, suddeidy, oil was struck, and commenced flowing at the rate of 1,.300 barrels a day. An immense fortune was realized. The next flowing well discovered was in May ISCJl. TheFarell This was on the land of a poor man named Farrell, engaged in hauling oil-casks. The Farrell well com- menced flowing at the rate of 2,000 barrels daily. The column of oil from it spouted up 50 feet higli, with a tremendous roar. At first the oil all ran to waste, but, as soon as its first flow was spent, a " close by this farm is that of the Widow M'Clintock. Her wretched, half-scratched land was valuable enough for oil. She got a very largo sum for it, which, with the characteristic business habits of a poor old country widow, she would receive in nothing but greenbacks, Avliich were accordingly paid to her in a Lnindlo as big as a bolster. She hoarded thorn, still living amid the noise of derricks and the gas of wells in the sliingle-hut in which she had for years been accustomed to dwell, till one night her petroleum lamps exploded, lighting her and her wooden house at once, and from the sudden lire neither she nor her greenbacks were saved ; nothing, in fact, but some ;S8{),000 which she had been persuaded to invest in United States' securities. All I'etrolia is full of anecdotes like these." () 1 W?SK mrmmmmmgmm 'f I i \ : alt i r') !» Enhanced value of land near the wells. Companies formed to sink wells. Cities spring up in the rVrcst. Cony. 196 A^neric/n) MesMirces. [Sect. IV. stop-cock wa« applied, and the stream was reduced to controllable dimensions. All this naturally caused great excitement. The land, not only in the immediate vicinity of the wells, but throughout the district, began to be bought up at sometimes fabulous prices. Those prices were the more swollen because a very small portion of land was required whereon to sink a well. Properties, there- fore, were capable of being extensively sub-divided ; and, if they were near a flowing well, each section had a considerable value. Numberless Companies were formed to sink wells, and wells began to be sunk in every direction. Nothing was heard throughout the valley iDut the working of engines ; and cities soon began to spring up in tlie vicinity of the wells, some of which have already become populous and important places. But I am saved the trouble of describing these cities, by an admirably summarized account of them which appeared last October in one of the letters of the able correspondent sent by The Times to the Oil Eegion. He writes as follows : — " I am witlun the mark when I say that within a circuit of tliirty milos round this Oil City tlicre arc more so-called cities and towns now existin<>' than thevo were villages, ov oven ftirms, four years ago. Take one instance. Cony, four years ago, was a poor farm where the thinly scratclied soil of cold clay land yielded so little tliat the whole place, Iniildings and all, might easily have been pnrchascd at $8 or |10 an acre. It was a more halting-place for si)ortsmon en route to shoot deei i the now manufactnring regions of Petrolia. I was at C< ■ the other night. It is a line rough city of about 10,000 iniu s "-ants. The Atlantic and Great Western Rail- way, which has o[)oned it up, has its great depot there, and has made it tlie central exchange of petroleum. Tt has nearly \i I Chap. IV.] Petroleum. 197 twenty banks, two newspapers, and the city is now building a large opera-house. The quotations made in the oil-exchange at Corvy, whether of oil, gold, or breadstuffs, influence Wall Street, and have infinitely greater weight on the trade of the country than anything done at Philadelphia, or indeed throughout all Pennsylvania. Yet all this has been done within four years, and the site of a city which now transacts business to the amount of £3,000,000 sterling annually, and where the land sells almost as dear as in Cheapside, could all have been bought four years ago for less than £5,000. " But Corry is only one sample out of many. Its position as the arbiter and ruler of prices between the oil regions and New York and Europe gives it, of course, great importance, though in reality the city is not larger than many others of Petrolia, which are much younger. Rouseville, Plummer, Titusville, Franklin, are all the juniors of Corry by a couple of years, yet some of these are almost as important as Corry itself and nearly as large. The city from which I write (Oil Oil City. City) can scarcely be counted as more than three years old, yet even after what I have seen of the sudden rise and sudden wealth of oildom, its extent, its squalid wealth, and dirty evidences of incessant activity, its population, and its resources, all make it a phenomenon even in this land of hurried wonders. Oil City claims to dispute pre-eminence even with Corry, though T am told that its rise, its wealth, and business energy are things of every-day occurrence compared with the new light which has risen further up the liills, the now universal beacon of attraction in th(; rush for speculation — Pithole City. Pithole City is only Pithole City. four months old. It is oidy four months since the first trees of the forest amid which it stands were felhxl ; yet a city, both in size and population, it is admitted to be — a city which is now, in influence and excitement, second to none in all Petrolia." It was to be expeeted, however, that all tliis success would be aecompauiecl with some amount of disappoint- ment. The multitude of wells sunk could not all be expected to produce oil ; and mnny, of course, produced mm k' Plummer. 198 Amencan Resources. [Sect. IV. 1 1 , ,' Tiu' iiiu'er- ji ; , tiiintyiittcncl " ■ iiiii this ! ' cntcrpiisc. ■1 ■ .1 1 , . i; Intorniittont 'it' 1 supplies of h oil. i! I 1 ■ 1 1 1 i less than others. The Tunes' coiTCsi)onclent tells us of a whole district where the borings resulted in disappointment : — " riummev," he writes, " is one of the ' dreadful examples ' of the uncertainty of oil wolls. Its natural position, above Cherry Itun, its geographical and geological formation, all ])ointcd it out as likely to be one of tlie best-paying regions in Pennsylvania. Oil was found over all its brooks and \inder its stones ; the air smelt strongly of gas, and brine was said to be abundant between its strata of sandstone. Plunnner, therefore, at once became the I'roinised Land of Oildom. Its acres of uncleared forest sold at fabulous prices, a town was built, hundreds of derricks were erected, hundreds of wells put down in all directions, millions and millions of dollars spent lavishly, and the result was absolutely nil. Not a 'red cent,' as they say here, was obtained in return for all this enormous expenditure of capital and industry. Of all the wells sunk, not a single one found as much oil as woidd hfive greased its machinery. Here in the valley the derricks are as thick as trees, as new and unstained by oil as the day they were first erected. Here all the agencies and offices are closed, all the machinery idle, all the huge vats as clean and as empty as when the coopers finished them. I'hunmer is not much talked of here. Its mention, in fact, is avoided by general consent, as its very name is not unnaturally thought to exercise a depressing influence on would-be oil speculators." The uncertainty attending the production of the Oil Wells is, indeed, one of the great disadvantages of the enterprise. There is no certainty as to what an oil well will produce, or how long it will last. The freaks of the wells are very curious. In some, the flow of Intorniittont oil will ceasc altogether for many hours, and will then commence again with increased vigour. In very many the flow is intermittent. Souk; flow at half-hour in- tervals, some at thre(\ and others at twelve. Some Ij / Chap. IV.] Petroleum. 199 wells only flow at night, others only in the day. Some only evolve gaseous vapours, others only jDour forth quantities of brine. One well will supply its owner with a small quantity of oil, then with an abundant yield of salt water ; then it will stop altogether, and just when its proprietor has abandoned himself to despair, it will, as if to encourage him, fill all his tanks with oil, and then stop again. " The Wild Cat Well is sulky for 40 minutes at a time ; it An illus- then spits forth a few drops of the precious liquid, then sulks Oration, for 20 minutes, foams and spurts again, and then gives forth tlie petroleum freely for about ten minutes, and again goes her round of sulks and sullenness as before. The Wild Cat accompanies its yield of oil by a succession of sharp reports, as though the supply were sent up from the earth from the barrel of a small field-piece. The majority of the wells are quiet in their work, but many of them hiss and spurt as they discharge the oily tluid. Each well has its own peculiar characteristics, which are perfectly known to the attendants, and it is usual to apply to them terms such as would be used in describing the qualities of a horse or a dog. A well is * skittish,' or * sulky ;' it is sometimes ' fond,' and often ' clever ;' it is ' liberal,' and sometimes ' elegant,' and not un- frequently ' real nice,' — a phrase which in America appears to combine everything that is good and desirable in this planet." Another peculiarity of the wells is their susceptibility guscepti- to external temvjerature. The rise or fall of the mercury ^'H^^ f "^" ^ _ -^ wells to in the th(3rmometer or in the barometer does not indicate external , . . , teinijerature. more accurately the changes m the temperature or in the condition of the coming weather than docs the rate of supply of petroleum from the oil wells. Twenty- four hours l)eforc or after a cold night or a snowstorm, the oil well is sensibly affected. The column of petro- leum in the tube seems, ui fact, to feel the atmospheric -.t- •200 American Resources. [Sect. IV. 1 ,» .!^tl \ Limited existence of the wells. pressure in the same manner as the mercury. One well which in summer will yield 100 barrels, will only produce 20 in the winter ; in another, the decrease is from 85 to 10 barrels ; in a third, from 300 to an average of 50. The cause of a diminished supply of oil with a falling temperature is not satisfactorily ex- plained. It was at one time thought, by some, that the tubes got clogged with paraffinc during cold weather; that the deficiency, in fact, was not due to the well, but to the instrument by which the oil was raised to the surface. Measures were accordingly taken to pre- vent obstructions in the tubes, and in some cases new tubing was supplied, but the results remained the same ; and it now appears to be generally recognised that the oil wells are extremely sensitive to meteoro- logical influences.'''' Another uncertainty respecting the wells, is the period of their existence. Some last for years, others only for months, and some flow only for a few weeks. The Funk well, referred to a few pages back, as the first flowing well, is now dry and silent. The Empire well, for two years, yielded nearly 3,000 barrels of oil daily ; its flow then stopped, but, on the application of a pump, it yielded about a hundred barrels daily. Then it stopped for some time, but by the gentle persuasion of an air-pump (or "blower") it is now sending up about the same quantity. The fact seems to be, that * The Times' correspondent observes that, " the generally received idea of the temperature of the earth increasing in certain ratio with the depth is not supported by the experience of Pe- trolia, inasmuch as the oil brought up from the greatest depths has a lower temperature than that obtained nearer to the surface," I Biicrally certain of Po- (lejiths Chap. IV.] Petroleum. 201 the oil lies deposited in holes, some of which are large, and some small ; and it depends upon the size of the hole, and the quantity of oil deposited in it whether the well is a " flowing " or a " pumping " well, and whether it produces oil for a month or for a year. But there is no probability of any deficiency in the supply of oil. Far richer deposits than those first discovered at Oil Creek, have since been reached not only in different parts of the same district, but in various other parts of the United States. At present, "Pithole" is the principal scene of enterprize, the "Cherry Run oil-field," which, during 1864, had an amazing reputation, having, according to the prevailing impression, almost been "pumped out." In a short time, no doubt, there will be other fields discovered, equally productive with the " Oil Creek," " Cheny Run," and " Pithole " districts. Oil has recently been struck in other parts of Pennsylvania; indeed, all the western portion of the State is conjectured to have more or less oil beneath its surface. The Virginians have got a district which they call " the great oil belt," and in which some small flowing wells were struck antecedently to the outbreak of the Civil War. In Ohio there are several oil-fields which are coming into notice, and in Kentucky there are four localities which produce oil. Indications of oil are also reported in different parts of the States of New York, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, and Michigan ; also in Oregon, Utah, and California. In Canada it has been produced for 3 or 4 years. Indeed, now that Petroleum has acquired a commercial value, there can be no doubt that it will be eagerly sought for and abundantly found. ' Deposits of oil in other districts of Pennsyl- vania, Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, and other States. 202 American Resources. [Skct. IV. h ■ < ' t Statistics of tho supply. I am not aware that there arc any statistics of this production ; in fact, so mucli oil has been allowed to flow to waste, and has been lost by fire and water, and in the course of transit, that it would be very difficult to estimate the production of the wells. Hereafter, as the trade becomes more steady and better conducted, we may hope that this deficiency may be supplied. In the meantime we must content ourselves with the official accounts of the Exports of Oil from the United States. In 1861 the exports were small, and no account appears to have been kept of them. In the three following years they amounted to the following quantities : — The exports of petroleum Export of Petroi.kum fi^om the United States. Yearl8G2 10,887,701 Galls. „ 18G3 28,250,721 „ „ 18G4 31,792,972 „ „ 18G5 42,273,508 „ in very sm.all proportion to its yield. Prices of petroleum, But this is a very small proportion to the yield of the district. It was estimated last year that the entire oil district of Pennsylvania yielded from 80,600 to 90,000 barrels per week ; equal, at the lower figure, to, say, 4,000,000 barrels per annum. The quantity forwarded from the stations of the Atlantic and Great Western Kailway was 533,000 barrels in 1863, and 675,028 barrels in 1864. The average prices show a heavy rise, despite the largely increased production. ! [Sect. IV. i of this Dvvecl to iter, and difficult iafter, as iiducted, ied. In irith the e United and no In the allowing i. yield of entire 600 to figure, uantity Great !3, and ite the .r. IV.] Petrc leum. 203 PlUCES OF PKTIlOMCrM IN NEW YoilK {Vl'M OaM.ON). 1 18«0- 18(54. .1 t Description. 18f)0. 28 Cents. 28 „ 44 „ 1864. Crmlo 41 Cents. 39 „ 0.5 „ 74 „ licfilU'll Ditto, in bond Ditto, free The present duty levied on this article is ,$1 a ^^^7- harrel. The great difficulty which has hitherto at- l^ittic"lties , 01 tmiijiport. tended the oil trade has been transjiort. It was easy enough to produce oil, hut far more difficult to convey it to the consumer. The roads in the oil region are execrable; in fa(;t, there are no roads. Everything has to he hauled through an immense slough. Very excessive charges for the carriage of the oil have thcrel)y been entailed. The Atlantic and Great Western Eailway will, I hope, by the time this book appears, have provided a remedy for this drerdful drawback. Up to a recent period the line only reached Corry ; but it has now been carried on to Oil City and Pithole, and, ill fact, may be said to rea(;h all the wells. The railway will also be able, immediately, to provide Riiilway con- sufficiently for the requirements of the trade. Hitherto, provkkd""^ in consequence of a deficient supply of rolling stock, it has been unable to carry a very large quantity of the oil with whi(^h it has been supplied, and the consequence has been, that Oil C^ity and other places have been choked witli oil, for which no means of transport whatever could be found. As the railway receives no less tliaii id. per ton per mile for all the oil it carries, it has naturally exerted itself to take all .^.-...ja! jk«tJSl&*i4.«iim wi 204 American Resonrce(<. [Sect. IV. I The shares in petroleum companies, it could ; l)ut it has been hitherto impossiljle to keep clown the accumulation. Additional rolling stock is now being most rapidly supplied to the line, and it is hoped that, at no distant date, Oil City may be emptied. In the mean time, it is satisfactory to know that the demand for the article is increasing in every part of the world, and especially in the United States itself. The general use of petroleum in the United States has, perhaps, been fostered by the extent to which the population have embarked in the enterprize of raising oil. At Pittsburg alone there are between thirty-five and forty Oil- Well Companies, some of which have been very successful, and some otherwise. But the extent to which the public have embarked in these Companies is shown by the fact that the favourite shares arc not, how divided, as they would he with us, X25, .£20, or even £10 shares, but shares at four shillings and two shillings each ! This would appear very ridiculous in England, which, com])aratively, consists of a nation of Capitalists ; but it is not at all ridiculous in America, where the capital is so much more distributed, and where there may lie said to be hundreds of thousands of provident working men, who prefer the ])rofits of petroleum to the small rates of interest afforded Ijy savings banks. It may be urged that these small shares induce," speculation. It is questionable whether they do so more injuriously than where the shares of a Company are of higher value. But, be that as it may, it is urged, in America, that the worst part of the speculative mania in petroleum has died out, and tl' ': the ventures are now taken out of the hands of mere speculators into Speculation in petroleum, [Sect. IV. HiiAr. IV.-] Petroleum, 205 3 to keep I stock is line, and Oity may factory to reasing in le United bed States wliich the of raiding :hirty-five liave been lie extent Companies ?s are not, even £10 ) shillings England, ipitalists ; vliere the lere there jrovident oleum to banks. s induce |o so more ny are of urged, in vc mania tures are tors into those of substantial Companies, who conduct their risks on superior systems, and obtain a fair amount of certain profit. It is claimed, in fact, that petroleum wells stand, at the present time, on much the same footing with coal, iron, and other mineral enterprises. Except the invention of steam, I suppose, that in the ^^9 benefits . 1 • 1 • • ^ blessings history of commercial and industrial enterj)rise, there ofthisdis- are few parallels to be found to the history of the ' discovery of Petroleum and the development of its varied uses. Ilalf-a-dozen years covers the whole of this history. Previous to tliat period the mineral had been unnoticed ; now, it is an article of trade and of necessity. Petroleum became known to mankind, as other supplies have become known, just at the moment it was needed : at the moment when fish and animal oils were annually decreasing ; whilst the difficulty of supplying illuminating and lubricating agents was annually becoming greater. The business is certain to assume very far larger proportions than at present. It is interwoven with the necessities of human existence, and, accordingly, must increase. We wait increasing quantities of oil for the varied purposes of light in ou- houses, application to many of our leading manufactures, and lubrication of machinery. No oil is so cheap or so efficient for on,' pivposes as thai which springs from natural sources. Every day pi'escmts it to us as an element of increased uficfulness ; and, as there is no fear of want of demand, so, happily, there is no doulit of an abundant supply. This great natural dovelopment made its appearance especially to at a period when it was of peculiar value to the United states?' **' States. At a moment (»f civil wai', when the balance h vmii^up mm • ,1 206 American Resources. [Sect. IV. of tracte was against the nation, when gokl was neces- sarily going out, and when there was a heavy drain upon the natural resources of the country, petroleum sprung up, from lands previously considered valueless, in quantities sufficient to make a sensible diversion in the national commerce. Nor was that the only benei5t it offered. Whilst it assisted the external commerce, it also stimulated the internal industry of the United States. It gave to the railway interest of the country a pi . 3pect of large additional profits ; it offered em- ployment to capital with every prospect of abundant returns ; and it afforded a more than ordinary reward for labour. It is difficult to find a parallel to such a blessing bestowed upon a nation in the hour of her direst necessity. I [Sect. IV. was neces- 3avy drain petroleum I valueless, iversion in oly benefit commerce, he United le country Tered em- abundant ry reward to such a ur of her SECTION V. COMMEECE. ^«««tViM I SECTION V.-COMMEECE. CHAPTER I. SHIPPING. The people of the United States derive a great The Seal oard advantage from the extent and nature of their sea- tic. ^^ **"' board. Their whole Atlantic Coast line from Maine to Florida presents an infinite variety of bays, inlets, river entrances, and harbours. Many of them are capable of accommodating the largest class of vessels. In the whole world there are comparatively few ports which a ship having so great a draught of water as the Grea* ^astern is able to enter, or in which she can lie securely. But she can not only enter the Bay of New York, but can lie close up to the very shjre of the city. On the South, the Americans have a The Gulf and number of fine harbours in the Gulf of Mexico ; and their Pacific Coast line, though not so well indented as that of the Atlantic, affords, in additic»n to the great bay of San Franrisco, several excellent resorts for shipping,— especially in the Columbia river in Oregon, and in Puget's Sound. Nor can it be said that even on their northern boundary the people of the Pacific, wsmr. \ 210 American Resources. [Sect. V. ii : The Lake Navigation. The Naviga- ble Rivers of America. The Atlantic Rivers. The Missis- sippi, and its branches. the United States are without a coast line; for the great lakes which form that boundary afford an extent of navigation almost equal to that of an ocean, and are navigated by sailing craft and steamers to an extent but little inferior to that of the sea-board itself. In addition to their coast lines, lakes, and shores, the country has the great advantage of being per- meated by a immber of most important navigable rivers. The State of Maine is penetrated by the Kennebec ; Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut by the Connecticut river ; New York by the Hudson and its branches ; Pennsylvania by the Delaware and Schulkyl; Maryland by the Susque- liana ; all flowing from West to East. All the Southern States, except Florida, which, with a double coast line, scarcely requires inland navigation, have rivers which are navigable for larger or smaller craft. Nor is this great advantage confined to the Northern or Southern States. The great river Mississippi, Avhich takes its rise Oi the north of Minnesota, permeates the very centre of the Continent of America, and by means of a canal, from the Mississippi to Chicago (which is about to be enlarged so as to permit the passage of large shipping), absolutely carries the produce of the northern lakes directly to the Gulf of Mexico. The Mississippi, in its course to the ocean, of itself affords navigation to no less than ten great States, — Minne- sota, Wisconsin, Iowa, IlL is, Missouri, Kentucky, Arkansas, Tennessee, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Its branches, the Missouri river, the Platte, the Ohio, the Wabash, the Arkansas river, the Red River, and others i \'' [Sect. V. Chap. I.] Shipping. 211 for the m extent ean, and L's to an sea-board d shores, ing per- lavigable by the ichusetts, [ew York ia by the Susque- Southern oast line, rs which »r is this Southern akcs its le very neans of which is issagc of c of the The affords -Minne- ntucky, ■ina. Its )hio, the d others :o / too numerous to particularize, afford opportunities for navigation even into the most distant regions and territories of the United States ; the most important of these streams taking their rise in the Rocky moun- tains, and thus carrying navigation to the very verge of the rivers which debouch in the Pacific. The inland navigation of America is indeed quite as impor- tant as its coast line : for by it the very heart of the Continent is touched and vast fields of produce are brought into direct communication with the sea-board and the ports of export. It is something for the people of the United States to boast of that the whole of these waters are navi- gated by vessels of their own construction. So far as their inland navigation is concerned they owe this, exclusively, to their own industry and enterprize. With respect, however, to the foreign trade from their Atlantic sea-porti, they owe still more to political circumstances. The mercantile marine of the United States was admittedly built up by the great Eurojjean wars at the close of the last and the commencement of the present century. The United States had no sooner established their independence, than they found themselves, as a neutral nation, in a position to con- duct, with peculiar advantage, the carrying trade of the European nations which, in consequence of war, were ravaging each other's shipping. The condition of Europe was such that American shipping soon became, of necessity, the preferable medium through which to conduct the larger share of the commerce of the world. The Americans alone could carry, with safety, the valuable commodities of the nations which All .the Ame- rican waters navigated by their own Shipping. The Mer- cantile Marine of America. V -1 212 American Resources. [Sect. V. zi ■ : m Its rapid growth and fluctuations attributable to political occurrences in Europe. were at war ; and having every advantage for ship- building and navigation, they commenced a career which soon became extraordinarily extended and unusually successful. The rapid growth of American shipping and Ame- rican commerce will be shown by the following account of their tonnage engaged in foreign trade : — American Tonnage enoaoed in Foreign Trade. Year. Tonnage. Year. ■ Tonnage. 1789 127,329 1807 1,116,241 1792 414,679 1808 538,749 1795 580,277 1809 605,479 1799 624,839 1810 908,713 1801 849,302 1811 948,247 1802 798,805 1812 668,317 1803 787,424 1813 237,501 1804 821,962 1814 59,786 1805 922,298 1816 877,462 This table illustrates several remarkable facts. It will be observed, in the first place, with what amaz- ing rapidity the American shipping grew immediately after the breaking out of the European war. In twelve years the tonnage had increased from 127,000 to nearly 850,000. Then it will be noticed how instantly the trade sunk on the declaration of the Peace of Amiens in 1802, and how immediately it rose again on the recommencement of the war. After the Treaty of Tilsit, the combination of the great Continental Powers against the trade of Great Britain, exercised a depressing effect on commerce, and we accordingly find the American tonnage in use in [Sect. V. Chap. I.] Shipimig. 213 'or sliip- er which nusually id Ame- bllowing Eide : — cts. It amaz- ediately rar. In 27,000 d how of the aliely it After e great Britain, nd we use in foreign trade sink one-half in 1808, and only restore itself by gradual degrees up to 1811. In the fol- lowing year the Americans themselves put an end to their own navigation and commerce by entering upon war with Great Britain. Our navy swept their vessels from the seas, and two years after the out- break of this war the Americans had only 59,700 tons of shipping engaged in foreign trade, instead of the 1,100,000 tons employed seven years previously. Such facts ought to teach both nations how de- Injury in- sirable it is for their own interests to keep the American peace. If America had not gone to war with Great ^^^fthe Britain in 1812 it is probable that she would have Warofi8i2. retained to this day her great ascendancy in general commerce. For a number of years she had occupied the seas — she \\?A established extensive and profitable lines of trade between countries possessing no com- mercial marine of their own ; as well as with all those commercial states which form the natural and perma- nent markets for produce. Such advantages would have secured to the United States the bulk of the carrying trade of almost every nation, which did not exclude her by positive legislation ; and the increased European consumption of the products of tropical countries would have given her a great advantage. But America lost the great opportunity by inviting war; and she has never recovered it. In 1845 her tonnage engaged in foreign commerce was not greater than in 1807; and although it has since made consi- derable progress, the carrying trade of the United States cannot be said to be anything like what it might have been ; indeed the tonnage of the United ' ;, I'. ' W li i -. i i : ( Present state of the Ame- rican Mer- cantile Marine. Classification of Tonnajje. " Registered Foreign Tonnage." " Enrollert Tonnage." 2 1 4 American Resources. [Sect. V. Slates is employed in the export of American produce rather than in the carrying traffic of the worhl. From tlie form in which the national accounts are published, it is not very easy to arrive at a precise estimate of the number of vessels or the tonnage of the United States engaged at the present time in foreign trade. Their system is to " register " all vessels engaged in foreign commerce, and to " enrol " and " license " vessels engaged in inland navigation and the coasting trade. But a number of vessels appear to be both " registered " and " enrolled," and, con- sequently, the double entries are numerous. In 1860, the tonnage was classified as follows : — Registered Sail Tonnago 2,448,941 „ Steam Tonnage 97,296 Enrolled Sail Tonnage 2,036,990 „ SteamTonnage 770,641 Total Tonnage 6,353,868 But this total includes not only what we should consider "tonnage," but every class of vessel, even down to fishing smacks and canal boats. The ** registered " tonnage also includes, admittedly, all vessels engaged in the coasting trade, in the whale fishery, and the steamers and ferry boats on the lakes engaged in the trade with Canada.* Moreover, I am by no means clear as to the way in which the Americans measure their tonnage. Until very ''' " A deduction of at least 600,000 tons from American tonnage should 1)0 made for the duplicated tonnage of steam ferryboats, at Buffalo chiefly, in a less degi-co at Ogdenshurg and Cape Vincent." — Mr. Chasers Report on Foreign and Domestic Commerce, page 7. M Chap. I.] Shippimj. 215 recently, they dividod each ton into "95tlis," a cal- Large dcdHc- culation which it is difficult to understand or follow, ,„i„jp fmiu and respecting which I have no satisfactory ex- ^'"« '•'"*"'• planation. Within the last year a new system of admeasurement has been introduced ; and, from the " Keport of the Secretary of the Treasury," just published, it appears that the tonnage which, under " the old admeasurement," was computed at one figure, is estimated, " under the new admeasurement," at another and a smaller total. Each ton is now divided into " lOOths," which, henceforth, no doubc-, will greatly facilitate calculations. It will be obvious from all this, that to arrive at a conclusion as to the real amount of the sea-going tonnage of the United States, we must make a large deduction from the total above given.* As to the lyrogressive increase of the mercantile Progrcssivp shipping of the nation, there can, however, be no Amorican doubt. It is exhibited by the following figures, which ^'^'PP'""'- show the tonnage of the "registered" sailing ships, * In tlie Monthly Report of tho department of Agriculture, issued from the Govemniont press at Washington in Decemhcr, 1865, the attention of Congress is especially directed to " tho im- portant subject of weights and measures." It is stated that " tho different States prescribe their own standards, and change them often," and that " it is most desirable to avoid what the country is fast running into, a change in the weights and measures wherever the boundaries of each State are passed, and as often as the general Assembly of each is convened. The rapid and extensive intercom- munication between the States by Kailway transportation makes an unchanging and uniform system of weights and measures tho more important. It is to be hoped that Congress will not look over tho impor'iti •'? of parly Ipgislallna on tliis subjppt." ■■^HWHI^B 1 :>.>t I. :. J' I ,H' ■ Foreign Tnuie. 21 G American Resources. LSect. V. and «)f the "enroUeil and licenaod" steamers for some years : — Inland Navigiition. r Your, 1845 1846 1817 1818 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856* 1857 1858 1859 1860 18G1 UeniNtorod Sail TollHilRO. 1,088,680 1,123,999 1,235,682 1,344,819 1,418,072 1,540,769 1,663,917 1,819,744 2,013,154 2,238,783 2,440,091 2,401,687 2,377,094 2,499,742 2,414,654 2,448,941 2,540,020 Kiirollcd ami LicniHctl Stuaiu Tuiiiingo. 319,527 341,606 399,210 411,823 451,525 481,005 521,217 563,536 574,098 581,571 655,240 583,362 618,911 651,363 676,005 770,641 774,596 The " Registered Sail Tonnage " of the United States, as given in the first of the foregoing cohimns, I appre- hend to show pretty fairly the annual increase in the tonnage of the country engaged \n foreign trade. The " Enrolled and Licensed Steam Tonnage," I take to indicate the jDrogress made by the Americans in the navigation of their inland waters. To form an estimate of their coasting trade and canal navigation, * In 1856, all vessels sold to foreigners, lost or condemned, in jtrevious years, were struck out of the Uegister, which reduced the aggregate tonnage in tliat and the following year by upwards of 680,000 tons. 1 '■ Chap. I.] Shippbuj. 217 wo niiiHt take the " Eivrolltjd and liiccnscd Sail Ton- CoimtiiiK Truclo. nugo," which increased from 1,()()2,0()0 tons in 184.'! to 2,0:J(),()0{) tons in ISOO. The "total tonnagis" of tlie United States, in 1845, was returned at 2,417,000 ; and, in 18(10, at 5,145,o;38 tons; and although neither of these figures may rei)resent " tonnage " in our sense of the word, there can be no doubt that in the interval between 1845 and 18G0 the real tonnage of America, whether for foreign, coasting, or inland trade, was more than doubled. It is probable that the larger proportion of American Clmmcter of vessels are what we denominate " small craft." Jhit, Shi[)i)iiig. however this may be, there can be no doubt that the Americans hr^^e gradually enlarged the size of their sea-going s, and htive constructed them from finer models. Their sailing vessels also are of highly increased sailing power. No people build their ships on better principles. Their skill in cutting sails, and in applying them to every de- scription of craft, has always struck mc as peculiarly remarkable. The superior capacity and very fine character of the "Liiicit("and American merchant ships will be appreciated by all Ships" who remember the beautiful class of sailing vessels which were formerly on the New York and Liveqiool stations, as what were called " Liners." Those vessels were the very best vessels of their class, and they no doubt acquired wide celebrity for American shipping. They are now superseded by English and other steam packets ; but the fame of these celebrated vessels has enabled the Americans not only to possess themselves of the largest proj)ortion of the emigration trade, but 218 A merican Resources. [Sect. V/ '. prei'sired to SteamVessels for Ocean Navicjation. Probability of a change in the character of the Ameri- can Mercan- tile Fleet. also to lay on lines of packets between Havre, Mar- seilles, Hamburg, Rio de Janeiro, Baliia, Panama, the West Indies, and various points both of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. They are also about to estab- lish a regular communication with the ports of the Mediterranean, under arrangements with the Italian Government. Some of these lines of communication are conducted by steamers ; but generally, except for passenger con- veyance, the Americans do not incline to steam in ocean navigation. They have comparatively few ocean steamers amongst their shipping. A few years ago, out of 110 steamers used in the trade ol Great Britain with America, only two were American. On the other Iiand, out of 1,200 sailing vessels in the trade, 960 were American. In 1860, the whole "Registered Steam Tonnage" of the United States {i.e. the stear»i tonnage engaged in foreign trade) only am.ounted to 97,296 tons. In 1865, on the old admeasurement, it only amounted to 69,500 tons, and on the new admeasurement to 28,400 tons. Recent events, however, may tend considerably to modify the proportion of sailing vessels and steamers in Americu. During the war, as ^s v^eii known, the marine of tlie Republic has severely sufterecl ; so much so that the returns for 1864 show upwards of a million less registered sailing tonnage belonging to the United States, tl;an she possessed in 1860. This decrease is only in a small degree owing to captures. It most largely arises from the sales and transfers which Ameri. Flour, kvine, and ncisco to leae who ;o of the the part Lt service use and ing their liis trade Qents of ranee of ts of the iterprize making modern J of its and the ;o make world. ;he sea- that of !ry con- 1 China cisco. subject, States. ing list OlIAP. II.] Imports ami Exports. 231 I'ltlNCIl'AI, AUTItl,KS OK Amkuhan Imi'out. Buttons. Oils. Beads and Bugles. Paints. CoaL Paintings. Cabinet ware. Percussion Caps. Coffee. Pickles and Sauces. Copper, Manufactures of. Plated Ware. Cottons, and Cotton Goods. Pins. Clothing (not of wool). Pipes and Pipe Cases. Drugs and Dyes. Plumbago, or Blacklead. Embroideries. Potash and Saltpetre. Fruits. Eibbons. Furs. Saddlery. Earthenware and China. Silks, and Silk-dress Goods. Glass, and Glass wares. Seeds. Gloves. Soda. Gums. Spices. Hair, Manufactures of. Spirits (chiefly Brandy). Hemp, and Hempen Manu- Sugar. factures. Tea. Hosiery. iin and Tinware. Iron, Steel, and Cutlery. Tobacco, (Jigars, and Snuff. Lead, and Manufactures of. Toys and Dolls. Leather, Calfskin, &c. Watches and Watch materials. Marble. Wool, and Woollen Clothing. Metals — Platina, Nickel, &c. Zinc. Needles. Household and Personal Effects Nuts. of Immigrants. Principal iirticlof; of Itiipurt. This list sustains in a very complete manner the observations in a previous section respecting the manufactures of the United States. Of textile fabrics, Textile piece goods of silk, wool, cotton, and linens, carpetings, ^ "^^' hosieries, ribbons, and embroideries of all soi-ts, are the largest classes of goods imported. In mettds, cutlery and Metsiis. raih'oad iron are the largest items ; tin, in plates and sheets, and lead, in bars and sheets, following. China, porcelain, and stone- wares amount to a very considerable Porcelain. 232 American Resources. [Sect. V. n : , •n hi li'l' > Glass. Wiaes. Fruits. Spices. Articles of Luxury. Amencan trade less Bpeculative than is usnally sup- posed. figure, and glass of every description, from polished plate-glass to watch-glasses, forms another large item. Champagne is the largest item in the list of European wines; claret and other red wines (generally of low quality) representing a scarcely less inferior amount. Brandy is the only spirit introduced in any very considerable quantity. Amongst fruits, raisins are the largest item ; and amongst spices, black pepper and pimento. Upon the whole, the Americans, judging from the^j- imports, appear to have much the same tastes and requirements as ourselves, though they are exempted from paying the enormous amounts which we pay for imported articles of farinaceous food and general provisions. It cannot be said that artic'es of luxury enter largely into the amount of American importations. Silk dresses and furniture appear to be the two items most largely in demand. But no jewellery is found in the list of imports, and very little plate. It is not many weeks since the people of England were cautioned, as many persons" thought without due necessity, against entering into largely extended com- mercial transactions with America. I do not propose to re-open the controversy. But I think the tables given in this chapter will show that the Americans have not been prone to over-trading beyond their means. The American Import trade appears to con- sist of articles of ne^.essity and utility, for which there is always an abundant market. During the Civil War this trade sunk greatly. In i860 their imports amounted to $362,000,000; in 1865 they only amounted to $234,000,000, a difference of no less LSect. V. Chap. II.] Imports and Ex2)orts. 233 n polished large item. ■ European illy of low )r amount. any very ins are the )epper and s, judging the same ti they are mts which I food and ter largely ►ns. Silk bwo items is found f England thout due ded com- t propose he tables L.mericans )nd their s to con- )r which iring the 60 their 65 they •f no less than $128,000,000. No small credit is due to them for such an exercise of caution and forbearance ; and now that the war is over, and that largely-increased prosperity is about to attend the return of a large pro- portion of the working population to their ordinary industry, there seems to be no good ground for checking that supply of articles of consumption which is the .irtural consequence of a re-opening of the old accus- tomed ledgers. In addition to the increased wealth in process of The capacity development, there is no doubt that the Americans, to purchase during their war, invested largely in the securities of European this country ; and we also know that Europeans have niarkets. been large buyers of American railway debentures and State securities. Tliere need be little apprehension, therefore, either of the balance of trade being unduly against the United States, or of her being found deficient in means to pay for whatever she may purchase. From July, 1 865,to the time at which I write (February, 1866), the price of gold in New York has scarcely fluctuated 5 per cent., — in singular contrast to the war excitement of the year before. There has been no export demand CO advance the price ; and although gold at present is from 80 to 83 points below its price at the commence- ment of 1865 (it was then 2':i7 — it is now 145 to 144), the prices of American securities have not fallen in proportion. In fact, the commercial men of the nation rely with confidence on the resources of America. *^; CHAPTER III. INTERNAL TRADE. I: U The Internal Very large as is thc export and import trade of the UnUed^**"* United States, it haa been already shown that it is States. nothing in comparison with her internal trade. The distances in America are so great, the region of pro- duction lies, in many cases, so far from the field of consumption, that the internal trade and traffic of the country must be necessarily a business, not only of vast importance in itself, but of importance enlarging with the rapid increase of population, the still more rapid development of the resources of the country, and the extended and extending field over which the popu- lation is spread, and from which those resources are drawn. The extent of the territory of the United States implies great diversity of productions. The growths of tropical regions are exchanged for the field crops and forest produce of cooler latitudes ; and in another direction the products of the coast and of extreme interior districts are exchanged. Such a trade must necessarily be of a very comprehensive character. In hot, the inland trade of the United Sttites may be Its compre- hensive cha- racter. Chap. III.] Internal Trade. 235 le of the liat it is ie. The I of pro- field of ic of the f of vast ng with re rapid and the 3 popu- :ces are States growths 1 crops mother xtremo 3 must r. In tiay bo considered almost as various as that of Great Britain with her colonics."'^ Whilst the tide of emigration sets from east to west, the tide of commerce flows from west to east. The produce of the country, of whatever description, has all to be conveyed in that direction. The principal routes by which the trade of the West is conducted are those (1) of the Mississippi, which, as already explained, is now chiefly used for home purposes ; (2) of the New York canals, formerly of great importance ; (3) of the railways penetrating the west and reaching the Atlantic sea-ports ; and (4) of the St. Lawrence, and the lakes it empties. By these various routes all the movement of the produce of the country is conducted. Up to a comparatively recent period the river and lake navigation, and the canal navigation which has brought the lakes and rivers into connexion, have supplied the principal facilities for internal trade. The large extent of the " enrolled and licensed " sail tonnage of the United States has been referred to in a previous chapter. This tonnage, together with the "enrolled * My friend, Mr. W. E. Baxter, the Member for Dundee, in his most valuable book on America, remarks, " It is astonishing to observe the vast quantities of produce in course of transit through- out the country. Hugo steamboats on the Missiesippi and Alabama are loaded to the water's edge with bales of cotton. Those on the Ohio are burdened with barrels of pork and thousands of hams. ' Propellers,* on the lakes, are filled with the finest wheat from Wisconsin and Michigan. Canal boats in New York and Pennsyl- vania are deeply laden with flour. Kailroad waggons arc filled with merchandize, and locomotives struggle, in the western wilds, to drag trains richly freighted with the productions of every country under the sun. The United States reminded mo, sometimes, of a great ant-hill, where every member of the community is either busy carry- ing a burden along a beaten pathway, or hastening away in search of now stores to increase tbn national prosperity." Principal direction of the traffic. Facilities for conducting it. Tonnage on the Lakes, Rivers, and Oauals. 236 Atnerican Resources. [Sect. V. Tho internal trade of America measured by the enrolled and licensed Tonnage. and licensed" steam tonnage, was computed, in 1860, at nearly 3,000,000 tons. This may be taken as the amount of tonnage, of every description, employed in the internal trade of America, including, of course, tho river, lake, canal, and coasting navigation. Such an amount of tonnage shows an immense internal traffic. If we multiply it by ten, we shall not get at more than the average result of the deliveries of goods per annum by vessels employed in navigation of limited duration and extent. And if we take thirty millions of tons per annum as the amount of the river, canal, and coasting trade of America, I think we shall be within the mark. The coasting trade of Great Britain, in 1860, employed, in the aggregate, thirty-four millions of tons of shipping. We have, I apprehend, a much larger coasting trade than America, in consequence of the extent to which our vessels carry coals round our coasts ; but to counterbalance this, America has a much greater lake, river, and canal navigation. There are no precise data, that I know of, by which we can measure either the actual amount of tonnage employed in Great Britain and Ireland proportionately with the enrolled and licensed tonnage of the United States ; nor, on the other hand, do the American statistics afford us the means of comparing the quantities carried coastwise relatively to our own. But, I think, that we may fairly take the internal and coast traffics of the two countries by water-carriage to be nearly equal, knowing that in our coast trade we employ (say) 34,000,000 of tons annually, whilst in America they have enrolled 3,000,000 tons steam, sailing, and other vessels for employment in the inland and coasting trades. II o 01 [Sect. V. cuAP. in.] Interned Trade. 237 I, in 1860, :cn as the iployed in lourse, tho Such an nal traffic. more than )er annum I duration 18 of tons 3anal, and be within Britain, in ir millions d, a much 3quence of round our as a much There are h we can employed with the . States ; statistics cs carried , that we )f the two knowing )0,000 of enrolled ssela for How far is the amount of tonnage employed in inland intercourse in America adequate to the wants of the country ? In considering this point, we have to regard the very great lengths over which traffic has to be carried; and having regard to those distances, no reasonable doubt can be entertained that the inland navigation of America is very inadequate to the wants of the people. It has not, in fact, kept pace with the population and progress of the country ; and if it were not for the railroads, the great producing districts of the United States would be at a stand-still for want of means of transport for their produce. In 1853 the canals between Buffiilo and New York carried, annually, 4,247,000 tons. At that time a very small proportion of the Western States were developed. In 1862, with diminished rates and in- creased appliances, the canals were only able to carry 5,598,000 tons : obviously a very small proportion of what ought to be the great carrying trade between the Atlantic sea-board and the interior, and vice versd. It may be taken as a fact, that the canal navigation of the United States, working at reduced rates, now carries the maximum quantity it is able to convey, and that such is the rapid increase of products in the interior, and so large are the demands of that interior for foreign and other products, that the quantity of goods conveyed by water must be a very small proportion to the whole. The articles chiefly carried westward in America are groceries, including sugar and molasses, dry goods, hardwares, empty barrels (chiefly carried to the oil wells, and also for packing flour), machinery and castings, soda, pearl and potash, earthenware, boots, This tonnage insufficient for the re- quirements of Trade. Limited Ciipacity of the Canal traffic. Goods earned Westward. lu 238 American Resources. [Sect. V. U.\ m I* The Eastward freight. Agricultural products. Miscel- laneous freight. shoes, and hats, copper, tin, and lead, drugs, medicines, and dyes, furniture and oilcloth, crockery, green and dried fruits, rolled iron, hemp and cordage, brown sheeting and bagging, marble, cement, lime and plaster, paper, rags and stationery, oysters, nails and spikes, salted meats and fish, tobacco and cigars, and carriages and waggons. The eastward freight consists for the most part of agricultural products, cotton, com, flour, seeds, live stock, butter and eggs, poultry, pork, beef, and other meats (both fresh and salted), lard and tallow, manure, lumber, malt, petroleum, hides, lead, raw tobacco, and wool and woollen yarn. The miscel- laneous freight from the west, which includes a share of manufactured articles, is said to have been recently increasing, but it is still in very small proportion to the bulk of the trade. There is a very considerable local traffic to the large cities and towns in what is "Marketing." denominated "marketing" — i.e. garden and orchard produce, hay, grass, &c. This enumeration will serve to show the general character of the interior trade of the United States. The Lake tonnage of the country has, latterly, been largely on the increase. This has been occasioned by the development of the North-Wcstern States, and the communications required to and from the ports at which the railways have established themselves on the lake shores. The Lake shipping trade has had various alternations of fortune, being sometimes highly profit- able, and thereupon stimulated to great development, and at other times suffering under serious depression. An immense business has been done during the last four or five years, 1)eginning witli the fall of 1860 ; and The traffic on the Lakes. [Sect. V. Chap. III.] Internal Trade. 239 ncdicines, TTcen and jc, brown id plaster tid spikes, L carriages ts for the ;on, com, Itry, pork, I, lard and lides, lead, 'he miscel- es a share sn recently portion to )nsiderable n what is d orchard will serve •r trade of erly, been isioned by 8, and the ports at ^'cs on the \d various Illy profit- lopmcnt, eprcssion. the last 860 : and the consequence has been a great increase in the number of vessels of all classes adapted to the trade. In 1863 the total registered and enrolled tonnage of United States' vessels at the lake ports was 611,398. This, however, includes the enrolled tonnage of barges Tonnage of and boats engaged in the river and canal trade ; and it ports. also includes, perhaps, 50,000 tons of vessels lost or broken up, and not yet struck off the register. That there is great development in this trade, is, however, proved by the fact that every great line of railroad now employs " propellers " as means of communication " Propellers." between the various ports at which produce is shipped on the lakes and its own port of embarcation. There is also a large amount of Canadian tonnage employed in this trade ; and the shipment of ores on Lake Lake Superior, estimated at the value of $4,000,000 in Superior. 1862, is said to employ not less than 10,000 tons. The Lake Fisheries are also of much importance to the Lake Fish. Lake Shij^ping trade. The imports of lake fish at Buffalo in 1860 amounted to 26,655 barrels ; and although there has been a decrease since that year, it is said to have resulted from the increased demand and higher prices obtained for fish at other places. The lumber and stave trade upon the lakes also The Lumber constitutes a large portion of the freight. The east- ^'*"®- ward movement of lumber usually takes place in mid- summer, when low rates of transportation rule. The principal sources of supply are the States of Michigan, Canada West, Ohio, and Indiana. More than fifty per cent, of the lumber brought to Bufffilo comes from the State of Michigan. In the northern peninsula of that State, in and around Saginaw, at Port Huron, on the ' fl 240 American Resources. [Sbct. v. m . Railroad comumnica- tions. Their present inadequacy. Railroads can alone supply the deficiency of the traffic facilities of Aiuerici). St. Cljiir rivpr, are said to he the finest lumher districts of the American North West. In 1862, the number of staves brought into Bufftilo was 30,500,000, and the quantity of measured lumber amounted to 125,000,000 feet. The Census Commissioners estimate that of nine million tons of produce, &c., conveyed between East and West, and vice versd, in 1862, six million tons were carried by the railroads ; and they argue there- from, not unjustly, that if these railroads had not bee)i constructed the produce of the West could not have been conveyed to market, and therefore that the popu- lation of the West could not have thriven. It is well known that the railroads which penetrated the Western districts from the sea-board were quite inadequate, during the whole of the interval between 1853 and 1862, to convey anything like the quantity of goods offered them for carriage. Looking to the fact that during a considerable portion of the year the canals are frozen up, and the navigation of the lakes and rivers of North America similarly interrupted, and regarding also the circumstance that during the entire year the single track lines of the American railways are choked with traffic, it will be readily understood that the provision at present existing for the conduct of the great bulk of the internal trade of the United States is exceedingly inadequate. A development of the railroad system alone can be looked for to cure this defect. We have already seen that the carrying trade of the Mississippi river has been diverted in consequence of the superior advan- tages offered to the Western States l)y the commerce of 1 [Sbct. V. CUAl'. III.] Internal Trade. 241 ir districts e number 0, and the 5,000,000 t of nine kreen East Hion tons ^ue therc- l not bee)i not have the popu- It is well e Western ladequate, 1853 and of goods fact that he canals akcs and 3ted, and the entire railways tiderstood 3 conduct e United done car e already ppi river or advan- iniercc of J New York over that of New Orleans. The trade through the lakes and by way of the St. Lawrence must and will be an increasing trade, but it will always be restricted by local circumstances and by the character of the navigation. The canals, as alrcndy observed, arc supplied with traffic to the full extent of their capacity. Waggon carriage is, of course, out of the question. Railroads, therefore, remain as the only means of aifording adequate accommodation for freight from one part of the country to the other. So much has this been felt in the Great West, Railroad that between 1850 and 18G0 the five States of Ohio, the v^estem Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, supplied ^^^*^'-''^- themselves with upwards of 8,000 miles of railroad. Those States had an aggregate of 1,275 miles of road in 1850: they had nearly 10,000 miles in 18G0. The consequence was that within those ten years the aggregate cash value of the property in those States was nearly trebled : and in the neighbourhood of lines of railroad it was, of course, increased in very much larger proportions. It cannot be doubted, therefore, that for the development of its great internal traffic what the United States has to look to, is the dcAX- lopment of railroads. But I shall have to enlarge upon this subject in another section. I regret that there is comparatively little infor- The Coasting mation at my command respecting the coasting trade ^yigjica. of the United States. Before the Civil War there waa a great sea-board traffic between North and South, especially between New York and Charleston ; indeed a very considerable proportion of the cotton of the Cotton. Southern States was sent from various cities of the R ' ^mij"'r».« I MM 242 American Resources. [Sect. V. '/ i i 1 • Lumber. Tlio Panama trade. Value and Observations on this trade. South to New York for shipment to Europe. Between the Northern and the Southern States there has also been a large coasting trade in lumber. Of course all this trade was interrupted by the war. Of recent years the most important coasting trade has unquestionably been that of Panama, which the Americans persist in treating as a coasting station in consequence of its being the route at present between the States of the Atlantic and Pacific. The value of the Panama trade is exhibited in the following table showing the travel and transportation over the Isthmus for the year ending 30th September, 1862 : — character of the trade over the Isthmus. Charncter of Transport. Towards the Pacific. Towards the Atlantic. Total. Passengers No. Gold Dols. Silver ,, 21,456 4,444,268 578,062 232,886 35,565 345,547 64,758,378 737,684 9,796 34,605,467 14,286,935 31,964 10,127 217,901 20,061,601 33,279 31,102 39,049,736 14,285,935 578,062 264,850 45,092 636,448 74,819,919 770,963 Jewellery „ American Mails lbs. English Mails ,, Extra Baggage , Freight by weight ... , , Freight by measure . feet This table is curious not merely as showing the extent and general character of the trade between the Atlantic and Pacific, but as showing its direction. Thus we see that the bulk of the passengers go to California ; and, that whilst the bulk of the gold and silver comes from it, the jewellery and the merchan- dise of every class is, in the largest proportion, directed to the Pacific. It is curious to notice that each traveller from the Pacific returns with a larerer proj^ovtionate weight of baggiigc than those who go [Skct. V. Between has also oursc all ng trade 'hicli the tation in between value of ing table } Isthmus Total. 31,162 949,736 ^85,935 78,062 264,850 45,692 36,448 S19,919 70,963 dng the ween the lircction. rs go to ^old and nerchan- )portion, ice that a larger AvllO O'O Chap. III.l Internal Trade. 243 in that direction; and it will also he observed how much heavier arc the mails outwards than they are homewards, a circumstance to be accounted for, no doubt, by the greater number of newspapers and other publications forwarded from home. The total valves of the trade of Panama are returned Value of the as follows : — trade. Years. Inward. Outward. Total. 1859 1860 1861 1862 $57,679,925 53,148,004 64,347,905 57,826,620 $13,857,000 17,484,000 12,624,850 24,795,428 $71,536,925 70,632,004 76,972,755 82,622,049 Of the trade of 1862, $32,000,000 worth was trans- acted with Europe, and $40,000,000 with the United States. I am sorry to find Mr. Chase, in his " Keport American TlollCV I*C" to Congress on Foreign and Domestic Commerce, 1863," spectuiy this urging that because the trade across the Isthmus is *^'"*^' thus relatively larger from America thfin from Europe, it ought therefore to be treated " as a coasting trade to vessels of the United States." " The magnitude of the trade with the Pacific States," he says, " opens an inviting field to foreign occupation, but its peculiar circumstances have so far protected it. They may continue to do so in a great degree, if the quality of coasting trade and fhr laws wJiich preserve, it to the United States are rigidly maintained ; but if these were yielded, a very little would suffice to displace United States shipping." These are very narrow notions, and evince much less faith than a statesman of advanced views ought to enter- tain in the future of his country. Why should American shipping bo displaced if the Panama trndo was not R 2 244 American Resources. [Sect. V. .' * 't ' l^ Impolicy of treating the Panama trade as " a CooHting trade." treated as a coasting trade ? Besides the advantage of distance, America must always liave advantages over every other country in trading with lier own states and with her own citizens. Every country possesses that advantage in so great a degree that, practically, it must carry on its own coasting trade, whether that trade is open or not to other nations. Every description of ruin to British trade and British shipping, was predicted by our protectionists, when it was proposed to throw open the coasting trade of England to foreign competition ; but we did it, and the result is, not only that we maintain our own trade, but that it has been a far better trade, since the system of monopoly was abolished than it was whilst it existed. America would lose nothing commercially by altering her present system in regard to this trade : whilst, in the eyes of the world, she would gain much. At the present time, her monopoly of the Panama route is regarded, not so much as a wrong to Europe, as a wrong to those small States of the Pacific, Chili, Peru, Bolivia and Equador, which have quite as much right to the use of the Isthmus as the State of California, or any other State. It is monstrous to exclude the people of those States from the free use of their most direct access to Europe, under the pretext that the trade of the seaboard of the ocean is "a coasting traffic," Such a system is inde- fensi])le ; and I have no doubt that, in the main, it is also injurious to American commerce and enterprise. Nothing is to be gained by a free people by any restric- tion upon free intercourse. It is to be hoped that, with the revival of the South and the introduction of capital and enterprise into [Sect. V. CUAP. III.] Internal Trade. 245 ntage of iffcs over n states possesses ictically, licr that scription ing, was proposed 3 foreign not only has been poly was ca would present } eyes of nt time, d, not so )se small quador, of the or State. States Europe, d of the is inde- in, it is terprise. restric- e South ise into those States, the commerce of Now Orleans, Savannah, The Tmrlc of Mobile, Charleston, and the other great ports of the stotos."^^*™ Gulf of Mexico and the Southern Atlantic seaboard of the United States may revive and fiouriah. There was never any good reason why th(3 South should be forced to send the bulk of its produce to the North for exporta- tion : and if the South is to be regarded and treated as a free countiy. New York mereliants must not attempt to monopolise or control its trade. The South with increased independence and increased resources will pro- bably require increased supplies of European products, and the people ought to be al)le to obtain them, not through New York, or the other seaports of the North, but under the advantage of a direct trade. Every article in the South has heretofore been increased in price to the consumer by a long and costly transport from New York ; but under a better system the South ought to be enabled to save itself this addition to its prices, and to import for itself in return for the articles it exports. It must be for the advantage of both North and South, that the trade of the Southern ports should be developed to the utmost possible extent : and no merely local considerations ought, for one moment, to be permitted to stand in the way of that development. The establishment of a perfectly un- fettered trade at the Southern ports, by promoting the internal intercourse of the Avhole Southern section of America, would probably do as much as anything else to revive the prosperity of that portion of the United States, and thereby to enable the American people to bear the burden of national taxation. g >^ ^l •I 1, ! i\ V I The Detroit Commercial Convention, July, 1865. CHAPTER IV. TRADE WITH THE BRITISTl PROVINCES. For the purposes of tlie internal trade of the United States it is obviously of the utmost consequence that there should be the fullest and freest facilities of communication. This subject is found to press itself so much upon the merchants and traders of the in- terior that, immediately at the close of the Civil War, it was determined to hold a great " Commercial Con- veui-ion," for the purpose of deliberating upon the " vi :iness interests of the country. This Convention was held at the city of Detroit, on Lake Michigan, in July last. The commercial and trading bodies of nearly every important town in the north-east and north-west of the United States were represented. Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick also sent deputations to attend ; but, whilst they took part in the deliljcrations of the Convention, the British colonial deputations thought it proper to abstain from voting, on the ground that there were many subjects of internal importance connected with the United States, on which it was more proper tv ^dlow the citizens of the Union to decide for thomselves. The Convention, being organized, delib Tated for four days, during wh.ch the position of tie mercantile community was thoroughly discussed CiiAP. IV. I Trade with the British Provinces. 247 ic United ence that ilities of ress itself »f the in- ^ivil War, cial Con- ipoii the ition was , in July »f nearly »rth-west :1a, Nova itions to jeratious )utations e ground portanee v\is more D decide ■ganized, position iseussed i as regarded matters of transit, river and harbour ship- ment, finanee, agriculture manufactures, and recipro- city. At the conclusion of their deliberations, the Eesolutiou n • 1 T • 1 T 1 1 arrived at Convention took a vote, and unanimously adopted the by the following important resolution : — "^ ^°'^ ^^' " Resolved, That this Conveution do respectfully request the President of the United States to enter into negotiations Avith the Governn out of Great Britain having in view the execution of a Treaty between the ' ,vo Countries for Eeciprocal Commercial Intercourse betwejii the United States and tlie several Provinces of British North America, including British Columbia,, the Selkirk Settlement and Vancouver's Island, based on principles which shall be just and equitable to all parties, and with reference to the present fir.ancial condition of the United States, and which shall also include the free navigation, of the St. Lawrence, and the other Kivers of British North Anrcrica, with such improvements of the Rivers and the enlargement of the Canals as shall render them adeqate for tlie requirements of the West in communicating with the Ocean." Nothino' can show more cleailv than this resolution the tendency and feeling of the commercial classes of America, They want perfect freedom of intercc urse, and the most abundant facilities for effecting it. [t is d'je})ly to bo regi'otted that anything should occur to deprive the Americans of the advantj'.ges they must inevitably derive from the enjoyment of such h\ < - dom and facilities. The action recently taken l)y the United States Government, liowever, on the subject of the intercourse with British North America, promises, unf L'tunatcly, to deprive the people of much of that which they now enjoy. In the vear 1854 a treaty was «'ntered into betwoni The Tmity of Great Britain and the United States tor the pnr[(Ose inr Tiado ' 248 American Resources. [Sect. V. between the of adjusting old-stcancling disputes respecting the and the ^ ^^ fisheries on the American coasts, and also of estab- Provincea hsliing a reciprocal system of trade between the of North United States and the British North American pro- Ainenca. . . . vinces. JNIany of the Americans take the view that this Eeciprocity Treaty, as it was called, was more favourable in its application to the British provinces than to the United States. Upon that i-^, may be ob- Itsprovisions. Served tliat the Treaty threw opini all the British coasts and bays of the North to American fishermen, thereby settling the long- vexed questions arising out of the three-mile limit : that it also gave the Americans the most perfect freedom in the navigation of the river St. Lawrence : and that it placed all American manu- factures on the same basis as those of British origin throughout the British possessions in North America. These must have been material advantages, and it is not denied that they have proved so. The first and natural results of the treaty were entirely beneficial. In every department there was not only a sensil)lc increase but an unexpectedly large augmentation of trade Ijetween the British provinces and the United States. No ('oui])laints wen' heard on either side, and the tieaty was confessed to be of public benefit. Some fi'Av years since the C^anadian Government, under ^fr. (^alt, thought it necessary, for pifrjwscs of nth'nml reamne, to raise their rates of duty in Canada u]»on the importation of certain manufactured artii'les. These increased rates applied equal!}- to the manufactures of all nations, and therefore could not be conq)lainrd of as a peculiar hardsliip on the Arae- ricans. The same Government, however, alao thought Its success. Local Taxes imposed by the Canadians. Chap. IV.] Trade with the British Provinces. 249 it desiralile to assess discriminating rates of toll upon the produce passing through their state canals, with a view, as is believed, of endeavouring to divert the bulk of the trade to the ports of the St, Lawrence.* I must say that I think this latter act v ■ > ''^ery unwise, and was not at all in accordance Wiu the large spuit and intention of the Reciprocity Treaty. The effect of this proceeding was to afford an opportunity to the Protectionist party in America of denouncing the treaty. It was to last, I believe, ten years : — at any rate the period at which it expires is the I7th March, 1866. Under the influence of the Hon. Justice JMorrill, of Ycrmont, the great Pro- tectionist leader in the United States Congress, the Washington authorities have given notice that they do not intend to renew this treaty. This appears to mo to be exceedingly unfortunate for both parties, l)ut particularly so for the people of the United States. I. For the purposes of their traffic every outlet is indispensable to the people of America. The St. Lawrence is, without question, the cheapest and the Effect upon the United States. * The Superintendent of the United States' Census, commenting upon the fears entertained by some persons in tliat country of a diver- sion of a portion of the grain trade from j^ow York, observes, with considerable force and justice, that " wlien it is considered that the production of grain in the North- Western States, increased from 218,500,000 bushels in 1810 to 042,000,000 in 1800, and that of the eight food- producing states -west of the lakes, embracing an area of 202,000,000 acres, only about 52,000,000 acres were under cultivation in ISC)0, no fear need be entertained that any of the outlets to the ocean vi:\ia,r arrawjeinent will h extended to the Lairs. . . . There are now in the service twenty-seven steamers and nine laiUng -vessels ; but in conse- quence of their large dra" lit of wat(.'r, they must be prin- cipally used as sea-goin>' vessels. Thoy are incapable of navigating the shallow waters whidi afford tlu' most favour- able opportunities for contraband trade. It /s lecninmnided, therefore, that this department he vested with 'luthoriti/ to sell 3 I ■ •I il 252 Amerimn Resources, [Sect. V. i "I M. 4. Because will revive the old disputes respecting Fisheries. these vessels, and expend the jy^oeecds in the jntrchasc of others of a different ehametcr and lighter draufjlit, Letter fitted to accomplish the purposes of a preventive service, cmd which can he JcejJt in commission at a less cost." It is obvious from this that the Secretary of the Treasury feels the burden about to be imposed on him, and finds no little difficulty in providing for it. it IV. But, beyond all this, there is a difficulty and a danger arising out of the abrogation of this treaty, which may prove even more costly than the protection of the long coast-line of America from smugglers. For nearly forty years, from 1815 to 1854, the fisheries question gave rise to a continuous scries of dis- putes and diplomatic conflicts between England and America. The Jasseur case in 1815, the Argus case in 1823, the Dotterel case in 1824, the Ringdove case in 1839, the Sylph case in 1844, and a number of other instances of captures of American fishing- 1)00 ts made in British fishing grounds, by vessels in ilcr IMiijesty's service and the service of the Colonies, gave risf' to constant disquietudes, alarms, diplomatic corresjMjndciicc, and tlireats of retaliation and of war between the countries, The Fisheries Convention adopted by tlie two nations in 1S18 declared that American fishermen should have do ri"ht to IIhIi widiin lliree miles of the British shores; but the impossibility utes on this ])oiiil. Such disputcH be- caukc of more im]Kirt and significance when it wuh declare ^ U^-^^ .0^^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 1.1 11.25 ItilM 12.5 » U& 12.0 «tWu U 11.6 Photographic Sdaices Corporation 23 WIST MAIN S^lteCT WnSTIR.N.Y. USiii* (716)«7^-4S03 '^ ► .•?:« z 258 American Resources, [Sect. V. I :jf Fallacy of Mr. Morrill's assertions, and their unreliability. Position of the British Colonists. How unfairly Mr. Morrill has dealt with the facts is shown by one illustration. He told Congress that the amount of gold sent out of the United States to Canada in 1863 amounted to $3,502,180. That was the truth, but not the whole truth. The accounts of the American Secretary of the Treasury for 1863, show that th^ importations of the precious metals from Canada amounted to $4,892,195 ; being a balance in favour of the United States of $1,390,015 in that one year ! During the years over which the treaty has extended, it is estimated that the balance of trade has been in favour of America to the extent of nearly $56,000,000. But, as has been eloquently said, " in the presence of " the great benefits conferred on both countries by this " measure, it is a waste of time to chafier over their " distribution. In the interests of peace and honest " industry, we should thank Providence for the bless- " ing, .nd confidently rely upon the wisdom of our " statesmen to see that it is preserved." The inhabitants of British North America, as a body, have behaved very well about this treaty. In its origin it was a compromise, and in its provisions they did not originally think it advantageous to them. They complained that the right of trading coastwise, fully conceded by the British to the Americans, was not conceded by America in reciprocity ; that the right of registering their colonial vessels for trade from America to foreign ports, was not permitted them ; that no equivalent whatever was given for the free navigation of the rivers and canals c: British America ; that the concession of the right of fishing and curing [Sect. V. C^uAP. IV.] Trade with the British Provinces, 259 I the facts igress that [ States to That was unts of the 863, show Qtals from balance in a that one 3 extended, as been in 16,000,000. presence of :ies by this over their md honest the bless- om of our as a body, In its sions they to them, coastwise, [cans, was the right •ade from d them ; the free America ; id curing fish within the bays, and harbours, and in-shore fisheries of the maritime provinces was given without equiva- lent. Again, when the Civil War broke out, one half of the sea-board of the United States was blockaded, and all the advantages of the Reciprocity Treaty were lost to the provinces, so far as regarded the consump- tion of many millions of the American population. At the same time, the British Americans have been desirous to maintain the treaty, as a measure of peace and national fraternity. It has, they say, secured to both countries freedom from disputes and heart- burnings. " There have been no intrusions, warnings, captures — no rival squadrons guarding boundaries impossible to define." Had no other good been accomplished, he would be no friend to either country who would desire to open again the old field of con- troversy. The trade between the British provinces and America, previously feeble, restricted, slow of growth, and, in many respects, vexatious, has been annually swollen by mutual interchanges and honour- able competition, until it has come to be represented by I grand total of $456,350,000 in about nine years ; or upwards of £91,000,000 ! If this wise adjustment of interests is not disturbed, who can estimate what this trade will amount to in the next decade ? What are the consequences of the policy of the American government, in relation to this treaty ? The Canadians, having for the past ten years enjoyed the advantages and sweets of commerce, are now endeavouring to seek outlets for it elsewhere. Having raised products for the American market, which the Americans will no longer take, and havino- built They have desired to maintain the Treaty, Their good feeling towards America. Antagonistic feeling of American protec- tionists. longer s 1 WSF m 1 1 200 American Resources. [Sect. V. h i ' \> Detrimental effects on Auicriciin comniorce. Feeling of coninu'i'ciiil men and of the American press upon this suliject. Desirability of a compromise. shipping for their service which the American govern- ment will no longer allow their citizens to employ, the inhabitants of British North America are endeavouring to form treaties of commerce with Brazil, Mexico, the West India islands, and other countries, where it is not thought so essentially necessary to refuse to con- clude commercial arrangements on the ground that they ought to be the subject of direct legislative provision. The Americans, in fact, have created the Canadians into commercial competitors. On the whole continent, ad long as the people of the United States and of British North America were united in trade under the Reciprocity Treaty, there was no one to compete with their joint trading. But the action of the Washington Government, in addition to all the other disadvantages which must result from such bad policy, will create a trading competition with the United States of America from their own continent. The commercial men of the United States, and a large section of its press, are still pressing upon the American Government not to forego the existing advantages derived by America under this treaty, but to consent to postpone its termination in order to enter into some more permanent arrangemeiit for carrying out its general provisions. Some Americans may say that in the present state of the revenue and expendi- ture of the United States, it is impossible to renew the Reciprocity Treaty without modifications which will favour their revenue. The people of the provinces do not fail to recognise the duty of the American Government to sustain the credit of their country, and [Sect. V. an govern- mploy, the ieavouring lexico, the inhere it is se to con- ound that legislative L-eated the the whole ted States I in trade 10 one to action of o all the such bad with the tinent. es, and a upon the existing ■eaty, but r to enter carrying may say expendi- to renew IS which >rovinces Lmerican itry, and ovtnccs. o 61 Chap. IV.] Trade UHth the British Pn to discharge its obligations. One of them, speaking at the Detroit Convention, said, " If you do not, we should share in tlie disgrace ; we sliould feel, as apart of the British family, that when you had issued your bonds, and sent them largely into other countries, wo should be disgraced, as well as you, if you did not sustain them. But," he added, " the resources of your country are so vast and varied, and the development of its industry is so rapid and extensive, that I believe you will be able to master the debt, maintain your credit, and deal with your nmihhovrs m good faith besidcsJ'-iSjK'cch of the Hon. Joseph Ilovr .f Nenn Scotia) ' "^ '■^' ■i^>r w.hi Ki{ SECTION VI. EAILEOADS. 9- ' Hi i i'c SECTION VI.-EAILROADS. CHAPTER I. EXISTING LINES. Railroads in the United States may be said to be Early cotemporancous with those in England. Before steam Railroads, power was applied to railway lines in America, iron tracks, on which vehicles were drawn by horse-power, were in use from granite and coal quarries to ports of debarcation. In Quincey, Massachusetts, one of these, terminating at the quarries with a self-acting inclined plane, was begun in 1826 and opened in 1827, and in the latter year similar lines were constructed in Penn- sylvania. I apprehend, however, that these were very imperfect constructions. The first locomotive which was ever seen in America was imported from Mr. Stephenson's locomotive engine factory at Newcastle- upon-Tyne, in 1829, and was for some time exhibited, as a curiosity, in New York. The first locomotive andLocomo- engine, which appears to have been used in the United *^* °^"^^ ' States, was constructed by Messrs. Foster, Rastrick, I I; I ? ) 266 American Resources, [Sect. VI. The first American Railroad for Passenger traffic. and Co. of Stourbridge, and was introduced in the latter part of the same year. In 1830, no doubt from these models, a locomotive engine was made in New York, by the Americans themselves. The American Cyclopaedia states that " it was a small four-wheeled engine, with an upright boiler and water flues close at the bottom, and the flame circulating round them," and that " it worked successfully for about two years, when it exploded." Of the more considerable railway cnterprizes of the country, the first which appears to have been com- menced was a portion of the now Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, the first stone of which was laid (or as we should say, probably with more propriety, the first sod of which was cut,) on the 4th of July, 1828.* This road, as I understand, was originally planned for a horse +'?ack only; but the introduction of steam locomotives from England encouraged the attempt to run them on the line; and in 1830; a small engine, constructed at Baltimore, was put upon the road, which still exists, and is preserved in the Company's workshops at Baltimore, as a very interesting relic. Although the trafiic was great, the engine appears to have been only partially worked, the trains having also been moved by horses. "This road was constructed of longitudinal rails pinned down to wooden or cross-stone ties, imbedded in the ground ; and upon the rails were fastened flat bars of iron, J inch and I inch thick, and 2J to 4J inches wide, by spikes, their * Tho " Fourth of Jiili/" the anniversary of the day on -which the Declaration of American Tnclependenco was signed, is a public holiday throughout the States. [Sect. VI. 3ecl in the loiibt from le in New American iir-wheeled flues close ind them," two years, Lzes of the been com- and Ohio (or as we , the first [y, 1828* lanned for of steam bttempt to 11 engine, the road, Company's ing relic, ppears to js having lis pinned ie ground ; 3n, J inch ikes, their y on which is ii public Chap. I.] Existiny Lines. 267 heads countersunk in the iron. This method, wliich was generally adopted upon the' early American railroads, from considerations of economy, and with a view of extending the lines to the utmost limit of the capital provided, was Fioon found to involve great danger and consequent expense. The ends of the rails became loose ; and, starting up, were occa- sionally naught by the wheels, and thrust up through the bottoms of the cars. It was found necessary to run the trains with great caul^ion upon the roads thus constructed, and the passenger traffic was seriously diverted from those lines that acquired a notoriety for snake-heads." — New American Cyclo- 2jccdia, vol. xiii. p. 729. In 1830 the "Hudson and Mohawk Railroad," from Rapid in- Albany to Schenectady was commenced. In October, senger line"! 1831, the number of passengers on it was stated at 387 a day, and in 1832 a locomotive " with a load of eight tons, travelled on it at the rate of thirty miles an hour." "In 1831, twelve different railroad com- panies were incorporated ; " and " from this time rail- road enterprizes were multiplied with great rapidity." " In Pennsylvania, it is stated, sixty-seven railroads were in operation in 1832 ; and in that year were commenced the most important lines of Massachusetts and New Jersey. They have, however, been planned and constructed, in great measure, independently of each other, without regard to any great system ; and as the charters were granted by each State for the roads in it« own territory, a single State has some- times, by refusing to authorize the construction of a proposed road, succeeded in preventing the establishment of an impor- tant lino, the opening of which might injuriously affect the whole or an important part of such State. This want of system is perceived, and its evils are experienced in the various gauges adopted by different roads, rendering necessary frequent transhipment of passengers and freight." — New American Cydopa'dia, vol. xiii. p. 7.30. It cannot be doubted that the origiuid con.struction I m ii hi ! 2(>S A nu'rivan Jfi'sonn'C.s, ISki'T. V[. ImiMTfoctioim of \]\o Anu'ricjiii rjiilronds wns v(>ry imiicrri'ct, ami I ul' lliovo romU. /. • i • i i i p i .'im iilrnid I must nun tli.-il innny <>t tlicin rcniiiin ho to tliirt (liiy. Iliit wlicii w' H|M'iik of llic iiupor- foctioim of Aincrii'nn rnilroiulH, wo imiHt not \)o un- iMindfiil of tho oliMnrut of compariHoii. When \V(i comimMUMMl our coiiatniction of ruilro.adrt in Orcat llritaiii, wo were at what may be considered the wry })(M'fe«itioii of turnpike roiuls. Sucli was tlie excel- leiiee of our pu])lie ways in .Enj;land and in Wales that the Holyhead mnil Wiis al>le to Iravi^rw^ the whole road from Tiondon to (»ne of the most distant parts of Nortli Wales, throu«i;h what was then, in a jijreat dejjjree, a hairen country, at the rati^ <^f twelve or thirteen miles an Ixnn*. In Scotland and Irelnnd, the roads, which were less traversed, and which were originally constructed by military enjijineera for mili- tary purposes, were ev(Mi su])erior to tliose in Enp;land. l^ut, in America, as in all new c<^untries, all was (liU'erent. IMany of tlie highwaya were mere sloughs : the best roads were extremely rouoh, and veiy ill- adapted for rapid locomotion. In such a coimtry the most rudely-constructed road on which a locomotive engine could be worked must have be(Mi compara- tively luxurious, and an English friend who travelled over some of the earliest railways in America, those for instance from rhiladel|)hia to New York (tlu^ Camden and Amboy line) and the Hudson and ]\Iohawk Railway from Albany to Schenectady, soon after they were opened for j^asscngcr traffic, tells me that he thought them, in those days, very^ nearly perfect. There are points, moreover, about the construction [ski!t. vr. (;iiAr. l.| Existimj fjinvs. 2C,9 rfcct, iiiid I I rcinain ho lli(> iiupor- liot 1)0 Ull- Wlu'ii wo \ in Tiroiit 3(1 tlio vory tho oxcol- l in Walos [\ tlio \vlu>lo mt parts of in a, pfroat. twclvo or livland, the vliioli wero ra for niili- in England. oa, all was slouolis : very ill- ounlry tlu^ ooomotive 1 conipara- o travollod rica, tlioso York (the idson and tady, soon c, tells mo ory^ nearly nistrnction of railroads in Anierie.ji vvliicli oontrast very fuvourahly Kurly I'ncou- riii't'iiit'iit iiitlroiid con- witii the system under vviiieli, in tlios«i early days, vv»f ^mvcii to instituted the railway system of (ireat Britain, 't Hi,.ueti.m in railroads were important to the United States heeanso Amcricii. their hij^hways for IralUe wen- exe«'edin;^ly inft^rior, they were ecpially important to l ' 270 A'))ierwcm Resources. [Skct. VI. i M' Anxiety of the Ameri- cjins to fiicili- tate the con- struction of Eiiiiroads. Ease with which " Cliartei-s " are ohtauiecl for making lines. simplicity. Here \y(\ liave had to go through all the difficult and expensive ordeals of parliamentary notices, oppositions, contentions, claims for residen- tiary damages, severances of lands, and every variety of litigation that could add to the expense of con- stituting a railroad. In America, on the other hand, every one in the country has felt, from the first, what every Englishman has experienced at last, that the construction of a railroad through his property, or to the city, town, or village he inhabited, was a source of j)rosperity and wealth, not only to the district in which he resided, but to himself personally. In England, in fact, we have treated railroads as things to be discouraged ; whilst in America they have re- garded them as sources of wealth and of convenience, and have given every encouragement and facility for their extension. As a rule, nothing has been easier than to obtain from the legislative authority of a State in America a concession, or as it is there styled, a " charter," to Iny down a road.* The land in many cases, especially * Mr. William Lance, the railway actuary, of 26, Throgmorton- street, London, who liaa written on the subject of American railways with great knowledge and experience, says, in a little pamplilet published some years since : — " Nothing can be more simple, expeditious, and cheap, than the means of obtaining an Act for the establishment of a railway com- pany in America. A public meeting is hold, at which the project is discussed, and when adopted, a deputation is appointed to apply to the Legislature, which grants the Act without expense, delay, or ofiicial difficulty. The principle of competition is not brought into play, as in France, nor is there any mvestigatiou as to the expe- diency of the project with reference to future profit or loss, as in England. No other guarantee or security is required from the company than the payment of a certain amount by the shareholders, [Skct. VI. Chap. I.] Existing Linea. 271 through all )arliamentaiy for resiclen- every variety ense of con- j other hand, le first, what ast, that the 'operty, or to was a source the district rsonally. In ids as things ;hey have re- convenience, .d fiicility for an to obtain in America charter," to es, especially Throgmorton- aerican railways ittlo pamplilet cheap, than the a railway com- ich the project lointcd to apply pense, delay, or ot brought into 13 to the cxpo- t or loss, as in aired from the 16 shareholders, where it belonged to the public, has been freely given Land Grants. for the line ; in other cases, where landed proprietors were affected, comparatively small compensations have sufficed to satisfy their claims. The citizens residing in the towns and populous places of the different districts, have hailed the approach of a railroad as a blessing. Under certain regulations, lines have been Towns per- perraitted to be laid down in the main streets and traversed. thoroughfares of the cities, so that the trains may traverse them at prescribed speeds, and so that goods may be put upon trucks at the very doors of the ware- houses and shops. Whilst most people in our country have, in fact, repelled the railroads from their localities, the people of the United States have invited them to their very streets and doors. The outlay upon the American lines, has been from Comparative £8,700 up to £15,000 per mile, whilst the average «tmctLr'" cost in Great Britain has been nearly £40,000 per mile. In this estimate of cost, we have, of course, to consider the relative character of the lines. The American lines are almost invariably single, whilst the English railroads are mostly double lines. In other respects the American railroads are, as a rule, very inferior to ours. A railroad has been defined to consist of earthworks, sleepers, and rails. The earthworks of constituting the first call. In some States the non-payment of u call is followed by the confiscation of the previous payments ; in others a fine is imposed on the shareholders ; in others the sliare is sold, and if the produce be less than the price at wliich it was delivered, the surplus can be recovered from the sliareliolder by process of laAV. In all cases, the Act creatinn a company fixes a timo within which the work must be completed, under penalty of for- feiture. The traffic in shares before the defi' ;t« constitution of the company, is prohibited." m HKSia 272 American Resources. [Sect, VI. I' !^ i If J I f^ Gonoral cIiiiriu'.t«M' of the Aiiiericiui tnick». the American railioiul.s are, for tlic most part, of a very simple eharac.ter. From the generally level surfa<;es through which their lines are made, (in the Prairie dis- tricts especially) little has been required but to lay out the tra(;k, and 1 am afraid that the proper preparation Thelloiulbeil. of the load-bcd has not al\\'ays been as well attended to as it should have been. The timber for the Sloopcrs. sle(>pers has been obtained from the roadside, or from the woods in the immediate neighbourhoods. The sui)ply has usually been abundant : and it has im- mensely contributed to the economic construction of the roa,d, enabling the constructors to lay down sleepers at much more frecpient intervals than we usutilly find RiiiU. them in Europe. The rails have been usually obtained from England, Wales, or Scotland, and I believe that in many cases the cost of the iron has formed, in America, the largest proiK)rtion of the cost of the construction of the lines. The rails arc generally too light. With regard to some other points of American rail- road construction, no comparison can be instituted between the arrangements on the other side of the Atlantic and those which prevail amongst ourselves. Drains. There are scarcely any artificial drains. The ballasting of their lines is often very imperfect ; indeed, I believe Ballasting. it has not bccn thought necessary generally to ballast a line at all until after it has been opened, and the consecpience, it need scarcely be said, has been very imperfect working and serious detriment to the rails until the road-bed is drained and ballast is complete. Stations. The railway stiitions in America are also very inferior. For the most part, they are mere wooden erections of [Sect. VI. i-t, of ii very vol surfaces Prairie dis- \t to lay out preparation ell attended )er for the ide, or from hoods. The I it has im- istruetion of own sleepers usually find dly obtained believe that 3 formed, in I cost of the ;enerally too nerican rail- instituted side of the t ourselves, le ballasting d, I believe y to ballast ed, and the been very to the rails s complete, ry inferior, srcctions of CUAP. I.] Existing Lines. 273 a temporary character, although, it should be observed, the land on which they arc erected has been generally freely given by parties who well understand the greatly- enhanced value which a railway station brings to every adjacent property. On the more important lines, how- ever, the stations are gradually rel>uilt. substantially and in every respect suitably, from the income of the road. I observed very little tunnelling on the American railways. Most of their bridges and viaducts arc constructed on wooden piling in a very inexpensive manner. The influence of railroads on the value of real es- tates along their lines, and in the cities in which they terminate, is so well understood in America, as to liavc afforded important financial facilities to their construction. It is not the public who are invited in America to take railway shares ; they are subscril>ed for in a wholly different manner. In order to promote the construction of a line, not only does the State which it traverses frequently afford it facilities with I'cspcct to land, but pecuniary facilities are often given by the cities and towns giving securities for certain amounts on their Municipal Bonds. The cities in which it is to have its termini also agree to subsfnibc for portions of its share capital, and so do the in- habitants of the towns and villages through which it is to pass. This is a very important feature of the American railway systenij inasmuch as it gives the inhabitants of each district which a railway ti.. verses a direct local and individual interest in the promotion and well-working of the line. Every one, in fact, is interested in contributing traffic to his own railway. T Tunnels, Briflj^cs, and Viiwlucts. The Capital of a llailroad frequently subficribed for by the State tra- vei'scd and the Cities served. Is H' !M ' i. 111 ■ >i ! S ; 'I' 274 American Resources. [Skct. VI. Cost of con- Htruction largely thrown on the Revenue of the lines. Effect on public con- (ideiice, jintl ujwn Hhareliolderf Fish Joint- ing. Not only the whole cost of inainrainiiig the roads, l)ut u very considcraMc proportion of the cost of their construction, has, in the case of the majority of the lines in America, been thrown vpon revenue. I am afraid that the consequence of this has been injuiious to public confidence in the American rail- ways as commercial securities. Where lines are imper- fectly constructed in the first instance — where they have to bear all the effects of climate and of wear and tear, whilst in indifferent condition, it is quite ol)viouH tliat the cost of reparations, even in the very early stages of their working, nmst be a serious burden. And where all this is thrown, at once, on revenue, adequate dividends cannot be expected. Yet many shareholders in American rail\\\ays, constructed with such limited amounts of capital as to make it obvious that they must have large debits which could only be liquidated from their resources, have never ceased to complain that they have not received divi!" ii.li- ot" tisli joints II I'rcijiient source of iicciilcnt. jointing that those accidents, so common from whnt Tlic niisonco is termed technically "the engine mounting," occui-. Such accidents are not possible where tli(i ends of tlie joints are securely "fished" by plates bolted on mu-Ai side of th(i ends of the rails, rendering tlieni a pait of the continuous line. The adoption of this system would altogether obviate the cause from which six out of every eight railway accidents in America arises, as shown by the reports ; and I hold it to be the worst possible economy not to introduce this system, espe- cially on lines where rails of light weiglit nre used, or where heavy trains or high speeds are common. The progress of railwjiys in America has been rapid. Pn.jrress of The following table will show the numl)er of miles completed in periods of two years, from 1838 to 1860 :— Railroad Milkage in THR United States. Year. Miles. Year. Miles. 1838 1,843 1850 8,827 1840 2,1G7 1852 12,841 1842 3,8G3 1854 19,195 1844 4,285 185G 23,724 184G 4,828 1858 27,158 1848 0,491 18G0 31,185 from 18:38 to 1860. The railways in America are almost universally ThoRailroMd^ siur/le track lines, and this fact has to be; regarded in an. sinifie ' estimating the amount of railroad accommodation ^''■''^'''''• provided for the United States in compnrison with tlmt of othfr countries. It is n common tiling to hear the American railroad.s sjiokeii of a,s pxoeediiig in T 2 V' 1 '\' M If^: No. of miles open, 1860. ,i I I (i 276 American Resources. [Sect. VI. length those of all the rest of the world put together. But those who speak in this way do not appear con- scious of the fact that the greater proportion of the English and French lines are double lines ; and that when we speak, for example, in England, of 10,500 miles of railway open in 1860, that estimate of mileage does not include duplicate, and even in some cases triplicate, lines of communication. The number of miles of railroad open in each State in 1860 is shown in the following table : — Number of Miles Open in each State. State. Miles Open. State. Miles Open. 658 643 608 575 549 531 476 406 328 326 294 137 104 70 38 Ohio Pennsylvania . . . Illinois New York Indiana Virginia Georgia Massachusetts ... Tennessee South Carolina... Wisconsin North Carolina... Missouri Michigan Mississippi New Jersey 3057 2943 2925 2809 2058 1805 1401 1314 1283 978 937 887 813 807 798 627 New Hampshire. Alabama Connecticut Vermont Iowa Kentucky Maine Maryland Louisiana Florida Texas Delaware Rhode Island ... California Arkansas i;: i I Railroad This table will illustrate the extent to v^hich railway inihe North eutcrprize has been developed in the North-Western States™ States, especially in Ohio, Illinois and Indiana. The Illinois Central Kailroad, which passes through 706, [Sect. VI. it together. ,ppear con- tion of the ; and that of 10,500 ! of mileage some cases I each State Chap. I.] Existing Lines. 277 Miles Open. Lch railway h-Western iana. The rough 70ft miles of that State, was endowed with alternate sec- tions of land for a width of three miles on each side of its track, the State reserving each other section. It thus acquired 2,595,000 acres in an excellent farming region ; and from the sale of these lands the expenses of construction, &c., have been or will be met. The eflFect of this policy in the development of the State has already been referred to. Most of the American lines were originally made in Want of short lengths, as lines of communication between dif- constmction ferent towns in the same State ; and without regard ^^^ working. to any general system of communication for the nation. It follows, that even in the cases of lines which are now united and brought under a single management, much diversity of construction and a great want of unity of system is observable. One of the great deficiencies of the American railroad system is, in fact, the absence of a general policy of manage- ment. Scarcely any attempts are made to render the working of lines convenient to travellers by working the trains of one company in conjunction with another; and this gives rise to complaints on the part of the public, which may, some day or other, be made to afford a ground of excuse for governmental inter- ference. Nothing can be more desirable for the suc- cess of American railroad enterprizes than well con- sidered general arrangements for the working and interchange of traffic. Remarkable as has been the rapidity with which the insufficiency ^ , of the exist- American railroads have been constructed, and great ing raiiroada. as is the total mileage already made, the railroad accommodation of the United States is not to be :i7S American licsourees. L.Sect. VI. n I ' I I ! I Insufftciency «.f tlio Kail- ways in the Stuitli, anil in tlio Wost. ivgardod as by any means meeting the requirements of the country. Tlie ra[»i(l growth of the system has only been co-e(|ual with the I'apid growtli of the popuhition : the extent of mileage is attributable to the vast extent of territory settled, and the great distances between the seats of population. In many parts of the States, indeed, the existing railways are quite insufficient. In the South, the system is very imperfectly developed. Whilst slaves existed, there was a determined liostility in the Southern States to the expansion of any general railway system, arising from the apprehension that it would be used for the escape of slaves. Any one who glances at a railroad map of the United States, will observe, that whilst the Northern States are covered with lines, the Southern have only a few main trunk I'oads, and that the greatest care has been taken to prevent those lines from communicating with the Free States, it will be necessary to correct all this, and to luring the South into much more intimate communication with the North than she stands at present. From West to East, also, the present railways are quite insufficient for the growing traffic. The lines of communication from the West by canal, &c., which existed previously to railways, have not been affected by their construction. The produce of the Western States has, in fact, increased faster than the means of transport, and additional facilities for the conveyance of goods are urgently required. It is of the utmost im- portance to the development of the West that no time should be lost in making this additional provision. L«ECT. VI. 'oquiremeiitH the .system owth of the ributable to d tlie great tlie existing South, the Whilst slaves lity in the my general lension that 5. Any one lited States, States are a few main been taken ig with the 3ct all this, re intimate 3 stands at lilways are 'he lines of &c., whicli en affected le Western e means of onveyance utmost im- at no time provision. Chap. T.] Existinfj Linen. 27f) o Tlu; extent of the traffic of a railway depends upon its capacity to convey produce, and, consequently, tlic ex- tent of that ])roduce is limited to the capacity of the line and the certainty of delivery within reasoniibh; periods. An inadequate railroad provision, and a cor- responding uncertainty as to conveyance and delivery f freights, must have the effect of checking production in the West, and consequently of checking the capital of the East from seeking employment in the West, Railway facilities are now the measure of the pro- sperity of the country. The capital invested in railroads in the United States, in January, 1861, amounted to $1,177,9.04,828, or (say) £2:]5,600,000. This amount represented the "cost and equipments" of 31,168 miles. But, for reasons already adverted to, we cannot judge of tlx? cost of American railways from the capital subscribed for their construction ; and I incline to agree with a writer in the New American Cyclopaedia, who saj^s, " While the English roads exhibit an extraordinaiy amount of first cost, it does not appear that the expen- ditures for actual construction have been in much larger proportion than in the United Stiites." I incline to think that, considering all the amounts abstracted from revenue, to complete, repair, renew, and maintain the roads, to add to the originally imperfect rolling stock, double the tracks and sidings, construct station accommodiition, &c., the cost of the American railroads has been quite equal to ours, especially considering the large [a'oportion of English capital expended in preliminary expenses. Importance of adequate llailroad provision for Wt'.stern development. Oapitfd in- vested in Amcricnn Itaih'oads. CHAPTER II. liAlLWAY MANAGEMENT, Oomnamtive ^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ valuable " Letters on American Baihvaya" costof nmin- published in the present year, 1866/* Mr. Lance has tenance in ^ _ _ * .... America and given a synopsis of the cost of maintaining six leading " * railways in England and America for one year. The result comes out as follows per train mile run : — . .! I n-: r Those reaulta Cosr OI? WoUKlNQ I'Bll TllAlN MlLB. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Expenditure on America. England. Maintenaiico of Way Locomotive Power Rolling Stock — repairs and renewals ,. 18-87905 21-59805 10-03886 12-77770 204185 6-57710 5-36424 8-04043 2-?901fi 10-28919 1-42304 3-69964 Transportation Expenses General Charges SDCcial Charo-es l?ence.. 71-91261 31-20790 It thus appears that the cost of working on the American lines is considerably more than double that of working in England, being at the rate of nearly 72(1. or 6s. per train mile, against Sid. or 2s. 7d. Now if we come to examine the items included in • Letter ISTo. 2, on "The New York Central." By William L^ncO) Eailway Actuary, 26, Throgmorton Street, London, 1866. V' ClIAP. II.l liidlumy Management. 281 Bailwiiya" Lance has ■iix leading ^ear. The n : — England. 5-36424 i 04043 •3901 fi •2894'J •42394 •69964 •20790 on the ible tliat )f nearly Id. luded in y William a, 1866. the expenditure under these six heads, we shall arrive, I think, at a tolerably correct conclusion as to the main defects and advantages of the American system of railway management. 1. Under the head of "Maintenance of Way," we find the principal charge to be for "repairs of road and buildings." These items in America average nearly VI d. per train mile, against \^\d. in England. This illustrates the position on which I enlarged in the last chapter : that a large proportion of the cost of construction in America was thrown not upon capital, but on revenue account. Nothing, in my opinion, can be more erroneous. The shareholders of a line are entitled to its earnings ; and it is as great a mis- appropriation of income to make it supply the means of increasing the value of capital, as it is a misappro- priation of capital to employ it for the purpose of providing dividends. We are constantly hearing com- plaints in England from some dissatisfied shareholder, or some one on the Stock Exchange, anxious to " hear " railway property, that, in particular cases, " Dividends have been paid out of capital account ;" but, in America, we find no less than Is. 5c?. per train mile, or nearly a quarter of the entire cost of working, spent in what in reality is an expenditure due exclu- sively to capital account. In cases where money is applied, in this way, those who have embarked in a company on the faith of low estimates for cost of con- struction do not get their own. They have invested their money in expectation of a return ; but instead of obtaining it, when fairly earned, they find the profit applied to making good deficiencies. In some of the indicate American deficiencies. The main- tenance of Permanent Way an excessive cliargo on Revenue, to the detri- ment of Shareholders. i f i I 5 Locomotive Power. I Rolling Stock. V \ •2Hi2 A mcrico)! liosoiun's. [.skct. vr. I'iiihvny companies of Aiucricn, ouormous Himis have I>eeii received and a])plied to the reduction of l)ond capital, without any Itcnefit to the existing sharc- hohlerH, except in the form of a contingent rever- sionary interest. It is not often that we find rail- ways earning more than they distribute ; Imt this does occur in America, The earnings are agreeable to contemplate, but their non-distribution is very much to be objected to. II. Under the head of " Locomotive Power," we find that "repairs" amount to 7(1. per train mile in America, and to 3^c/. in England. The actual "working" costs above S^cl. in America, and under 2d. per train mile in England. The " fuel and stores " are 9c?. per train mile in America, and 2]^d. in England. I appre- hend these excesses in the United States arise for the most part from the inferior quality of the fuel, and from the deficient number of engines. In consequence of the locomotives being more severely worked than they are in England, they require more frequent re])airs and renewals, and these repairs and renewals are rendered the more necessary, in consequence of sulphuretted coal more speedily injuring the works. It no doubt also occurs, that the locomotives are more frequently tlu'own out of repair and are more rapidly worn out by the indifferent condition of the roads, and also the accidents thereby occasioned, III, This seems the more proljable from the very heavy relative charge for "repairs and renewals of rolling stock." The " rolling stock " costs 1 0(/, per train mile in America, to 2^d. in England, and it is all "renewals and repairs." The quantity of rolling [Skct. VI. 1 HUniH llilVC! iijii of l)on(l sting .slinrc- iigent rcvcr- 7C find rail- ; l)ut tliis re agreeable 8 very much Power," we rain mile in il "working" d. per train are 9d. per cl. T appre- arise for tlie le fuel, and consequence irorked than re frequent [id renewals sequence of the works. es are more lore rapidly e roads, and n the very enewals of s 10(/. j)er .1, and it is of rollinjo' ciiAP. ir.| Uaikmy Munmioment. •28:^ stock in America no doul>t is insufficient, ft does not suffice for, nor will it hear, tlie work it is recjuircd to perform. The consequen(!e is, that thc! (scpiipmcnts of a line having been, from the first, imperfect, revc^nue is made to pay an undue and excessive proportion for repairs, renewals, and additions to the rolHng stock, and the wear of the rolling stock is more rajml by reason of the imperfect state of the road. IV. The expenses of "transport" are also generally Tmnsnorta- more than m Jijnglana ; wages, which constitute the large) proportion of this item being higher in America. But there is one figure under the head of " transport " in which the cost in England is much greater thnn the cost in America. 1 refer to the item for " collection I'ollpcti.ni and delivery." The whole system of collecting and delivering the goods carried by railway differs in America from the system in England ; and I am bound to say that 1 think the English system much the best. The rule of English companies is to undertake all the various duties involved in removing goods from the premises of the consignor and delivering them into the premises of the consignee. Convenient arrange- performed in p , ,1 • 1 EiiL'liinil by ments exist m every town oi even second or third- tlie Railway rate importance in England, under which the service ^ "'"P"'"^'**- of collection and delivery of goods is performed by the statt' of the railway companies at moderate and fixed rates ; and these charges arc not uncommonly embraced in the railway freight. In the chief ports, London, Liverpool, Hull, New- castle, Glasgow, &c., goods are carried 1)} the compa- nies direct to the docks and sliipi>ing, and the public arc thus secured a certain and puiu (ual perfornitincc ! 284 American Resources. LSect. VI. ' The Ameri- can system of Collection and Delivery by " Express Companies." The incon- venience and expense thereby occasioned. Evil effects of transport under one responsibility, and fixed pay- ments, which are at once reasonable and ascertainable beforehand. This system gives the English companies a more intimate acquaintance with the necessities of traders ; and promotes a more direct interest between the com- panies and their customers. It is, besides, a source of profit directly and indirectly ; for carriers, and what are called in America, " express companies," who con- duct their business over railways, not only imj)Ose all sorts of arbitrary and petty charges upon the public, according to their opportunities ; but they deprive the companies of the profit to which they are legiti- mately entitled, by packing parcels together, and so getting them conveyed at a less charge — by falsely declaring goods, both as regards class and weight, and by other well-known contrivances for evading proper payments. It is clearly the interest and duty of railway com- panies to take upon themselves all the duties of carriers of goods ; and not as they do in America, only that part of them which embraces the conveyance from one railway station to another ; thus leaving the public exposed to the inconvenience and extra expense they must incur by having to engage the services of town carters or others, to remove their goods to and from the railwiiy. I am afraid that this system of collecting and delivering goods by means of Express Companies is fraught with evil in another way. The proprietors and managers of many of these companies are, I am told, the directors and officers of railways ; w^ho are consequently LSect. VI. I fixed pay- iscertainable lies a more of traders ; en the coni- a source of 3, and what who con- ■ imjjose all the public, ley deprive Y are legiti- ler, and so -by falsely svcight, and ing proper ilway corn- duties of erica, only ance from the public )cnse they s of town from the ;ting and ipanics is etors and 1 told, the ^equently Chap. II.] Railway Management. 285 obtaining for themselves a revenue which we in Eng- on the Rail- land shoulc consider ought to belong to the line they panics, serve, and wlio, besides this, acquire, by means of these companies, a power and authority over the railway which cannot but be prejudicial to its independent working. In many cases the negotiation of rates is entirely taken out of the hands of the railway management by the action of the " Express " com- 'ind «" the . . . . Public, panics; who, in their turn, are very apt to insist on the railway companies entering into contracts with themselves at lower prices than those at which they serve the public. Thus both parties suffer — the rail- way companies, and the public whose goods they convey. V. In the General Expenses, including the direction. General 1 1 Expenses. management, omce expenses, law expenses, and con- tingencies, there is not a material difference between the cost in England and America. The office expenses are largest in America : the law expenses are largest in England. The entire expenditure on all these charges is 2d. per train mile in America to about l^d. in England. VI. The special charges of America which appear to Special be nearly double those of Eugland, arise from the heavy taxation imposed on railways during the war, and also from the condition of the currency. These are charges from which it may be hoped that the railway com- panies of America will be speedily relieved. It will be remembered that the Prcsiilent of tl e United States, in his last Message to Congress, thus wisely expressed himself : — "It is of the first necessity for the maintenance of the Union, that Commence should he fkee asv unobstructed. Charges. t^ 111 H l s I t l\ '\ ill ('■ • I ! i \\ Kxpcnsos ill relation to Eariiinus. Largo Earnings of American Lines. Divitlcndsi. 286 American Resources. [Skct. VL No State can bo justified in any device to tax the transit of travel and commerce between States. The position of many Stati>s is sucli that, if they were allowed to take advanta^^'O of it for purposes of local revenue, the commerce between States might be injuriously burdened, or even virtually pro- hibited. It is best, while the country is still young, and while tlie tendency to dangerous monopolies of this kind is still feeble, to use tlie pow(!r of Congress so as to prevent any selfish impediment to the free circulation of men and mer- chandise. A tax on travel and mcrcliandisc, in their transit, conditatcs one of il c worst forms of tnonojioli/, and the evil is increased if coupled with a denial of tlie choice of route. Wlieu the vast extent of our country is considered, it is plain that every obstacle to the free circulation of commerce between tlie States ought to be sternly guarded against by appropriate legislation, within the limits of the Constitution." But there is nuotlier form in which to look at these items. Mr. Lance renders them in proportion to the relative train mileage run. But let us look at them as they relate to the earnings. In America, the receipts of the six railways whose expenditure has hecn thus dissected, amounted to 109'4 pence per train mile: in England the receipts of the six lines were only 6 4 '3 pence per train mile. The American lines, therefore, were able to bear a larger proportion of cost of working than the English lines ; and if the expendi- ture had Ijeen j)i'<">perly apportioned they would have paid much lai-ger dividends. As it is, let me ol)serve, that the dividends of American railroads can not be generally considered unsatisfactory. I have before me a " table, compiled " from the New York Share Lists, of the financial de- " liiils of all the dividfud-pjiyiug railroad eonijinuios " of the Luiltd States dtiiiiig iSfJo," and whilst 1 find LfcjjfiuT. VI. tho transit of tion of niauy ko advantajfo lerco between virtually pro- l young, and f tills kind is 3 prevent any ten and nier- tkcir transit, id the evil is oico of route, ed, it is plain lerce between y appropriate )ok (it these rtioii to the [ at them as the receipts been thus train mile : were only ican lines, tion of cost lie expendi- kvoiikl have A'ideiids of (^on.sidered \ compiled iiancinl de- <'oth for tlie ])ul)li(? rnitbrmity and the <;ompanies, in an economic point of view. Uniformity of class, means uniformity of rate : and whilst some American companies are precluded under th(^ powers of their charters from accepting what the more opulent class of travellers wcmld willingly pay for hUpiM'inr arcoiniiKtdiitinii. lh('\ niii.^t of iieces- I i i \ -I r 'J '' '■ il I ; ! r ill > « ".lit' i iilh a, 288 American Resources. [Sect. VI. Second Cliws Ciirriages re- commended. Conveniences provided for Travellers. " Sleeping Cars." sity keep up the price to the more needy classes, who would be quite ready to set diminished charges against moderate comfort, and any supposed admis- sion of social inferiority involved in travelling in a. cheaper class. It may be well worthy the consi- deration of the American railway administration whether they should not adopt at least two classes of carriage in their trains : and obtain powers where necessary to make higher charges than they are at pre- sent authorized to do, to those who elect to travel with superior comfort. Whilst upon this subject of carriages, let me add some observations as to the conveniences provided for travellers in America. The great distances over which it is necessary for Americans to travel has induced more attention on the part of the railway administration to the conveniences for long journeys, than is found in Eng- h\nd : and some of the English companies, especially those running night trains, would do well to emulate their transatlantic brethren, by adopting thsoe con- veniences in such a modified form as would be suitable to the habits and requirements of English travellers. For instance, the chief American lines have attached to their night trains " sleeping cars," which are so arranged, that while serving the pur- pose of a comfortable railway carriage in the day- time, they can at night be converted into as com- fortable sleeping chambers. Good beds are made up by the train attendant, and the occupants can traverse from 160 to 240 miles of their journey, insensibla to all the inconveniences of a night journey on Eng- BW [Sect. VI. 3cly classes, lied charges )scd admis- ■avelling in tlie coiisi- ninistration two classes >\ver8 where are at pre- ;t to travel let me add !S provided I necessary e attention ion to the nd in Eno- o especially ;o emulate thsoe con- would be )f English lean lines 3mg cars," the pur- the daj- as com- made up n traverso insensiblo Y on Eng- Chap. II.] Railway Management. 289 lish lines. In the morning they rise refreshed, and without that sense of weariness which every one expe- riences after a night's journey in England. Washing- rooms and other essentials of a long journey are also Washing- provided in the " sleeping cars," so that the passengers can make their toilet independent of the stoppages of the train. All this valuable additional accommodation is furnished for a small extra payment of from 5s. to 7s. Qd. for the journey ; which payment is recognized, and gives the passenger the right to the occupation of his bed. The public are therefore not under the neces- sity of bribing the guards to secure them a compart- ment : nor, having paid, are they subject to be dispossessed, as not unfrequently happens on this side of the water."^' "High speeds" are not generally in favour on Speeds. American lines ; indeed, as a rule their condition ♦ I add a description of a " Sleeping Car " which can be used also l»y ingenious arrangements as a Day Car, and is now running between New York and St. Louis. — " The car will accommodate about forty-eight persons. The partitions usual to sleeping cars arc entirely excluded, and tlie only things substituted for them are columns of German silver, which improvements give the car a cheerful appearance, and allow a free ventilation from end to end. The windows of tlie state rooms are of plate glass. The seats are covered, and the floor carpeted. The car is provided with Avashing facilities, tables, and the other appurtenances pertaining to an hotel, parlour, or bedroom. The curtains in front of the berths are of buff brocatello, bordered with blue and trimmed with silver lace. The windows of the car are of fine cut glass, with tastefully executed designs. The car will be lighted by three largo lamiis, the globes of which are of fine cut glass. The car is heated by means of stoves at each end, so constructed as to allow the hot air to pass along the whole length of the car." U 290 American Resources. [Sect. VI. li '«^ I w Express tiiiiiiti. Excursion trains. (Iocs not admit of liigli speeds. The rates of the Exju-ess trains l)et\veen New York and Boston do not exceed 29^ miles per hour, which is about the average of the leading lines. As regards loads, their Goods trains, goods trains (or freight trains, as they are called in America) are, as a rule, heavier than those in England ; but they are drawn generally by lighter engines, which accoinits for the deficiency of speed. Although the Americans are great travellers, there are no such things as " Excursion Trains," or at any rate they are very rare. It would be worth while trying the experiment. The Americans appear much more gene- rally to accustom themselves to long journeys. The experience of the New York Central, the Erie, and the Pennsylvania Centrtd Railways shows that the through traffic is 65 per cent, of the whole. I must not omit to refer to the manner in which the goods traffic is worked upon some of the lines. The American railroads, as already noticed, rarely afford more than one pair of rails. The trains pass each other at certain stations on the road, when the first which arrives is compelled to wait until the other, coming from the opposite direction, may pass it. This could hardly work if the trains were very numerous; but as a rule in America they are not numerous : certainly not so numerous as they ought to be. There are, however, instances where the traffic has got ftir beyond the capacity of a single line of rails, and the difficulty has been to arrange for it without laying down a second track, or doubling the lijie. On the BiJtimore and Ohio Railway this has been very ingeniously accomplished. That rail- Through tniffie. Mode of working sinyle lines, i ( [Sect. VI. 'lie rates of the and Boston do icli is about the [^ards loads, their ev are called in hose in England; lighter engines, speed. Although lere are no such ,t any rate they while trying the much more genc- 5 journeys. The the Erie, and the that the through manner in which me of the lines. noticed, rarely The trains pass road, when the wait until the ction, may pass rains were very a they arc not s as they ought ces where the city of a single been to arrange 'ack, or doubling io Railway this led. That rail- CnAP. II. Baihvay Muhagement 291 way has a very large coal and a very considerable! goods traffic. It is obliged also to run thi-ee pas- senger trains each way a day. The way the trade is conducted is this. A passenger train is started early in the morning. In succession to it there is started " a convoy " of trains, consisting of as many as fifteen goods trains following each other at five minutes intervals. Some hours after another passen- ger train is started, followed again by "a convoy" by"Con- of goods trains. And so on with a third pas- Goods trains, seiiger train, and a third " convoy " of coal or goods trains. By this arrangement the passenger trains are kept entirely clear of the goods trains ; and of course the arrangements are so made that the convoys from each end pass each other without difficulty. Thus forty-five goods trains and three passenger trains are taken each way eadi d;iy on one pair of rails. This struck me as being a very ingenious arrangement for meeting a great difficulty. I u 2 I (MIAITKK III. niK liAiiWAV I'rrriir. or amkkH'a. «jiv!»i uhiui |>^' s|>(>!ikini»' ol t!u> niilroiuls ol Auummch, \v»« uuihI uoi t>K<"' »•>'<» . Ill- ■ • I I loiu.l i«\ lorj;i>t to look ill tho imiucnst^ |»ositi\«> ;ul\!niljmt' th(>\' li;ivi> conliMTod upon llif couMlry. Il is to rMilwiiys^. llUhvMlls that AiMtM'ii'a owes Its rrcriit tl«>vt>lo|>m(>Mt. Its liviM's aii«l lakes ntlonl. no tloiiltt. i^nvit actual opportunities >.u ilu «iu.i, t'of mtenial roHn\uu»i('alioii ; l>ut tlu* laiuls ol' AiM<>ri»'ii are so \vnl«»-sprea»l, that the more (listant territories «'ouM stineeh i(a\e l>t>eM r(>aeli(>(l, or. if ri^aehed. eouKl never have heeii (ultivated to prolit. without a means »>t' rapitlly »onnnunitatini;' with the s(>ats t>t' populatit>n. The CoinniissiontM' ol' (\>nsus of IS(U> tl(>- .uivlv---.j'.vua!.\ (hu-es. that so ^n^at are tiu> heniMits raiiroatls liavt^ I'll (!u> N\ >'■.! vristnt.x eont'erre»l on all ilepartments »>t' aiirieulture. "that, " if' tin- tiifiir ('('.nV (>/' t/it' i'(?((/ if, iiini b(\'ii iiiiinciist'h/ (he (ittinn's." This pn^position. ailvls [\\o writer. Iv'eonies t^viiliMil. if wi> K>ok a( the moile in whirh railways havi> luH'ome wliul* v\niKl luMietieial. Thev etVeet that whieh eouKl ni>t have ov.lti\,U(Nl been done witluMU them : (hey seenre to the pro- Jueer very nearly the priii- ot" the Atlantie markets. [if Cii.M'. 1 1 1. 1 The /fail nu ft/ Fnfnrc of Ami'i'icu. 2!K{ must ih^t llfl^O ||i,.y > niilwjiys, lis rivi'i's |>orhmiti(>s •t" AiMcric!! ttM'ril(>rit>s rcjiclu'd. . without <> St'.'lts Kt{ IS(U) (Ic- »iuls llJlVt' *'. •' ll>;it. 'fh'd i>il ihl //(//•(• 1 his I. if \\t> o{ liavo he |in>- which is ^rcntly in ikIviiiicc of whiit coiihl lie ohtaiiKMl witlinnt I . ,. ,, 11,1 1 i I- i. /'iiiiliMt'Hior oil Ills liiriii ; llicy ciiiihic I he |iro(lii('cr lo dispose ol i iain|,„ii . his |ini(hn'ls iit all tiiiics, iiiid coiisi'(|in'iilly at the licsl, |»i'i('«'S ; and they iiicrcasi^ rapidly (he scllli'nicnl. and pioduclion of the interior Stales, which must be bene- iicial to the entire nation. Korly years a<;o, the surplus products ol' Oiiic* had Onin i<» ilii« ', , , , , , ,, , , |ii<»liiiir li\ aceiinuilaied heyond the means ol transport, aiitl wheal sold in l\w interior at '.\7 «-ents per bushel, and Indian corn at l(><'ents. Then the Erie Ciinal was opened, and soon after the Ohio Canal, ami prices were raised more tliaii TiO per cent. Now that tlie means ol" transport have been increased, the price ot" Hour at 'i""''^'"'' Cincinnati is iiearl}' double its pri(!e in I.S2G, the [>rice diuf ; ol' Indian corn I'our limes, and the price of pork three times as oreat. On the other hand, the prices of corn and meat on the s(>al)o;ird have not been reduced in liie least. It is therefore evident that the bulk of the gain obtained by the increased facility of transport, has gone lo tlu' produci'i". Nor is this all. Ni»t only have railroads clieapeiicd the transport o[' the [»roduce, but also the cost of the witli.mt in transport of every articl(> of manufacture required by piii,. of tlu« producer. Tiny havi> brought him labour and l''"""••^^'• machinery, and articles oi' foreign growth, with which he could scarct>ly have hvcu su]»plied without railwii3's. Suoar and ct>tl'ee were no dearer at (Cincinnati in 18()() than in 1835, although the population of the Western States in that interval had increased in the enormous [U'oportions aln-ady mentioned. During that interval, also, the lands o( Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, AViseonsin, Alimiesota. and oilier States, had beciMue of substantial rl H hl'-i i! villi J i I V [ P ! 204 Consequent enhancement of the vahio of Laud. Insuflficiency of the exist- ing railroads, and evils occasioned thereby. American Resources. [Sect. VI. value* Between 1850 aiul 18G0, the value of the forms throughout the West had doubled ; which would have l)een impossible had there not been the facilities afforded by railroads for conveying the produce of those farms to markets. But it is to be added, that even now these facilities are Ijy no means sufficient for the West. We have seen that the Atlantic and Great Western railroad has as yet been unable to convey from the oil wells anything ])eyond a small proportion of their prolific and increas- ing supply. The tr.'iffic of the wonderful coal fields which it traverses has l)een scarcely touched ; its cattle traffic has not been commenced. In the same way, the corn-producers of the Western States are quite un- able to find sufficient means of conveyance for their produce, because the railroads from west to east are choked with traffic. The existing railroad requirements of the West arc, in fact, insufficient. The main arteries of communica- tion are the great railroads knoAvn as the " New York Central " Railway, the " Erie " Railway, with the "Atlantic and Great Western" Railway, the "Penn- sylvania Central Railway," and the "Baltimore and Ohio " Railway. But to ensure what is needed in America, these lines ought to be doubled, and no time ought to be lost in doing it. At present, because they cannot carry the produce, the whole traffic of the country is subject to two gigantic evils, arising, first. * "The best lands in Illinois wero worth but $1. 25 an aero prior to the construction of railroads. They arc now worth $20." — Hi port of the Commissioner nf Census, p. clxix. V [Sect. VI. iluG of the liich would iG facilities produce of 30 facilities D have scon oad has as is anything nd increas- coal fields ; its cattle le way, the quite un- ie for their to east are West are, ommunica- New York with the 10 " Pcnn- imore and needed in d no time caus(; they He of the sing, first, 25 an aero )rth $20."— Chap. III.] TJie lidilwat/ Future of America. 295 from uncertainty of conveyance ; and second, from uncertainty of charge. , Out of about 9,000,000 tons of produce annually Injurionscon- conveyed from west to east, it is estimated that the wanTorcnr- canals carry one-third : the railways the remainder. ""S®» But there is a period of the year when the canals are frozen up. The whole task of conveyance then falls upon the railways ; and the consequence is, not only an immediate rise in their rates, but absolute inability to conduct the trafiic. The results are often most disas- trous. I know one case, in which 40,000 barrels of flour were detained at Toledo (nearly half-way between Chicago and New York) for several months, in conse- quence of want of carriage. A vast mass of produce is yearly destroyed, from the inability of the carriers to forward it. The owners are ruined, and parties in the Eastern States who advance money on this produce charge excessive rates to cover the risks of delay. Now, what is the effect of this ? The producer, and the indi. the merchant, the railway company, and the con- li*i(tefToiuho sumer, are all directly injured : but the indirect injury ^'^"^^ extends far beyond those interests. The whole pro- duce of the West, and consequently the entire culti- vation of America, is affected. If the produce cannot be carried, it cim only find local markets. If it only finds local markets, prices must abate. If prices al)atc, the stimulus to the cultivation of land is lost. If the land is not required for cultivation, in the same propor- tion it necessarily diminishes in value. The prosperity of the West, the value of its produce, the value of its land, and the extent of land cultivated — all depend, therefore, upon increased fticilities for the convey- >5- ^ I , J I; J, 206 American Resources, Policy which Hhoulrl govern Aincricuu railroady. Moderate rate» : Certainty of coinmuui- cation : [Skct. VI. ance of produce ; and those facilities railroads must afford. The Atlantic and Great Western Railroad, of which I am Chairman of the London Board of Control, and which I went to the United States to inspect, is in communication with the other main arteries I have mentioned. By means of them it will connect, when complete, the whole Atlantic sea-board with all the great dep6ts of produce in the Western and South Western States. It will unite New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington with Cincinnati, St. Louis, Chicago, Cleveland, and Knoxville, and by the Inter- national Bridge at Buffalo it w411 connect the whole Canadian System with the United States System of Railways. I look forward to the time when the Atlantic and Great Western system will tend more than any- thing else to a complete development of the country. But it must be accompanied by a large, a liberal, and a progressive policy. The railway system, in fact, must go hand in hand with the advance of national prosperity. The American public ought never to he satisjied until they are able to calculate on Jixed moderate prices for freight^ and Jixed periods for its delivery. Without obtruding my views in connexion with any particular railway, I think 1 am entitled to propound the principles on which I consider the railway arrange- ments in America ought to be conducted. And my first principle is, that those arrangements ought to be such as will secure ample accommodation. The public are entitled under the Railway system to certainty of communication ; they ought also to be ensured uni- [Skct. VI. roads must d, of which 'outrol, and spect, is in ■ies I have nect, when ith all the and South iiladelphia, i, St, Louis, the Inter- the whole System of he Atlantic than any- le country, iberal, and a, in fact, )f national ever to he on Jixed eriods for 1 with any propound y arrange- And my ght to be 'he public rtainty of ured uni- OiiAp. III.] Tlie Railway Future of America. 297 formity of rates, subject to needful and l)enofi('ial alte- rnifoimityor rations, generally in the direction of reduction. In the conduct of our Railways in England this is, un- questionably, the principle by which we are influenced. Our policy is almost invariably in favour of low fares for passengers, and reduced rates for goods. It appears to me that, consistently with the policy of the country, it ought to be so in the United States. If it has not been altogether so, up to the present time, I am entitled to say that it has been no fault of those with whom I have the pleasure to be associated. The fact is, as I have already indicated, that the American railways have been made, and are conducted, too much in detached portions, and too little on a large and liberal system of co-operation. The wide extent, the enlarged resources, the rapid development of the territory, accounts, very much, for this. Where rail- ways are made in short lengths, for the purposes of local traffic, they cannot be expected to supply the wants of rapidly increasing communities, extending over w^ide spaces. But I desire to see this original The Railways error corrected. I want the American railways to be worked as one worked as one great system. I am convinced that '"'''*'"* system, this will subserve the benefit of all the Companies as well as of the public. It may be accomplished by substituting for a system of jealousy, rivalry, and opposition, one of common understanding, compro- mise, alliance, friendship, mutuality, and interchange : each line acting as a part of one great entire whole : the railways, in fact, considering them.selves not a system of States, but a system of United States. I do not recommend this system as a theory : there ^" ^ ;i fl H-^ M ' \ : 298 American Reso urccs. [Sect. VI. Advantaj^e of a uniform system of workinj; illustrated. The London nnd Noi'th Western Railway, before and after the adoption of a policy of Amalgama- tion. arc practical proofs of the advantages resulting from it. Some years ago, the London and North Western Railway, which now brings Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, into communication under one united system, with Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, the whole of the Midland district and the Metropolis of England, consisted of a scries of lines, made by different com- panies, with different objects, very many of them merely local. The system of that railway, and of the other lines which it has now amalgamated, was one of opposition. It proved an unprofitable system : costly in its working : entailing vast expenses as the consequence of competition : injurious to its own prosperity, and most disastrous to many who were placed in antagonism to it. Of late years, all this has been altered. The various competing lines have been brought into combination with the one great system on equally advantageous terms. What has been the consequence? No increase of rates : no diminution of train accommodation : no detraction from the conveniences afforded to the public. On the contrary, the system of the one great l^ne, and of all its branches and ramifications, has received immense developm^ent. It is the one line, of our country, of M'hich we nevei hear complaints. Its trains are unequalled for speed, security, regularity; and, I believe I may add, for cheapness. It sets the great example to the other railways of Great Britain, whether as regards punctuality, speed, accommodation, or economy. With a road unequalled in its character, and chiefly laid with the most costly metals (steel rails, manufactured at great expense, being laid over the [Sect. VI. lilting from 'th Western :eland, and fced system, lie whole of ►f England, 'erent com- Y of them ay, and of mated, was )le system : xpenses as to its own wlio were rs, all this lines have one great What has rates : no detraction iblic. On line, and received iC, of our lints. Its 'cgnlarity, t sets the it Britain, modation, character, tecl rails, over the Ciup. III.] The Railway Future of ATmrica. 299 most frequented portions of the line), it is enabled to Its traffic and sustain a traffic, which is conducted on almost every portion of the district, through every hour of the night and day. By the use of an ample supply of the best locomotives, with an abundant rolling stock, it is able to carry on a trade, vast and heavy, consisting not only of passengers, for short and long distances, but of goods and of the heaviest minerals, with the most per- fect despatch and punctuality. Despite all the vicissi- tude of storm at sea or on shore, it delivers the mails between Dublin and London with greater punctuality than tho Post-office can deliver them between one portion of London and another. Its express trains travel at the rate of nearly sixty miles an hour, and are rarely, if ever, delayed. Upon the delivery of its goods, the merchant and the manufacturer can Their influ- depend. iJie mark(3ts are hupplicci oy it, with such re- Commorce of gidarity, that I know of no cases in wiiich complaints Khicrdom. are brought before the courts for losses sustained in consequence of its default. Its rates afford such facilities for the trade of England, that althougli it necessarily conducts the larger part of the business of this empire, it economizes, instead of increasing, the burden of our tiii.de. There is no facility which it does not afford without co)iipctition. And how is this ai'-coniplished ? l>y an united system, Avhich looks for profit to the development of commerce : by a system of co-operation, good understanding, and mutual interchange ; l)y a system which has been brought to perfection hy a determination to develop the resources of the naf^ion ; by a resolve to meet the demands of the customers of the line, at the most u I i 300 American Resources, [Sect. VI. The same system re- quired in America. Certain effects of an improved Railway sys- tem on Ame- rican develop- ment. reasonable rates, and to perfect f(jr them the science of reception, conveyance, and delivery, so that each anc^ all shall be brought to the highest point of railway perfection. Now, so far as I and my friends are connected with the railway system of America, I say that we shall not be contented — that we will never rest contented — until we see the same system developed between St. Louis, Chicago, and Cincinnati, in the west, and New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Boston, in the east of the United States, which prevails between Dublin, Belfast, Edinburgh, and Glasgow in the north, and Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, and London, in our own coun- try. I only regi'ct to think that it is not now done in the United States as it is with us ; but, so far as we are concerned, it is intended to be done, and in the interests of America, I may add the expression of n^ conviction, that, at whatevc expense or trouble, it must be accomplished. I have already shown that, without railways, the States of the great West would have been nothing. With railways they are — what they are. With a proper development of the railway system, they may be ten times — nay, a hundred times greater than they are. With us, in England, railways can only reach and bring together developed fields of wealth, agricul- tural, manufacturing, and commercial. But wherever a railway penetrates in America, it reaches some field of unopened productiveness and enterprize. The railways which reach the Western States cannot at present convey their produce. The line I am espe- cially connected with has l)een unable to carry the I'ttl [Sect. VI. le science of at each anc^ of railway nected with we shall not nted — until n St. Louis, New York, ! east of the )lin, Belfast, Manchester, f own coun- t now done it, so far as , and in the jsion of n^ trouble, it lilways, the n nothinry train on the n. lines of America is over-laden with freight, and that they have, indeed, far more tlian they can carry, I do not think there is any reason for sur- prise at their accumulating and increasing profits. * The great means of developing the system is co- operation. A system which will place t]>o various great lines of railway in a position to carry any amount of freight which may be offered with cer- tainty, regularity, and despatch, at fixed reasonable and economical rates of charge, is not only needed for the advantage of the railways themselves but for the prosperity and advancement of the coc. .ry. * It is due to my friend ^Fr. James INIcIIenry, that I should state that his couiitryiiicn arc indebted for this great system of railways entirely to his energy and foresight. In the midst of the Civil War the greater part of the Atlantic and Great Western system ■was constructed by finids supplied to him by friends having con- fidence in him and in his country ; and though the lino has now passed into the hands of a corporation, -svith Directors both in America and England, the policy I have stated, as to its managcs mcnt and future, is the policy ho again and again impressed on those conducting its affairs. [Sect. VI. iverpool iincT iicliester and iverpool and : here are its rs carry over uis is distant and Cliicago re 850 miles, mileage from reater than it id that ev(>ry 2r-ladcn with )re tlian they ason for siir- ; profits. * ystem is co- t]ie various :) carry any ?d with ccr- d reasonable only needed mselves but ;he cOl. .ry. I should state tciii of railways t of the Civil Western system Is having con- 3 line has now cetors both in to its nianagc- ini pressed on Chap. III.] The Railway Future of America. 303 The value of the produce depends upon it : and con- sequently the success of the cultivator and the value of the land. On all these depend the immigration to the West, and the flow of capital which will be sent there to promote its cultivation and develop- ment. The future of the West depends upon its means of communication with the East : and the sac- cess of its means of communication with the East is, I believe, expressed in a few words, such as " Prompt AND ECONOMICAL DELIVEIIY — IN A FIXED TIME AND AT A FIXED PRICE." ^'' I think I have said all I need say on this part of the suliject. The first object of those who are interested in American railroads should be a combination for the due development of the traffic of the North. Next to that, it appears to me that the great object to be accomplished is to bring the immense chain work of Northern railroads into closer communication with the Southern system, so that the whole South, its vast produce and its great resources, may be duly and advantageously developed. The importance of this connexion can scarcely be exaggerated. It must be borne in mind that the products of the South and of the North are entirely dissimilar, that the South is fed by Northern produce, whilst the commerce of the * Since writing this, I observe a bill brought into the New York Legislature compelling railways, under a penalty of one per cent, per diem on the valu ), to forwanl freight not later than ten days after its receipt. It nu.y bo questioned, however, whether the eL*'jct of such a measure would not be merely to cause the railroad companies to refuse to receive freights, or to raise the rates so as to cover the possible penalty. But the neceesity of such a law proves the existenco of sad mismanagement New Rail- way sytitenis needed. The Northern system should be connected more closely with the Soutlieni. II ^•W l)^: I :^ 304 American Resources. [Sect. VI. !1 % A link wanted at rincinniiti. Its iinport- iince. North is largely supplied by Soutliern productions. Hitherto the greater amount of the trade between North and South has been carried on coastwise, on the seaboard of the Atlantic, or by steamers down the Miss- issippi. A link of less than 200 miles of railway, con- necting the lines at Cincinnati, would place the whole network of railways in the North and in the South in such intercommunication that the necessity for all the varied shipments and transhipments incidental to a, seaboard service would be rendered needless. The late President of the United States recognised the importance, and was most anxious for the construction, of such a line, and mentioned it in more than one of his Messages ; and now that the great cause for keep- ing one system of railways distinct from another is entirely removed, there can be no reason why this link should not be made, over which must pass the traffic of two regions equally dependant on each other. I have already referred to the apprehensions of Railroad communications entertained in the Southern States during the existence of slavery. I cannot better illustrate the extent to which this feeling prevailed, than by quoting from an account of one of the most im- portant railways in America. " This railroad," writes the author, " is, to all intents and purposes, a Southern improvement, identified with Southern interests, and built by Southern capital. This fact gives it an enduring advantage over the rival lines of Pennsylvania and New York, and their connexions on non-slaveholding soil. Tin's is, in fact, the only route by which Southerners can rci the Atlantic cities, with thnr servants, unmolested by the wily ' underground ' interferences of crazy abolitionists, now swarming along all the great lines of travel in the States [Sect. VI. Droductions. le between rt^ise, on the m the Miss- lilway, con- e the whole he South in Y for all the dental to a sdless. The ognised the onstruction, than one of se for keep- L another is hy this link ;s the traffic )ther. icnsions of le Southern mnot better vailed, than most im- intents and ith Southern 3t gives it an sylvania and olding soil, herners can molested by abolitionists, in the States CnAi'. IJI.J Tim Iiti'da\(ij Future i>f Ami'i-fcc. ;}(»0 of Illinois, ()lu(j, and Xuw York. When a few lailos of inter- mediate railway are added, the population of the whole Southern country may reach Baltimore or Washington from Louisville without setting foot on a single inch of inhospitable ground. The road, therefore, without appealing to the feelings or interests of one class more than another, is, nevertheless, entitled from its geographical position, to all the preferences which the vast amount of Southern travel may confer." Another extension of the railway system is felt by all the people of the United States to be most essential. Every one appreciates the importance of establishing railway intercourse across the continent from the shores of tlie Atlantic to those of the Pacific. Four different routes have been projected in different parts of the continent, and eventually, there can he little doubt, they will all be made. I shall not discuss the relative merits of the projected lines, only one of which is at present constructing. The great object, of course, is to connect San Francisco with New York. The effect of that connexion, politically, upon the Union, cannot be regarded as of too deep importance. If only for political purposes, the line must be made : and the nation must afford every possible encourage- ment to its early construction. But apart from political objects, there are other requirements which such a railway will supply. The mining interest of the United States alone can maintain such a railway. California and New York sup[)ort, already, lines of pat^kets from the ni('nts, \ A line to (lie Pacific, ( Connecting Siin Francisci 1 and New York. Its political nocessitv. Certainty ol' tile conuner- cial success oi' a Pacific Railroad, \i V' i J I h 1 (' I t 306 American Resources. [Sect. VI. . I If con- stri'ctcil and worked as a whole. Ainerican Radronds as secmitios. would, obviously, be attended with such superior ad- vantages, that it would engross all r..c traffio. The Pacific Railway will, moreover, penetrate the new mining districts, especially those of Nevada and Colo- rado, and will bring to the Atlantic, by a direct con- veyance, all the precious freight, which now reaches a market with great risk and at extreme cost. The effect of this railway, not only on the Pacific States, but on the Union, nnd on the world at large, cannot bo ovei estimated. Links in the chain of this great communication arc in course of construction ; but this railway ought to be regarded hy the State as a whole. It ought not to be permitted to be worked in a dis- jointed manner. The public ought to have the benefit of such a line under an united system. For the development of the resources of America, nothing can be more important ; and nothing ought to stand in the way of a policy which should lead to the perfect accomplishment of the object. "^ Since my return from America, many persons have asked ray opinion of American railroads as securities. i * At pvcsout, six companies are engaged in the work of con- struction. Tlic connexion with the existing iVmerican linea will bo mado at St. Louis on the ^Mississippi. From thenco to the eastern slope of the Sierra Xevada, there are no particular obstacles ; and it appears that the passage across the chain, which involves two tunnels near the siimniit, will bo effected by the people of California, who are reported to have 3,000 labourers at work upon the road. They expect to roach Salt Lake City, in Utah, where they will join the l-'astern section, in 18G8. The Xav York Tribune anticipates that "not V"ry young men will see the day when Calcutta and Pekin, and ^Melbourne and London, will make their exchanges on the New \ ork liroadway." V*: [Sect. VI. pcrior acl- ffic. The the new and Colo- [irect con- rcaclies a The effect OS, but on cannot be this great ; but this s a whole. in a dis- he benefit For the »thing can stand in le perfect Chap. III.] The Railway Future of America. 307 Now, the value of any railroad as a security depends on the qualifications of that railroad : — First, as to its extent : its mileage must be sufficient to embrace places and districts sufficient for its require- ments. Second, as to its position : it must be so situated as to connect a great producing district with its natural market. Third, as to its management : it must have the con- fidence of its customers, and it must fully develop the district which it serves ; and Fourth, as to its officers : it must have honest and intelligent men in its councils, who have no interest save in its prosperity. Wherever a railroad exists which combines these elements, I cannot doubt that it oflfers excellent security ; and if I am asked if there are such railroads in America, I unhesitatingly reply in the aflfirmative. ^i sons have securities. ork of con- i linca will iico to tho 1" obstacles ; gU involves people of work upon rtah, where >rh Tribune ilay when make their X2 !H«m mm SECTION VII. THE SOUTH. if -I i-i \'n I 'U I I I 3- i K.I' |i ^ HI I SECTION Vll.-TllE SOUTH. •'I ! li CirAPTER i. POPULATION AND PllOrEUTV, In tlic earliest section of this volume, I liave considered The Southern the nunibei-s and position of the poi)ulation of the ^^^^^^'^' United States as a "svholc. In considering specially the rcsoiu'ces of the Southern Stales, it will he neces- sary to bear in mind the wide distinction between the States of the North, which have beeii mainly with<.nt peopled by immigration, and the States of the South, i»'»"''yi«*tio>i» which have not had that advantage. In the history of the United States, no State has have been declined in population. Some of the smaller and "tTt'io^iaiy older States, such as j\Iaine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, may be said to be ' filled up :' the number of their inhabitants being 26"2G to the scpiarc mile. Nevertheless, they go on increasing in population with considerable rapidity. But the Southern States show nothing like the same increase. South Carolina, be- i" lotipect of , . , . . popuUitiun. twcen 1850 and 18 GO, only mcreaseu its entire poi»u- 312 Amencan Resources. [Sect. VII. !| ; ii lation from 668,000 to 703,000, or by about 35,000 inhabitants, equal to 5:|; per cent. ; and tiiis State made slower progress, in respect of population, during that decade, than any other State of the Union, having advanced only from 2 7 "2 8 to 28' 72 inhabitants to the s(piare mi] -. Tennessee made but the moderate gain of 10*68 for all classes, and ^;he rich country of Virginia only showed an aggregf te increase of 12"29 per cent., of which the sla\e population only gained 3 '8 8 per cent. Missouri was the only Slave State of 1850 that largely increased its population between that period and 1860. In 1861 Missouri declared for the Union, and deposed its anti-Union Governor ; and in 1863 it passed an ordinance for the Emanci- pation of its Slaves. Let us look at the relative increase of population in the Southern and the Northern States. The fifteen Slaveholding Stales of America con- tained, according to the cuisus of 1860, 12,240,000 inhabitants. Of these 8,039,000 were whites, 251,000 ill the Soi.ih. free coloured, and 3,950,000 were slaves. The actual gain of the whole population of these States, from 1850 to 1860, was 2,627,000, equal to 27-33 per cent. The slaves during the same period advanced in numbers 749,931, or 23'44 per cent. CVjntrast ihi^ svith th. Free States. The nineteen Free States and the seven Tcrritoijes of America, together with the Federal District of C*olumbia, contained 19,203,000 persons, of whom 18,920,771 were whites, 237,283 free coloured, and 41,725 civilized Indians. The increase was 5,6ii4,101, or 41*24 per cent. The marked disproportinii between the iiicvcMsc it; Relative increase of population and in the North. Sn. [Sect. VII. ut 35,000 •tate made Liring tliat n, having nts to tlie 3rate gain Diintiy of of 12-29 ly gained ! State of L betvv'een declared governor ; 3 Emanci- Lilation in rica con- J,240,000 ,251,000 ic aetnal om 1850 lilt. The numbers eon Free together 3ntaiued whites, Indians. ivasr ii; y.'] CuAP. I.] Poindation and Propertij of the South. 313 the Northern and the Southern States is due, as T have Cause of this already argued, to immigration. But what is it that has induced immigrants to settle almost exclusively in the North ? Obviously, superior inducements. What were those inducements ? No doubt the opportunities affording of settling on lands, where free labour was respected. Let us next see what has been the position of the population of the South with reference to slavery. The following table shows — marked dispropor- tion. The Number of S.' aveholdeks and Slaves in the United States in 1860. State. Number of Slaveholders. Virginia Georgia Kentucky Tennessee Xortli •''arulina Alabama Mississippi South Carolina Missouri Louisiana Texas ^Maryland iioriila Arkansas Delaware Total {52,128 41,084 38,G45 3C),844 34,f).'58 33,730 30,943 2G,701 24,320 22,033 21,878 13,783 5,162 1,149 587 Number of Slaves. 490,805 402,198 225,483 275,719 331,059 435,080 436,031 402,400 114,931 331,720 182,500 87,189 01,745 111,115 1,798 Proportion of the Slaves to the Slavcholdiiif; population. 383,037 3,950,513 We thus see that out of a [wpulation of 12,000,000 Proporiion . of the the slaves numbered nearly 4,000,000, whilst the whites Slavehoidin numbered moi-e than 8,000,000 But of the 8,000,000 whkV'"''' whites, onlv 383,000 were slaveholders. There was, population. v.: If! 'I I ■'t, ;»ii i 314 American Hesources. [Sect. VII. Cl i ''■ The Slave system examined. therefore, an immense proportion of free whites who were, .a large extent, practically excluded from the cultivation of the Southern soil, and compelled to earn their livelihood in other occupations. Three other points appear to be shown by this table ; first, that the number of Slaveholders in the United States was distributed over an immense territory ; second, that the whole number bore a very small proportion indeed to the aggregate population of the United States ; and, third, that the average number of slaves held by each master was little more than ten. Upon the last point the following table will show that the number of owners holding more than 20 slaves was not more than 45,000 out of the whole 383,637. . I I Large proportion of Slaves held by small holders. Slaves man by Slaveiioluehs. Holding 1 Slave 76,G70 „ 2 Slaves 15,934 3 „ 31,717 4 „ 28,907 5 „ 21,225 „ G „ 20,G00 7 „ 17.235 8 „ U,Srr2 „ 12,511 „ 10 „ and under 15 40,3G7 l'> „ „ 20 21,315 20 „ „ 30 20,789 „ 30 „ „ 40 9,048 „ 40 „ „ 50 5,179 r)0 „ „ 70 5,217 70 „ „ 100 3,149 100 „ „ 200 1,980 „ 200 „ „ 300 224 „ 300 „ „ 500 74 „ 500 „ „ 1,000 13 l.OOOandover 1 Total 383,037 n&mm d^ [Sect. VII. whites who ed from tlic elled to earn y this table ; the United e territory; very small ,tion of the number of D than ten. I show that 20 slaves 383,637. 76,070 l.'),934 31,717 28,907 2t,225 20,000 17,235 ll,Sr)2 12,511 40,307 21,315 20,789 9,048 5,179 5,217 3,149 1,980 224 74 13 1 3,037 CuAP. I.] Population and Property of the South. 315 Wherever the Slaves were held in small numbers, we may take it for granted that they were held for domestic purposes : a large proportion of them, no doubt, being household servants in the cities and towns. It is only where they were held in numbers of 10 and upwards that they were held for plantation and field work, and these, it will be seen, constituted not much more than one-third of the whole. Now, the deduction is, that the great proportion of the land in the Southern States has been heretofore held by a few very large proprietors ; that a very large proportion of the cultivable soil has not been tilled at all ; that the bulk of the white population in the South has been extremely poor ; and that a very considerable proportion of them have not becM Slaveowners. The deductions thus arrived at throw much light upon the condition of the South. The Slave popula- tion has, evidently, been insufficient to develop its re- sources : the whites have jeen precluded from applying themselves to the cultivation of the country : ai'^ the consequence has not only been disastrous to thi' la .id but disastrous to the oreat bulk of the settlers. The w^hitcs, w4io have been prevented from apply- ing themselves to the cultivation of the country, in consequence of slavery, have formed a separate and a depressed class, in strange contrast with their brethren in those States where no slave labour existed The result of the abolition of slavery must inevitably be to place these " moan whites," as they have been termed, on a new footing. They will be able, without disgrace or disjiaragement, to enter upon the cultiva- tion of the e(juntry. They will acquire little farms Large proportion of Slaves employed in domestic service. Small proportion engaged in field work. Deductions. Results that may be expected from the abolition of slavery. The " mean whites " enabled to acquire homesteads, vn i lUG A Dii'vlcan Remurces. [Sect. VII. ill . ' Si: and to become cultivatoi-s. Tho '' respect " f)aicl to iibour in America, nn implied distinction between free labonr and slave labour. Different aspects in which dift'crcnt descriptions of labour have been regarded. and hoinostcadf?, as the people in the Nortli liave done ; and will make their <">\vi) lahour and the labour of all around them valued and rcspeeted— as valued and as respected as the labom' of the population of the North. Let me here observe that in the Nortli there is very often what the Americans th-^mselves call " bisf-talk " about free labour. We hear it spoken of as " respected," "regarded," and "esteemed;" and some persons in EnLfland have been led to imaoinc that this is a sort of reflection upon our labour, and tlif.t it is intended to imply that laboui* is not only mr re valued, but more respected in America than it is in other countries. Naturally, it is more valued, liecause labour of every sort obtains higher wages ; l>ut it is very questional )le Avhether, in the proper sense of the phrase, it is more respected or more ^^steemed. 1 question whether the American expression is properly understood in Europe. The distinction they have desired to draw is not so much lietween the relative respect ".to labour in Europe and in the free States of America, as to the relative respect paid to labour in the free States and in the slave States. Labour has presented itself to the Americans in two aspects : as the labour of free men and the lal)our of slaves, and it is in these aspects that the material distinction has been drawn. Lal;.)ur, amongst the slaves, has not been respected or es- teemed. Tlitherto, the slave, in the freest country of the world, has been admitted to no social privi- lege whatever. On the other hand, in the Northern States, the poorest person from Europe has l)een admitted to the rights and pi'ivih^ges of ••ujzenship, Ik lo rei vd in I gri gil [Sect. VII. I have (lone ; ftbour of all uchI and as f tho North. here is very " big-talk " '' respected/' jsersons in is is a sort is intended 1, but more ■ eountries. y of every Liestional)le it is more hetlier the in Europe, is not so labour in as to the ee States ricans in and the cts that La1:.)ur, I or es- country -il privi- SOrthern ■■IS been iZt'll sliip, Chap. I.| Population * ■■ —. ^-^»t-:Tjeen prevente*ocluced over 33 bushels to each inhabitant; in 1850, 32f bushels; and in 1860, less than 31 bushels. Next to Indian corn, Oats was the largest cereal crop grown in the Southern States in 18dG. In 1860, the oat crop of those States had fallen off upwards of one-third. In 1850, they produced 33,566,913 bushels; in 1860, only 12,906,032 bush'ds. It is re- marked in the Census returns that, "with the ex- ception of Texas and Virginia (where ic was almost " stationary), the oat crop had declined in every " Southern State." In Alabama, the tiop fell from nearly 3,000,000 bushels in 1850 to 68i!,000 bushels in 1860. Mississippi fell from 1,503,000 bushels to 221,000, and other States to an equal extent. In fact, says the Report, "the rapid dv.'crease of the produc- tion of oats in tlic Slave States is quite curious." Whilst they }>roduced nearly four and a half bushels to each inhabitant in 1850, they produced only two bushels in 1860. Take Sweet Potatoes, — so much more largely pro- duced in the Southern than in any of the other States, that, up to the commencement of the war, they may be said to have been an exclusively Southern produce. The production of this prolific root scarcely showed any increase between 1850 and 1860, and in some of the largest of the Southern States it showed an absolute decrease. In the aggregate, the Southern States Sweet Pota- toes. [Skct. VI r. s, in 1860, iparatively )opulation, keep pace luced over I bushels ; est cereal In 1860, ' upwards 3,566,913 It is re- I the ex- as almost in every fell from bushels )ushcls to In fact, 3 produc- curious." f bushels only two ?ely pro- er 8tatcs, y may be produce, owed any ic of the absolute II States Chap. II.] Southern Products. 327 raised 4'87 bushels to each inhabitant in 1850, to 4*16 bushels in 1860. On the other hand, the free State of Illinois doubled her production. In the article of Wool, the Southern States showed Wool. an increase between 1850 and 1860; but this was exclusively owing to the increased production of Texas. In Virginia, Georgia, and both the Carolinas, there was a very large deficiency, although Virginia has heretofore been amongst the largest wool-producing States of the Union. In Flax, for the production of Flax. which some of the Southern States arc peculiarly fitted, the product fell from nearly 2,000,000 lb. in 1850 to 876,3361b. in 1860. In 1850, Kentucky and Virginia were the two largest flax-producing {^""yil^the^*^ States of the Union. Mark the contrast exhibited ^'^'^'J . productiou of in the following account : — Flax produced. 1.850. I860. Kentucky. . lb. Virginia 2,100,110 1,000,450 940,577 440,932 728,2.34 487,808 1,518.025 882,423 New York Ohio Sliivo States anil Free Stati.'a. Swine have been bred in the Southern States so Swinc. largely that in 1850 there were no less thtui 215 swinc to every 100 inhal)itaiits. But, in 1860, the number of swine had decreased to an a\"erage of 175 to each 100 inhabitants, and there were less swhio by nearly 250,000 head iu tiiosc States tliaii there were ten oars previously. Tins is the dku-c! reiuark- al)le, considering the prolific character of the animal. lUit the fait is, that tlie same prinecause there was not land enough ; for the uncultivated lands in hand, as we saw in the last chapter, far exceeded the quantity of land brought under cultivation. Then, wdiat was it that rendered the sup})ly insufficient in the face of high prices and large profits to the producer ? It was solely and simply the want of labour. There w^ere nearly 4,000,000 Slaves in the United States. Of these, as we have seen, a large proportion were employed in domestic servitude and business occupations in the towns. Others were engaged in rice-growing, sugar-production, and tol)acco-growing. It is computed that 1,000,000 slaves, or about a quarter of the whole, were engaged in the cultivation t)f the cotton plant. Now, the cotton production of America progressed from 2,400,000 l)ales in 1850, to 5,387,000 in 1860 : a very large increase. But that was insufficient. Large as was the supply, it was outstripped by the demand. The very extent of the increase shows that it was in consequence of the paucity of labour f [Skct. VII. Georgia, itcs pl'O- ! .**orce of between of cottcn ral Be- Ln Liver- 3m 1840 fact, ex- i because ed lands exceeded 1. Then, tit in tlie 'oducer ? i United oportion business nged in growing, quarter I of the )gressed : 18G() : ihcient. by the sliows lal)our Chap. II.] Southern Products, 3;i3 alone that the production was inadequate. Tliere arc some remarkable facts witli reference to cotton-culti- vation in the United States between 1850 and 18 GO. We have seen that the great l)ulk of the cotton was pro- duced in four States. But, when the rapidly-increasing price of cotton stimulated culture, other States began to enter upon its cultivation, especially the new States of Arkansas and Texas. In 1850, Arkansas only pro- duced G5,000 l)nles of cotton, but in 1860 she grew 367,000. In 1850 Texas only grew 58,000 bales, but in 1860 she grew 432,000. Besides the land lying uncultivated in the old States, there were Ml)undant and wide fields in the new, npplicable to cotton- cultivation if lal)our could have l)een found for them ; l)ut the slave system prevented immigration to tliose States, prevented the application of free labour to those lands, prevented, of consequence, the cultivation of those lands, and prevented the supply of cotton from equalling the demand. Tlie inference is, that the slave system has ])een the bane of the Southern States of America. Ihider that system the land could not l)e peopled, and the slaves alone were insuliicient for its cultivation. In point of fact, whilst everything in Southern America has been sacrificed to slavery, slavery has sacrificed all else to itself. The cultivation of cotton — and the cultivation of cotton alone — has made progress in the Southern States ; and the supply of that article has not kept pace with the demand for it. The logical inference is, that slavery in the United States has proved a faihire, and that the sooner it is superseded l)y another system the lictter for the nation and the W(»rhl. to fultiviito the extent of land requiied for ii suf- ficient cotton product. Conclusion that the 81avo •system hus been the kino of the South, 334 American Resources. [Sect. VII. and that tho In suppoi't of this argument I cannot, however, do fiir'inore ^ better than quote a passage from the recent Message of prosperous ^^^^ President of the United States— a document that unilor J^rce- dom. does equal honour to his heart and to his head : — " Now that slavery is at an end, or near its end, the greatness of its evil, in the point of view of public economy, becomes more and more apparent. Slavery was essentially a monopoly of labour, and as such locked the States where it prevailed against the incoming of free industry. Where labour was the property of the capitalist, the white man was excluded from employment, or had but the second-best chance of finding it ; and the foreign emigrant turned away from the region where his condition would be so precarious. With the destruction of the monopoly, free labour will hasten from all parts of the civilized world to assist in developing various and immeasurable resources which have hitherto lain dormant. The eight or nine States nearest the Gulf of Mexico have a soil of exuberant fertility, a climate friendly to long life, and can sustain a denser population than is found, as yet, in any part of our country. And the future influx of population to them will be mainly from the North, or from the most cultivated nations in Europe. From the sufferings that have attended them during our late struggle, let us look away to the future, which is sure to be laden for them with greater prosperity than has ever before been known. The removal of the monopoly of slave labour is a pledge that those regions will be peopled by a numerous and enterprising population, which will vie with any in the Union in compactness, inventive genius, wealth, and industry." V-:- [Sect. VII. )wevcr, do \Iessafje of nient that d:— s end, the c economy, essentially ates where y. Where ivhite man iecond-best rned away precarious, tvill hasten developing e hitherto 16 Gulf of e friendly n than is the future he North, From the 3 struggle, laden for fore been ibour is a erous and the Union try." CHAPTER lir. THE FUTURE OF THE SOUTH. I THINK there will be a general agreement that The trcut- the treatment of the South, at the conelusion of the gouth at tho war, was dictated by a wise, humane, and generous ^he War*'^ "^ policy. The whole country was in the ijossession of wisc; luuiume, •^ . . £1"" generous. the Northern armies, and they might have held the seceding States as conquered territory under military authority. But the Government at Washington deter- mined to regard the States of the South as restored, by the cessation of open warfare, to their place in tho common nationality. As regarded individuals, tho President of the United States resolved to exercise, to its fullest extent, his power of pardon. No executions for treason, no confiscations, and few arrests have followed the defeat of the revolutionists. As respects Mr. Jefferson Davis, many persons in the United States, no doubt, consider that it would have been better that he should have escaped : but having been taken, I do not see what else could have been done with him than has been done. He has been kept in confinement to await trial, but that trial has not Ijcen pressed forward with a view of convicting him at a period when the people ;i;3(j iiiH'rici III Jii V60(IIVi'l^. [Sect. VU. Policy of the President. He icfuscfi wore Htill excited: oji tlie eoiitnii)', it lia.s been po.st- poiied until peace and tranquillity may be restoietl throughout the Union, and until the ordinary tribunals of the law resume their functions in the districts which were subject to disturbance. The probabilities are that the late Confederate President will never be tried at all. The exposition which the President of the United Stati!s made of his policy in his recent Message, appears to me to do him great honour. He exj^laius why he refused to subject the South to military rule : — " Military Guvorumeuts, estalilisheil lor an iudolinito to subject the period, would have otl'ered no security for the early sup- Military rule, pression of discontent ; would have divided the people into the vanquisher.s and the vanquished and woidd have en- venomed luitred, rather than have ii .ored aHectioii. Once established, no precise limit to their continuance was con- ceivable. They would liave occasioned an incalculable and exhausting expense. Veaeeful emigrati()n to and from that ])ortion of the country is one of the best means timt can be thought of for the restoration of harmony ; and that emigra- tion would have been prevented ; for wliat emigrant from abroad, what industrious citizen at liome, woidd place himself willingly under military rule i The chief persons who would have followed in the train of the army would have been dependents on the General Government, or men who expected profit from the miseries of their erring fellow-citizens. The M'ilful use of such po^^■ers, if continued througli a period of years, would have endangered the purity of the general ad- ministration, and the liberties of the States which remained loyal. " Besides, tlie policy of military rule over a cf)nquered territory would have implied that the States whose inhabi- tants may have taken part in the rebellion had, by the act of those inhabitants, ceased t(t exist. lUit the true theory is, that all pretended acts of secession were, from the beginning, [Skct. VII. iOii po.st- restoR'cl tiilmiiiilH (liistricts btibilitics never be e United .', appears 3 why lie iudciinite early sup- )e()ple into have c'li- oii. Once 1 was con- Lilable and from that lat can be at eniigra- •ant from ,ce himself vho would ii\'e been expected ;ens. The period of eneral ad- remained onquered I? iidiabi- the aet of theory is, ie;^inning, riiAP.III.T Thv Ffifttir of the Smith. m\ ' null and void. Tlio States attenipiing to sceoclc ))laoofl themselves in a condition where their vitality was impaired, but not extingui.shed — their functions suspended, but not destroyed." The next step was to restore the conBtitutional iio .Mck.s to relations of tlie States, by inviting the South to SSuu-*' participation in the amendment of the Constitution. [|y"'y„ftjj^, The war had terminated slavery, but it was desirable, ^t'^^*^^- for the future maintenance of the Union, that that result should be confirmed by such an amendment of the Constitution as would provide for the aljolition of slavery for ever witliin the limits of the country. " This," said the President, " is the measure which will efface the sad memory of the past ; this is the measure which will most certainly call population, and capital, and security to those parts of the Union that need them most. Inde(!d, it is not too much to ask of the States which are now resumino' their places in the family of the Union, to give this pledge of perpetual loyalty and peace. Until it is done, th(! past, however much we may desire it, will not be forgotten. The adoption of the amendment reunites us l)eyond all power of disruption. It heals tlie wound that is still imperfectly closed ; it removes the element which has so long porjdexed and divided the country ; it makes of us once more a united people, renewed antl strengthened, bound nmre than c\er to mutual aflection and support." The relations of the Government towards the four millions of inhabitants ealled into freedom, was the next important point for consideration ; and here 1 think it will also be allowed that the policy of the North has been very temperate and judicious. The President refused to declare these new freemen to be citizens and electors by proclamation ; he determined that, constitutionally, it must be left to eacli State to r.ilicy of ilio I'r'sidciit ;is til i!i(' l'"rf'C(|- 111(11. ' ' I % iil'i^: •M\H Antcrinui Ji*('so(irc('s. ISkct. VII. Their (Iccido for itself tlu! conditions for tlio onjoymont of U.o'ltSvo" the clcctivo francliisf. Hi; ha.l no rinl,t, "lu; said, to Friiiicliisc left (,^.^,.^^l^> m.^y classos of voters. 4'liiit would luivo been to tlio sc'vonu States. fill assumption of power by the President, warranted neither by tlie Constitution nor the hiws. The proper course, and tlui best eoui'se, was to refer tlie (piestion to tlie several States. Measures for the security of their liber- tics and property, for the on- couriifjeinent of their industry, ntid the payineiit of their wnsres. " But wliile I have no doubt tliat it is not cniujjetcnt for tlio Gomu'ul (irovcvunient to oxtcud the elective fVanehise in the several States, it is equally clear that j^ood faith recpiires the security of the freechueu in their liberty and their pro- perty, their rij^ht to laboin", and their right to claiui the just return of their labour. I eauuot too strongly urgc^ a dis- passionate treatment of this subject, which should be care- fully kept aloof from all party strife. Wo nuist equally avoid hasty assumptions of any natural impossibility for the two races to live side by side, in a state of nmtual benefit and good will. The country is in need of labour, and the frecKlmon arc in need of employment, culture, and protection. Let us encourage them to houoimiblc and useful industry, where it may be beneficial to themselves, and to the country ; and, iustcad of hasty anticipations of the certainty of failure, let there be nothing wanting to the fair trial of the experiment. The change in their condition is the substitution of laboiu* by contract for the status of slavery. The freedman cannot fairly be accused of unwilliugness to work, so long as a doubt remaius about his freedom of choice in his pursuits, and the certainty of liis recovering his stipulated wages. In this the interests of the employer and the employed coincide. The employer desires in his workmen spirit and alacrity, and these can be permanently secured in no other way. And if the one ought to be able to enforce the contract, so ought the other. The public interest will be best promoted, if the several States will provide adequate protection and remedies for the freedmen. Until this is in some way accomplished, there is no chance for the advantageous use of their labour ; and the blame of ill-success will not rest on them. [Skct. VII. ymcnt of \ Hiiid, to WIVU 1)0011 ,vui'raiito(l ho propor ' qiusstioii ii]>etcnt for miK'hiso in til ri'cpiiros i tlu'ir pro- Ini the just iir^o a (hs- Id ho caro- ist oqiially iUty for the henofit and 10 frcodmon jn. Let u9 •y, where it utry ; and, faihire, lot experiment. I of laltour nan cannot as a doiiht its, and the In this the icide. The lacrity, and y. And if t, so ought oted, if the id remedies complished, leir lahour ; CiiAi-. III. I The Ftifure of f/ic South. '.V.VJ " I know that sin(!ere ]»liilanthropy is earnest for the im- mediate realization of its remotest aims; but time is always an element in rel'orni. It is one of tlu; greatest aets on record to liave hrouglit four millions of ])(M)ple into freetlom. The career of free industry nuist he fairly ojjened to them ; and then their future ])ros[)erity and condition must, aftca- all, rest mainly on themselves. If they fail, and so perish away, let us be careful that the failure shall not he attributable to any denial of justice." How niiu'h inny bo cxpootcd from tliis carcor for free indii.stry, and how little the Slave syHtem contrihuted to the Jidvuntago of the Southern States has heen shown by my friend the Hon. Kobert AVnlker, in tlic! important comi)ai'isons he has instituted between the progress of the Free States and the Slave States. He shows, by the contrast, how largely the Free States have progressed in projjortion to those in wliieh slavery has been pcrpetuate'd. His first comparison is between JMaryland and ]\Tassaehusetts ; and he says he specially selects those States because, whilst they are about of equal age, Miiryland has great natural advantages over Massac husetts, in area, soil, climate, hydraulic power, shore-line, bays, sounds, and rivers, and other cir- cumstances which affect the advance of wealth and population. "As to area, ^laryland exceeds jNIassaehnsetts by 43 per cent. ; as to shore-line, that of IVIaryland is nearly double that of IMassachusetts. As to climate, that of Maryland is by I'ar the most salubrious, and iherefore ought to have attracted most immigration. . . . The area of JVIaryland fit for profitable culture is more than double that of Massachusetts, the soil much more fiatile, its mines of coal and iron rich and inexhaustible ; ^\ hereas Massachusetts has no coal and no valuable mines of iron. The hydraulic power of oMaryland also exceeds that of Massachusetts." Tlio carper of free itidimtry to ]n>. t'liirly opened to tlieni. f 'ontriist be- tween tlie l)r(ii^re.HH of the Sliivo States and tlie Fre(! States since tlie Union. Marylaiul and Massa- ehnsetts con- trasted. Natural ad vantajfe.s of Maryland. Z I I :U(i yl iiu'i'ifdii Rasourccs, [Skct. VII. i; ) rjioat pinpoi- Such are tlio vast iiatAii'al advantages of tlie k)lav(^ liciiial (lovc- lopnicnt of .Massaclm- !31,OC0 $287,000,000 $23;^ 1,340 |Gl,8o7,203 $,500,.524,201 34,400 $04,510,200 158,100,810 $815,237,433 102,000,700 170,475 G34.015 $10,200,000 11,124 310,728 087,040 $00,000,000 $00 380 $21,387,157 $101,111,348 7,780 $12,508,002 $18,780,323 1370,010,044 20,723,472 33,2.i4 125,042 $3,047,884 No cause except slavery can he assigned for these wonderful differences. The original colonists of Mary- land "".vere distinguished for education, intelligence, and gentle culture. Lord Baltimore, \ "ider wiiosc patronage and personal influence the Stote was settled, was a statesman and a philantlu-opist. His colony. fr(mi the first, was a free representative government, and it has produced many of the most eminent soldiers, states- men, and clergymen of America. Yet, in relation to other States, the progress of Maryland in power, wealth, and population has heen dej)lorfd)ly small. Massachusetts, it may be said, is a manu jcturing State. Rut she only liecarae .■-() after the year 1824, wlien r^oiigr<'Ss fu'st Jidoptefl ;i p-oteclixc |»(ili(\. I [Skct. VII. tlic Slave osults : — lYLAXD. e State.) 11,124 319,728 687,049 1,000,000 |9G 380 ,387,157 ,111,348 7,789 1,508,902 !,780,323 1,919,944 >,723,472 33,2;i4 125,042 ,947,884 for these of Miiry- ,x'nc(', and latroiiao'e :.l, was a ■rom the Qfl it lias 's, states- lation to ■, woalth, -H'turing h'lr 1824, |M)lic\ . cii.M'. iir. The Future of the South. :U1 Massachusetts was previously a commercial State ; and should have was far more injured than any other State liv the versech ef'.cts of the war with England in 1813. But whetlier commercial, manufacturing, or agricultural, Massachu- setts has always outstripped Maryland ; and this has to be accounted for by those Avho would adoi)t any other theory than that Maryland has suffered from her institu- tions. Maryland might have become commercial and man ^-racturing equally with Massachu' etis ; she ought to have become so. Having better harl)ours, a longer shore-line, and, in the jjay of the Chesapeake, a dee}), tranquil, and protected basin, far more advantageously adapted for commerce than the rock-bound coast (^f Massachusetts, Maryland ought even to have out- stripped Massachusetts in commerce. Having iron and coal in abundance, she ought, also, to ha\'e outstripped her in manufactures; but the foregoing table shoAvs that, in every respect, she has relatively declined. To take, hovvevei , the instance of a single State Viiiiinia con- tnisii'il witli might be regarded as unfan-, or, at any rate, as not .Now York affording conclusive proof upon this question. I.et us v,,,,,,, ' ''^ then examine the relative progress of some other States. (xovernor Walker contrasts the position of \'irginia with that of N(n\- York and of Pennsylvania. In 1790, the pojtalation ;'W York: in ls()0, ilie population tf NcAv York was nio)'e tlian double that of Virginia I The natural advantages (»f \ irgini;; tar exceed those N^uuiiil an oi the year. Such l)einjv the resources of Virojinia — the "old dominion'' — the State to which America owes Wash- ington, Jefferson, JMadison, and, it may be said, all the great men of her early age, — let us see how this State, wlii(;h retained slavery to the last, has progressed, in comparison with the Free States of New York and Pennsylvania. New Vork, Peunsvl- Nk.w YdHK. (Krtu^ States ) Pknnsvi.vania. tl'"iee State.) VllKilNIA. (Slaves Htatir.) vania, aiul Vir^nnia. Area in square miles ... 47,000 40,000 01,3.';2 I'oimlatiiiii ill 1700 .'?40,120 434,373 748,308 ill 1800 3,880, 7:tr> 2,000, 11 ;■) 1,. 100, 31 8 Proiliu-tsol'1859 $00(5,000,000 •1300,(500,000 1.120,000,000 ,, per cni)ita $ir.(j |,138 $75 Value per acre of Farm \ ijaitds . . . ( |:?8"2e able to draw resources for tlie liquidation of her lial^ilities and for future progress. In the earliest years of that resto- ration there will be, necessarily, a somewhat diminished production of the staples ; Ijut that dinunished pro- duction will be satisfied by enhanced prices, which will be borne by the consumers. But this state of things will last only for ;i brief ^M^iod. Except tobacco. I [.Sect. VII. Status of 3(50. 888,591 721,002 466,935 3-4G 000,000 $93 324,000 )-56 ?-58 917,188 r-23 r-03 ig at tliG paljle of ivc and iitroduc- in point If this e denied ' the na- K'diately nimense able to ties and it resto- linislied eil pro- , which tate of ohacco, OnAi>. III.] jTAc Future of the South. :Uj there is no produet of iigricultiirc which expands so Revival of rapidly as cotton. In the five years between 1855 and cultivation. 1860 the Southern States doul)led their cotton pro- duct. Now that the war is concluded, it can be restored in a less period, and advanced upon in an increased ratio. It is to be borne in mind, that there are not fewer labourers to-day in the Southern States than when the war commenced. Whatever of injury has fallen upon those States in consecpience of the war has not fallen upon the labouring class. Mr. Tobey, in a speech delivered before the Boston Board of Trade on the 27th November of last year, declared, with emphasis, that " nearly the same working population which raised the five million bales of cotton and othei- products in 1860, is now there to plant and raise the crops of 1866." All that is wanted is capital and enterprise to stimulate that lal)our: and that capital The Capital and enterprise will be afforded. Whilst I was visiting "piLe required the North, I was invited to ST)end some hours with a "\,VV' '^"^^''* ' i- will lie sup- family of the highest distinction. One of the young pl'^^^l- ladies of that family introduced \nv to lier brother, and I inquired was he the only brother? " Oh no!" was the reply, "we had two other l»r«>thers in the war. They were in the army of General Sherman; Imt so Eniir;ration of delighted were they with what they saw of the South, f,, '||,,!'^s"',,'-i, and so impressed were they with its advant;iges, that on thi' veturn of peace they begged to be allt«fvd to go and stLtle there, and our fhther having pr.'>vidcd them with funds, they have gone town South r.» jairchase property and cultivate estaties."' This is un illustration of what is ocimrring amongst the families of capitalists thro^ >hout tlio N<»rrh : and TI(»^^ tli.it rlu' Southern 346 American liesoarces. [Sect. VII. f! ( ■! ( s Opinions and views of the Americiins upon this subject. lands arc open to free labour, I have no doubt thfit emijxration from the North to the South will be stiniu- lated to an extent of which there has been no previous precedent. The abolition of slavery has disburdened the Southern States of an incubus. Those States have at command all the resources that soil and climate can afford. They lack nothing but the stimulant afforded by free insti- tutions to bring them to a condition of prosj)erity equal with the most advanced States of the Union. The Americans know and acknowledge this. They understand that the commercial and financial interests of their country depend very largely upon the organi- zation and development of Southern industry. They are prepared to throw capital and cnterprize into the Southern States, for the purpose of producing results on which the prosperity of the wliole nation is acknow- ledged largely to depend. The Government, no doul)t, so far as lies within its legitimate province, will en- courage and support those efforts. And what will be the consequence ? Mr. Bright, in a speech delivered in the House of Commons in 18G3,'"' said — " ] was siiouking tlio (»tliov day to a gontloman from Mississippi : T l^cliovo no man in America or in England is more acquainted with tlie facts of tliis case. lie has been for many years a senator of tlie State of Mississippi ; and he said to me, ' I have no doubt whatever that, in ten years after the freeddm of the Soutli, the pr(j(hieti()n of cotton will be t/niiji/cd, and cotton will be forwai'd(!d to the consumers of the worhl III a much less price than they have had it for many years.' " * Speech on Mr. Rocbuck'H motion for the recognition of the Southern C'ont'uderacv, 30th June, 1H()3. , hhp [Sect. VII, loubt tllflt be stimu- ) previous ! Southern command 3rd. Tliey Free insti- ^rosj^erity le Union. is. They interests e organi- y. They into the g results acknow- 10 doul)t, will en- t will be lelivered nan from ngland is lias been '. ; and he oars after 1 will be ivs of the for many Chap. III.] The Future of tlie South. 347 I am inclined to take even a more sanguine view Sonthern than that of the Senator of Mississippi. Looking at the rapid growth of the cotton-plant — at the enormous ex- tent of the lands capable of its cultivation, which have hitherto never been brought into it — and looking also at the capital and labour which, under the free sys- tem, is flowing, and which will continue to flow into tlie Southern States — I do not believe I am over- sanguine in predicting — that, within Jive years from the present time, the cotton production of America will be doubled, and that the consumers of the world will have the article at a less price than they ever had it before. Let me observe, in conclusion, that this has a most important bearing on the Resouiices op America. If Important due facilities are aftbrdcd for bringing to market the this question bread-stuffs of the North, and if the product of tha ri^au future, cotton-plant in the Soutli is restored and increased, not only will America bear, with ease, all the burden of her debt, and pay it, but she will immediately com- mence a career of commercial prosperity unexampled in the experience of nations. ^ Ci G Southern SECTION VIII. FINANCE. :.# SECTION VIII.-FINANCE. (iHAPrER f. REVENUE AND EXI'ENDITUKP:. In examining tlic financKil position of the United Expenditure n ^ n ^ 'i • p , • ji of the United States, tlie nrst and most striking leature is the com- states paratively small amount of the ordinary national expenditure. Whilst the expcmditure of Great Britain and Ireland, in 1860, amounted to upwards of £68,000,000, the expendiswc of tho United States, in that year, was only £15,^00,000 ; and this amount included a payment of about $14,000,000 dollars, or (say) £2,800,000, on account of the principal of the public debt then owing by the nation. The entire interest of the Public De])t at that time amounted to $3,144,620 or (say) £650,000; an amount which shows a very limited liability on account of the nation. The items of the expenditure of the United States in i860, in 1860 are soov.u in the following table : — IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) -6 „v :^ ^ ^j^ 1.0 I.I 1.25 Sf |i° 12.0 lit I ^U4 ^ V Photogra{diic Sciences Coiporation 23 WIST MAIM STMIT WnSTIR.N.Y. l4o39 (716) 87^-4503 4^ % tl. I- 352 America u Reso urccs. [Sect. VIII. Expenditure of the United States Government, 1860. 1. Civil List $6,077,003 1,146,143 11,514,649 16,472,202 1,100,802 2,991,131 20,708,183 2. Foreign Intercourse 3. H&yy 4. War 5. Pensions 6. Indians 7. Miscellaneous Total Ordinary 8. Interest on Debt 9. Principal of Debt 60,010,113 3,144,620 13,900,392 Grand Total 17,045,012 $77,055,125 The expendi- ture of Ame- rica con- trasted with thiit of other lititiuus. In proportion to population, the United States, in 1860, had, I apprehend, the smallest expenditure and the smallest national debt of any country in the world. Let us look at the expenditure and liabilities of the greater European nations. It will be seen that the United States, with a popu- lation of nearly 31,000,000, had a much smaller ex- penditure than any of these, whi st her debt was little more than nominal. [Sect. VIII. NT, .3 50 )2 L2 25 States, in ditiire and the world. ics of the Debt. £ k5,000,000 b, 000, 000 [2,000,000 [0,000,000 lo,ooo,ooo |o,ooo,ooo 17,000,000 [h a popu- laller ex- was little Chap. I.] Revenue and Expenditure. 353 This contrast is very striking, if we regard it only The force of as it relates to the population. But if we come to look at the expenditure of America in relation to the extent of her territory, the abundance and variety of her products, the value of her mineral resources, the industry of her population, her manufactures, her commerce, and the accumulated and rapidly-increasing wealth of her people, the contrast presented is even more remarkable. For, with the exception of Great Britain, no nation approaches the United States in any one of these respects; and yet every one of the nations, with less resources, had to bear, up to 18G0, a heavier burden of expenditure. The whole revenue of the United Siates, in 1860, ThoAmerican was raised from Customs duties and sales of land. For raised. ' a long series of previous years there can scarcely have been said to have been any direct internal taxation for national purposes in America. At the outbreak of the war of 1812, the expenditure of the United States was only $13,.500,000, or £2,700,000 a year, the whole of which was met by light and easy Customs duties. The war of 1812 raised the expenditure from $13,000,000 to $22,000,000, $39,000,000, and $48,000,000 ; and direct taxes were then obliged to be levied. But about the year 1 8 1 8, a surplus, amount- ing, I believe, to nearly $40,000,000, being found in the Exchequer, the burden of direct taxation was removed, and the internal taxes became of merely nominal amount up to 1836, when they ceased entirely. Very small In addition, therefore, to having the smallest i^ropor- the'^Ainoricii tionate expenditure of any nation, the people of the t'lX''^*^'"" United States, during the greatest part of tlie present A A m 354 American Iteso urces. [Sect. VIII. Effect of the Oivil War on the national expenditure. Direct Tax- ation levied. Amount of the direct taxes. centuiy, have enjoyed the remarkable advantage of being the most lightly taxed people of the world. If we except the enhanced prices of certain classes of manufactures, caused by Customs duties, imposed for the purpose of protection, the people of the United States may be said to have, practically, paid no taxes for national objects. But the breaking out of the Civil War in 1861, altered the whole condition of the expenditure and revenue of the United States. The total expenditure, which was $77,000,000 in 1860, rose to $85,000,000 in 1861, to $571,000 in 1862, to 715,000,000 in 1863, and to no less than $1,897,000,000 in 1865 ; or from £15,500,000 to nearly £380,000,000 in live years. The bulk of this enormous expenditure went for pur- poses of war. Out of the $1,897,000,000, the army and navy absorbed $1,153,000,000, or nearly two- thirds of the whole. The interest on the debt rose from $3,000,000 in 1860 to $77,000,000 in 1864 : or to as much as the sum-total of the national expendi- ture five years previous. To meet this large expenditure, not only were the Customs duties largely enhanced, but direct and internal taxes of large amounts were levied, and largely aug- mented in each successive year. They produced as follows : — Pkoduce of Direct Taxation in America. Year. Amount. 1862 1863 1864 1865 $1,795,332 41,003,192 116,850,672 211,129,.520 Sect. VIII. Chap. I.] Revenue and Expenditure. 35;) Liitagc of Olid. If classes of Dosed for ) United uo taxes in 1861, iture and )enditure, ),000,000 in 1863, ; or from v^e years, t for pur- thc army rly two- lebt rose 1864 : or expendi- were the I internal jely aug- duced as This heavy taxation patiently ome. Tims upwards of £42,000,000 sterling was levied in the form of direct internal taxation during the last year of the war. I think it is worth observing what the Commis- sioner of Internal Revenue says in his last report upon this levy of taxation : — " It is a matter of sincere congratulation that, thus far, the people of this country have so patiently borne the burden which has been put upon them, and have so freely contributed of their substance to fill the national treasury. With few exceptions, the demand of the tax-coUector has been met promptly and willingly. And when it is recollected that the present generation only know by tradition, or by reference to obsolete statutes, that taxes liave ever been imposed in tliis country upon articles of their own manufacture, and the objects of internal traffic, or upon the various crafts or pro- fessions in which they are employed; and when, too, it is considered that the revenue thus collected for the single year ending June 30th, 1865, amounts to a sum nearly or quite equal to all the receipts of this Government from whatever sources, except loans and treasury notes, from its organization to the war of 1812 ; and when it is further considereii tliat this amount was contributed at a time when the commercial marine of the country had been nearly destroyed, and more than a million of hardy men were withdrawn from the productive pursuits of life, we may not only be justly proud that ine material strength has been fully equal to the burden imposed, but that it has been borne so quietly and so willingly." Even in the darkest hours of the war there appears to c'ontidcnce of have been no shirking amongst the people of the llJoSrces North. Thev were prepared to submit to anv outlav ^^ *'"" , J J ctMiiitiy. - — to any burden of taxation possible to be borne — in order to bring the war to a conclusion, and to preserve the Union. Estimates were made by wt'll-iiifoi-med A A 2 H mmmd p. \m 356 America?^ Resources. [Sect. VIII. The Debt incurred. statists, that, even should the Union not be preserved, and even should the Southern States succeed in forming a separate Confederacy, the North alone was well able to bear the burden of taxation which the war would inevitably entail.'^ But when the war was brought to a termination, and the South once again came under the peaceful and undisputed control of the general Government, it seems to have been felt that no ground for alarm or distrust remained ; and that, once brought back to the prosperity which they enjoyed previous to to the war, tlie South would in due time contribute largely to the liquidation of the public debt, and would thereby vastly relieve the general pressure of the burden of taxation. I desire now to consider what the extent of that burden is, and how it is to be met by the revenue of the country. It has been already estimated that the total debt of the United States is $3,000,000,000.t It is taken at Its Amount, this amouiit by the Secretary of the Treasury in his Eeport to Congress, who says, that " it is safe to assume that the debt incurred will not exceed that amount." Now the annual interest upon $3,000,000,000 at 51 per cent, per annum, would be $165,000,000; at 5 per cent it would be $150,000,000, or ^30,000,000 of our money. * Vide, in especial, Dr. William Elder's " Debt and Resources of the United States," Philadelphia, 1863; "Our Burden and Our Strength," by David A. Wells, published by the Loyal Publi- cation Society of Now York, 18G-1-; and the several pamphlets of the Honourable E. J. Walker, published by Eidgway, Piccadilly, London. •(■ Vide ante, p. 7. Sect. VIII. CuAr. I.] Revenue and Expenditure. 357 reserved, . forming well able ar would rought to nae under B general ground 3 brought evious to jontribute md would he burden it of that cvenue of 1 debt of taken at try in his Ito assume amount." at 61 per at 5 per of our Resources Jurden and |oyal Publi- ^mplilets of Piccadilly, Now, I do not suppose it will be possible for the Government of the United States at once to reduce its war expenditure to the rate of the expenditure before the outbreak — (say) £15,000,000 per annum. Provision has to be made for increased establishments, which cannot at once be reduced ; for pensions which have become entailed upon the nation by the war; for differences arising from the condition of the currency ; and for the necessary exj^enses entailed by the re- settlement of the country. Giving the Government credit for every possible anxiety to reduce the establish- ments of the country to a peace standard, and making- due allowance for the peculiar opportunities they have of doing so, yet it is difficult to suppose but that, for several years to come, there must be an enhanced provision for increased establishments. It is so after every war. The Continental wars of the early portion of the present century were commenced by Great Britain at a period when her annual expenditure did not exceed £20,000,000, and since that period our expenditure has never been less in any one ycai* tlian £45,000,000. The war of the United States in 1812 was commenced when her total annual expendi- ture was as little as $13,600,000 (£2,720,000); but, although she very speedily paid off the debt occa- sioned by it, her annual outlay never fell again to that amount. In 1823 it was, indeed, reduced as low as $15,314,000, but it speedily rose again to much larger amounts. The President of the United States mentions, in his Mcssasfe, that there w^cre 530 anncd vessels in commis- sion at the commencement of 18G5, manned l>v 51,000 Estimate as to future national cx2)caditurc. Increa.sed establish- ments to be supported. Large re- ductions in the Navy 858 American Resources. II nd Army. Estimated Total Kevenue and Expenditure of future years. [Sect. VIII. men, and that at the close of that year the number had been reduced to 117 vessels, manned by 12,128 men. " By this prompt reduction," he says, " the expensci^i of the (jovernnx^nt have been largely diminished." On the 1st May, 186.5, the national military force numbered 1,000,516 men. By November last this force was reduced "by the discharge from the service of over 800,000 troops, and the war department is proceeding rapidly in the work of further reduction. The war estimates are reduced from $516,240,131 to $33,814,461, which amount, in the opinion of the depjirtment, is adequate for a peace establishment."* This shows the anxiety of the Government to restore its establishments to an economical footing : but still I apprehend that it must be many years before the estimates of 1860 are again reached; if, indeed, it is possible that they should ever be reduced to that amount. We will assume, then, that the total ordinary annual expenditure of the United States will be necessarily augmented for some years to come from £15,000,000 to (say) £20,000,000 sterling ($100,000,000). To this has to be added the £30,000,000 sterling, or $150,000,000, required for the payment of the interest upon the debt at 5 per cent, per annum. Here, then, we have the total indebtedness of the United States. The expenditure of the country is raised to an average of $250,000,000, or £50,000,000 a year. By reference to the table at the commencement of this chapter, it will be seen what proportion that amount bears to the annual expenditure of other nations. * President Johnson's Message, 14th December, 1865. If Skct. VIIT. [liber had 128 men. :peiiscti of .ed." On tiiirabered force was B of over Toceeding on. The 10,131 to on of the shment."* to restore but still I before the deed, it is id to that try annual lecessarily 5,000,000 )00). To terling, or le interest lere, then, ed States, n average reference 3hapter, it bears to 1865!^ Chap. 1. 1 Revenue and Expcnditvre. .S.5J) The Secretary of the Treasury (Mr. McCulloch) puts Mr. McCul tlic result as follows : — i " If," he says, " $200,000,000 pe • annum shall be applied, in half-yearly instalments of $100,000,000 each, in payment of the accruing interest and in reduction of the principal funded at the higher rate of 5| per cent., the debt would be entirely paid in 32^ years. At 5 per cent per annum, it would be extinguished by the like application of $100,000,000 every six months, in a little over twenty-eight years. . . . After careful reflection, the Secretary concludes that no Act of Con- gress would be more acceptable to the people, or better calculated to strengthen the national credit, than one which should provide that $200,000,000, commencing with the next financial year, should be annually applied to the payment of the interest and principal of the national debt." This would be practically .in addition of $50,000,000 annually to the taxation of the country, for the purpose of redeeming the whole del)t incurred by th(; War, in a period of about thirty years ; and the simph? question is, whether $300,000,000, or £60,000,000 a year, is a burden of taxation which the American people are unable or unwilling to bear for (say) thirty years to come ? It is, no doubt, a large increase on the amount of revenue and expenditure in 1860. The payment also involves that which the people were not accustomed to prior to 1861, direct and internal taxes. Are the Americans willing to bear the burden ? Are they capable of bearing it ? The facts appear to answer Iwth questions in the affirmative. First, as to their willingness. The President of the United States observes : — " Our debt is doubly secure — first, in the actual wealth and still greater undeveloped resources of the country, and next, in the character of our institutions. P(»litical economists loch's pro- posal to pay off the Debt in thirty years. Willintfiieas of the Aine- viciins to bea tlie ))iirden. 8()0 !•! merican Itesott rccs. [Skct. VIII. '' I The Prcsi- (U'lit oil (lio National Debt, and its tc- deinption. liavd iKit fiiilod to roinnik, tliat the ])iiLlic dcibt of a country is sal(( ill projxirtiou as its i)i'<)plc aro friui ; that tlio (l(^l)t of a vc- ]ml>lic is the sall'st of all. Our liistiu'y conlinus and ostalilishcs the theory, and is, I iiruily boliovo, destined to give it a .still more signal illustration. The secret of this superiority s])rings not merely from the fact that, in a republic, the national obligations are distributed more widely through countless nui'ibors in all classes of society ; it has its root in tho eharacter of our laws, llero all men contribute U) the ])nblic welfare, and bear their fair share of the public burdens. During the war, under the impulses of patriotism, the men of the great body of the people, without regard to their own comparative want of wealth, thronged to our armies and iillcd our tlects of war, and held themselves ready to offer their lives for the public good. Now, in their turn, tho property and income of the country shoidd bear their just ]iroportion of the biu'deu of taxation ; while in our impost system, through means of which increased vitality is in- cidentally imparted to all tho industrial interests of tho nation, the duties should be so adjusted as to fall most heavily on articles of luxury, leaving the necessaries of life as free from taxation as the absolute wants of the (lovern- ment, economically administered, will justify. No favoured class should demand freedom from assessment, and the taxes fihould be so distributed as not to fall unduly on the poor, but rather on the accunmlated wealth of the country. Wo should look at the national debt just as it is — not as a national blessing, but as a heavy burden on the industry of the coiintry, to be discharged without unnecessary delay. "It is estimated by the Secretary of the Treasury, that the expenditures for the iiscal year ending the 30th of June, 1800, will exceed the receipts $112,194,947. It is gratifying, liowever, to state that it is also estimated that the revenue for the year ending the 30th of June, 1807, will exceed the expenditures in the sum of $111,082,818. This amount, or so much as may be deemed sufficient for the purpose, may be applied to the reduction of the ])ublic debt. Every reduction will diminish the total amount of interest to be paid, and so enlarge the moans of still further reductions, until the [Skct. VIII. Chap. i.| Rcvchuc and Kxpeudiluri.'. 3G1 a country is (l('l)t of ft ro- lostablislK's ivo it ft still ority .s))riiig.s the iifttionnl ;h countloss root in tlio o tlic ]mblic lie burdens. ini, tliu m(;n ;o their own nrniies ftnd ady to oiler ir turn, the ir their ju.st our impost Uility is in- •ests of the o fall most [aries of life ho Uovern- ^o favoured id the taxes n the poor, untry. Wo — not as a industry of delay. asury, that \\ of June, gratifying, le revenue exceed the amount, or )se, may be 'f reduction paid, and until the whole! shall be liquidated ; and tin' ^ as will bo seen from the cstinuvtcs of tlu! Secretary of the Treasury, may be ac- complished by ainiual payments oven within a period not exceeding thirty year.s. 1 have faith that we shall do all this within ft reftsonablo time ; that, fts we hftvo amazed the world by i\w. suppression of a civil war which was thought to be beyond the control of any (Jovernment, .so we shall ecpially show the superiority of our institutions by the prompt and faithful discharge of our national obligations." Wo have already seen how willingly the burden of heavily increased and ra|)idly inerea.sing taxati(jn wa.s borne throughout tlio War, It luid then to be borne under the most unfavourable circuinj.sttuieeH. 'i'lie great bulk of the labour powcsr of the nation was withdrawn from the ordinary jmrsuits of agriculture and commerce. The nation itself was divided, and the people of one section of the country alone had to ]>car the burden. Everything was opposed to the levy of taxaticm to such an extent and under such circum- stances. The taxes themselves were framed under circumstances of pressing necessity, with little regard to the principles which ought to govern the true liiyj of taxation. Nevertheless, these charges were cheer- fully met. Is it then, to be douljted that under a reconstruclion of the Union, with the people restored to their accustomed industrial pursuits, and with re- vised h'gisliition by which taxation will be equably and justly apportioned, the people who cheerfully paid during the War will make any difficulty in Ijcaring the burden during Peace ? Is there any question as to their ability to bear the Ability of the burden ? 1 shall have written these pages to very little ^ll^Yhrdebt! purpose, if those who have followed me thnnigh them ra 362 American /fi'mnrrr.t. [Sect. VIII. Value of real and personal estate in America. Estimate of its increased value in 1870. Proportion of the (lel)t and annual tax- ation to these values doubt the ability of tlie American people to bear sixty millions of taxes, either at the present time, or during the thirty years next to come. So far from there being any reasonable doubt on that head, the doubt seems rather to be whether, after peace is fully and entirely restored, the nation will not be able to bear a far heavier levy of taxation than that which she is at present called on to endure. Let us examine this part of the question by the light of the past. It appears from the Census tables, that the total value of real and personal estate in the United States was — In 1850 $7,135,780,228 In 1860 $16,169,616,068 or an increase of 126 per cent in ten years. At the same rate of increase, the value of real and personal estate in 1870 would be $36,593,450,585. But suppose that, in consequence of the Civil War and the position of the South, we estimate the increase at the end of the next decade at one half only of the rate of incre- ment during the last decade. That will give nearly $27,000,000,000 as the aggregate property of the United States in 1870. In proportion to this capital the whole debt of $3,000,000,000 stands in the relation of one in nine, and the annual taxation of $300,000,000 only in the ratio of one in ninety. The Secretary of the Treasury offers these facts to our consideration in another form. He says :- - " Taking the increase of wealth in the loyal States in the ten years from 1860 to 1870, at 125 per cent., we have, as their capital in 1870, $24,111,000,000; and if we put tlie wealth of the other States at the same figure as in 1800, without allowing anything for increase, we have a capital, for [Sect. VIII. pie to bear 1 ! i 370 American Rt'sonrces. Skct.VIII. fully respond to the calls made on them to meet theiv cost. These taxes stand in substitution of the large amounts we pay, in Poor's-rates and Police-rates, to maintain our paupers and suppress our criminals. The large amounts the American people contribute, by direct taxation, to their local assessments, show how well they arc capable of bearing the burden of direct national taxation. Spirit duties. Ncxt to the tax on property and income, I should look to a tax on the products of distillation as the best tax for purposes of revenue. In order to render this tax effective, the honest distiller must, however, be supported against illicit manufacture. I think this should be done. The policy of every country is in favour of taxing spirits to the maximum amount which is consistent with the development of revenue. In Great Britain, a uniform duty of IO5. per gallon does not check consumption, nor is it found to stimulate illicit manufacture. I think the United States can bear an equally high rate of duty on this article. The revenue demands its imposition ; and in justice to themselves, the people, having decided what is the best system of taxation, should be invoked to assist in the enforcement of the law. I appreciate so highly the American character, that I believe, if it were decided to levy a high rate of duty upon spirits as a source of revenue, the people of the country would demand and see to the enforcement of the law. I am the more inclined to this opi: "on from finding that the tax upon cigars and manufactured tobacco, first imposed in 1863, has been very productive. Last year no less than $11,387,799 was paid by the North Duties on Manu- factured Tobacco, Sect.VIIT. meet theiv f tlic large ce-rates, to inals. The tribute, by , show how in of direct le, I should as the best render this lowever, be think this untry is in lount which ivenue. In on does not ulate illicit an bear an he revenue rhemselves, system of forcement American d to levy )f revenue, md see to )m finding |d tobacco, ive. Last I the North (iHAP. il.l Taxation. 371 alone in the form of duties on cigars, snuff, and chew- ing and smoking tobacco. I understand that this amount would have been much greater, but for dis- turbing causes, arising from a large supply of Southern tobacco being brought for sale to Northern markets, under defective revenue regulations, and also from large quantities being brought into consumption which had paid duty at the lower rates of previous years. But in a country where tobacco may be said to grow in every garden, it appears very remarkable that so large a revenue should be received from the article. The present tax on cigars is $10 per thousand, or one cent on each cigar; the duty on fine-cut and plug tobacco (so largely consumed in America) is 40 cents per lb. These duties, under the circumstances of the country, do not appear excessive. I think it would be advisable to continue them, and I believe that when the causes which disturbed the trade last year are removed, the revenue from this source will be nearly doubled. A true financial policy cannot admit of duties upon Duties on raw materials. There is a party in America which riaX!"''^ advocates the imposition of a duty on raw cotton, resin, and other products of the South. I confess that I require much better arguments than any which have yet reached me to justify such taxation. The South is on the eve of recovering from a great de- Their iwl icy pression : it is therefore bad policy to do anything consuiered, calculated still further to depress her. She is about to re-enter a market, over which she has lost the in relation to command, and to re-enter it as a competitor with ^"^ ' ' other nations for tlu> sale of her staples. At such 11 Ji 2 872 American Resources. [Sect. VIII. f4 in their effects on Exports. Sir R. Peel's Export duty on British Coal. Its injurious results on trade and commerce. a momeut it would surely be unwise to levy a tax upon those staples. Besides this, a tax upon raw cotton, nearly the whole of which is exported from America, would be tantamount to a tax on exports, which is not only opposed to the law but opposed to the very policy and genius of American commerce. The people of the United . States, from the days of Washington, have been taught to regard all duties with apprehension, but export duties with especial dislike. Nor is it to be doubted that a duty upon exports is, of all duties, the most disadvantageous to a nation. Under all circumstances such duties are erroneous in principle and injurious in operation. A duty upon cotton in America would be a premium to the producer of cotton elsewhere. Some years ago, Sir Robert Peel, with a view to raise revenue, imposed a duty upon the export of coal from Great Britain. The imposition of this duty was strongly opposed by the Free Traders, but was defended by the protec- tionists upon the ground that foreigners were using our coal in their own manufactories, and thereby competing with British manufactures by the employ- ment of her own raw material. The duty lasted three years, and then Sir Robert Peel came down to Parliament and abandoned it.^^ It had had the effect, he said, of rapidly checking our foreign coal trade. The revenue raised under the duty was insignificant ; and the tax had only operated to reduce the profits of the British coal-shipper and induce activity in * I hope I shall not be charged with egotism in quoting as to these facts fi m a previous publication of my own. Vide " Taxa- tion : its Levy and Expenditure" hy Sir Morton Peto, page 65. [Sect. VIII. levy a tax upon raw •orted from on exports, ut opposed commerce. he days of all duties th especial duty upon Ivantageous uch duties L operation. a premium ! years ago, le, imposed at Britain. opposed by ;he protec- w^ere using id thereby le employ- uty lasted e down to the eflfect, coal trade. ignificant ; the profits ctivity in uoting as to Tide « Taxa- yaffe 65. Chap. II.] Taxation. 373 working mines for coal in foreign countries. Under this duty, in fact, our trade in coal with France passed into other hands. France developed coal mines of her own, and also coal fields in Belgium, on her immediate frontier ; and England, which can supply the largest quantities of coal at the cheapest price, instead of regulating the French market, was reduced to the condition of afibrding France only one-twelfth part of the coal required for her consumption. It appears to me that the two cases are quite Analogy be- analogous. Cotton is the principal staple of the caseTofCoal South, as Coal may be said to be the principal staple ^^^ (Cotton. of the British isles. Any tax which may partially act as an export duty upon either commodity cannot fail to check trade, and stimulate production in other countries. I believe that, at the present moment, no worse tax could be devised for America than a duty upon cotton. It may be argued, that in consequence of the prices Arguments obtained for the article at the present time in "he'dutycon- foreign markets the raw cotton of the United States sidered. can bear the imposition of a small duty. But this is an argument not to be relied on. Markets fluctuate with supply and demand. Those who favour a small duty upon raw cotton look to obtain a large revenue from an abundant supply. But it is to be remem- bered that an abundant supply will depress the price of the article : and the more the price of the article is depressed the heavier will be the weight of this duty on the producer. It is curious that those who contend the most vigorously in America for a duty upon cotton, are mm 374 A mericnn Resou rees. [Sect. VIII. Feelings under which the duty on Cotton is Bouf^ht to ho imposed. The duties on Iron, Coal, and Petro- h-uni. tlioae wlio contend the most vigorously for the removal of every duty on native manufactures, as injurious to native industry. But surely if a manu- factured article cannot bear the burden of taxation, the raw product from which it is made cannot be expected to bear it. ^ • It is much to be feared that the feelings which enter into the consideration of this question are far from pure. It is not any mere question of revenue or taxation that is thought of, so much as a means of shifting the burden from one portion of the country to another. But I put it to the people of the United States, if higher and nobler feelings ought not to pre- vail in the adjustment of this great question ? I put it to them, whether the prosperity of the nation, as a whole, is not the object to be regarded? The national taxation should not be adjusted by a conflict of interests, but by a fair and equable apportionment of burdens. A property and income-tax, a tax uu spirits and fermented liquors, a duty on manufactured tobacco, would fall on all ; but taxes on cotton or resin, levied on the producer, would fall on one class only, and that class the least capable at the present time of bearing it. Justice and policy alike demand that the products of the South should not be subjected to taxation. On the same principle that I condemn the appli- cation of taxation to the raw products of the South, I would contend for the removal of duties on the raw products of the North. The duties now levied on mineral products, — iron, coal, and petroleum, — ought immediately to be removed. These articles all lie at the basis of industry, and it is for the advantage of [Skct. VIII. y for the actures, as f a manu- f taxation, cannot bo ngs wliicli on are far jf revenue 3 a means le country lie United lot to pre- I ? 1 put nation, as L'd ? The a conflict :>nmcnt of on spirits i tobacco, in, levied and that earing it. )ducts of le appli- South, the raw ivied on — ought II lie at Jtflgo of CUAP. II.] Taxation. 375 every interest of America that their production and sale should be, in the largest degi'ee, in(;reased and cheapened. It is quite clear that if the production of native coal and iron is to be stimulated, which I think so possible and so desirable, the object cannot be ac- complished in the face of duties on the raw material. As regards petroleum, of which the supply is, at present, so largely in excess of the demand, it is obvious that to levy a heavy duty on that article in its original and crude state is merely to throw on those, who enter into entei-prizes for its development, a tax to which their skill and industry ought not to expose them. Next to the taxes upon raw materials, those upon Taxes on trade require to be dealt with. These involve general licenses to traders and taxes upon banks and monetary operations. Almost every one who carries on an im- portant business in the United States needs to be licensed, as the following table shews : — Traders liceiwed. TmJes. Apothecaries. Butchers. Auctioneers. Distillers. Bankers. Hotel Keepers. Billiard-table Keepers. Lawyers. Brokers. Lottery-ticket Dealers. Bowling-alley Keepers. Manufacturers. Cattle Brokers. Peddlers. Commission Brokers. Photographers. Produce Brokers. Physicians and Surgeons. Pawnbrokers. Eetail Dealers. Stockbrokers. Wholesale Dealers. ]}uilders and Contractors. The payments on account of these licences amounted, in 1865, to $12,613,478, equal to more than 2,500,000^. annually. 376 A nwrican lieso n rces. [Sect. VIII. Tax on Banking operations, Disftdvan- Thc principal amounts ruceived for tlicao licences d'uUcs? ^'**' ^rc taken from wholesale dealers, retail dealers (espe- cially the dealers in liquors), hotel-kccper.s, bankers, and brokera. If it is considered necessary, for existing purposes, to continue for any period this sort of taxa- tion, it ought to be apportioned upon these traders, as to a certain extent is done with ourselves in England. We have a system of licences to auctioneers, attorneys, bankers, brokers, brewers, and other dealers, which is not complained of, but which, on thc con- trary, is regarded as useful and discriminating, ])y many of those who follow such pursuits. But care should be taken in America, as with ourselves, that trade and traffic is not prejudiced by the manner in which such duties are applied. If assessed at heavy rates, such taxes fall very detrimentally on the young and struggling. They prevent entcrprizing young men from following trades and professions in which they might often be usefully employed ; and such duties are, consequently, apt to create monopolies. If they are to bo continued for a time, all these license duties should therefore be levied with as light a hand as possible, so as not to deter any one from entering into any of the various occupations they aifect. Wherever these licences are found to produce very small amounts to revenue, they should be at once removed ; and in all cases they should be reduced, with a view to ultimate removal as soon as possible. In the same way with regard to banks and banking. The original idea in America was to levy a duty upon the dividends derived from what we should call the dividends on joint-stock banking operations. To this, LSect. VIII. Chap. II.] Taxation. ^11 liccncea era (cspe- , bankers, r existing b of taxa- 3 traders, solves in ctioneers, T dealers, the con- ating, l)y But care ives, that lanner in at heavy he young »ung men lich they uties are, ey are to should possible, any of er these )unts to id in all ultimate )anking. by upon 3all the To this, Insurances. as a source of income, there can be no valid objection. But the tax on banks has been applied to their capital, to their circulation, to their deposits, and in March, 1865, it was even extended to the deposits placed in savings banks having no capital stock. All these duties ought to be abandoned at the earliest practi- cable period. They are taxes, not on wealth, but on the industry employed in its accumulation. To tax the deposits in banks is merely to check deposits ; and the effect of that must be, not merely to check circu- lation but to limit every enterprize throughout the community. Nothing could be more fatal to the people of the United States, dependent as they are on enterprize. In the same way with the tax upon Tax upon insurances. It has been levied not only on the divi- dends and capital of insurance companies, but on premiums and assessments. A worse system could scarcely have been devised. A tax on insurance is a tax not only upon industry but upon providence and frugality. And the American system seems to be far worse than that of which we have been so long com- plaining in Great Britain in respect of fire insurance, and which, by such complaints, we have recently com- pelled our Government to a large extent to forego. The taxes on transit, chiefly paid by railroad compa- Taxes on nies, will, I apprehend, after their denunciation in the Message of the President, be immediately removed. In a country like America, where everything depends on facilities of transport, a tax on those facilities must be most injurious. These taxes were originally in- tended to reach the dividends and profits of carrying companies, but they have gone far beyond that object. Transit. r^i Stain [I dutie''. 378 American liesources. ISect. VIII, They are now, practically, impediments to transport, and in this light it is essential to the prosperity of the nation that they should be entirely removed. Such has been the power and influence of the "Express Companies," that those monopolists, although far more capable than other carriers of bearing the burden of this taxation, liave never been taxed to the same ex- tent as other companies. I am far from recommending that the tax to which they are at present exposed should be increased. However much I may think that such companies are detrimental to the interests of railroads and of the public, 1 believe that the true interest of the nation is to repeal altogether every duty which directly or indirectly affects the intercommu- nication of the nation. The duties derived from stamps appear to have been very willingly borne in the United States, to have been collected with care, with small expense, and with a comparative absence of attempts at fraud. I would not, therefore, recommend any discontinuance of these items of taxation at present. Under a proper system the stamp duties may, probably, be made in- cjcasingly available and lucrative. There are certain difficulties, I know, respecting the application of these duties. The proceedings of some of the Courts of law, from neglect to affix or cancel the requisite stamps on written and other legal processes, ha\'e been rendered practically abortive. And, in the Soutli, difficulties have arisen in consequence of Acts of Congress not having been operative during the Civil War, and con- veyances and other procos^ios not having l)een, in those districts, duly sulijeotcd to stamp duties. But [Sect. VIII. to transport, prosperity of loved. Such he "Express igh far more lie burden of the same ex- commending ent exposed y think that interests of lat the true r every duty intercommu- to have been ^es, to have xpense, and s at fraud. continuance cr a proj)er jc made in- are certain ion of these urts of law, stamps on n rendered difficulties )ngress not I', and con- bccn, in litic8. But OUAP. 11.] Tuxatioii. 37.9 these, as it seems to me, are temporary inconveniences, for wh:*' a proper provisions may be made. The amount received from the stamp duties is very large ; it is likely greatly to increase, and I should not recommend any disturbance of those duties beyond such as is likely to facilitate the general application of the law. I am afraid that the duties on sales by brokers and Duties on by auctioneers must remain as they are at present : Auction or and the duties on legacies and successions ought, '^"""^'"<"'' I think, also to be continued, with a view to test their ultimate effect. All the other direct taxes recently enforced in the United States, ought in my opinion to be forthwith removed. The petty ritty Thxcs. and vexatious applications of taxation to umbrellas and parasols, repairs, watches, piano-fortes, passports, theatres, circuses, and to pickles, confectionary, glue, pins, pottery, and, above all, to " animals slauglitered," (whereby a direct tax is levied upon the food of the people,) ought all to be swept away, as unworthy of a great nation, and injurious to the freedom of its internal trade. Anytinng is better than that a great people should attempt to meet a great emergency l)y petty duties. They entail disproportionate cost in collection ; unnecessary vexations to those who are assessed ; numberless attempts at fraud and evasion, most injurious to the moral bearing of the people : and ill their result they only in a small degree mitigate the weidit of the l)urdeii to be Iwriie. Far better in every respect, that the people of the United States should face the difficulty and pay one heavy impost, than that they should submit to couiith'ss petty lumlens, fiicumberinu' their lousinesses, (Mitailing endless incon- \ 380 American Resources. [Sect. VIII. v' h 'Sr fV) Customs Duties. Collection of Customs Duties. vcnience and annoyance, and calculated to excite impatience of taxation. The same principle should be applied to the levy of duties upon foreign articles of import under the Customs Acts. There are certain Customs duties, such as those imposed upon silks, spices, sugar, tea, coffee, drugs, fruits, and a variety of articles of luxury, and even of general necessity, that produce large amounts to the general revenue, and that it is desirable, at any rate at present, not to discontinue. But all petty charges should be abandoned, and the duties concentrated on as small a number of items as possible. In Great Britain, in 1841, we had Customs duties on no less than 1163 articles ; in 1862, we levied such duties on only 44. And whilst the gross produce of our duties on the 1163 articles, in 1841, was £21,900,000, in 1862, upon only 44 articles, and at reduced rates on most of those, it was £24,036,000 ! This shows what is to be gained by unshackling commerce. Our policy has been to remit every duty that offered an obstacle to the extension of trade ; it has proved the true policy in our case, and America ought to profit by our example. I am afraid, from wliat I heard in America, that a very great reform is required in the system under which the Customs duties of the United States are, at the present time, collected. Tales are very widely spread (for which, however, I have no better authority than general belief) of a most imperfect, not to say irregular system, jirevailing in that department. 1 1 is asserted that the national exchequer receives but a limited proportion of the revenue which it ought to I [Sect. VIII. id to excite to the levy ft under the 3 duties, such r, tea, coflfee, iiry, and even lounts to the ,t any rate at etty charges centrated on !. In Great 5 on no less ich duties on of our duties ,900,000, in iced rates on shows what Our policy 1 an obstacle ed the true profit by our Lcrica, that a ystem under )tatcs are, at very widely ter authority , not to say ment. It is ceives but a it ouglit to OlIAl'. II.] Taxation. 381 derive from duties upon imports. " Undervaluations " of invoices, and great laxity in the mode of " refunding " duties, paid or alleged to have been paid in excess, are said to be fruitful sources of what amounts to fraud on the revenue. A laxity in the system of levy- ing revenue must be equivalent to increased taxation, and it is, therefore, most desirable in the present state of American finance, that these complaints should be investigated and the evil removed, if it exists. With regard to the department of Internal Revenue, The Inland . . , • T 1 1 • 1 • -I Revenue de it IS also said that, having been recently organized on partment. a very imperfect basis, it is at present utterly incom- petent to discharge the multifarious and onerous duties which devolve on it. It is stated that a late Commis- sioner of Internal Revenue declared that " if the law, as it now stands, could be fully and effectually exe- cuted, the receipts from that branch of taxation would not fall short of $500,000,000 annually," or double the amount received in 1865 from these sources of revenue. In order to carry out a better system of finance, it is obvious that one of the first oljjects must be to place the establishments for the collection of the revenue on a proper footing, I fear that from England we cannot offer America any model for the accomplishment of this object; but I have no doubt the people of the United States will be able to devise an efiicient system for themselves. In conclusion : — there is not the slightest cause to doubt that, under a simple and efficient system of taxation, the Government of th«^ United States will find ample funds to meet every national requirement. In the last chapter, 1 have estimated the expenditure 1M< 38-i A incricau Ifcsoiinrs. ISkct. VIII t i.-; '.'.; Amomit of Taxation cniwble of heiii}' raised. of tho coinitiy for tlio next ten 3^otir8, at an averapjr of $300,000,000 per annum. A paper very recently laid before Congress by the Secretary of the Treasury, affords assurance that the income for the year ending 30tli June, 1866, will not be less than that amount. I do not think that it admits of doubt, that under a revised system of general taxation, carefully and faith- fully administered, it is possible to raise this aggregate to $400,000,000. In either case a large margin is left, either for the immediate reduction of the taxation of the people, or for the defrayment of the principal of the debt. Some may incline to the opinion that it is best at once to get rid of a portion of the burden for which taxation is imposed ; whilst others may think that it is more desirable to afford the fullest oppor- tunity for that complete development of those re- sources, which will lead to an earlier removal of the encumbrance than even a payment by instalments. To other nations, it is immaterial which course the people of the United States think it the lietter to adopt. As it concerns themselves, it will be satis- factory to them to know that those who have investi- gated the sources of their wealth and prosperity, feel assured that they are fully competent to the dis- charge of all th(^ liabilities which the war has entailed upon them ; and that, if properly and judiciously apportioned, the burden of taxation will not press unduly on their means. -V^^"^^^ |Sk( r. VIM 't nil averjio'*': very reccntJ y the Treasury, e year ending tliat amount, that under a lly and faith- his aggregate nargin is left, ) taxation of principal of on that it is ic burden for s may think ullest oppor- )f those rc- loval of the instalments. course Um e bettor to n be satis- we investi- sperity, feel ;o the dis- las entailed judiciously not press SECTION JX. CONCLUSION. V '.■■ \ i'i Wv«^.'a«>»>->i SECTION IX. CONCLUSION. The Hon. R J, Walker, in one of his letters on The people of America, observes :— A,Sri"a iTil-' " In view of the fact that the people of the United King- IJifjI^mS dom, and of the United States, are mainly of the same race, resi)ccting speak the same language, have tlie same literature, ancestry, ^"'^'^ °*'^'^'"' and common law, with the same history for centuries, and a reciprocal commerce exceeding tliat of all the rest of the world, it is amazing how little is known in each country of the other. " This condition of affairs is most unfavourable to the continuance of peace and good-will between two great and kindred nations. It causes constant misappi^ehension by each party of the acts and motives of the other, arrests the de- velopment of friendly feeling, and retards the advance of commercial freedom. It excites almost daily rumours of im- pending war, disturbing the course of trade, causing large mercantile losses, and great unnecessary Government ex- penditures. If war has not ensued, it has led to angry controversy and bitter recrimination. It is sowing' broadcast, in both countries, the seeds of hatred." c C m FT' 'i * I '1 t •;i 1 i 4 '\ i ''I } 't"l i r.f- ¥ If ,! / il: 380 -^ /«(' /'/('(I n Keso itrces. [SlX-T. IX. INMiiiiiniug topics. Foatim-s of It has IjL'oii iiiy c'luloavour, in tlic foregoing pngns, Gxaiuim'ii in to inform my fellow-countrymen us to the condition these piij^es. ^^£ ^|^^ population, tho agriculture, the manufactturcH, tlie mineral resources, and the commerce of tlie United States. I have treated of those facilities of connnunication uhich are so essential to the pros- })erity of the country. 1 have considered the present l)(»sition and future prospects of the South : and the fiutuicial condition of America \vith reference espe- cially to the revenue, expenditure, and taxation of the nation. But before bringing to a conclusion this account of the resources and prospects of the country, there arc some other features of America Avitli which it is scarcely less important that the Ihitish public should be made familiar. On their return from the United States, travellers arc not unfretpiently asked what feature struck them most forcibly in their journey through the country. Looking to the territory, I should certainly answer to such a question, its wide expanse and its abundant resources : but looking to the people, I should say, the absence of pauperism. Nothing is more striking to a European than tho universal respcctal>ility of appearance of all classes in America. You see no rags, you meet no beggars. In London the painful scenes, whether of real or of fictitious woe, that are encountered at every turning arc in the hiahcst deoree distressing. Pauperism pursues the passenger on every pavement. It is to me one of the most distressing reflections of existence, that our great and thrivin<>- nation goes on, year after year, increasing the num- bers of those who are dependent upon charity for Absence of Pauperism in America. [Skot. IX. iug pngps, coiulition iiufju'tiiivs, TO of tlie •aeilities of I tlic pros- :lic present I : and the rence espc- taxation of elusion this he country, with which Ltish public !S, travellers itruck them he country, answer to iS ahundant [should say, re striking |etal>ility of (»u see no Itlic painful e, that are rhest degree [er on every distressing d thriving the num- Icharitv for Skct. IX.) Cunchtsion. .SS7 daily food. Why are we not able to afford employ- ment to the population of these realms 'i Why is it that one out of every twenty of our entire population is a pauper ? How comes it that our union work- houses, our hospitals and asylums, and charitablo institutions of every chiss, are so full of olyects of benevolence, and that yet there is such a super- abundance of beggary thronging our streets ? Our roiitm.^t population docs not increase in anytliing approaching j!;,,,?)',',,',! ,„i,i the ratio of the increase of population in the United ■^""''''™- States ; and yet, with us, every branch of ]al)our and business is so overcharged, that tlie intioduction of a new hand can only bo accomplished l)y the dis- placement of an old one. In America, on the con- trary, every addition to the population and labour of the country is hailed witli satisfaction, as an addi- tion to its wealth ; no one is without employment, and every one has the means before him of improving his position. It was observed the other day in the House of Tiio increase Commons, that Parliament would do well if it devoted i|, ri',"|]t' '"'" an entire session to the consideration of the state of f^""'*'""* Ireland. Another session might be equally well cm- ployed in the exclusive consideration of the condition of our poor. After liaving seen the state of society in America, I feel quite convmced, that it is im- possible we can go on much longer on the present system. We fdl our statute-books witli poor-laws ; we annually increase our rates for the relief of the poor to such an extent that many parishes become quite unable to bear them, and call aloud for a national assessment ; our tables are covered with e c 2 388 Ami'vican Resources. [Sect. IX. \^>< a subject which re- quires grave considera- tion. Tlie (liffubicn of wealth in America. appeals for donations to charitable institutions, until people become perplexed and hardened by the very number of the applications; we enact new laws to provide accommodation for the casual and home- less poor ; the emigration from our shores to America and Australia is so enormous as to people those con- tinents; and yet, whilst om* trade and commerce increases beyond any parellel, the pauperism of the country increases also. Here is, indeed, a problem requiring solution, and to which the best statesmen might advantageously apply themselves. Let it be considered by the light which the condition of Ameri- can society reflects on it — where there is no beggary, and only such poverty as arises from causes beyond the control of human nature. The equal distribution of wealth in the United States is, certainly, a very marked feature of the nation. Whilst there may be said to be no poor, the number is also comparatively few of those whom we should class as very rich. As I write these lines I read in the daily papers of the death of a London merchant, whose personal property is sworn in the Court of Probate, at £2,995,000, a sum which approaches $15,000,000. Such fortunes, amassed in a single life-time, are not common amongst us : though we no doubt have many great merchant princes, capitalists, bankers, and landowners, whose individual wealth equals the amount. But in America there are very few people indeed who can be considered " mil- lionaires." Three or four well-known cases of great wealth will occur to every one acquainted with com- mercial circles in New York and Boston : but cxces- [.Skct, IX. Sect. IX.] Conclusion. asu oris, until the very V laws to id liome- 3 America hose con- commerce jm of the , problem statesmen Let it be of Ameri- . beggary, Ljs beyond le United re of the no poor, ose whom rite these ath of a is sworn um which assed in a though princes, ndividual there are red "mil- of great vith com- jut exces- nno- sive accumulations do not extend beyond a very limited number of individuals. In a word, the wealth of America is diffused. You find few inordinately rich, but you find every one able to meet the demands that can be justly made on him. And this has an important bearing on the political TheAi l)osition and action of the nation. I do not think J^ican Suffrage that we at all comprehend, in England, Avhat is implied by universal suffr-age. Universal suff*rago is regarded by the largest portion of our population as utterly unsuited to the condition of Great Britain, and as calculated to lead to political confusion. And, no doubt, it would be utterly unsuited to the pre- sent condition of society in this country. But it is unsuited to another thing in its application to America. Where ^^°''^^"*'""' every man has his proportionate share of the good things of this world, all feel entitled to claim a but well fair share in the administration of the affairs of the ^^Mptedtoa nation nation. "Equality," as it is construed with us, "is the reduction of the competent to a level with the incompetent." But " Equality," as it is construed wiiere in America, "implies neither the degradation nor the inmi'lelfoiti- elevation of any one class at the expense of another, zensinp. All are equal amongst equals : citizens — not sub- jects. We are accustomed to believe that a man is solely measured in America by his wealth. I doubt if that idea docs not prevail in Europe in The influence an exaggerated degree. Wealth undoubtedly has " ^^■*^*"'i ' great influence in America : it has influence every- where ; nowhere, perhaps, has it more influence than amongst ourselves. Those who pursue trade and com- merce always have n^garded, and \ i^u])p(.)se al\\'a}'s 390 A me rican Resou tres. [Skct. IX. Oi «1 In England ; In Aiiieriua. 'I'he dia- tinctiun. President Liuuoln. 'riio honmgo ] 111 id ill Aiue- I'icti to the uiiergy and iibility wliicli [)nidiice!i wealth. The exercise iiiid results of the siiHViij^e in America, will look up with the highest admiration to those who make the largest profits in the occupations, trades, professions, and pursuits which they respectively fol- low. That sort of feeling prevails on both sides of the Atlantic. But I greatly doubt if men are mea- sured by their wealth by the people of the United States at large. Everything appears to indicate the contrary. It is not the very rich, or even the wealthier class, who are elected to state offices, or to Congress, or to the Senate, or the Presidency. Abraham Lincoln was not a rich man, or even a powerful man : on the contrary, he was a very humble man — one who had raised himself from the smallest beginnings, by the energy of his character, and by his ability, address, sound judgment, trans- parent honesty, and great discretion. His position in life, when he was elected president, was very moderate. I have before me, as I write, a picture of his house at Springfield, Illinois, a neat, modest, little wooden tenement, such as we should allot to a half- pay ofticer in the country. It is, in my opinion, not so much a man's wealth which the American people recognise and to which they pay tlicir homage, as the energy and ability which may turn wealth to account. Equality and brotherhood they regard, not in theory only (as the idea of mammon worship w^ould imply), but in truth and in reality, as of the essence of the Constitution under which they live and of their social well-being and existence. It is from this point of view that the suffrage comes to be regarded in America not only as a right common to all, Ijut as a primary necessity. What is there to l>e >'i LSkct. IX. those who mn, tradcF?, ctivcly fol- th sides of 1 are rnca- thc United udicate the even the offices, or Presidency, or even a as a very f from the 3 character, lent, trans- is position I was very picture of odest, little to a half- pinion, not can people lomage, as wealth to 'ogard, not ihip would he essence id of their age comes common here to ho Skct. IX.] Conclusion. :joi said against its universal employment ? Has universal suffrage been abu.sed in the United States ; or has it led to results beneficial to the nation ? Hero again I am forced to a contrast between Groat Britain and ,„„i j„ (;,.,,,,t America. When I see our tenant farmers in England ^'"''""» driven to the poll by undue influence : when I see the priests in Ireland selling their flocks, and leading them to vote under the symbol of the Cross ; when I see the abominable system of attorney intimidation which is practised over voters in many of our smaller boroughs, and the venality which in some form or other is at- tendant upon almost every contested election, I must say that I think our restricted suffrage has nothing to „„^ ;„ ff^y^,^^J boast of over the more universal system of the United ot our system. States. And if we judge by the results, I think the Americans may point to the Statute Books, and de- mand of us which nation has perpetuated and enacted the most bad laws. England. I have said, does not appreciate the feeling Qur ostinmto of America upon this question of Universal Suffrage — °^ America which lies at the basis of all her institutions. It is, un- fortunately, not the only point on which we do not understand America. We have not appreciated the entirely in- American character as we should have done : its energy, ^^"'^ ^' its enterprise, its independent spirit. Look at the in- dustry of the country and its results as developed in the foregoing page.s. Where do we find such results in the old world ? Take the great nations of Europe — Spain, Italy, Austria, Russia, Germany, France — where do we find such advances in material progi'ess, as those cars w :>p<' y m / America ? Even under all the offe(^t.< of Civil W;ir ;^92 Atnerica/i JtcHources. [Sect. IX. ,1 ' 11 ill ' r"'' — with Ji population diverted from her labour fields, with her commerce impeded, and the country labouring under a burden of taxation, rendered the more onerous, because it could only be applied to a section of the population — even under all these disadvantages, Ame- rica is shoA^'n to have progressed. I have already ob- served that there is nothing to correspond with this in the records of history. The occurrei^ee is indeed with- out a parallel, and it ought to teach us ;i great lesson with regard to the resources of America. AnifTica a How little we have appreciated America is, I think, tuituteipiize, coDclusively sliown by a single ftict. Whilst tlie Civil War was pending, British capital was almost wholly diverted from the North. In London we made loans for Austria, for Greece, for Turkey, find for Egypt, — we even offered loans to Spain: in fact, there is no country in Europe which might not have drav/n more or less on our finances. In Liverpool they even lent money, I believe, under the name of a Confederate loan, for the purposes of the South. All these advances were for the purposes of waifare, or for the defrayment of debts incurred by war, or a+ least for the support and maintenance of military establishments. How comes it that the cautious and careful and far-seeir^ capi- talists of Great Britain think it so much more advan- wliiUt Euro- tageous to lend money to nations to expend for purposes lir'intllin"'"** of ^"^^^^y ^^^'^^ *o make advances for the development of stiui(iui;x pcf^pefi^l enterprises ? Is there not a great mistake in this policy ? What can Austria and Italy pay us, sup- porting as they are enormous military establishments in liostility and antegonism, and as a standing menace to e? ^.1 other, compared with what America can pay iiinr.os III iiiciiaco to each other. [Sect. IX. boiir fields, J Labouring ore onerous, ;tion of the tnges, Ame- already ob- witli tills in ndeed witli- great lesson I is, I tliink, 1st the Civil aiost wholly made loans ^gypt,— we ^ no country more or less lent money, ate loan, for vances were ayment of lupport and How comes eeir^ capi- lore advan- ■or purposes 3lopment of mistake in )ay us, sup- iblishments Jig menace a can pay Skct. IX.] Conclusion. H9S us, where, in the course of a few months, the army has been restored to a peace establishment, and the navy has been converted into a commercial marine ? If we have money to lend beyond what is required for the development of our own internal and external progress, would it not be far better to invest it in the securities of a country which is at peace, than in those of nations which are perpetually threatening their neighbours, and which, at a cost beyond their means, persist in maintaining large military forces for the mere purposes of menace '\ It is the more singular that we should not have seen Superior ap- this, because the Germans saw and appreciated it. AnJe'rfe.i'i,"^ Whilst the Civil Wiir in America was rasxinjr, the tlie (Germans. Bourses of Frankfurt and of Hanibiii'g were open to the enterprises of the North. Large sums of money were advanced by German capitalists on account of eiiterprif^es and works of industry in the United States. (Jreat pecuniary advantages have resulted to Germany tlierefrom. The moment tiie War closed, the securities upon which the Germans had made advances rose lai'gely in value. All this comes from the want of a proper under- Ameriian standing in tiiis country respecting America and her {"'«'1>P'«^- re.sourc(:s— an alisence v.i knowledge which 1 hope E"j{lif*H sen- , . , tiiiieut. tliat this vohmio jv>ay, i.'i some degree, tend to remove. Let me sny, however, that ^\'hilst I blame my own countrymen for their want of knowledge and appre- ciation of America, I cannot ac(|uit the Americans of a like error. JNlr. Walker, in the passage from which 1 have quo!^ed at the commencement of this chaptt!!', refers to tlie error as mutual. I iigi-*^' with 394 A m e inca u Reno u rces. [Si;cT. IX. tt. •l American tnivelloi's in Tlie supor- ficiiil clia- ruL'ter of their .jvosti- gations. him, that the Americans understand England and the English people as little as vro understand America and the Americans. It has been the fashion of late years for the Americans to travel much on the European continent ; in fact, they have overrun it. It is most remarkable that the result of this travelling has not been to afford them a better knowledge of the character of the country from which they derive their origin. The fact appears to be, that to a very great extent tliey have merely made passages through Eiigland and Ireland on their vray to continental scents and climates ; and that when they have stopped, it has lather hcTctted. I iierica find ur coi try jating the ultivating tain, from real con- oukl have that they anic hos- nien who thought eard th.vc. ;, if frigid it is not iendliness igners, i8 Sect. IX.] Conclusion, 395 Perhaps, if it comes to be closely examined, it will Tlic frigidity be found that there is more real frigidity in the intercdurso American character than in our own. I think this is countriea!'^^ especially observable in commercial and trading circles, and I am not at a loss to attribute it to a cause. It will be universally found, that wherever people w^ith comparatively small means enter into large opera- tions, their views and ideas of results are restrict(^d. [mmediate, though comparatively small, profits are desired, instead of those large, ultimate results, which are looked for by larger capitalists. Now, in great operations, great results are not immediately to be expected. It is necessarj^ io wait for their due develop- ment. And calculations lia\ e to be made proportioned to the time required for tiiose developments. The Americans have accustomed themselves to tliis in a far less degree than we have. The immense successes arising from their grand developments render them im- patient of delays. But it has given, no doubt, a cha- racter to their trading reputation, which, according to our ideas, is not favourable. They are " fast," where we nfo willing to wait. They demand rcoalts where wc '•)'•. '.jok to progress. Their enterprises are, conse- Tlic results of qiM'.-;;: incline rected to the more immediate, whilst ours more certain, consequences. It is, pro- bably, in consequence of this difference, that we have come in Great I^-itain to look on American investments as less secure. I could instance the case of some of their railway enterprizes, in which the ultimate results were large and certain, but into Avhicli discouragement i -. jiitroduced, l)ecausc such results were not unex- ainpied ai)tl immediate, '^■ifc in America, as every this! frigidity. 396 America n Resou rces. LSect. IX. ;; »^'. American views of Europe and American will tell you, is led at a rapid pace : com- merce is advanced at a pace still faster. With our- selves, we expect the development with greater cer- tainty, and we find that it conies in increased jiro- portions. We examine and incpiire carefully, and lay our foundations accordingly. The Americans lay their foundations on too great immediate ex^^ectations. Americans condemn us very mueh, and not alto- gether without some degree of justice, for the way in of Europeans, -^yhicli Riifflish travellers have spoken of their institu- tions. J Ml the other hand, no one who reads American j. arnals of European travel but must be struck with the phase in wliich Europe is regarded by those who visit us from the other side of the Atlantic. If we take two or three of the most intel- ligent American writers on Europe, what do we find ? One who travels, by railway, through the length of England, observes especially on the Jini^hed state of our nation. Everthing, this writer observes, is so complete. The observation is, no doubt, very just, from an American point of view. They have none of those hedges and ditches which divide our lands, «--' of that finished agriculture by which they are cultivated, or of those smiling hamlets and villages wliich overtop the scenery. The results, however, as regards the crops, are less ; and the income, as it affects the cultivation of the soil, is in far inferior proportion. I wish the Americans stopped with us to incpiiie more fully into this. Another American traveller observes on the country he passes tlirough in the neighbourhood of Birmingham. It is one vast plain, he observes, of calcined soil. Tito people arc the dirtiest objects it is Tlic Anie- rieau view of our agricul- tural and mining districts'. .) ,i\ . [Skct. IX. Sect. IX.] Conchmon. 397 pace : com- With our- ^Toater cer- reased pro- lly, and lay lis lay their itions. d not alto- tlie way in R'ir institu- wlio reads it must be is regarded side of the most iiitel- lo we find ? e length of state of our complete. from an ic of those ' of that ated, or of )vertop the the crops, cultivation [ wish the fully into es on the »urhood of jserves, of )jeets it is possible to behold. The fires at night remind him of a pandemonium. Nothing can be more wretched or in- tolerable, i le passes through a district of smoke and dirt, and enters into a city which seems to be the metropolis of both. He should stay, however, to inquire as to the real character of this distiict. He should investigate its resources and its wealth. He should see that herein lies the great central iron and coal field of England, in which we produce the great Their mis- essentials of national prosperity. hensions. Now, we know with what different views and ob- The " Tu jects, and with what witlely dmerent imaginations and results, various parties will visit different por- tions of the world. Perhaps critics in America, re- viewing this volume, may enunciate a " tu quoque." You, also, they may say, went through some parts of our country too hastily, and formed judgments upon it with too little reflection and consideration. I shall and the not object to such criticism. I wish time and oppor- ^^^ tunity had been afforded me of seeing more of the United States, and of associating to a greater degree with every class of a people whom I learned to like and to respect. But, in anticipation of such criticism, I must be allowed to make one or two remarks. I went to America with the avowed intention of studying its resources and its prospects. I lost no opportunity, whilst I journe^^ed there, of mnking myself acquainted with them. I ^ras assisted in my investigations, in- quiries, and obsjrvations, by some of tlie most talented, able, and experienced persons in the country. T derived my information from the highest and most authentic sources. My observation is my own ; my conclusions It ''IV i » 398 A merican Resources. (Skct. IX. f.i Tiioniistiikos of tlu' Aiiic- i"icai.s. coucdusiona arc my own. I nuiy, iu many reapcets, ))o wronji; in those observations and eonclnsions. I may liave been misled or misi>uidiMl (tliou^fi the future of the great armies raised in the United States. So long as they were subjected to military authority, they were merely instruments of war; but it was feared that the lessons with which war might familiarize them, might be repeated when they were free from the con- trol of leaders. But of the hundreds of thousands of gallant men who arrayed themselves in the army, and passed like a storm-cloud over the nation, presaging destruction more direful than anything resulting from any natural commotion, not one in a thousand reniuins a soldier. "Tiie cloud has broken, and this aggre- gation of violence and of power has sunk into the earth, like so much sweet and grateful rain, to freshen and strengthen, and send forth harvests, and manu- factures, and wealth, homes made happy, virtue, peace, and rest." ^' * A Now York pajjcr says : — " One of our military leaders is now in charge of a niachino for patent pnniping ; another is building a railway through the oil country. One of the first soldiers of the army of the Potomac is in the pistol business ; another keeps a retail grocery store ; while one of Sherman's most trusted lieutenants is a claim-agent. One major-general prints a weekly journal in Baltimore. Some of our officers have drifted into Congress \ others are on their way to distant (Jourts to represent the honour of a nation they did 80 much to sustain. These starred and belted gentlemen go down from the command of cohorts to become agents and part- ners, and dealers, perhaps, with the orderly who stood before their tents, or the private who held their stirrup. So with the gene- rals of the rebellion. The greatest of them all is now a teacher of J D D 2 404 American Resources. [Sect. IX. The cause of their absorp- tion. ) m The reward for industry in America prevents anarchy, and terror, and military despotism. How was it, that the men composing tliat great army, returned in this easy manner to their several occupations instead of overrunning the country ? It was because their several occupations afforded them superior rewards for their labour. When I was in Chicago I visited a printing establishment conducted by a gentleman (The Hon. Charles L. Wilson) who some years ago was Secretary t(3 the American Lega- tion in London. Speaking to him respecting the war, he told me that no less than forty-seven of the compo- sitors in his office had been soldiers. " That man," he said, " was a major, the next to him a captain, the third a lieutenant, another a sergeant in our armies." They were all at work as hard as if they had never left the compositor's desk. I asked if they had willingly returned to their original pursuits ? " Un doubtedly," was tlie reply : " they receive four dollars here for every dollar they received in the army, and they were only too happy to return to situations mathematics in a university. Sherman's groat antagnnists are in the exjiress and railroad business. The onco-droachid Eeauregard will sell you a ticket from IS'ew Orleans to Jackson ; and, if you want to send a couple of liams to a friend in Ilichmond, Joe John- ston, once commander of great armies, will carry them. The man Avliose works (Irant moved ujion at JJonelson edits an indiflcrent newspaper in New Orleans, wliile the comnian army, and situations tfoiiists are in il Beauregard I ; and, if you )nd, J(ie John- m. The man an indifferent of the Eebel ractices law in Taylor is noAv is a daily prac- )ld, vindictive, st which tlicy le whom they iebellion is a that once was 's, victors, and ow that blood eiigc.' " 8kct. IX. Conclusion. 405 which I had given them an undertaking, when they left me, that I would retain open for them." "'^ This was the means l)y which a reign of terror from dis- banded soldiers was prevented in America at the conclusion of the Civil War. If there had been no employment for the people, there would have been anarchy througliout the country ; but inasmuch as there was ample employment for the people, every man returned to the work which afforded him that employment, and anarchy was prevented. How en- tirely inconsi.stent all this with our European notions of the consequences of military success ! In Europe we sec a military commander rising to tlu; govern- ment of an empire as the reward of a successful battle- field : in America we see him returning to his farm, his university, or his printing press, and asking nothing more from his country than the privilege of resuming his daily occupation. But if employment is lessened, if commerce is The national checked, if cultivation is impeded, if the people, ydved hi"he whether of North or South, find it more profitable t^'«b."neen more or less opened out tO settlement and enterprizc. Besides tlieir vast mineral riches, these territories are estimated to contain eight hundred millions of acres of fertile land, through which it is only needed that railroads should be constructed, in order to induce cultivation. The nation, moreover, will henceforward be consolidated. Ora liave been accustomed to speak of America as extending " from the Lakes to the Gulf, and from the shores of the Atlantic to those of the Pacific." But the idea was unreal until the conclusion of the War. Now, for the first time in American histoiy, it can be said, with truth, that the nationality of the United States docs extend from the Lakes to the Gulf, and from one ocean to the other. And I believe that all that is now needed to give absolute reality to so vast an empire, is that development of intercommunication which I have recommended. When such romnmnications are completed, when the Political consequences. New Terri- oriea. The vast field for set- tlement iind enterprizc. The Union, not only pre- served, but cousuliduted. i WE 410 American Resources. [Sect. IX. South is effectually united with the North, and when the whole continent is traversed by one great trunk railway, worked as a united whole from the Atlantic direct to San Francisco, we shall be called upon to peritv^and ^' ^^g^^^ America as the greatest nation of the world. greatness of She will be entitled to take that rank by reason of her the Union. , . . , '^ extent, her diversity of soil and climate, the character of her communications, the variety of her resources, her vast mineral riches, and the abundant field which she presents for labour and for the employment of capital and enterprize. Many amongst us are accus- tomed to smile when we hear the Americans speak of the United States, in their accustomed manner, as *' a great nation." But there is no mere boast in that descriptioi;!. Emphatically, America is " a great nation." Where can we find her equal in geographical and natu- ral advantages, in material progress or in general pros- perity? As a united people, the Americans present to the world a spectacle that must excite general admiration. Regarding them as of the same race and ancestry with ourselves, as a people using our language, governed by our laws, united by the same religion, in- fluenced by kindred sentiments, their progi*ess is a spec- tacle which should kindle our admiration and enthu- siasm. It is a great thing to boast of, that from the shores of our own land, there has gone forth a nation which is able to reflect so many advantages upon the country from which it started, and which has before it so grand a future. It should bo our object here in England, to form a more familiar acquaintance with America., to prompt and promote larg- 1- and closer in- tercourse with her, and to ask hei to enter with us (I [Sect. IX. , and when freat trunk he Atlantic kI uj)on to the world, ason of her 3 character resources, ield which oyment of are accus- !ans speak manner, as ist in that at nation." and natu- leral pros- is present e general 5 race and language, ligion, in- 1 is a spec- id enthu- from the a nation upon the I before it t here in mce with closer in- ' with us Sect. IX.] Conclusion. 411 into that large field which is open to us in common, for the development of the commerce and civilization of the world. It is the duty of both nations to bury all jealousies and discords, to settle irritating questions by mutual concessions and harmonious co-operation, and to endeavour to emulate each other i:i the develop- ment of those arts which tend to universal happiness, and which are based on the promotion of Amity, and the pre- Tvation of Peace. * If I ' I N ]3 E X. A. AciRicuLTURE, tlio cliiof occiipatioii of the United States, 34 ; unwivrds of seven-eighths of the population en- gaged in, 36 ; increasecl production througliout the war, and increased investments in land, 47 ; its import- ance to America, 4° ; extent of land imder cultivation, ib. ; character of the cultivators, i7). ; nature of the hold- ings and size of their farms, 49 ; the Western States outstrip the Eastern in agricultural progi-ess, 50 ; Illinois the largest wheat-producing State in the Union, 50 ; the wheat produce of the "Western States in 1850 and 1860, 51 ; ])rices regulated by European demand, 54 ; pi'ogri'ss of in California, 163 ; benefited by railroads, 292, 2!>3 ; in- creased prices for produce without increase in the jn-icc of labour, 293. Agi'iculture of Eiighmd, American view of, 396. Agricultural implements, manufacture of, 99 et serf. : jfii'iit importance of, 99; luimbei nted, 100; early efloi'ts to ini '1 ; effects of the Hyde Parlv 1 uiou on, 102 ; large prolils resulting from American in- ventions, 103 ; their multipli<'ation, ih. ; their fxtcnsivc maiiulacture in Oliio and Illinois, lO.'i ; increase of productive power arising from their nse, ib. ; " inij>roved inventions" still wanted, 100; American ploughs, 106, 107; the "rotary spade," tlie "sulky plough," 109; the two-horse cul- tivator, ib. ; reaping nil I mowing machines, 110; threshing niiicliiues, 111 ; minor im])lomonts, ib. Agi'icultural i)rodu('ts, 66 ct seq. ; car- ried eiistwar 1, 238 ; tliose of ;lio Southern an I the Western St.ates com- l)ared, 324 ; dim-- ' • of in the South, 325, 326. :.>-. Acreage of the Slave States, "im- proved" and ' ' unimproved, "321 ; of the Free States, 322. Alabama, State of, its population, 20 ; cotton produce of, 331. Albany (N.Y.), poimlation of, 21. Amalgamation of railways, advantages of, ;J98, 300. AMERiCA, prices of grain governed by Mark Lane, 63 ; what gives fertility io the soil of, 64 ; the sunshine, //' the quality of her grain not superiui, 65 ; articles exhibited by in 1851 129 ; her capacity to purchase in the Eviropcan markets, 233 ; the people of America and England imperfectly informed of each other, 385 ; features of, examined, 386 ; absence of pau- perism in, ib. ; contrast between her an 1 England, 387 ; diffusion of wealth in, 388 ; nni versa! sutViage in, 389 ; infiuenco of wealth in, 390 ; homage paid to the energy and abilit" %\ hicU produce it, ib. ; our estimati of, en- tirely inadcijUdte, 391 ; her energy, enterprise, and inde]iende'.t spirit, ib. ; a field of peaceful enterprise, 392 ; appreciated by the Germans, 393 ; her misapprehension of English sentiment, ib. ; American travellers in England, 394 ; the frigidity of social intercourse between England and America, 395 ; American views of Europe and Europeans, 396, 397 ; formed under misapprehension, 397 ; mistakes of the Americans, and their change of policj-, ."'^9 ; system of protection injuriou-s, o99, 400 ; dis- bandment of her armies, 402 et seq. ; the reward for industry prevents anarchy and military depotism, 404 ; present condition of the Southern States, 408 ; the Union not only pre- served but consolidated, 409 ; its future prosperity and greatness, 410. (See Unitei> Statks.) 410 Index. SI J )' Aniiimls HlauKlitorod, valuo of, C7. Anllirm'ili', lirst ust' of, 18:i; it.s supply to towns), 184 ; quantity niisi'il in I'cnnsylviuiia, 1 85. Appreutii'i'.s, niunlu'r of, 35. Ari/onu, in'ccious niutals fuund'in, 170. Arkansas, State of, its ])o|nilatioii, 20 ; gold discovered in the river, 1G7. Army, larj^o reductions in the, 358 ; ordinary con SOI |uences of its disbnnd- ment, 402, 403 ; the various occuiia- tions rcsorteil to liy tho disbanded soldiers, 403 n. Asses, bred as bubstitutes for horses, 80. Atlantic, seaboard of the, 200. Atlantic and Great Western Railway, extent and rapid increase of its trallic, 301 n. Auriferous territories 'if America, in- sulliciency of our information respect- ing, 172 ; probability of largo emi- gration to the, 173. Austria, cotton spindles cmploved in, 115. B. Bacon and iiam.s, curing of, 94. Bakers, number of, 35. Baltimore, po])ulation of, 20. Banjos, manufacturo of, 152. Banking operations, a tax on, 376. Bankers, number of, 35. Bar-keepers, number of, 35. Barley, production of, GO ; used for malting purposes, ih. ; growth of in Califoruia, ib. ; tho "volunteer crop," 70. Beans, production of, 70. Belgium, cotton spindles eiuploycd in, 115. Blacksmiths, numlier of, 35. Boarding-house ket'iiers, number of, 35. Boatmen, number of, 36. Books, taxes on, 3(56. Boot and shoo manufacturers, 144 ; worked by steam jiower, 145 ; the in- vention introduced by Sir M. I. Brunei, ib. ; details of the machiucry, 146 ; state of the trade, ib. ; caution respecting, 147. Boston, population of, 20. Boston Board of Trade, their report on steam communication, 21t» ; their ( »-idenco on tho Ikeciprocity Treaty, 257. Bread stuffs, export of, 56 ; (sec Gkaix TUAIIE). Bricklayers, number of, 8.5. Brickmakers, number of, 35. Bridges and viaducts of railroads, 273. British provinces, trade with the, 24rt — '24!t. Brooklyn (N. V.), population of, 20. Brunei's inventions for the manufa>'^turi! of lioots and .shoes iised in Americii, 14.'). Buck-wheat, inoduetion of, 70. Bullalo (N.Y.), i)()pulatiou of, 21. 13ull'on, CVmnt, his o]iinion of Merino sheej), 85, 86 ct n. 15utcher.s, number of, 35. * Butter, produce of, 71. CAitrNin'MANrFAfrriJUK exported from tho United States, 14t> ; character of, ib. Cabinet-makers, number of, 35. California, State of, its pojinlatiou, 20 ; adiled to the Union, 27 ; grand trade of, 61 ; a wheat exporting C(aintry, 62; the future granary of the Pacidc, ib. ; her exportation in proportion to her iiroduct, ib. ; growth of barley in, 6!> ; number of horses in, 70 ; gold discovered in, 161, 162, 164; agricultural progress of, 163 ; favourable prosjiects of emigration to, ib. • native goldlirought from, 165, 166; the gold discoveries a main cause of the recent develop- ment and progress of tho United States, 173, 174; iiuicksilvcr found in, 181; increasing tiade of, 330; commercial prosjiects of, ib. Campbell, ^Ir., of Vermont, his Merino sheep, 83, 84. Canada, local taxes imposed by, 248 ; jwsition of the British colonists, 258 ; desirous of maintairing the Keci- procity Treaty, 250 ; good feeling of towards America, ib. Canal trallic, limited cajiacity of, 237. Cano, Sugar, of the South, 328. Ca]iital, jirobable results of free labour uimn, 318. Carolina, North, its pojmhitiou, 20. Carolina, South, its ]iopulation, 20. Carpenters, luimber of, 35. Carpets, nuinufacturt! of, 121. Carters, number of, 35. Cattle, number and value of the, 77 ; a breed of short-horns originally im- ported from the vnllev of the Tees, 82 n. Census of I860, population of the, 20. Cereals, ([Uantity jiroduced, Oti. Charleston, poptilatiou of, 21. Chase, Mr., his financial policy, !* ; liis ile.MTiption of the Pacilic gold tields, 162. In(h',i 41 CIhji'ho, jtrodiire cif, 71 ; cxiKUt of, 7'J ; its |)i'o|iiii'iiti(iii, i>i. ; iiicrcasiii^,' ii|>- jiri^ciiitioii of, 7'2 II. ', " lis wiud an K..1.I," 7;t. ('liic-iif,'(>, |H(iiiiliiti(Hi ol', 21 ; city of, 2« ; sliipiiii'iit of wheat from, M ; liist, scttleliifllt of, f)U, i»l ; oxjiort of gvu'm from, jilt ; a f^iciit jioik-cx- [KH'tiiif,' town, i»l, !»2 ; nipid rise of, S»'2 ; till' j;rcat ('(tiilru of the Nortlicrii I'ailway.s, ih. ; its spiciKlicl marki't- hhiec, 82; extent of its tl'ude, na ; iar^fest niiiiket of th(^ world for corn, timlier, nnd poik, //*. ; proeess of |)if; killini^at, ih. ; the gieiit neat of the corn trade, 250 /(. L'hina, a larj^e trade with heinj^ de- veloped at San Franeiseo, 23], 232. Cincinnati, jiopulation of, 20 ; city of, 28 ; the nnniher of lio;,'s killed ami (!Xpoited from, i>l ; a ^reat eintie of the " iHickiiif^ trade'' of Imj^s, ih, ; ineivasiMl juices of an'rieiiltnral pro- duce, owilij; to the improved means of transit, 21>!i ; a link in theiaiUvay system wantcil at, 304. ( 'ities, population of the principal nnes, 20, 21, 28 ; spring; up near the oil- wells, VJ(\, V.>7. Civil engineers, numlier of, 3'). Civil War, in the United States, 3 ; eon- ditioii in which it has lel't .Nmeiiea, ih. ; President Lincrdn's dc-icriplion, 4; susteiitation of credit dwriiic- the, ih. ; its results advantaj^enns to tho national interests, lo8, lO'J. Clergymen, numher of, 3"), Clerks, niimher of, 3 t, ',\^t. Cleveland (Ohio), juipnhition of, 21. Climate, varieties of, 20. " Clipper ships," 217. liostoii Hoard of Trade, 210; extent and rapidity of its growth, 222 ; im|Hirts and ex- ports, 232; internal trade, 2:'. I ; Irade with liritish provinces, 210 linllMcnci! of railways on, 2it9. Comstock silver mine, ltj!>. Concertinas, nianuracture of, 151. " t 'one.stoga " horse, 70. < 'onvoys of goods trains liy iailroail,2'.'0. ( 'oo)iers, numher of, 35. (,'i>pper, extensively found in Micdiigan and Xew Mexic(>, iMi. Cordage, manufacture of, 122. Corn laws of (ireat Mritain, their lejieal stimulated the export grain trade of America, 5f5, 57. Coiry, new city of near the oil-wells, 10(i ; its imiiortance, 11)7. Cotton, amount raised in the dif- ferent States, 331 ; the wlnde slave jiower tliroun into its iMiltivation, 332 ; numher of slaves engaged in, ///. ; cultivation of reviveil, 345, 34(> ; duty on very ohjeclioiialili', 373, 374. ('otion liagging, manufacture of, 122. Cotton IJroke's' Association ol l.ivcr- jiuol, and their annual Circular, 331 ii. ( otton nianul'acture in Annrica and Kngland, 113 ; estimates of value fallacious, 114 ; exports of liritish, //'. ; numlii r of spindles in the ma- nufaeturi' of, as comjiarcd with other countries, 115 ; innnlierol' hands em- ]iloyed, 110; progress of, 110; raw niateriils used, ///. ; low descriptinii of the cotton faliries, ih. ; cannot com- E !•: 418 I/ttli\i'. w. iii'h^ \vit)i tilt' F,iii'ii)i('ini iiiiiniiriii'tiMi'H 111 Aiiit'i'ii'im iiiiii'ki^lM, 117; viist iiii- jmrtiitiDiis of IVoiii Kiirt)|)i', (7*. ; iil)siir(lity of uttmuptin^ to ]iioti'ct it, 11 rt. Cottiiii tmilo of tho Soiitli, 241. row-|icii, |irotliictiiiii of till', 70. Cows, miiiilifi' of, HI. ( 'rudit, HiisttMitatioii of diiriiijr the Civil War liistoi'ically uiK>.\aiii|ili'il, ami uttrilmtalilo to the rcsourctjs of Aiiii'- I'ii'a, .'i ; the national di'lil, ami its rapid increase, (t, 7 ; Mr. Cliasi^'s liiiaiieial poiiey, 9; thu nation alih* to HU]iport it, 11. Ciistoiiis' duties, 380; eollcotioii of, ih. t'uttiii;^ iiiueiiiiics fur lioots and slioes, 14ti. 1>. Dacota Ti Teuritouy, gold and silver of the, 172. Diihloiiegii in Georgia, nianiifiicturc of eoiiiage at, l(il d n. Dairy pitMhiee, 71. Davis, Mr. Jellersou, kept in coufino- nieiit to await his trial, li'.irt. Delit (urc National Dkiit). Denver, the capital of ( 'olorado, 1(57. Detroit (Michigan) ]iopnlation of, 21 ; coininercial convention, 2t(), 247. Dividends of railways, 28(). Drivers, nunilierof, 3">. Druggists, iiniiiber of, \Mi. E. Eastf.tin' States, iiioreasod demand for wheat to supply the, .52. E ige tools, niaiiiifactnre of, 140. Egaii (Jaiion Mines, ItiU. Emi'ire Well, 193. Engineering manufactures of great niMgnitudo, 139, 140. England, the ])eople of, iin])orfeet]y in- formed of the American character, S8r> ; contrast between her and Aine- riea, 387 ; increase of jiauperism in, ib. ; iinivorsal snil'rage uiisuited to, 389, 391 ; inlluence ol wealtii in, 390 ; her estimate of America entirely in- adequate, 391, Englisii, the States in which the greatest number reside, 22. Erie Canal, the development of the grain trade conset[uent on opening the, 58 ; opening of the, 293. Excursion trains, speed of, 2)s9. Exhibition of 18')1 in Hyde Park, 102, 128 ; its cH'ccts on ini))l('iiieut nianii- fartine, 102 ; Conimissioiier Hiddh^'s report on, 12H, 129 ; articles e.\hi bited by Hussia and Aineriiwi, 129. Expenditure, 3.01, (air FiNAN'cK ami Kk.vkm'i;). Exportgrain trade, fid r.f nr/j. (sw (Suain TllAKK). Exports of gold, 22."» ; of native pro- liucls, ///. ; progress of, //*. ; giiMit variety of, 22ti, 227 ; of (irent IJritain, 227; to dill'i'i'eiit countries in ]8(;2, 228, 229 ; to the United States from (Jrcat Britain, 43, (srr iMroKTs). Expn^ss tniiiiH, speeil of, 2S9. Earodiiction of, 1,"2. Fish -Jointing on railways, 274, 27.5. Fisheries, disputes rcsiiccting the, 2.52, 253. Fishermen, number of, 34. Flax of the Southern States, 327 ; con- trast between the jirodiiction of Slave States and Free Stat(\s, ih. Flax and hem]), cultivation of, 74. Flour and meal, one of the jtrincipnl products of American manufacturing industry, 37. Foreign jjopnlation, proportion of, in the Northern and Southern States, 19, 20. Foreign trade, 2H) ; not sulticieutly )>i-ogiessive, 221. Fort Wayne, town of, 28 ; M'Culloch's dcscri|ptiou of, //). France, cotton .spindles employed in, 11.5. Free labour, probable results of, 318; tl'.e South will ])rospei' under, 323. FrecStates, acreage of the, "imin'oved " and " unimproved," 322 ; contrasted with the Slave States in 17<>0 and 1790, 339, 340. Free trade, .sj'stem of not fully adopted in the United States, 9(i ; increasi'il tradic and advantages arising fnnii, 126 ; fate of the South depeinlent on, 40(i. Frcedmeii, the 1^'osideiit's jiolicy i(> ■■i /tiJcw. 41.') •^7, {sec GiiAiN nardiiif^ the, 3!<7, !^;^8 ; iikiiniiii's lor tlicii hcciiiily, 'MH ; llicir lUUi tliv )iriiiluiit (111 11 jiihl iiiitioiiul iiuliiy, 407. Kii'imIoiii, the Sdiitli will 1)1' fur Jimii; |in)s|ii'ri>us uiiilcr, :t.'tl. Fruits, iiiiimrts ol', '2;{2. Kniik W.'ll, ]!»;{. t'luiiituie, {ficc Cauinkt FiriiNiiruK). C. iViiiciiiiii Kovonii'd by " Murk Liiuo," till; tlio "Hiiiisliiiii'" ^^^\■^:!i fertility to Aiacrii'uii soil, 01 ; cliarui'tiir of tliii lmrv('stiiij{ ill Aimriru, UCt. tirrut ISrituiii, ctittoii .s[)iii(lli's i'iii|iloyi!>l ill, M!} ; her genius I'nr meelmnisiii, l'2!t • eoul luodiue of, 187. (tivf^oiy Mines, lti7. (Iroeers, nunilier of, 35. (iiilf of Mexico, tliie liarliuurs in the, '2oy. (.Jaiidknkum, jiumber of, ;55. (ius, use and liiaiiuluelure of, l.'i'^. (■eoii;iii, State of, its iiojmlution, 20 ; iiitton jirodiiee of, 'Ml, tieriiiiins, the State in which the greatest miiiiiier reside, '2\i. Geriiiuny, eotton siiiiuUes uiuidoyed iii, 115. (lliiss, iiii|(orts of, 2.32. Hold, giiueral dill'usioii of, 161 ct srq. ; discovered in California, ItJl, l(i2; gold-jirodueing regions of America, HJ2 ; Air. (.'huse's (leseriiitioii of, ih. ; gold-niining in California, Itif ; na- tive gold received for eoiniigo into the I'nitetl States iiiiiit, Itiy ; tjuaiitity of, found ill Colorado, Itifi; at" I'iku'a Peak," 1C() ; in Utah, Nevada, &e.. Kit* ct scij. ; discoveries of, a iirinciiml cause of tlit; recent devidoiiiiieiit and (irogiesa of the United States, 17:5 ; the annual yield will |iroljalilyaniouiit to ;iO,0(iO,b(lO/., 174 ; ex)pausion of trade wliieh follows, 224 ; export of, •225. Uold-niining of the territories of Idaho, Montana, and Dueotuli, 171, 172. Goods-trains, speed of, 289 ; convoys of, 290. Grain, exports of, 225 n. Grain trade, 5(5 ct sa/. ; uggi'egate value of, 50 ; greatly .stimulated hy tho re- peal of tho Britisli corn laws, ib. ; large exjiorts during 18G2-3, 57 ; sliiimieiits to Great Jlritaiii, ib. ; tho proportion of the United States sup- ply to our consumption nearly one- half of our deficiency, 58 ; history of, ib. ; its development eon.se(|iieiit on ojiening the Erie Canal, ib. ; liist shipment from the lake, 59 ; rapid increaso of shijnncnts from Milwau- kie, ib. ; a great field of cultivation in the state of Illinois, ib. ; shipnu'iits of grain from ports on Lake Michi- gan, 60 ; tho production of grain in the North-Western States inexhaus- tible, (7). ; facilities of transport, (Jl ; di- version of the trade from rivers, ib. : trade I'l (.'alifoiiiiii, lU, i32 ; prices in il. Hauowaukh, iiianufaeturn of, 14(». liarness mukei's, iiuniberof, ii5. Harvesting in America, (J5. llatti'i's, niiiiiber of, ;}5. " High Wines," maiiiifacture of, 154. Jlrmp, cultivation of, 74. Hop, l'iofe.-. ; the Kiir^lish, Irish, niul Germans, 22, 23 ; objects sought to he attained liy, ib. Iiiiftoits of the United States, 230 ; lirinei])al articles of, 231, 232. Inijiorls and exjiorts, 222ctsiiij. ; lahiu of, irom 1844 to 18G0, 223 ; dillicnit to give the statistics of, during the Civil War, ih. ; ehaiader of the, 224 ; expansion of, which followed the gohl disco\eHc.>, 224, 22.'), {sec Exi'OlMs). iudia-ruNh, I'gdods, made by machinery, 147 ; English u.uiniiiu'ti'i' of, 148. Indiiui 1)1 !i, (juDuti'.y produced in Illi- nois, (12, C3 ; ,i'-oduction of, ()7 ; ease with which it is grown, and the ex- tenv to whicii it is used, CS ; its larger use in England I'ecomniended, il>. ; various ways of dressing, (i8, ()l» n. ; used foi' fuel in the Western Sta'es, 18ti ; tlie priuci]ial item of subsistence in llie South, 325, li'diamt, State of, 29; a rcnnirkahle illustration of \u]9ric.au progress, 29 ; its population and i;uml)er of cities, ill. ; repels the invasion of (ieneral Morgan, 30; general reflection on, 31 ; its great resources and general ]irosi)erity, 32. Inli'ud navigation, 21G. idaiid reveinn^ dejiartment, 381. nnkeepers, nuudier of, 35. nsurances, tax o.i, 377. nternal tra' of, 35, 41. .lewellery, ina'i".l'aet ire of, 150, Judges ami law'-ers, number of, 35. K. KiiXTUCK^', deji)sits of oil in, 201. L. LAiiui'H, great deticieiieyof,in America, 1(10 ; on the " resjieet " paid to, 31(5 ; an implied distinction between free and slave labour, 31(5, 317 ; jiro- balile results of free lahour on pro- jicrty and car.ital in tlie South, 318, 319.' Labour-savii.'; machines greatly stinni- lated in America, loo. Labourers, number of, 85. Ladies' cloth: ng made by machinery, 147. l,ager beer, V,"), L.ike navigation, 210. Lakes, lirsi shipment on the, 59 ; traffic on the, 238 ; tonnage of the, 339 ; fishing of the, ib. 'iitncashire, its productions and re- .sources, 31. Lance, "Wni., on the ease of obtaining an act for railronds, 270. Land, its richness and extent, 25 ; Go- vernment divisions of, ib. ; low ]>rice of, 2() ; incrc.csi'd investments in, 47 ; I'xteiit uiidi ; . iiltivation, 48 ; (dui- 111 ••^'•r of til- cultivation, ib. ; nature of the holdings, 49 ^.svc Fai!Ms) ; grants of, for railroads, 271 ; in- creased value of, in the \Vcst, owing to the facilities of transport, 294 ; extent nncultiviited in the South, 321 ; ]iro]iortionof" improveil " 1111(1 " iinim]irove(l," ib. ; extent of "miiieil," 1(54; their cultivation, '). ; adilitional viliio of, under free labour, 313. Laundresses, number if, 35. Lead, worked in Missr.uri, Wisconsin, ami Iowa, 181. Lincoln, Abraham, I'li-ident, his de- scription of Aiiierici dm ing the Civil War, 4 ; his liimiiilc origin, and ilc'igy 111 ' '. • cli.iriii-ti'r. H90. I.iinii ,y""'l^, iiiaeulai liir: mI, I:i2 177 ; in Mi- tatc of Mis- nployod in, ;, 41. 150. or oJ", 35. In, 201. ',in Amoricii, [liiid to, 31(5 ; between fVou 317 ; \>io- loiir on pro- .^oulh, 318, reiitly stiniu- niachinuiy, 0, 50 ; traffic >!' the, 33U ; na and re- of olitainmy nt, 25 ; Oo- ; low iirioe leiits in, 47 ; I, 48 ; clia- ill. ; nature ■c F.XKMs) ; 271; in- cst, owinj; sjiort, 2!t4 ; tlie Sciilli, oved " and extent ot' ultivation, under lieu Wiseonsin, nt, lii.s do- \'^ the Civil iiijj:in, and in.' . \-S2 htdejc. "fiinors" jii'efei'i'ed to steam vessels for home navij^ation, 217. Live stock, aggregate value of, in the United States, 95, 96. Ijoeks, Tiiniiufacture of, 140. Locumotive jiower of railroads, ex- penses of, 282. Jjondon and North-Western Kailway, inij>roved by anialganiation, 289 ; it.^ vast traflic and punctuality, 299. Iiouisiaiia, cotton i)roduoe of, 331. Ijouisvillo (Kentucky), population of, 21. Lund)er, computed ns a niannfacturcd jiroduct, 37 ; trade in, 239 ; coasting trade in. 212. l.undierinen, innnher of, 35. iiuxnrv, articles of, imported, 232 ; taxes on articles of, 3(55. 421 M. iMaciiixeuy, of America, 128 ct scq. ; Anil liiiin aiijireciatiouof Knglish prv>- duition, 128; t'oniniissioner lUddle's rt port (jii, ill. ; display' of, al tlio Kxliiiiition of 1851, 129; value and inipiiitance of, 130 ; hydraulic ma- cliiiiery, il>. ; printing presses, 131 ; pajier niannfacturcd by, 132 ; sew- ing machines, 130 ; engineering ma- nufu'turc, 139 ; steam engines, 140 ; diaractcr of machines made in the West, 141 ; washing machines and mangles, ib. ; advantages dcrivalilu from the development of, 142 ; ad- vantages which America might de- rive friim developing the trade, 162 ; extensively a]iplied to the manu- I'acturing of boots and shoes, 146 ; ladies' clothing, &c., 146, 1 17 ; ap- plied to the manufacture of cabinet I'urnilurc, clocks and watches, &c., 149—151. Machines, agricultural, 103, 104 ; fci reaping audmowing, 110; for thresh- ing, 111. Murhinists, number of, 41. .vl'Cullocli's description of Fort Wnync, 28, 29. Mackintosh's waterproof clothing, 118. .Maintenance of permanent way on rail- mails, 2S], Midt liipiors, browing of, 1.55. " .iiglcs, manufacture of, 141. ...antua-makers, nundierof, 35. Manufactures, Ameriism estimate of Ihi'ir imiiortance, 37 ; diticrent ,ir. tides estimated as the iiroduct tif mannrac'.v.riiig indusdy, 38, 39 ; iiunibi'is said I" br iiigMgcd in. 39; • .-(iniiitc bii--i'il 'III a t.illacy, »/', ; nund)erb assumed tu be maintained by, etjHiilly erroneous, 40, 41 ; real jiroportion of tlie popnlation engaged in, 41 ; many branches at in-eseiit imperfectly developed, 42 ; manu- factured articles extensively ini- ported, ib. ; none in the South, 43 ; general progress of its agricultural implements, 99 ct scq. ; textile fabrics, 113 ; cotton, 113 et scq. ; Woollen products. 118 ; worsted gooils, 121; linen, 122; silks, 123; made-up clothes, 144 ; boots and sliiKts, 1 14, 146 ; Brunei's inventions, 145; steam-power and the sewing machine greatly contributing to, ib. \ India-rubber goods, 147; fur- niture, 149; American clocks and watches, 149, 150; jeweUery, 150; musical instruments, 151 ; tax on manufactured articles, 370. Manufacturers, number of, 41. .Manufacturing industry, American jiro- giess in, 157. Maple sugar of the South, 328 ; oiio of the characteiistic emiiloyments of till' people, 329 ; its mauufacturo fiv.in the sugar-maple tree, ib. Mariners, number of, 36. " Marketing," local trallic in, 238. ^Maryland, natural advantages of, 339 ; evil results of the slave system in, as compared with Massachusetts, 340, . 11. Alasons, number of, 35. Massachusetts, State of, its population, 20 ; a niiumfacturing and free State, 339, 340 ; great social dc lojiment of, as conii)ared with Marylaiul, a slave State, 340, 341. Matches, taxes on, 366. "Mean Whites," enabled to acquire lioiuesteads on the abolition of sla- very, 315 ; of North Carolina, 32U ; a disgusting race, ili. Merhanisin, the genius of Great Britain, ] is ; in everything it reigns supreme, (Ik Mercantile marine, 211 ; its rapid growth, 212 ; amount of tonnage en- gaged ill foniu'ii trade, 212 ; injury iiillicted (HI the I'arrying tradi! by the war of 1812, 213 ;" iireseiit stiite of the, 214; tonnage of the, (V*. ; its ]irogressive increase, 215 ; foreign trade ami inlaiid navigation, 216. Meiiliants, luimber of, 34, 35. Merino shee]), ul' Vermont, 83; some of the lust breeds iu Europe, 84 ; ]irii'es realized fur |>rize sheeji, 85. Milals, ini|"prls of, 231. Miilii>;;Ul, State of, its po]iulatii>n, 20; S'tilciieiii of, ;'i9 ; •pi, State of, its ])opulation, 20 ; navigation of the river, 210 ; cotton produce of, 331. Missouri, iron mining in the State of, 176, 177 ; at the head of the lead producing districts, 181. Monopoly existing under the slave system, 319 ; conse(piences of, 319 n. Montana territory, gold and silver of the, 172. Morgan, General, invades Indiana, and is re))ellod, 30. Morrill, Mr., his evidence on the Keci- procity Tr-jaty, 254, 257, 258. Moulders, number of, 41. Mules, bred as substitutes for horses, 80 ; advantages of, ib. Mungo, manufacture of, 120 ; large profits from, 121. .Musical instruments, manufacture of, 151, 152. N. National Debt, of the United States, 6 ; its enormous total, ib. ; its rajiid increase, 7 ; rate of interest; at which it was incurred, 8 ; almost the whole held by American citizens, 8 ; perio I assigned for its redemption, 10 ; the nation able to bear the liability, 11 ; amount of the, 356; Mr. M'Cul- loch's projiosal to jtay it olf in thirty years, 359 ; willingness of the Americans to bear the burden, 35!', :{6i) ; their ability to bear it, 361, 362 ; proportion of to annual taxa- tion, 362 ; the burden light in com- }M:'iM>n with tliiit of (.tlicr ii:(tioii;-, 3»)'i, (VI' Hl\ XME "i"/ l''iN.\M ri. Navy, large reductions in the, 357. Neat cattle, 78 ; proportion to ])opula- tion, ib. ; " movement " of, with the population towards the West, 82. Nevaila, silver mines in, 169. New Mexico, precious metals dis- covered in, 170; copper extensively found in, 180. New Orleans, population of, 20. New York, population of, 20 ; State of, its population, 20 ; relative progress of, compared with reunsylvania and Virginia, 342. Newark (New Jersey), population of, 21. Northern States, population of the, 20, 21. Northern system of railways should be connected more closely with the Southern, 303. Northerners, emigration of, to the South, 346. North-Western States, their produc- tions of grain can be increased to meet any demand, 60, 61 ; facilities of transport from, 61. Norwegian linkle, manufacture of, 154. 0. Oats, production of, 69 ; comparatively neglected, ib. ; produce of, in the Southern States, 326 ; a declining crop, ib. Occuiiations of the people, 34 et scq. ; number engaged in various pursuits, 34 ; in professions and trades, 35. •Ohio, settlement of, 58; export grain trade of, ib. ; number of horses in, 78 ; deposits of oil in, 201. i>liio Canal, opening of the, 293. Oil citj', its importance, 197. Oil-wells, 192—196 ; enhanced value of land near the, 196 ; companies formed to sink them, ib. ; cause new towns and cities to spring up, 196, 197 ; their existence in various districts, 201, (see PKTUor,KUM). Oregon, State of, added to the Union, 27, 168 ; native gold from, 165, 166 ; rich gold fields discovered in, ] 63. Ores, their deficiency attributable to the eople to militaiy rule, 336 ; he seeks to restore tlu' constitutional relations of the States, 337 ; his policy as rcgaids the fivedmen, ib. Printers, number of, 36. Printing, executed by female com- positors, 135 ; ty]>e-setting maehiius used, ih. ; state of the trade in Kng- laii 1, ]3;\ 13(5; transferred to tjie ])riivinces, ]36. Printing presses. 131 ; their sp('('i;il 424 Inih'.i'. tulviintugcd and gonurul mlaiitaliilitv, 131, 132. Productions of the country, 25, 26. I'rofos.sions, numbers engaged in, 35. *' Propellers," 239. Prospects of the Southern States, 311 ; probable results of free labour upon, 318. Property and income, tax on, 3(59. Protection, caution against the delusion of, 157 ; maintained in America, 399 ; its injurious ellccts on cultivation and revenue, 400 ; on foreign commerce, and on the population of the Union, 401. Protection duties, evils arising from, 125 ; advantages of their abolition in England, 120. Protectionists of America, their anta- gonistic feeling towards the lieci- procity Treaty, 259 ; its detriment;il effects on American commerce, 20(1. Providence (llhodo Island), population of, 21. Provision trade, 77 et seq. ; total value of live stock, 77 ; oxen and milch cows, 81 ; sheep, 83 ; Verniont prize sheep, 85 ; swine, 87 — 90 ; process of pig-killing, 93 ; bacon and hams, 94 ; aggregate value of live stock, 95 ; export of salted and cured pro- visions, ib. ; likely to increase, 95 ; live stock, ili. ; saltetl and cureil provisions, /''. ; various articles of jiroduction, 90. Public oliicers, number of, 35. Puget Sound, 171. Q. QuAurz-f'Rrsiir.\(; M.\(Mii\i;itv, 107. •Quicksilver found in C'alilbruia, 181. U. ILvii,noAn Mkn, number of, 30. Railroad iron, manuliu'ture of, 140. liAlLKoAKs in the United States, 205 ct fieq. ; existing lines, 2(i5 ; early Iocd- motive (Migine, ib. ; the first Ame- rican I'ailroad for ])assenger trallic, 200 ; rapid increase of passengers, 207 ; imijcrfections of these rouds, 268 ; early encouriigeinent given to, 209; ease with whieli "C'harteis" lire obtained, 270 ; laud grants fur, 271 ; permitted to tniver.-o towns, ib. ; comi>arative clieaimcss of con- struction, ill. ; general chiiracti'r of the ri)adbed, the .sKi pers, rails, drains, balla-sting, and stiitimis. 272 ; tunnels, bridges, and viaducts, 273 ; the capital of, how raiseil, 273, 274 ; fish-jointing, 274 ; progress of, from 1838—1800, 275 ; are single tracks, ib. ; number of miles open in each State, 970 ; their development in this North- Western States, ib. ; want of uniformity in their construction and working, 277 ; insulliciency of, 277 — 279 ; capital iavesteations since tlicir disbandment, 403 n. South Carolina, the " Mean Whites" of, a disgusting race, 320. Southern States, j)opulation of the, 20, 21 ; trade of the, 245 ; their popula- tion and properties, 311 et scq. ; number of slaveholders and slaves, and their proportions, 313 ; extent of uncultivated Ian, ;U»0 ; lioiniif;!' i»ni(l in Aiiiciii'ii to I lie iibilitj' wliii'li iu'dduccs if, 3l>(i, WouiiiiK njtpiin'l, taxes on, 3(15. Weavers, iminlier of, 41. Wells, {scr Oil. -Wki,i-s and rKTBO- I.Kl'M). Western Stales outslrip the F''.«sterii in HHrienltnral proj^ress, ll*, 60; tlieir p;real |ironress in wheal growing, 60, 51 ; inereaseii s1ii|)inents of wheat from tiie, fii) ; their unlimited na- jiaeily tosni)|>ly llu^leinantl for wheat, 64; (greatly imiiroved iiy railways, ;{0(l; »<;ricultnral iiroduelsof the, 326. West India Islands, mono])oly existing under the slave system, 3111. Wheat, the largest ([uantity produoeil in the State of Illinois, 60 ; produeo of the Western States in 1860—00, 51 ; increased |irodu<'ti<>n largely in excess of increase of i)0|iulalioii, ih. ; l>rice of im'reased by war and the state of the eurreuey, 51, 62 ; ship- ments of for the supply of Kustern consigners, and to Great Hritain, 63 ; shipinenla of, from Chieago, ih.; nn- liinitetl capacity of the Western States to sn])ply the (ieinand for wheat, 64 ; prices rcf^nlated hy Kuropeaii de- mand, ill.; importance of easy trans- ))ortas a stimulant to |iroduetion, 65, [sir. OUAIN TllADI',^. Wheelwrights, nnmlier of, 3(1. Whisky, Irish, 154. Willi (Nit Well, singular phononiond of, 1S»1». Wine, |iroduetioii of, 75 ; little pros peel of American vintages competing with those of othi'r nations, ih.; pro duet of in California, 103 ; imports of, 232. Wisconsin, new State of, its population, 20 ; its s\irprisiiig developmenf, 28. Wool, prodiu'tion of, 74, 118 ; Ohio and Caliloriiia wool-iu'odueing Stat(^s, 74 ; mnall value of, as comiiared with the Itritish ])roduction and exports, 119 ; better to ship the wool than to make the cloth, ih.; their inferior quality, 120; shoddy and mungo, ih.; pro- duce of tlu^ Southern States, 327. Working oxen, SI. Worsted goods, nianufaeturo of, 121 ; hosiery and carpets, ib. 4 / R CLAY, SOS, A.VD TAVI.OR, i'UIMTRHS, StlKAU STRKKT lilt. I.. i'np;o, ill.; uii- Vi'Ntorn Stilt t\s ill' wlinal, rti ; 'liiniiiciiii ilo- ol'tMVHy trims- I'oiliU'tiitii, 66, ; 80. lioiKimpiift or, ; little pros- ;<'s c()m|«^tin^ oiiH, (7/.; pro Id!) ; iiiiport.i ^s popiiliit ion, opmciit, '28. IS ; Ohio anil iigStatnH, 74; ircd with tho • xports, 119 ; than to make ('lior quality, go, //*.; pro- atcs, 827. uro ol, I'JI