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"J^' "'»'><''• t»>« Merovingian and Carlovingian dynasties- Charlomafirne-tho feudal system and state of sS^iety . . 68 CHAPTER V. A.D. 602-1203. hSiuI!**"^^??'''™ under the Her^cUan, Isaurian, Amorian. '■•'••••78 CHAPTER Vr. A.D. 610-1268. .mteu^'i Russians, Normans, and HunRarians- Germany ^f^l ^t^^T' ^'^"'^on^n. and Sv^abian fimperors-Confliot between the Church and the World-the SeUukian Turks. . 101 CHAPTER VII. A.D. 1099-1291. HStyliS'.*" ^'^ ^T "[ ^^^ '"' ^"° pofl»e«dons In th. CHAPTER VIII. A.D.MO-ISOO. The Great Commercial Republics of the Middle Aarwi with a sliVht *•*•••• 14o _ „ CHAPTER IX. A.D. 1303-1492. \ CONTRNTfl. __. . CHAPTER X. A.B. ino-iflfg man Power ^ «-oMt*ntinopla_boollne of th« Otto- IW Bk«t^h * ♦!. «. '^"^'•TER XI. A D. I30O.IS0O. %1LliJ"ce?ta'''^''~^ th„)ughout.th. Fourt,«.th and 220 270 n I CHAPTER XIV XJoffi"-.'' '•--' ^^ the acce-ion of the lS,dor. to th* 806 R.. , , CHAPTER XV. TK- r. 1 < . CHAPTER XVI. * • • • . 851 p_ CHAPTER X'/II, A D IMO 83 between Great Britain and her AmeSa"n1^oSe7 ?' T**"* 373 DennmrW ^v ^'^'^''TER XVIII. *.o. isps-irgj. ''X?nd*'Se!iZytr'"'''*'"-^'>>-'^-«---'''''^t^^^ ' . . 397 TheFr«„oKP , ^'^H^^'^R XIX. A.B. 1789.97. The French Revolution : it. cau««. career, and consequence. . ^ Napoleon to the Cong;::.' 1?^,^,^ ''" ''""■""'• * 446 Index . . ' ~ " Chronolooical Tablb ..'**' * *'^ TABL«o»CONTEi,POllAStS0TiaKI0ai.' '*••' *^ ^ ^' •f^^^fi^ MODERN HISTORY. CHAPTER I. IBKUPTIOM ANU 8BTT1.EMENT OF TUB BAniUllOUfl NATIOlfS ON THE RUINS OF TUB WESTKRV BMPIR8. HILST the Caesars were erecting- their temporal dominion over an empire ex- tending from Scotlnnd to Mount Athw and the cataracts of the Nile, and fi-om the ^lUava of Hercules to Pereia, the Chiistian Umrch, the kingdom of God upon earth, was bemg silently but effectively founded. It possessed^ within itself the essence of vitality «Rlt on,! a rf^^TA ^""^ ^°' ^ ^ the wonder, the salt, aad the ife of the world. Grandeur, philosophy! and science easily overlooked its commencement and S gress, untd it emerged fi-om the catacombs; but inX E f r'^;J''«'« it was, with its seat a'nd centi-e a? tTihl "^If '? '-amifications extending throughout the whole enith. At fii-st nui-sed in poverty, the Lrts fL^^T- ^'^*'"'^ '°. acknowledge L swaj', and pour tiieir offeiings at its feet. It gi^dually developed' as S?nne™n«Tl^ '" the analog^ of nature; foiCugl Its mnermost soul, as the divine image of Almighty G^ fZ"""f^ ^"'^'' ^'' '' ^"^^ ^° be "embodied if a^visibTe form, and to agm-egate to its extei-nal career all manner of .S^**"''5* ^^"•■'y^'^ '^''^ *h«»' Wood like wat^" im confessoi-s endured toments without parallel; but still.Z xxiui^ II, was pei5ecut«a cLe more it advanced. Storms 9 MODERN HISTORY* [a.d. 100. rooted and imbedded each foundation the more deeolv while sunshme and calm tested its exceUence 'n Zr' and often more appropriate, ways. At len^t'i it came to be recogmsed even by foes and strangers, as a reality and was discovered to possess wealth, an/ power anSnpni STv'of tlr' ''h ''' ''''''^' ho^eTe^V^s the pS mony of the poor; its power was exercised to restrain the e^LiirThol'T' 'f- '?,-?»-- was exeS fo A^17' •^T^ ^^9 ^** '" *^« c^^air of the Prince of the Apostles wielded a jurisdiction whose rig-ht was deriv^ from heaven, but wjiich was submitted to by the fS\d with a loyalty not less voluntary than it was reli4t In he begrmnm^ ofthe fourth century Const^n'iKdopted over all Christendom. His donations were enormous as we may see from what he did for the Lateran iSi.!! under i>ope St. Sylvester, for that sSe eSe r wS Fesents to the extent of68,000;. s^e^Lfrn 'Ta^d w Jm^s^^ie^:tf/f 'H°^^ ^^^^^ & archSu'i^l worKmansnip. He settled on it a larg-e orooertv nrn/!,, cjngr at least 10,000/. per annum, and awaST^ W.?; Srri: ''•' r^^*^ "'^^»'^* of fraTrnliYr'ti altar-ser^cesj m due proportion every imnortant rJfv bishons in the West, and a thouS Skle E^f ^c knowledo^ed the Great Centre of Unity and the^^^l' dispensed in all conceivabje directions altrenm of wTf^ almsgivmg, which refreshed the vast spSSal vZ^vI^ wWer need required it. The reig? of Ron^TTa religious power, embodying the kingdom otChSTr,.^ • nated as Paganism decU ; the telipTs of ^he fatCtd" become silent and forsaken; nor could the pretensions of secular imperialism afford much greater prj^tes of sta- Indeed, the contrast appears not less affectin©- thnn extraordmary. Augustus and his best succes o^had veiled their grand yet iUusive domination beneatS decent costume of republican or constitutional forms S-^!!?"f i GH. I.] MODERN BISTORT. Seyerus earned his sword of government unsheathed in miiitaiy sternness; while Diocletian went a step fiirther mtroducing^nental despotism without disguise. Three centuries had not elapsed since the Incarnation, before the Koman emoerors were assuming their diadems, revellinjr mpomp and purple, substituting parade for simplicity, and trying to impose themselves as genuine divinities upon mankind. Their com-t presented a Maze of paffeantrv • but It was the putrescent glare of ^ action. Pour im- naense preff^ctm-es, subdivided into US oi-ovinces, paid abject homage to their mastere; but the spirit of foraier ages had expired; while genius, elegance, taste, poetry, and eloquence were no more : justice, no longer blind- tolded, extended an itching palm for bribes, amidst the techmcahties of law and the logomachy of unprincipled advocates ; officials multiplied as society decaved ; the re- finements of the day promised much, and performed little; spies and infomiei's infested the stat«; nor will it escape notice, that equity could scarcely survive, when the minor wheels of government were so numerous and complicated as to perplex their natui-al motions. Taxation gi-ew worse and woi;se ; every department of the puUic revenue. «n nnn'JIjS* ''°^^'" f^nstantine have amounted to about •^U,000,000/., equivalent to at least 80,000,000/. of our . era, got into inextricable entanglement. Extravajrance and recklessness peiTaded all. ranks; agiiculture decFined; oppression throve; profligacy flourished; family privilejrei and ties were peruetuaily violated, and the sceptre Had hardened into a rod of ii-on. Upon slight pretences, parents were torn from their children, and children fiom their parents, to be examined or punished for crimes unknown, but ot which some incoherent confession was wnuiff by torture. Vain and hollow were the allurements of luxurv surrounding the palaces of despotism; vain and worthiest, were the amusements of a conupt circus, emasculating or undermining the morals of an impoverished people; vain the gilded chanots, the milk-white horses, the matchless equipages the livened slaves, the plate and opulence of the wealthy, the powerful, and the nmnd "m.vi.* ♦!.„ execi-ations of the "poor, and the daUy miseiy of million! MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 200. pa^td'u^ttSlTE'^'?"^ Their than ever-^ut wii«^ *'ieir uniforms were more costly Soldiers h^ CO Jto^nlfTi.*^' ^'*?^^ of antiquity? polis; theTbedTweiVnrfl! ' ^'f^^'*^ °^*^« "»«*«>. KaviW than theii sw„l*^'' '/.f* ^?^2' ^^ *heir cups towards the Vic ims of tS, T > "".^^^ ^'^''^ '" ™«""«r an enemy rtirfieJd ^'i' '^^'1/ ^'^- '"'"^^^'^ ^'^^^ mon pruience amonJ;; J?/ '*' ^" T"^"^' ^ven of com- torrent of the tTmef JS « "^ '"'" ^?? 8'^^«» ^^^ *« the compelled rival co2e^lm^ innumerable civil wars had reins of discSeSttl '/^' P"'?^" *« ^^^^ the another suSvdv blC h"^ of order were thus one after ness enfeeblS tSrnn nn^ ^^T' '°^"'^*'" ^^ hcentious- vices of thefrpredSstr S^^^ «'« now ptnenng^poTZLiz^of '"' """'^ ^^°"^« -«- CUna, o/wS no Et'"'^' -^^^t ^ "^ «^-d on in had, eVen b£ tTe iZfthe^i'^-'^" -^"^^ ^«^'-'*' calamities, throua-h tdnf ^«toj"nes, g^ven rise to empire of Rome was doZ^f *'°'^^^^ ^^' ^"^*«™ of Altai, whoTesTed ti^^oLf ^^' ^^^ mountaineei^ torideoUuffeTiinsf««^ n^^^^^ '" ^™'' taught them for the us3 thrvZ?^^*^'^'!^'"^ flesh of foxes --In Sf i !?' 1^' ^'^ ^^^^^^ "P«° the strong liquSoutoftrsMfAf*.^'-^""^' ^^° ^'^^«"«'l a date corresponding with S ?^J^'' enemies, were, at thoroughly (fefeatel Tv *»!? **!1l ^®^ °^ Domitian, Chinese. LtSrL^f Jf '°"*>«"» neighbours the to vassalage, pgS^^ ^et::!^V^:^ ^^S '^ the deserts of Dsone^p nn fJio t;^ Jm. /.*°®" herds mto to MamarahaharaTCcLisl^li?'.^"^ '?"^«^-^« regions fine pastures ard 1 C m ^'"^'"S" '° ^hose chtse, they Wted ?here fov ^"^°P?hle country for the Romiis reiCunder the /^n '^rT^^' ""^il, as the fo,m their sn^y l^*^ J?,^;;^^^^^^ descended begotten by devils from f Jf'/ . "" ofimknown savages, -StinZffl bv^^^ ''^ sorceresses of the north keenness^f el^'Srr • '*'T*^' ^^^^^^^^ "^'^«"V cavaby, and Seme u^ZL f ^"^'^"y' management o J J wiu extreme ughness of person. The pm-swit of a OH. l.J MODERN HISTORY. *^« M T^"^^ conducted them accidentaUy to a ford over tiie Maeotic morass, by which means their pass^S Europe was laid open, when it is said that theyTmm^ diatefy offered up tfceir first living captives to S 2o^ tl^rZl "^■^' '^A ?r "'^ ^^«"fi««- Hermamdek, S of pll ' ''i^'^ 5^'^ °^«^ ^" *he countries of Sama^tia Germany, and Scandinavia, from the Euxine to the Ctic ' but he was assassmated, according to the chronicles, i^ the 110th year of his patriarchal life. At all events, Ss death frs^ldt%h?T*'"/'^^.P«^P^" The Goths tS selves, under theu- two denominations of the Visig-oths or Westerns, whose leaders derived their origin from tie house of Balb, and the Ostrogoths, or EasternI, of the fam^^^^of Amalu, were overwhelmed by the new-com'ers from ^y L ^L^Z P^f ^Ftated upon the Roman provinces? they formed the first wave of the bai-barian deluge, pusheJ «^ ?>,f no f J^own, m an evil horn- alfowea them to OTosfc the Danube; detecting his error only when it was too late he at last resolved to arrest theu- progress hi S Plams of Adnanople. But it was too lato ; the vulSires l?i *5' '^t' *'^^^*?7' ^^d perched upon thrGotS standards, and on the 9th of August a d 378 th^ Rn mans suffered a frightful overthr?^ ' The' emi^^^^^ aiter rece™ a severe wound; and taking X7at Q m the hut ofa peasant, where he lay concealed beneath Z «Vr'V"S^ i'^^^'y «°d «Whter, iUus^ted by tiie sack and plunder of Rome under Alaric, the24th of August, A.D 404. This hero of the Visigoths diJd at SThT W ^''f^y-^ourthjear, and was^flere bSied in the bed of ite nver, artificiaUy turned aside for the purpose that a flowing stream might concea the Lve where he rested from his deeds of renown. His p™ple ultunately passed into Gaul, taking possession of^those Loire to the feet of the Pyrenees. Not satisfied with MODERN HIdTOHY. [a. I). 404. L^.». 4U4. Rhine, and MiiSsZ:i-t'TTo:::rVyt V the Suevi Jd'^^faZTC'^^XT ' NoY?.* ^". ocusts were at first more fatal S ^° ?.'^^*' °^ laid waste with fire^^d sworH • ^ v '°' ^"'^ ^'""^ ^^'^^^ into wilderness^- and AvW Tr i? *'^' '^."'"^ t^'ansformed ceased to Siw fam W „ i ' ^°'^ ^""^ *^'^ ^P^^r had towns !" l^thout dwel W nn ^^0' °/ *^« defenceless or the Sarmatfans or the Ki.^ if^"""^'' f *^' ^^^'^^^ glance for a moment rat W,S^' "^^ ^" P^°P«r to Pranks, the Saxr^L vtlf ?i, P^i^'cularly at the and t e'OstrotX' ^''^^^'' ^^' ^""«' ^^^^ Heruli, obsc"* f'^^r^'tf:^'\'''''''y'/-^'rged from and swaV of'^^e^Gr^lt:^! :^:l £ S^ ^^' !•] MODERN HI8T0RT. 7 had established tuemselvea in the Low Countries, was the Alexander ot their nation. At nineteen yeai-s of age he defeated and crushed Syagrius, a Roman lieutenant, which event secured the permanence and independence of the i^rankish monarcliy; and in two-thirds of a generation he milted into one realm all the country fi-om the Maese to the Pyrenees. His valour had prudence for its direction : and indeed he had gi-eat need ot both when the Alemanni encountered him upon the plain ot'Tolbiac, near Zulpich, m the distnct of Juliers. a.d. 496. Clovis had always tavouredthe Catholic prelates of Gaul, and his marriage with Clotilda, an orthodox Burgundian princess, pleased them still more; for it was naturally hoped he might one day become a Christian of the best kind, two of his sons lY^'L^i, ^®" already baptised. Clovis was now thirty years old, hill of fire and ambition. In the iury of the battle of lolbiac, when all seemed going against him, he raised his nands to heaven, and invoked the God of his beloved con- sort; a victory ensued of the most triumphant character, and at once opened his eyes to discern the folly of pagan- ism,— whilst St. Remi^us, the eloquent Bishop of Rheims, was ready to instruct his young sovereign. Clovis and many ot the 1 ranks were publiclv admitted to the laver of re- generation, and, as faithful sons to the Holy See, bravely asserted the spiritual privileges of St. Peter, although the vast bulk of nominal Christendom supported the Ariaa heresy. It was thus that the Merovingian dynasty con- solidated its Dower. Clovis had secured the old Salio settlements of his people by taming the Thuringians, while the Armoncan republic in Bretagne, and the remnant of toe ijoman legions in Gaul, reconciled themselves with the lYanks. Meantime fresh enemies wei-e at hand. The king- dom of the Burgundians, defined by the course of the feaone and the Rhone, extended from the forests of Vosges to the Alps and the harbour of MarseUles. Gundobald, the monarch of this fine region, was the uncle of Clotilda : and, zealous m theological error, he had quarielled with his Catholic clergy, who had turned their attention solely to their religious duties, amidst mncih nnnreasmn on^ ,,n,'.io*i. suspicions of disloyalty. When their bisiops liad assemtied & MODERN HI8T0R7. [a.d. fiOO. him A tT /nn J .r. ' op*ai°ed a decisive victory over successor a^dn?S;^Jttr''i,/^^^^^ governed V a was afterWdrwu *? "''.^''*^ ^^^«' ^^^ whom in wwSTS mef L^ ,'"°?^'"^7 b^t^e of Poictiers, ■pices; nordamTS.=-J^^'» "^ ' '"^'°°' "°'"'' ™* the fco J to ttTlwS^ '^ of sea-ooast nrnnmg from achieved tie conaZrof HriS- v- ?P™' tSe Saxons CB. I.J MODERN HISTORY. as Its inhabitants now were, by the Scots and Picts, their sovereign Vortigem brouglit in Hengist and Horsa, a couple ot daring adventurers, whose countrymen liad ah-eady made themselves masters on the continent of Holstein, Westphalia, Saxony, East and West Friesland, Holland and Zealand. From the Isle of Thanet, where they first landed, their foUowers extended their limits rapidly; and the Jutes and Angles, with Frisians, Danes, Prussians, Rugians, and even some migratory Huns, soon joined them. During 9, period elapsing from a.d. 456 to a.d. 582, the famous Heptarchy was founded, and the aboriginal Britons were driven west- ^afd into Wales and Cornwall. Arthur, and the knights of his Round Table, have shed a halo of shadowy renown over theSilures of South Wales; but for the most part fruit- less resistance aggravated the hoiTors of invasion. Fields of battle might be traced, as Gibbon says, almost in every district, by monuments of bones; fiiigments of falling towers, and towns rendered little better than so many heaps of ruins, were stained with blood; for the ferocious Saxon trampled on the laws of emperors, the rights of nations, and the religion of the vanquished, neither age nor sex exciting mercy. Latin, as the language of science, business, refinement, and conversation, msappeared ; hus- bandry, where not destroyed, seemed languid and imskil- ful ; ample wastes of wood and morass returned to a state of nature ;— nor was the entire territory in the North, from the Tyne to the Tees, aught else than a savage and solitary forest. Heathenism darkened the scene; until in a happier hour St. Gregory sent his saintly missionaries from Rome, to gather our rude ancestors into the pale of the Church. Another seafaring v^ple, as hardy as the Saxons, — the Vandals, — ^were supposed to have been at an early date identical in their origin with the Goths; at all events, in the second century their numerous tribes had spread along the banks of the Oder, as well as the coasts of Pomerania and Mecklenburg. As the empire declined, they rushed down upon its spoils ; and we hear of their exploits in Pan- nonia, Gaul, and Spain. They appeared to be wolves in the shape of warriors: and wherever they settled for anV lanrH-Vi e^f *i*v^A l-t.^^. l»1:^l,i.-J -11 : J A -n .«•' 10 MODERN HISTORY. [ad 429 kinir nf thi! l^"^^^ J ";?'. ""''«'• Vulentinian III. Their desims-SXnJr f J? Pf-^'ddlingr stature but vast more than usuallv rarp W^ i„ j j • Pf i?°°a^ tempemnce now only bou^S b/SS^^^^^^ S°'' ^°P«^ ^«^« regions, ^fi.om Tangier to TiLfi f '^ J^' T" ° fr"'*^"! name a^d fame of oleLmninr' ^""^ ^""l? ^«^«^^«^ t^e though in irialTcS^ ^'^"^'^ *° ^•^'"^ ^"^ It%. amongst the inhabitants St Aue.urw.i.P"'i^'-'*^ bishop of HiDOo Rflo-inr^o^ • -^"^^^t^oe, the glorious stimtmOTir Md fi,ZS„TK°'".l'^'"S '"™''»<' from Con- aomLhat Lrth^^tii'';r ri'^lT^i^^ calamity. GenamV lioj ™./ '■ ? ^ """^ remarkable which h^adSwhiTtoC.™'' T" '"■' »»'!'«■•»«. of Mount Atk'^oe a<.S^ CJT'rTv^'''^ "»'"'» »d a fet, from thatYit Xn^c Z Hat'^™"^j Lited the ™..^i.t^^r "iiifmis^^^'trstii- CH. I.] MODERN HISTORY. 11 preserved, indeed, his venerable metropolis from a general conflagi-ation ; but for fourteen days, and as many niglits (15th-^9th June, a.d. 455), Rome and its inhabitants were delivered up to pillage. Thus were the sanp^iinary triumphs of the Punic campaigns reciprocated and avenged. Eudocia, the widowed consort of Valentinian III., had imitated, with similar results, the treason of Boniface ; since, to wreak punishment upon the murderer of her husband, she liad called to her side that same crafty tyi-ant, destined to chastise both Italy and Africa. Another Scipio was no where to be founa. The wretched empress, with her two daughters, the flower of the Roman youth, with an enor- mous throng of artificers and mechanics, the holy instru- ments of Jewish worahip which Titus had brought from Jerusalem, the oraaments of temples and palaces, with an amount of gold and silver plate amounting to several thou- sand talents, besides bronze, brass, and copper beyond ordinary calculation, — were transpoi-ted across the sea. Genseric possessed an appetite for oooty as greedy as the Cve ; but he showed iiimself, after the maimer of the 1 in the fable, a governor as well as a robber; his dreadfiil will cnished the vices, whilst it violated the rights of his subjects. Reserving for his peculiar domains Byza- civan, with its adjacent districts of Getulia and Numidia, he shared out amongst his soldiers the entire proconsular province. His eldest son had mamed a Yisigothic piincess, whose beauty and talents may have excited the jealousy oi her cruel and malignant father-in-law, ibr the monster, on very slight suspicion, cut oif her nose and eare, and sent her back thus horribly mutilated to her own parents. The court of Thoulouse aroused itself into an alliance with Ra- venna against the king of the Vandals ; but the last was more than a match tor them m policy no less than in arms ; and by bribes and pressing solicitations, he brought down upon Gaul and Italy the plague of Attila and the Huns. We have already alluded to these hideous barbarians, in their primary advances from the East itpon Europe. They had now not only thrown forward the Goths, and At. — •_ iu^ioiw (;luu3, Ou thc Fe^^ut' gouth of m& DvawjQf 1'' M6DERV HrSTORY. ]iut had penetrated themselves info .., that river and the Theiss wh J ° *^® ?°»"t''/ '^etweftii surrounded by pah-sadrr^fn^?!: '" ^" "nmense villaa* -verei^. ^^errSaTeiSa*^^^ ^'^ °^S mands. It was supposed that iT^' r^T"^^'* his com- »>arch at the head ommr^'Z^'/'^^^ ^« ^oZ mous host had but one soul r«rvif- T*^>h^'«enor. by the nod of their supreriuw'lhTi''" -^'"^ ^^'^^ thoug-ht, as he was styled ^hn q °'' P"i« ^"^ to be large head, disproport^JS to M ''°"J?? ^^^''^•' His deep-seated eye^, ffasKerJdt'^'irnV^dy, displayed whom he would declare, that thfi^°" ^'' attendants, to j!« horse;s hoofs had trodden G "«^«'' F«^ where W of the Nomades, Sm the W^^ T' -*^« '^^^Potio the rich realms of ThouloZJ:H P "^^ ^"^'''^^ *«ward8 «acnficed his brother Si thafr^"' -, ^*^^»? fi'^J mig-ht occur during his a£ce t ° T^ disturbance ATars on a rustic aftar, and set o^,^ "^^^ *?« ^word of tier Passing the Rh ne at fi °, * ! '^*^' ^^*««« fron- fiTundians, who had wa"ld for ^ ^^^^/^^^ng the Bur- rA^^ the celeStV'fidS-^f g,*^ *T^t, he 80 far faded, that althoue-h thT V.-c- Yu- «°8, where hd slam, he retreated for the timl Y'^*^"' "^o^a'-ch was spnng of the following y^'Z' ^9 ?-'*r"«^ "»*« ^h1 a^amst Italy. Honorfaf^^ter :f tiS ^' ^'*^ aggression ordoubtfol reputation, had offered m TV''''^ ^ P™<'es8 ever he shoul/claim her- and S^ !?-^ ?^ bride when- fent so mortifying to the il^ th/\additional allure- burned for satislctfon In ™W -i^^^'^^^^' ^t«'a progress. Myriads, it s true «nii??^''^ ^PP°««d his fications, so that, after i£%S\^'T'^ ber forti- the tents of the besieged weTJ^K ^^''V ^ tbat «ty and empire. Ei-enr^^Ti- ^ destraction for the «»« ^TW-UI whence ,^i^ 'A^ ^^^^ OH. I.J MODERN HISTORY. 13 the huntei-8 of the wildernesH hounded on their nrev with rresi8t.ble fuiy; and Venice, instead of AcnSiJ Te.-a me the foture Queen of the Adriatic. But the tide oH attk roUed on. Males able to %ht or labour we e ho d1„' slavery, or oftener |>ut to tCe sword; whirwomen a, 5 childixm endured a fate far worse. Altinu^, Sord a and Padua, were reduced into heaps of stoned and a^ht •' Montefihce, Vicenza, Verona, Bergamo, BrS MUan ^d Pavia were nfled and deface I; the fertiL Xwro dei-n Lombard^ withered beforo 'the dire pro™ of mas" sacre and military violence; and it was Ct^mtil ATtik halted at Ravanna, that tlie plag^ie was in any decree stayed. He entered there, through an opening madf in z ASr'iTi'ft'"''"^'"'^^ 'lefts'; ^f utrflf? f 'r''"™'' *"' *™"' »"»W»t ths spoils of a tondred unfortunate cities, and retraced his steSs fa, di2 *D%"^S eI*' ieba«che„ of a bridTia^nt mlHtu / i' chastisemente inflicted by these for! Maximus was followed by Avitu" E„l„' Sll"'""'r' tt.ejnius Olybrius. Glyce^t Na;;s7S ?^? JfTl M„°" myllus Augnstulus, a.d. 455.47fi ,«. d r»„. • ?,- .' however a^barbarlan Count RfcL^; iZCV^t a -f — — ..«ci ciuijvmr, accowiiig to W MODERN HI8T0RT. [a.U. 472. his will, which alike ruled the obsequious senate and an impoverished people. Disclniming the name of kinir. he nevertheless plundered Rome, a.d. 47?, and died forty days afterwards, 20th August, of a painful disease, leav- ing behind him immense treasures, and a SMcific prece- dent for some equally fortunate adventurer to imitate as onportunity offered. Amongst the natives adhering to the Huns wei-e the Hei-uli, whose native seat had been Pome- '^."[»» whence they gradually moved southward together With the Ru^ians, the Skirri, and the Turtzlingians sa- vflffes wi-apt in raw hides. Reaching the neigh boui'iood ot Vienna, they had advanced from Austria first into Pan- nonia ; where their most gallant leader dying, and leavinir two sons, Onulf and Odoacer, the former directed his steps towards the eastern, and the latter towards the western capital of the world. In i^foricum, the valiant Odoacer piously visited the cell of St. Severinus, the lowness of whose humble door could scarcely admit so tall a warrior- and he stooped accoidingly. But the saint discerned in his manner and attitude no slight symptoms of future greatness : " Pursue," said the holy hermft, " your design- proceed to Italy, where you will sowi cast away this coarse gai-ment of skins, and vour wealth will be adequate to the riberahty of your mind." The hero accepted the not un- welcome prophecy, and sought such service as would polish his manners, as well as improve his mind ; without for- getting that his own good courage must, after all, bo the mam instrument in caiTying out his success. • ';, -u^^. stances educated him for u throne; and tho:.h '."u elected king of Italy, he declined some of th ' ; aa of royalty, he neglected nothing which might really'mould his military exploits into the elements of permanent so- vereignty. His troops were worthy of their leader. Terror preceded their march, and cities surrendered on the first strnmoBS. Augustulus at ouce implored his clemency - • » app- to exchange a thorny djadem and ridiculous ^■■■ ol< *':v & solid and safe allowance of 6000 pieces of o-old ty; 40'iy, and th- ^n?.tle of LucuUus in Campania foii'his ito. in the 125iyth year from the foundation of the city by Romulus, ^e C16th from the battle of Philinni. when CH. r.J MODERN HISTORY. 15 fi«»ed'.i ' expired on the death of Bnitus, the 476th or i^thh from the Incarnation, tho Western Empiie tlnis tnr- minated, by the arras of a barbarous horde from Exigen and the shores of the Baltic. Odoacer reigned with ability for fourteen yeara over desolated provinces; in portions of which, upon the unexceptionable testimonies of Pope Gela- Kus and his contemnoraries, the human s{)ecies liad almost become extinct. Yet, before the close of the century, Theodoric and his Ostrogoths were at hand. These, since the death of Attila, had gradually re- established their independence, which, dui-ing the life of that terrible potentate, was somewhat overshadowed, if not eclipsed. Under their princes of the house of Amalu, they inhabited for a time the country between the Danube and the Save. Connected with Oonsv intinople as receivers rather than payers of tribute, Theodoric, the son of Theo- dimer through a concubine, was sent thither by his royal father for mental and general improvement. In the flower of manhood, he was elected on the decease of his father to ^ay the paternal sceptre ; and Zeno, then emperor of the East, who had cherished the young barbarian, partly per- haps through apprehension of his future prowess, and partly from genuine admiration of his talents, at length Ca.d. 489) suggested to him the t^^ciie of Italy from the Heruli, as an enterprise suitaljle to the views of many parties. The Byzantine court had exercised no inconsider- able influence over the secular politics of the Roman etoriate ; and Zeno, as one of the successors of Constantino and Theodosius the Great, even nominated, or pretended to do so, Anthemius and Nepos to the imperial seat on the Seven Hills. When appealed to for his sanction to the kmgdom of Oiloacer, he at tii-st sternly refused, then hesi- tated, but at last i-eluctantly acquiesced in what it was no longer possible to avoui. His affections, however, clung to his nominal supremacy as Aug-ustiis and autocrat of the East. It Avas important to set and keep at variance the different tribes assaulting from all Quarters the wreck of Roman grandeur ; for if they could l)e brought to destroy each other, it was imagined tliat every thins- would }m safe and therefoi-e, actuated by these ideas, the emperor r I *■ I. 10 MODERN HISTORY. [a.d. 489-93, iormallj surrendered Italy to Theodoric by a pragmatic sanction. The atter was now twenty-three years of aa-a and his people placed implicit confidence in his wisdom and valour. Mounting their wives and children in wagons, and accompanied by mnumerable flocks and herds, the en- tire nation slowly yet perseveringly marched towards the Julian Alps. Encumbered as their columns were with bag- gage, and beset with dangers, magazines of com we5e ground m portable mills by their women as they moved along, whilst the old men milked the kine, or cured pro- visions, or attended to the other wants of the way There was no pause but for battle- and, with savages so little mvihsed, the road of life is but a perpetual pith of wS- Bulgarmns Gepidi, and Sarmatians, at the solicitations ot the Heruli, attempted to check their career: but Theo- doric was not to be arrested ; he had resolved t^ succeed or tail. His hrst grand engagement with Odoacer, 28th Au- KJ^kt V :^ ended m a complete victory, and secured him the Venetian temtones to the walls of Verona • while a second trial, thirty davs afterwards, when his rival fled to Kavenna, proved still more decisive. Milan received the conqueror with acclamations of respect and fideKty but It stiU reqmred a thh-d conflict, with a subsequent struggle of (^e eventfol yeai^s, to complete the overtlrow ot Odoacer ; for his final surrender, and death in the midst of a solemn banquet, at which he was stabbed to the heart 7wq2 -^^^'i ^^ "1°* ^''*'^" ^^^^'•e the 5th of March, nil rr ™doric. then openly assumed the Romai^ CTll; J° }i' donunion, from the Alps to the extremity of Calabna, the Vandals had added Sicily, a recent anH Sr{7/yif'°^ of their own 5 and, hi' fact, not only t^2' r^u *^' -^'^^^ *^'. S,^'&"°dians, the Visigoths, and the Thunngians, respectively sought his alliance His reign of thirtv-three years, a.d. 493-526, will be briefly described in the next chapter, as illustrating the best sidfe of the barbarians, and the curious but instructive manner m which their laws usages, and national strength, formed ^ematenal groundwork of important changes Ind amelio- rations m the social fabric. Yet it will not even now have escaped the notice of intellig£ it readers, how entirely the C'H. II.] MODERN HISTORY. 17 K^'Z*""' '"'^''' °^ *^' ^°"^*«« ^a« Shaken to pieces : wliilst the new spiritual power, as we shall present^ see toumph of truth, and advance the best interests of man- CHAPTEK IL - A.D. 493—600. THHODORIC, THE OfiXROGOTH _ LAWS AI.D MANNERS OF THE BAR- BARIANS-GLANCE AT THE EASTERN EMPIRE-ITS ASPECT UNDKH .USTINXAN-THE CAMPAIGNS OK BEUSARITTS AND NARSES-- THE LOMBARDS-CLOSE OF THE SIXTH CENTCRT. The conqueror of Odoacer expressed his anxiety to g-ovem TdXr^ ? '^^''"^"^'y' t««^perance, rio-hteoLnesrS JJ. !\ ^l'' ^''"'^' consisting of neai5y two hundred thousand hardy warriors, was always readyir maintaS public tranquilhty, or undertaking necessary enternrises himself the sole judge of what was to be right or wX he sisTei'of'rr •"" ??"^^-. ^'^ --ortWieda w^ hZ^T' 1 ^T'l F^^^^eric, son of Gensei-ic, was his brotheiwn-law ; he had given his niece Amalberga ?o tl e King of Thuringia,-whilst Sigismund prince of Bur Jmdv and the monnrc?i of the Visigoths, had each marrieK of Ins daughters. He frequently addressed all these contem- porary or younger sovereigns with the authority of a father- and no doubt, ?or a certain period, the humcane of barba- rian licentiousness presented an appearance of calm. Pavia his favourite residence, became a magnificent cap tal Td here he patronised arts and learning; nor is it tnie as f?r dmary writers have asserted, that\'e was unaUe t'o writ^ his name. Early associations with Constantinople ha Jen! gendered too much taste in his mind for civilisation ?o render such Ignorance at all probable; for althouSTtle r?ni/l7 ^ .attached to Ju'stin the' uncle of SJan (A.D. Oiii-27), it must be remfiTMKoi.o/1 ♦!,„♦ «„ -ij-_t_ — : — ■"""" — * •.■s»«i; an cmcriy 18 MODERN HISTORY, [a.d. 4t3. Dacian peasant, even when wearing- the Byzantine diadem was more hkely to glory in his eirlv illitLcy, L S ^ZZJ'fl *;k^^'""^' than profess Wself asVamed of i Theodonc had been educated with a view to royalty and lus love of lettei^ xnade him seek and enjoy the soci^trof scholars like Cassiodorus and Boethius. U also encour- aged mechanical science and the more elegant aSomplish ments,. and sent to Paris, as well as to ^s sonTn law a troop of musicians, together with some water-clocksf^d other cunous specimens of the ingenuity of his^b eSf In the pmiition of the lands of Itlly, he assigned T S' to his soldiers, as the leader of the rfeVuli had^one before iZia t*T*^°^« °^°°^^« ^^ P^^beian weie acW mans and Goths, he evidently reserved the former for the po|icy of peace, and the latte^ for that of war Indus"^ enjoyed as full protection as the times would admit iJ laying aside himself his Gothic costume for a moi^ Lce^ fill style of dress, he set an example to his foUowSs^^d SwlT *'f '}' ^^' ^'^ alight direction HisS >ct was to moderate violence witJout enervating vlur ^e service of the palace and frontiers was perfoS bv choice or rota ion, each extraordinary fatigue^recSg S full remunera ion, either through augmented pay or oc stTS .**whl'"- ?'"^^^l^ in landlereheldS^mSrt^; thfl. ' ■ t P'^l'''^ '"^ *^« "«« of missile weapons anl the exercise of cava it came into general adoption and oDedience. The Goths were instructed to spare the oeonle 1Z"Z"L'VT' \"\derstand theTties o^c?^ rb?tZ%*;iv'aretvrg':^ '^^'^^'""^ ^^^^"^« '^^j"^-^ In the course of his reign, Rhtetia, Noricum and Pnn «t:;^ T' ^^f & ^""^ *« ^' dominionsT^hl ta extended not only from the Alps to Sicily but from S^ mium, or Belgrade on the DanuL, to th?Attt^°S^,.ea^^^ Por he acquired also Aries and Marseilles, with a right of protection over Visigothic Spain and Septimania as ^ar dian of his grandson, the infant chad o? AlSl b^hL" daughter, w£o survived her deceased husb^d He Ve^ed CH. 11.] MODKRN HISTORV. - ]g lowances of bread ?u Hifrto V ? "'J-'' *'" ™P'""' ^'- illustmted the seventh y"aTonn-„H^^'^f* '^*'"'"^' ""^^ to Rome. He tliere adSL? V ^^tlministmtion bj a visit tiue which Pomry a„7 '?^.,^'^P;p«^'i8^«« of aicliitec and which, tos-etSwkh tb. o ^°5 ^^"^J"" ^^«^ ^^'e^'ted; own royal edic?s p e^veS hS^J"^*^'"^.^''^*"^^' '"^ though open to severe aSdsmcalLZ"'*'"'"^^*''"*'^"' «1- we remember what went bS 5 u °"'; '"^'P^^*' ^^^en Anan heresy, which Satirie^n>,r^^^^^^ ^ Catholics, and sacrifice the S of bi^ ci ^ peJ-secute the Spoleto, Naples, and the othp, TtoV •l-'^''*"- ^^'"na, rose from tl/eir iCs so far n/i ^'' ''*^'' "^°''« «»' ^^ss coes, market-places and nl. "" 'n& was bein^. served artheXte"',:^-",^.^"^ d sudden horror that the spSe of b ^n. f «^™«d with before him, with a moutEfi IJ nVf J*f'^ ^'^^'™ 8'J"'-e^ ior their pzV. Th-roSif /L ^"^i"^"^ *««tl' J>4aied fit, he mUed alou^fn brolcin "S'°"''' ^^ " suk^uent ance for the past; and orttoSllTfT ' ^^ ^'^P^"'" ^.!?r^v^r- p-t-ted\;^Se;::^K^^ t^:^'i 20 MODERN HISTORY. [a.d. 526. for a brief duration ; whilst any peculiarities his country- men mig-ht possess blended insensibly with those of the other barbarians, coming, like themselves, into contact with a civilisation higher than their own; and which contri- buted to cliange the face and character of society in the Koman empire. '' That emjiire had been composed essentially of Pag-an elements, which produced their natural results in the feeble- ness and corruption of the third, fourth, and fifth centuries. Ihe external framework of religion was to be constituted out of nobler materials. Not that Christianity recognises the slightest difference between one nation and another when once ready for submission to its sway; but an in' If '*Iu ^ j*l*® ^6^^*^"er and hardier populations of the JNorth had become necessary. In the beneficial process of melting these down with the remnants of Roman citi- zens and provincials, as well as with the still more ancient abonginals of Italy, their heathenism and heresy were cast aside J and from very heterogeneous ingi-edients massive resiUts ensued. Amidst immense violence and confusion degeneracy was exchanged for strength; fresh foi-ms of order arose from the rude laws and customs of the Franks the Ripuarians, the Burgundians, the Goths, the Bava- rians, or the Alemanni. SaHc and feudal vigour com- bmed msensibly with Roman legislation, and i^ecuniary hues for homicide slowly gave way to capital punishments. However gradual might be the growth of sohd and uni- vereal protection for the rights of persons and property still It was through processes of this kind that progTess was made Even the trial by ordeal, so sneered at by modern phdosophy, rendered the doctrines of an overrul- mg Providence and a fiiture Judgment familiar to the mediaeval mmd; while judicial combats, although often savage in their character, together with other practices ol compurgation, paved the way for the picturesque justice of chivalry In our o^vn country, trial by jury must have had a similar origin. Almost every where the alterations were by little and little, as the lapse of time, the force o' circumstances, or the assent of powerful classes, sanctioned pJid sealed the change. Refinement opened her bosom to CH. ir.J MODERN HISTORY. 21 barbarism, borrowed its energy and vigour, and repaid her creditors by the subseouent poHsh and elegance which she afforded in return. All this appears strikingly in the his- tory of language, the various forms and consequences of w-ealth, the love of liberty and literature, the modes of thought, and even the use of titles. Teutonic and other barbaric denominations softened into Roman ones, so that we soon hear of dukes, counts, prefects, and the like : the germs of ftiture feudalisn^ began to shoot up every where • and society took gipntic shapes, though clothed in iron and ste Game-laws and personal servitude attended the ste' nearly all the nomadic nations, but yet each tribe y we or less defined ideas, similar to those we ^t >. ^ '"^^^^^ ^"^ Csesar, when they describe the Gauls, the Gt nans, or the Britons. There ap{)ears at least a sort of lumily resemblance, with strange comminglings of order and anarchy:— a monarchy, in a certain sense here- ditary, though very limited; a council of elders or com- panions; the requisite consent of a majority as to the free portions of the population ; the final approbation of heaven, to which all appeals are made, on deeply religious prin- ciples ;— all these, or some of them, and' in a greater or less degree, will generally be found amongst their outlines of government. In Visigothic Spain are first perceived real legislative councils,— an advantage altogether owing to the influence of the Church, so soon as the country ceased to be Arian. Doctrinal error ultimately found its warmest hotbed in the oriental provinces ; over which Theodoric, in the course of his reign, gained some vic- tories ; but towards whose emperor he generally professed considerable respect, and even inculcated it, 'duiing his last moments,' on the Ostrogothio magnates. He recom- mended to their ca^e Amalasontha his daughter, with her SQji Athalaric, then ten years old. Constantinople received these tidings, and breathed more freely. When the Roman empire terminated in the West, Zeno reigned over the East. After the death of Arcadius, and his son, the younger Theodosius, St. Pulcheria, sister to the latter,Jiad^nommally married Marcian, and associated iiis -.ritu zivTScn m the govemmeiit. Leo the Great sue- 22 MODERN HISTORY. [a.d. 620. ceeded A.n 451; and on his demise, a.d. 474, the husbaud of his daug-hter Ariadne usurped the throne, and assumed the name of Zeno. His decease occurring in tlie sprinjr of A.D. 491, the imperial widow entered a second timi into wedlock, and soon transfened her hand, together with Tll^3 ' *? Anastasius, an aged domestic of"the palace. Ihis fortunate official survived his elevation tWenty-seven years and was followed by Justin I., on the 10th of July A.D. 01b,— a Dacian shepherd, who had fought his way upwards fz-om the very ranks. His nephew, the more celebrated Justinian, may be said to have commenced his admimstration for some interval before illness and anility had removed his uncle fiom the world; but, dating it from the IstApil A.D. 627, to its close on the 14tf of November a.d. 565, it continued for a period of thirty- eight years seven months and thirteen days. His abili- ties and infirmities, his orthodoxy and heresy, his opulence and poverty, the campaigns of his generals, "his recovery of Africa, Italy, and paits of Spain, his edifices, his detestable empress the profligacy and misery of his subjects, the in- rln *'^"i"'T'' tje 8-^-eat plag-ue, accompanied with so many earthquakes, besides other preternatural pheno- mena,-have all contributed to make it memorable: His Lode alone would have conferred historic immortality upon any man, not to say any potentate. But he lived alto- jether for the court, adorned as it was with a kind of dignified extenor which imperfectly concealed its rapid progress towards decay. The bouniaries of his dominiS^ seem to have been very much the same with those of the Ottoman Porte at the Congress of Vienna: reaching from the Danube, the Save, and the Adriatic, to Trebizond the wild mountains of the Tzani, the coui^e 'of the Nym^ the great rivers of Mesopotamia, the Red Sea aSd th« cataracts of the Nile. Without induding Lv sib'e^^^^^^ extension through the overthrow of L VanS a?d Gothic king-doms-his gorgeous yet exhausted sceptre tTr 4r:r*^"T7 r^'^'^f ^°^ "^°« ^^^^^red s thiitv-fij^e cities. The financial system of his predeces- sors had grown from a system of whips into one of scor- pionsj upon the true principles ofdespotism, which extracts en. I I.J MODERN HISTORY. have bJen enormoSffrom tl" ° 1"^"^^ ?"»* ""™''°" pohes, dopreciation nffha n« "'^ ? . , °* oflices, mono- and I'egacy duties and tH^'r^^* we should tern excise in^: lucmtive Ses werelTT' *^'°^' "otwithstand- flax, and cotton the lX,r? J.V. °" "" T~^^'' ^^''•' «l^i°«» assisted the loom and dttoff m P'°"^"' "^*^« "««dle into Europe through t£m^.;^ H"^ *''«'r ^ay monks, wSo bZfht a Sv P?''^"'^" °^*^« Pe^siai from China Phlnida Kn^r^ '^^^''^ '^°"°^^ ^^^^^s the islands of tl^S eS S' ^5T'- ^'^'- ^^°°'-' ^"^ tiful commodities in the m?rW= ^!- « ''^-''"^ o'" ^eau- dria, and Constantinople sSon <.ni®'"'^'"^i^^«' ^^«^*^- as well as AntS iLnt °^ her wealth, mals were infinS mEr ^^ f*^^''^" I>o^«estic ani^ and artiffciS, W TheTedl' P>f*f «»^' both natural together with^he'most'llt^^ ducinff a hundredfold },Q/^ «<,* 1 ,'• "°° harvests pro- ^rt^'lnd baS'tir^^erveiTCnl .^'^ slips and secured in docks an/cT^ • 1 '^ °°^™''*«d o» cofda^e as to betScen „« .nif ^™!'^'^ ^^^^ «^"« ^nd fo- tie mechantal mimcKf Zw '"f""^*^"' f^'"' ^» have been rivalled in fJ^i*? ^^himedes are said to themius, anTSSo e Mi^^^ 'T'l J^ /roclus, An- movable poly Jns wei^ ^™ ^^ ^^''^'^ ^'^''' ^^^h phorus like b^rawSs^s ^^^^'\^' ^ ^1^ ^« *he Bos- tance of two rnZffeet 'whS^"^ "^'^' "" ^'^ ^* ^^^ ^«^ and the vapour of boiling ^nl Preparations of sulphur, time the Cde^^faf It?' ?r^'^^^^^^^ would bum under the wa.es and th?? ^^''P^' ^'^"^^^ steam. Imitations of tender anSiSr''^" ^"'T °^ through collisions of meS and from^t fl^ ^'''^r ^ volvine- reflpf tnvo cfo,^] j ' j ™ *he flashes of re- who KS^l'Lf^^^^^^^ «°^«^ed the Bvzantin«l .. ..„..,e „,;^veis to aothing- less than magic; S4 MODERN HISTORY. [a.d. 52?, and too often closed their minds ag-ainst useful or g-enuino knowledo-e. Whilst intercourse was not infrequent with India and even t^e Yellow Sea, it was gTavcly arg-ued (hat Carthag-e was a six months' voyage from the Golden Horn • and that the earth was an oblong- surface, " i'oxu hundred days' journey in length, and two hundred in breadth, en- compassed with the ocean, and covered by the solid crystal of the firmament." History was better cultivated than geography, as we perceive from the works of Procoijius and Agathias; yet our own island is described bv the foi-mer as a region of departed spirits, divided by a''my8- terious wall, forming the boundary of life and death ; and the OTOund is covered with serpents, to which the ghostly inhabitants are transported at midnight by Frankish fish- ermen ! Such cloudiness of conception anduifonnation will convey the best idea as to how far, and in what way, in- tellectual pursuits must then have been cultivated. Meta- physics, civil jurisprudence, and architecture, absorbed the greatest share of attention, next to the factions of the cu-cus. One of these, known in antiquity under the name of the Nika, had threatened the throne, and destroyed the cathedral of St. Sophia ; when within forty days Justinian cleared the ruins, and commenced that noble pile which cost a million sterling, and which remains in nearly its piistme splendour, as the glory of Islam and the reproach ot Chnstendom. His edifices throughout the empire strike our imagination as truly imperial. He built and dedicated twenty-five large churches at Constantinople alone, in ho- nour of our Saviour, his Blessed Mother, and the Saints : Syria, and particularly the Holy Land, Me.sopotamia, Ar- menia, the Euxine, Europe, and Asia Minor, witnessed similar erections. Many cities, after being destroyed by earthquakes, were rebuilt, or liberallv assisted from the general treasury; bridges, hospitals, and aqueducts adorned every provincial capital ; and his fortifications on the fron- tiers as well as inland astonished the barbarians, and be- trayed the weakness of the empire. There were no less than eighty of these on the Danube alone ; six hundred castles spotted the mountainous districts of Dacia, Epims Thessaly, Macedonia, and Tliracej while from the Crimea! CH. II.] MODERN nrsTORr. 26 round by the Phas.s, and above Trebizond, to Cii-cesium on the Chebar, all alon- the Euphrates, his engineers ex- erted their utmost skilf in forming- ramparts, constnictinjp mmes, and accumulating military ammunition and engines. Ihe double walls of Dara were from thirty to sixty feet in fieight, with spaces between them for cattle to feed upon no less than fifty paces wide, besides numerous towei-s. ascending to an altitude of one hundred feet. The cele- brated Iberian gates of Derband protected both the empire and Persia from the inroads of the Scjthians,-an expense, therefore borne mutually between the two govei-nments! let what were stone barriers, without warriors to ffuard lu J '^^ J^'''^ *^*" »^«"t one hundred and fifty of Snian ^"^ '^ ^^8'"°*"^^ marched under the bannera Nevertheless, with such imperfect means, Belisarius, his extraordinary general, obtained many victories. Hilderic the eldest of the Vandal princes, bad succeeded to the donimions of Genseric after the inglorious reigns of Hun- neric, Gundamund, and Thrasimund, during the period of torty-six years, which elapsed from the death of their erreat ancestor, ad. 477-523.' Although the son of an Arian he tolerated the Catholics, which led to the usurpation of the kingdom by his cousin Gelimer, a zealous heretic, a.d. 060 buch circumstances excited sympathy at Constanti- nople, and produced the African war, for which thirt.y-five thousand soldiers and sailors, five thousand hci-ses, with twenty-two leaders, under Belisarius, embarked in five hundred transports, besides ninety-two light brigantines, nniT v""- ^^^-. ?''''¥^ *« Propontis, the^Helles-' pont, the Egean, and along the islands of Zacvnthus, Sicily and Malta a protracted navigation, as it tlien appeared! brought the invaders to a promontory but five days' .journey to the south of Carthage, in the month of Sep- ^Tnl ^^'^T^> ^^ J«,^ ^^^^ ^-ep^lsed, by the inhabitants and orthodox clergy, Behsarms rapidly oven-an the coun- try; and Gelimer, who after his first defeat, had the mnocbnt HiMeric executed, fled towards the deserts of ^umidia. Cathohcity reascended the ep'sccpal throne of Dt. Uypnaii. a second hattia fl-rtiniri"ohaH *h- it^— j-i- »• - - i^^-^n^it^Ski flic T OilUUiiO je MODERN HISTORY. [a.d. 549. jaonurchy and by the sprmo: of a.d. 634 the usurper was captured, the entire region from Tripoli to Ceuta subdued, Sai-dinin Coi-sica, and the Balearic Isles were restored t^ Koman allegiance; and Belisarius enjoyed a public triumph, as tJ e Africanus of Constantinople, in the ensuins? autumni His lieutenants, meanwhile, sti-ug-g^ied with and hnally van- mushed the Mooi^, who had leag-ued together for avenging. the Vandals; and seveml cities on the sea-coast of Slmii were also acquired from the Visigoths in subsequent yeait). But the recoveiT of Italy had appealed still more strongly to the pride and vanity of the conquerors. Amalasontha, daughter to the late T/ieodoric, reined there as regent and guardian for her son Athalaric. A?ter his premature death through intemperance, and some disorders involvino- or arising out of negotiations with Justinian, she had man-ied a second time, selecting her cousin Theodatus for a hus- band ; but this weak and wicked prince hn- ^er privately on the lake of Bolsena. Belisarius was not slow to seize every favourable opportunity. On various pi-etences Sicily was demanded and reduced into subjection, wliilst the By- zantme ambassadors amused or deceived the Ostrogotlfs. Iheir wretched sovereio-n soon agreed even to resign Italy tor a pension ; and although aftenvards recoiling from /o G "hT"' ""^ ^^^dication, the imperial legions were at band. Ihey crossed from Messina to Rhegium, a.d. 537, K^tll J I ''T *«™'"^t«^ favourably for its assailants, but cnielly for the inhabitants. An access was discovered by a dry aqueduct, and a rope fastened to an olive-tree tr ^^'^^^''' y:''^'^^' ^«"»' J"'ndred troopei-s clam- beied, and surprised the sentinels. Belisarius perhaps did lus best to arrest the subsequent massacre ; yet, as this did not then seem clear, the voLe of Pope SylVeriu^ was raised m remonstrances-showing with wl!at imivei-sal assent all Zcv '^'j^rfV' ^?P«''*/^^« CJ'"^-«h as an oracle of me cy. In fact, througjiout these and successive ages of violence it was always such, nor could society have held together without it. Vengeance meanwhile overtook Theo- aatus ; before whose assassination by one of his own people, en. ii.j MODERN HISTORY. 27 Vitig-es was already elevated into his royal seat upon the bucklers of the inconstant barbarians. Belisarius paid slight regfard to the revolution ; he pressed foi-ward without re- sistance, and entered Rome through the Asinarian gate on the 10th of December, a.d. 536, amidst the murmurs of the Arians and congratulations of the Catholics. Small detachments rapidly re-established imperial authority as far as Nai-ni, Sooleto, and Perugia ; but no sooner was winter at an end, than the enemy returned, and invested the Seven Hills. Belisarius, however, had foreseen the emergency. Ai'ter incurring imminent personal danger, he gathered his forces within the antiquated ramparts of Aurelian ; and drawing a bow with his own hands, shot the first aiTow of defiance. The Ostrogoths exhibited their natural courage, the beleagiiered hero his wonderful genius, while carnage, famine, a^d j^estilence, raged for twelve months and nme days within and without the city. Reinforcements at length reached the Tibev from Constantinople. Vitiges found his forces melting away through the sword, diseases, or dis- couragement, and the siege of Rome was raised in JIarch, A.D. 538, after a final display of useless valour. Rimini, Ravenna, Urbino, Orvieto, and Auximum, adorned the laurels or the policy of Belisarius, and that, too, amidst the treachery of his own officers, followed by the appeai'- ance of Narses, as a rival rather than an auxiliary, on the Adriatic shores, sent thither for the very purpose, through the base jealousy of Justinian. His difficulties, moreover, were aggravated bv an irniption of the Franks across the Alps to support the falling Ostrogoths a.d. 538-9 ; which involved the complete destruction for the time of Milan, Genoa, with numerous other places, besides the slaughter of 300,000 individuals of both sexes. Yet before the close of the year a.d. 539, Vitiges was a dethroned prisoner; half tre provinces of the Western Empire were recovered; the Franks had retreated; and the victor was once more on his homeward voyage to a court t^o proud to acknowledge, as well as far too proflig-ate to reward, such inestimable services. His antagonists on the field of battle knew better how to appreciate them ; for with the abs«ice of Belisarius from •8 MOOKRN HISTORY. [a.D. .VU-ff. Italy their resolution revived. Totila, of the Amah, familv after witnessing the transit over the stage of two shadows of Ostrogothic royalty, Hildihald his uncle, and Euthar found the mantle of the gi-eat Theodoric failinjr upon his own shoulders. 'I he national squadrons had dwindled to live tliousand men ; yet these proved themselves as worthy ot then- cineftam as he was of them. Eleven UnmviHl general, had remained in Italj ; Totila defeated urul ),|,ffled them all. tv( a the Catholies were no longer loyal • for Justinian, upon most uni-ighteous suspicions, hud furnished j^-ood 1 ope bylverius, and ultimately stai-ved him to death m exile. Revolt from the yoke of such an (emperor seemed universal throughout the peninsula. Belisarius was warrinir against the Pea-!,ians, on the hanks of the Euphrates, when Ills ungrateful sovereign summoned him hack with rehict- aiice to the scenes of his former glory, a.d. 544-8. The ii|ternal Citv again suhmitted to a harhariun invader. 17tJi Decemher a.d. 640; and was sentenced, after the horrors of pillage, to hecome a pasture for cattle. In vain fiad the representative of the Byzantine despot exerted every effort of strategetical science to save the metro- polis of the world: but he now reminded his competitor of the cei^ia infamy vvhich would attend any unneces- sary demohtion of its time-honoured monuments, ^'otila listened and retired, eanying off with him to tlie summit of Mount Garganus She entire senate, with nearly all their fellow-citizens It is said, that for forty days tlome remamed "a marble wilderness," utterly ahanJoned to dreariness and desolation. Belisarius, with the eye of an eagle saw the empty eyrie, and once more seized if initted that whoever could maintain his position there had the fkfl H PT'i' r\ *^^">«^« d"y« ^l«Psed before Fcted disgrace. Tlmce an assault was attempted, and as often repulsed. But a good soldier fought for a bad Sf'i OjAr, ^"•ived from Constantinople, ^ust when lotda had failed, that Belisarius should leave a gams^n at Kome, and transport his main army into Lucania, to play a secondary part ag-amst the Arians of that pro OH. rr.] vince. His hvnt- MODERN II18TORY. 29 Italy J.„-edI„&CT^^^ rt'r' "-^-^ *-- his prize for a brief interval ,?n ? . j ?®'".^ rf'K-nined to Ej„ru«, includinrthe island h .TT.'J'T ^^"'••^«"'«« Ionian sis, whJiW ViSlh^"*^' ''^ the Tyrrhene and science of J, sti2n),?^'^^'"f.*PPe«Jed to tJ.e con- Then ensl. hee"; pliS of' ?; ''"" ^' '"'r' ^'« «*«?«• 601-552; the foS TuVo j^ •" a promisinfc career- the Zfl, ? «'^t"^''' "'•''P«t«i euBucii, whose' nanTe'jlnd'L v^l^^^^^^^^ foremost n,,on the i-oU of histoiT "^ ^^'^ I lie clumicter of Narspts nnn^o^o ♦ i, i and few amongst the Sc mTof 1 ""^ ''''" P'°"«j him in dovotioif to the Kssed V Jl ", "^"^ '^"^^^^^ to have revealed to him .Taro] • ^"' "^''^ ^' «^en said in which he Sly c Xd IS „T""*'*""'^^ "^"^^'^ »^«»1« yonthto be "3^ ^voiln f ""'"i'^L- ,A««"stomed in i-entleness ot"maL! 'wS'?',^. ^'"^'^/^ *h«"' t"ct and then rife at CrsSnSe On 1"^ '"*? *'^' com.ptions ga.ed in household's -he n^^^^^^^^ and cliPi- sht'd the cultivntmn «7 i i i * "^ heroism, quick to discern the tliono^Tfc j I ^ °^"" '"^''^^*^ct f.iM .he perfect ct.S„tfS„r" Hel^lrT' led an armv intn r+oi,. . „ i / , "^ "-^d alreadv forces made up of vnrio" s mn?.3f I ^,f ^«a™«- With love of their ^leadeNars^srS' ^'*.-" ""^^^ ^° ^^e the Adriatic, and cms^ino on L/^' " T'^^'S *^« ^^^d of the Adig-e, aS the Pn Zr ' ''^''*^^^'^''*^' fHce to fo^e w th m; ^,?^?f .^^»^^t'^^'"8- Rimini, came Wav. It was on one nfthl ?^'°^' "'''" ^"« Flarainian a.s tLe Romans awaS thf chS ^^ 'V'^'f' ^•^- ''^> cuirasses, or unbridlinVheir 1^^ w X"tl ^"')!'"!- ^^^^^^^^^ day meal was being- tiken tl «//>.' ^^"^^^^ the brief mid- played his personal^arfSr^ndl^^^^^^ ^^'^'ogoth di.s- the two armies. 11^ s„..? I'^^^'^i^'P'^^^ ^«^«en -, t« wear away.^f: "^^^^7^^^^^^ 80 MODERN HISTORY. [a.d. 355-8^ are told that, enchased in golden armour, with a purj)le banner floating before him, Tie cast his lance into the air, caught it with his right hand, shifted it to the left, threw himself backward, recovered his seat, and managed a fiery steed in all the evolutions of the equestrian school. These pranks, half-childish, half-savage, soon gave way to more serious events, and before the onset, Totila had changed his plumage for the dress of a private soldier. His cavalry rushed foiward too far in front of his infantry, both march- ing to destmction ; for Narses, by the judicious retreat of his centre, allured them within the horas of a crescent. The Roman wings presented thousands of archers, whose aiTows transpierced the flanks of their foes. Thrown at once into coniusion, these fell back upon their own infantry ; horses and men got entangled together, trampling down, and wounding each other ; no space remained for the use of lance or spear; and once more the imperial eagles soared triumphantly over the slaughter of the barbarians. Totila fell, and Rome was retaken, having changed masters five times in the reign of Justinian. Tejawas the last who wore the Ostrogothic crown. The Franks and Alemanni had to be again encountered, A.D. 553-4; but victory every where attended the watchful and gifted eunuch. Winter and summer found him alike irepared either for peace or warfare. He taught his legions, otn by pi-ecept and example, the lessons of valour and mercy. Chanting his praises, with garlands in theii" hands, they reduced the whole of Italy, which he governed for fifteen years, as the first Exarch of Ravenna. His adminis- tration, indeed, was exercised over desolated cities and de- 1)opulated provinces. No less than twenty years of conflict lad scourged the Western Empire since the expedition against Gelimer. Dunng this period a fiiU share of cala- mity fell upon Africa, where Arianism renoimced none of its bitterness even in its dying agonies; and rebellions of the Moors, a.d. 643-558, mingled incredible bloodshed with the convulsions of unsuccessful heresy. As a nation, the Vandals absolutely disappeared from the face of the land. Procopius aflSims that five millions of provincials or invaders perished, and he sets down fiftem or sixteen I CH. ri.J MODERN HISTORY. 91 aanc-er , both had persecuted the Church of «nH o«/i nary energy and Men^ -rnlkmrh^ZST"^- S?Se caofS Sf/o".'!""''"- of the West, the delive4 fecatsd helped out the'SdS i.^i::^^^'^^^ weJ irrl'Ser^f^'/'" "■» ^'-- °"S«„ian J?ctr^,ire„ttrH*^»',^^^^^^^ . — «= -— B- vi i^uauirvan or Uiiubrues ae MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 640-51. lasted for nearly eight-and-forty years, a.d. 631-570, the most prospei-ous period of the house of Sapor. He in- vaded Syria a.d. 640, partly throug-h the instigation of an Ostroffotluc embassy. Antioch fell a prey to mas- sacre and conflagration. The Colchian or Lazic war, in those regions now called Mingrelia, a.d. 649-656, drew large annual subsidies from the empire— barely suflicient to satiate his pride or avarice, and induce .the successor of Cyrus to abandon the banks of the Phasis. His realms, indeed, extended from the Indus to the Euphrates; and at Ctesiphon the Byzantine ambassadors submitted to msult in silence. They were informed, that Chosroes « as- sumed the majesty of the eastern sun, and gi-aciously per- mitted his you»ger brother Justinian to preside over the west, with the pale and reflected splendour of the moon •" It IS remarkable, that some of these mag-niloquent pre- tensions had sober facts to rest upon; for the Persian monarch occasionally interfered in the domestic arrange- ments and policy of the empire. Thus, when an edict had suppressed the schools of Athens, he exacted by treaty that seven Athenian philosophers, who had emigi-ated into his neighbourhood, although still Roman subjects, should be exempted from the penal laws against pag-anism. Amidst these and similar mortifications at home and abroad, the ancient and venerable rank of Consul was for- mally extinguished a.d. 641 ; although the adoption of the Incarnation, as the commencement of modem chro- nology, by Dionysius Exiguus, is of later date in prac- tice ; nor did it become universal until the age of Char- lemagne. Meanwhile disasters thickened. The earth- quakes of May A.D. 526, and July a.d. 551, with nume- rous other annual vibrations, from the Bosphoras to the Dead Sea, almost desolated entii-e countries. Constanti- nople was more or less shaken during as many houi-s in various seasons as amounted altogether to forty days. A mountain was torn from Libanus, and precipitated into the waves ; the ocean advanced, or retreated, us the case might be, far beyond its ordinary bounds; enormous chasms opened m unexpected places ; and amidst the sudden ruin of Antioch and Berytus myriads were swallowed up, or CIt. Il.J crashed to death. MODERN HISTORY. m DnwpHoH aZ','.T" 5'?'f *''"' phenomena accompanied or ES «nnw™*'"i P-"'"'.'-''""™'. ™«1' a« stupendous SkeYfoL lvtce'"r """.'"'If? "enfuy, ,„ ,„l Wh.n „t ■. 1 1!'™"™ to province, from city to citv have dfed ta ZtV'T ^''?'^ ""'^^'J' '"'^ LZ^t tC^m -tS 7°'''' '" I'?'v harvests withe,-ed on niim^tt'd ™hir%'''P'T''^"'*^""- ««cceeded, and ad- but at TpvpSr? • T"^ ^' satisfactorily ascertained; savages descended upon tl/J V'S;ch 4^s S^t' °^ nftrpo M.„.y-i."V . „*^? ^'^ people would imoose tliAii- --m... ..„.^. „, ,„eir raciier« had served in the imperial 84 MODERN HISTORY. [a.d. 574-582. ranks, and must have frequently described the fertility and attractiveness of the pleasant land. When the Gepidsa had seized upon Pannonia and Noricum, these Lombards had checked their aspiring barbarism. Fierce beyond the example of the Sclavonians, the Avars, the Geimans, or other wild warriors of the North, they delighted to propa- gate the tremendous belief that their heads were canine in appearance, and that they drank the blood of their ene- mies whom they conquered in battle. IVenty thousand Saxons accompanied them from Upper and Lower Hun- gary, besides a mixed multitude of marauders, who could climb rocks, swim rivers, remain in ambuscade under water, drawing their breath through reeds, and imitate the habits of the bear or the beaver. Within a brief pe- riod the vast acquisitions of BeHsarius and Narses were again torn away fi-om the empire, with the exception of cei-tain narrow limits assigned to the Exarchate of Ra- venna, the cities of Rome and Pentapolis, and some other towns on the Adriatic. Beholding the inevitable dismem- berment of their dominions, and having no male heir, Justin and Sophia adopted Tiberius, a faithful captain of the guards, as their son and associate in the throne, Decem- ber A.D. 574. After four years, Justin departed. His chosen coUeagTie, whose reig*n shines out as a sunbeam in Byzantine annals, having suitably interred his bene- factor, September a.d. 578, reformed the court, redeemed captives, baffled the restless designs of the imperial widow, anxious to marry him ; lowered the pressure of taxation, dispensed impartial justice to all classes, and transmitted the diadem to Maurice, the husband of his daughter, in August A.D. 582. Tiberius expired amidst the tears of nations. His successor governed for full twenty summers, with various fortunes and clouded reputation. In Italy matters descended from bad to worse almost every day. Alboin was murdered by his queen Rosamond ; to whom, in an iifsane fit of drunkenness, he had dared to send a draught of wine in the skull of her father. All Lombardy was included at this time under the name of '^jiguria, separated from the territories of the Alemanni by both the RbsBtias. The fierce invaders liad got rid of their — , I II Hi'wfimmi CH. II.] MODERN HISTORY. 9b Saxon allies, but they still wore their hideous Ion? beards- and thouo-h Pavia promised to spring- up from L ashes s^Jl ^-li iT v°* ^'^'''' '^'« «»* sun-ounded for many a mutf fhi, t r^^""'- .^ 8^«"«''ation. and more, to trans- tTon Itl •''"!!" '1^ any permanent foms of civilisa- whp'n thp/V" fl^""^''^ i ^''^"^ ^-^J^'bit^d themselves, PnZn T T^^ "ifSr ' ^"^'"^^^ Tuscany ; and Piacenza SnTS n1' and Bolog:na, adorned thefc.ilian province vS *^T r^^^pration to Lombard dukes, wfiilst Venice was ovei-shadowing- Acjuileia. These social changes, however, were passiiig^ tlirough their primary stagj of Z7m^^ wretchedness at the close of th" siXand the con^mencement of the seventh centuries. St. Gregory the Gi^a t the first of that name, then filled the ffl of St. Peter and he warmly and naturally appealed to e^nZf ^ *^« P^tection to which he was JntitL. The empeioi, though m some respects an able man, turned a t \iZl t i'V^^onstr^ncejj the more guilty in doing shin r/^ f^ once enjoyed the Pope's personal friend- ship and must have known his perfect disinterestedness. Unhappily avarice and worldliness enslaved his soul, Td d 2v .T ""r^'^ '*f ^^" r"«¥«« of supposed exm. nS. ^''"fv ^^Pa% with schism and Lesy. fe uSn ^Ir/'^r^ T'^ from entering into monaster^! Pxnii fi'*^ ^^^^ ^^'"^ «°^^'«^ '* he sided with the ±.iarch of Ravenna against the Head of the Church, whom robEedTw 1 '^''^r^'^^ ^'f7' ^^'^^^ ^« eontumacioSX Srnn«Ji^- f"^''*'' and he sanctioned the Patriarch of Constantinople in assuming the title of (Ecumenical or woTdT.^ ^^^'^- J^^^'^y po^tiffinstructed a sneting Sv Tb! rV 'f'' ^r P^*'^"'^^ ^°d '-^buke with b f fl JV 1 '^^^^^''^ prayed, wept, and exhorted, while his i^ock av prostrate and bleeding in every quarter hood a T.ifi?f r? "^'^^ '°^'"^^ "^^*^*^' ^"d the priest- Persian nfi^i' ^%P^°T''«d a^inst the 'proud Pereian, ma fresh wai- after the deaA of NushiWanr ^uu»c graGason ne restored to his throne, besides cany: M MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 595-603. in^ the Roman frontiers to the margin of the Araxes and the Caspian. He also subdued the Chagan of the Avara, who dwelt in the rustic palace of Attila, reaching with a sanguinary sceptre over the utmost limits of Hungary, Poland, and Pmssia, from the Danube to the Oder, a.d. 695-602. His general, Priscus, indeed, fought all the battles, illustmting the practice, whilst his sovereign com- posed twelve books upon the theory of war. Such tran- sient and illusive triumphs only inflamed the corruption of the legions. Maurice refused to advance six thousand pieces of gold, which would have purchased twice that number of lives, among the prisoners still under the power of the Chagan. That monster massacred them to a man. In a moment the metropolis revolted. The emperor fled with his wife and children, as Phocas, a centurion, was pro- claimed in his stead, the 23d of November, a.d, 602 ; and four days afteinvards, near Chalcedoni, his enemies and executioners overtook him. In the agonies of chronic sciatica, and probably also amidst the pangs of geimine re- pentance, he had besought Almighty God that his punish- ment might be in this life mther than in the next. The ministere of rebellion slaughtered five of his sons succes- sively before the eyes of their father. At each sad siroke he moumfiilly exclaimed, " Thou art just, Lord ! and Thy judgments are righteous!" and even revealed to the assassins a generous attempt on the part of a nurse to substitute one of her own children in the room of a royal infant. His own murder then closed the tragedy ; and the heads of the victims were cut off and exposed to the rude gaze of multitude!, until either their putrefiiction or the Eity of Phocas at last procured for them the melancholy onour^ of sepulture. CH. III.] MO iERN HISTORY. m CHAPTER III. A.D. 600—1100. The present will be a good opportunity for dwelling some moments upon that divine institution for which all others were created. We have already seen the Church of God stnkmg root m society. Whilst its soul could know no change there must be external developments, adapting themselves to the varying wants of mankind. It was and IS to be the great Mother of all the faithful; a spiritual kmgdom destined to fill the whole earth; a system to absorb, or at least control, every other; and to become at last a reflection of the Heavenly Jerusalem, not merely, as now shimne from St. Peter's Chair over various nations S? 'f ^'^^ ™^".Y countries, but ultimately blending the in- tellects, the mmds, and the hearts of an entire world into one chorus of unity and love, through the energetic opera- tions of one Lord, one faith, and one baptism Its prin- ciples of vitality were such as could alone bear the wear and tear of a dissolving empire; presenting the same aspect of solemn immortality and invincibility; amidst the shock of violence the chaos of confusion, or the silent can- fjSt'% ^^-. ^"P'^^"' '' *^« °ld««* «f «" existing ?L,nff>, ^^" ^««r the la^t trumpet, and Witness in triumph the awfiil conflagration of the globe, th/r^f *^^- J8"^«^ Constantino to that of St. Gregory, the great saint alluded to in the last chapter. Estates pnlwr.'?*'^,' ^'«*%,^ere termed, of vast ex-^nt, had em-iched the Holy See. It could claim proprietorshio over Corsica, Gaid, Egyfrt, and Africa. Not only did these S'i'J ''! '!k "^"^ ^^* ^" "^^^^ '^^' *^« actual righte 38 MODERN HISTOttV. [a.D. 300-600. noa, and the Riviera of the sea-coast, are instances of this; besides others in the cantons of the Abruzzi, Lucunia, Tuscany, Sabinia, or Calabria, where the annual revenues! with those of certain territories in Sicily, amounted to three talents and a half of gold, or about 10,000/. sterling. In the metropolis and the Campagna v-nvg numerous houses villas, and tracts of fertile land attached to the Lateran Palace. Imperial or private murificence had been the sole sources of such opulence, as cannot be too often re- peated ; the same voluntaiyisra of wnich we hear in the Acts of the Aoostles. While puch streams of wealth thus flowed willingly to the feet of the Suui-^me Pontiffs, their hberahty, on the other hand, dispersed it abroad in every conceivable direction ; so that in becoming univereal almon- ers to the faithful, their official influence grew with the growth and strengthened with the strength of the Church, rheir spiritual power had an origin which was directly di- vme, the authority conferred by our Blessed Saviour on St. Peter and his successors. Recognised, as this could not fail to be, by all classes of true Christians, from the highest to the lowest, there sprang up w.th it indirectly a temporal power, which it was impossible to separate from the other, any more than we can divide the coloui>s of the rainbow, declaring where one commences and ano- ther ends; nor has any code that has ever been published endeavoured with any success to do so. In the times of the Apostles there is the highest sanction afforded for the arbitration of the hierarchy in secular affairs; and matters naturally went on upon similar principles. The aiTange- ment ordained by heaven for saving souls, being also proved capable of conferring so many advantages with regard to earthly conceras, daily received more abundant homage and regard. Immunities of various kinds came to be at- tached to the clergy, the prelates, the ecclesiastical courts, the churches, and, above all, to the Roman See. The rights of jurisdiction over civil causes insensibly extended partly through the cheei-ful submission of appellants, partly through imperial laws and rescripts, partly from the inhe- ^^j ^?^^^^^^ ^"d reasonableness of the authority itself and, above all, from the manifest direction and providence CH. III.] MODKntf HISTORY. 30 of Almif^hty God. The seat of empire, transferred into the Lasi; by Constantine, left the West a prey to the tender merges of barbarians; and the Papal thronf;, founded upon the Seven Hills, rose amidst the clouds and darkness of the early and medicBval centuries, an asylum for the elements of order, as well as the sanctuary for all that is holy. An ascendmg scale of appeals, fi-om inferior to higher pre- lacies, here terminated. A voice from the old mistress ot the world, uttered in the language of love and per- suasion instead of warlike menace as formerly, defined doctnnes and settled controversies to the utmost limits ot civilisation, and often beyond them. Who could criti- cally resolve into their original proportions and relations the spiritual and temporal powers thus united into a mysterious entirety, operating upon society at large,' and energising in every realm of Christendom, just as tlie soul animates the body? There was a mighty "work to be per- formed upon the face of a fallen world, and the Church was the divinely-constituted missionary for that purpose. No potentates, however, were ever more really modest than the Popes, in putting forth their prerogatives. Gelasius and Symmachus, in addressing the Emperor Anastasius, lay down very clear lines of distinction, quite sufficient for general objects in honest and humble minds, between pon- tihcal and imperial authority.* Human and divine things . nevertheless so play into and cross each other in this sub- lunary scene, that from a sino^le source, such as sacramental confession, for example, with all that may rise out of it, endless complications might ensue between the two powers. How easily would absolutions and dispensations clash, upon mere worldly notions, with the obligations of oaths, and allegiance, and alliance, under certain circumstances. Upon Catholic principles, which are alone true, the Church can ♦ TTieir words to the emjperor are striking .- " Omnis potestas a iJeo est, magis ergo quae rebus est prsestitiita divinis. Defer Deo in nobis, et nos deferemus Deo in te. C»terum si tu Deo non deferas, non potes ejus uti privilegio, cujus jura contemnis." "All power IS from God ; the greater power, therefore, is that which 13 occupied with divine things. Do thou obey God in us, and we wiU obey God in thee. But if thou dost not obey God. thou cttDsi Boi use tm priviittge, wboM law* thou dost contwnn." ' «0 MODBllN HISTORY. [a.D. 300-600. be the only ultimate judge in cases of conscience : nor was it by chance tjjat for many nj^es the clergy claimed perfect exemption from all civil judicature whatsoever. Affairs thus went forward until the first Gregory, so justly canonised, was placed in the position of a temi)oral, as well as a spiritual sovereign. Between the feebleness and falsehood of the Byzantine Court on the one side, and the desolations of Italy on the other, he would have com- oromised his duty before God and man had he refused to be the prince of his people. 'J'o all intents and purposes, agamst his own will his crozier became a sceptre, and the tiara something gi-eater than a duidera. He had to defend cities, preside over the policy of peace or war, nominate the commanders of armies, or even direci the operations of troops; the finances, the fountains of law and equity, municipal and national government, were guided by his genius 5 whilst they aupiented to an almost intolerable degree the pressure of his ecclesiastical administration upon his own health. It is true that previous popes had paved the way for all or much of this —for it was their glorious office and vocation ; the great St. Leo had braved the wrath of Attila and Geuseric, a^id twice saved Rome, and his predecessors and successors, through a period of several hundred years, were fi-equently heroic pontiffs jf the same class. Amidst persecution and trial, they be- lieved, they reigned, they suffered, and they loved. When emperora ventured to interfere in episcopal elections, what a combination of wisdom and firmness had to be mani- fested; since it was always the weak contending against the strong. What the Goths and Justinian had been to Sylverius, the Lombards and Maurice were to Gregory. At length the sovereignty of the exarchate itself came to be merged in the Patrimony of S.t. Peter. No arm of flesh waj found strong enough to nn-est the natural cul- mination of the Papacy : as a mighty historical fact, its spiritual domination gradually gathered around it stupen- dous temporal authority. The intrusiveness of Constanti- nople vanished from before it; barbarism changed 'nto civilisation through its influence; heresy sometimes shook, but always finally consolidated the sacerdotal throne. Its CH. 111. J UOOBRN HISTOHY. 41 occunant, for seven centimes and a half, from the icono. clasnc s nio-glo to the so-called Refoma ion, browned em Fnteiv-'c?'r'\^f 7' '''}''''' ^^^^ "^^'^^ counties nd^ w eiv -ct launched the thunders of the Church aSJ fhlhTh"^ 0PP''e«Bi0n, and acted out that chamctcTS which the consent of all Europe had invested him hi supreme President of Christendom. WitriSmerto" hiS ^irhi ten v'-^'"^!, ^'f entertained. Bdlai-mine. Ron. caglia, Bianchi, and others, attribute to it nn ««„;«% tZ ''f' '^r'"^'? ^^•"^-h'^^ s^nctio'^sKve"' lation Accordmg to them, the direct and immediltfl object ol ecclesiastical power is to govern the tSS with 1^ erenc to their spiritual necesfitLs whUstlt 1h« aame Ume huUrectl^, alid, as a nece a 4 Inseouence there is and must be also an authontv fn Vhi X I' pmniount with regard to tlp^rarmLT^ beTx emsed,ofcourse,forthe greater goodTrSon Som; ^TZ'Zr.'frh ''''' oPPo- E'svs't^m SDirUl IIa 'f "^™*«? So^^^'^t, who maintains tlmt the spiritual and temporal powers are equallv sovereioVin wSh diX^ If *"!J' ^^' -'"'^-'^"y ^«"»fl itself environ^ sciences' vp<- fl,n+ i,. *i, ./,'''" "'^ guidance ot con- 48 MODERN HIITORT. [a.D. 760.100a ) toon lusted, and no longer. It rested, in fact, upon fo uations ana ogo.^ to those which some mode;n p^ Io«o|,],ei-s have laid down as the great basis of the sS contmct Do Maistro modifies, whilst he admits thi views of the Archbishop of Cambray, by endJvomL tj compi^hend wxthm them the origi/'of^divine righ fn a direct, as well as m an indirect sense. The Uur" h at iiDerty to form their own conclusions. The territorial iS r / " •''"'^^' ""^ ""^'''^ "^o''^ conve^ently in a later chapter; just now we may look for an instant ut the results of what has sometime^s been termed he ^icy ot Dmne Providence more especially since his ffstory and actions possess a peculiar interest for Englishmen ^ world ^nlv^. *^ P""^^* '•'"^^'^^ ^ *'^'«™''n to the world on which its happiness and prosperity depended To the corruption of the emi)erors had succeeded as we have seen the violence of the barbarians. But howev^J necessai-y this wholesome inft.sion of vigour milK It would scarcely have done for (lie iron age to h^ve endu J longer than it d d. The saintly Pontiff drew a pictZ of Man devastation and misery which might tC have found its para lei in nearly alfthe provincf of the wtl Every thing," he assures the imperturbable Maurice 4 pven over to the mercy of savages,nhe cit.es are deSyed the fortresses disiuantled; the open coMitry, stript S inhabitants, is become a wilderness for want o fcultLtion and the servants of Christ are the daily victims, Tmmofe tLi ' r^"'"*"7 superstition of these idola oS." The l^mbards spared nothing: and but for the Catholic i^! tlfi ' ;11 ^«»W have been lost. This was alone preserved through the instrumentality of the Popedom, nnHieX torian of infidelity might 4u declai-e that, ' iL Thebes" Babylon, or Nineveh, the name of Rome Wuld have bS ^ed from the earth, if the city had not been ammS by aj undying nrinciple, which a^in restored her to honom- S'rr:. nf"f ^ ''^I smuuFdei^d, in its best element undai the mhea of its conflagration from these the watch- on. tir,] MODERIf HlflTORT 43 ful 8heph«rd rolit ten thousand flames, not only on the altars at th« sanctuory, but upon the hmvth. and amidst nLhT'J '"'^'^""'; ^"'-^^'-^ «"«'' "°'^'« efforts in^ain ^on rpnS "T- "" - ^^'^ '"'''* disastrous circumstances, Zm?! t""'^ '*' °'?""''y consequences : calamity itself was made a moans of revival; for preachers appealed to ttoS';rr ""''^''^ ^««-" with gLtor effectXn e'er! m\2ff ««"«"8nes« and alarm produced by the public misfoit, nes. The g-enuine essence o/ civilisation was pVoved to be Identical with Christianity. It has been sairthat St Gregory manifested some hostility against literature- yet It w^ only against the abuse of it, in making as he conceived, heathen authors the chief insti-uctors o^outh! to tlio apparent peril of their religion and morals. 6n the te les with schools attached to them, where alone, in sub- se juent ages, letters and the sciences found safe ^ylums. t^l Z^:^ ^T.'^' ''''''''^' of ir,.nkind led him to la/down SciT^,'^n.r^ ";-^™"' ^'^>"'''-^* government, is well as civd an(i ecclesiastic, .noms ; all tending to maintain IfnTnft P,'°"'^*!™ "^^ «n«le anil agriculture, the obliga- r? 1 """li^^ f"*'"' «°^ ^o">^'«ti« purity, the rights of the E thf ^n.' '^'""' '"' *h«.^"Jfi^-ent o/lier holf ZoHon! as the grand inHmictress of the world. His merciful mis ot smiilar labours for -he welfare of pagans or hevetics ^nlnr nf /-^ *^r'' T'' *° "^"«*"^*« theUadth and grandeur of his paternally apostolic charactei His cor- tZ in r ^''^' f.' °ations,Ltentates, and prelat" of hS ao^H^ i,17 "^^JJ^' "'"^«««'««' ^»d presents of bo^ks^ hffiris W^ n''''^'^.^'' e^peciallv when his perpetual ill.' eldir V JT '""'^' *°^ *^'»* ^« was little moi-e than ffiL of Iron"''- '* ^'^^ ^^«" *^"^3^ «ai t^«t the oestmies ot iiurope were never so completely risked unon S^nf.1^^ t- ™ °°,.' 'i ""' «"« '» Wm that tie last fw" E^ Z"?"-!':.!''? West was not a«ing„ish«i for i-~-i«u,»ra5 ac iMg$ ciMQgmi their swordi 44 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 600i into ploughshares, beneath a series of beneficent efforts for their conversion commenced bvhis pastorals to their queen Iheodolinda: her consort and son, with numbers amonir their followers, bowed their ferocious necks to the yoke of the gospel, while the Goths of Spain and the Saxons of Jiritam added their spiritual trophies; so that, for his suc- cessors in the Ghau- of St. Peter, there was bequeathed an impregnable preponderance in the temporal as well as in * the ecclesiastical affairs of Christendom. 4? _P",der such circumstances, however anxious the Prince ot Darkness might be for carrying on his warfare in the world against the kingdom of Almighty God, ho could no longer depend upon paganism for that purpose within the hmits of the Roman empire. He therefore resoited to heresy and schisms as his next best poHcy. To restore mankind from the effects of the fall the Catholic Chm-ch had received her divine mission, and was executing it ir- resistibly ; her faith, unity, and universality, together with her Apostolical origin, jvere destmed to overthrow every obstacle : but to impugn or attack these, or any one of them, was to aim at the apple of her eye. Hence it became an object with eiror to exalt reason into the place ot revelation. The private judgment of each individual was to have the effect of an infallible authority, than which few thing;s could be more seductive to the human mmd. It constituted every one his own pope; and struck at the basis of the Church, under pretence of independent mquu'v. If examined closely, this temptation will appear ^ ^s^ another edition of the diabolical artifice which ejected the first Adam from paradise. It is simply pride pitted against humility; an oppositiou on the part of man to implicit obedience, such as an Infinite Creator has a n^t to require from His creature. Brief was the interval suffered to elapse before the mischief began ; nor had the inspired foundisrs of religion withdrawn from the eaith, when the first attacks were made upon the dogmas of a resui-rection and the deity of the Son of God. An immense list of heretics might be given, even prior to the appeai-ance ot Anus, whose opinions for a season overran the surface of the world. Apostatising emperors and schismatical Drelatea. 45 CH. Itll.J MODERN HISTORY. seemed to fancy that tlie Church hereelf might be deposed h-om her position; for beneath the shadow of the Holy See unadulterated Tnith had to fly for p-otection, hke a mvse- cuted dove from its pursuers; and it was forgotten that the ioundations of Rome were laid upon the Rock of A^es. lluman intellect and secular selfishness were far more de- sirous otexploiing with in-everent curiosity the nature of Christianity, than of receiving- its doctrines or practising its precepts Ihe second and third Pei-sons of the gloHous Irmity liud been imjiugTied, as to their divine Characters and o])emtions, by Paul of Samosata, the celebrated Pres- byter ot Alexandria, Macedonius, and a host of other inno- vators, when the Councils of Nice and Constantinople in some measure allayed the storm. To the disputes upon tlie Irmity succeeded those upon the Incarnation : while both had their more remote origin in the Gnosticism or Manichffiism of the earliest centuries. Judaism and Hea- thenism helped to inflame the discord. To the Ebionites 01- Nazarenes the Redeemer had only a human nature ; the Docetos received Him as a phantom or a shadow. Cerinthus united the two heresies; which subsequently developed into a congeries of absurdities, in the blasphemous ima^ations of those against whom St. Irenajus directed his treatise. Apolhnans taught that the Godhead was blended with a body m which the Logos supplied the office of a soul. Ihe kaleidoscope of falsehood multiplied the forms of illu- sion; nor could the most preposterouc distortion remain ong without Its sect of disciples, when once the centre of xmity had been relinquished. Conftision every where sowed t e teeth of the old serpent, in resistance to authority and the annihilation of social order. Constantinople, Egypt, and the Easte™ dioceses oifeied the most fertile and proli^fic Sntf'n '"'^ feaiful harvests; although champions of 11^ nn/-"^"' ^""^ °»-*^^°ioxy uDheld the batholic standai-d with mdymg renown. But unliappily, that ambition had already manifested itself, which teTdeM to exalt the By- zantine Patmrch to an almost independent headship over the Oriental Church; so that,placed in this unsound position' symptoms of subsequent schism werfl too fi.or,nJf,|^ «-J pamiuay apparent." Westorius, a.d. iSd-'sirpretend^ ! MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 429-488. nicely to discriminate between the humanity of his TVro«*^. anst, and the divinity of the Loz^ Sa^^S.. • the B^^sS Virgm he professed to revere as the parent of JesusfS ^uSwH^' &«.title as^he Mother of G^^ wmcnbi ought down upon him a condifrn condemnation in the third oecumenical council at Ephesus nLrival^F^ Sd Sn2fw"7r°^ '^'^'^^ thTrevSrefre con! rtman ting 1 rbTt ZT' '"* ^'^^ ^^*"-> thirty bishops assembled in the Church of St ^nnh '• "^ h!l! A . Catholic creed; which, together with th« honoui-s due to our Lady, the Holy Virgin Mary on the S^tl'm tht r ^.f"^*^' the Jforw^M T^^SLZ h wneat trom the chaff throughout the empire NLtoi.inni»«, unhappily extended itself Lr the whofo o"f Pe a X™ the clergy abandoned celibacy, and fomented the w! pSo?of thf ?ot^^^^ '°i *^ ?'°^^'''' ^^^*^^^*^ *« *b«i^ pel vei-sion ot the gospel; which also, at a later neriod mfu\» anotUCT name retained numerous proselytes after it I,«J :etkh;^=™l 7,/»'',''««^ »/ b JdSA 1^ sepmcura. At Alexandria, the fiiry of heterodoxy bursf foith beyond even previous bounds. ^ The fathers S cZl cedon had deposecf and punished Dioscurus/one of rts most profligate and schismatical archbishops Preterit affairs upon secular principles, ' only added iuel to ^ CH. in.] MODERN HISTORY. 47 flames; nor could the Henoticon of the Emperor Zeno, A.D. 48^', rescue the temporising patriarchs of his metro- polis fi-om the justice of papal disapprobation. Justinian and Iheodora walked in the same ways with their pre- decessor. The latter had listened to the disciples of tiutyches, and though her consort discerned the errors of Ungen, and brought about their condemnation in the fifth genei-al council, a.d. 553, his interference with the Holy See was mtolerable ; nor need we wonder at the heresy of his latter yeai-s, when he declared that not only was the body of Christ incorruptible, but that His Manhood had never been su ct to any of our innocent wants or in- hrmities. nothelitism soon followed, opposing the or- thodox that each of the two natures in our divine aaviour .ziust possess its distinct and proper enerffy. although of course, in operation they are invariably the same. Heraclius upon this propounded his famous Ecthe- sis or Lxposition A.D. 639; and subsequently, his grand- son Constans his Type or Model, a.d. 648, to satisfy weak consciences; instead of leaving it to the Catholic Church, who alone can define what is correct or what is erroneous doctnne. The Popes were true on aU occasions to their tolv principles, cheerfully submitting to exile or death, rather than suffer the least approach to compromised wherever and whenever Catholicity could prevail, peace, order, and prospeiity resulted; but for tlie most part iwT/ °?i .?" Oriental regions, metaphysical subtlety •wept with the force of a simoom, and prepared a path *f ™P'i for the greatest impostor who had yet appeared, —Mahomet and his terrible Saracens. ^ ff "» 41, 5?^/*"l5in§: ^s the contrast between St. Gregory in the West, and the false prophet in the East, as the repre- sentatives of truth and error. Each stands out on the page ot history, an impersonation of his own system. They were to a certain extent contempomries, and their memoire attord us an opportunity of comparing, on the largest scale, the nature and consequences of Catliolicity with those of hsresy. Both wjere evidently amongst the foremost men ot theu- time. The Po^ announces his creed of Chris- ^«««..j,— caca uogma cfeai'iy stated,— the Scrmtureg in • MODERN HISTORT. [a.D. 620-610 fe'thTL? documents of proof, the Church, of which he Spts^ho e^? F^'" '" conversions^and miracles; 1 E Critv o//r' .r""' °''^''' obedience, loyalty, Invfl r,« ", .J^^:^ ^v^^y idea of vicarious propitiation- it mnrnm CH. III.] MODERW HI8T0RT. ^ auy maae. Kobbers had plundei-ed one of the caravans • ana to avenge the injury-, the young son of Abda fah " ' a taining his manhood, fii^t took up^arms His next ex pb.t was to many a rich widow, which gave h m wealS ^opfe S'rxnec^T ^!? T'^^' ^« ha^ heard thr/j people still expected a dehverer: and various hprPfiV.« escaping from the Roman frontiers, eSled on S pnment fanc^ their own errors, intS^niSd with t^^^^^ Wmente of truth and fact which enabfe faSod to float upon the waves of time. His country and its in habitants also excited his attention and compassion %?; first seemed the very school for an easteTSSast a wilderness dreary and almost destitute of iTfe: therys of a cloudless sun descending upon the lonely CtbSth Ll7 "^r'?r-*r«J ^'^losial columns oYsand mS fearfully and silently across naked plains ; hills ^-3 pendicular rocks glazed in brightness" with here S there a spring of water, where tSe camel drinks in 0.°^ leL^nii^^T T^ '"''^^ ^°°^«^^« ^o«^ season afler ^ponZeanh J^^^^^^ ^'^^""^ °*^^«'' dweller, of^JeL^LZf^'-^^V-'^ '^^'"^ ^^"'•^^"^ instead tW fW ; ™ they rejoiced m tents instead of walls - that they trusted m swords instead of trenches- LTln joyed poems instead of laws ! Their catnb,1?Hl ' J - • ^. .__^„ ,^ ^,^^j j^^^^^ ^j.^^,^ ^^^^ B 60 M09ESN HZflTORT. [a.D. 010*6d0* among the very best materials for a fanatic to form to his own purposes. Often seized either by fits of catalepsy, or falling into what is now better known as the trances of mesmerism, he beJieved himself in communication with the voices of angels. His vocation to the prophetical office came thus to him, a.d. 610, according to his own account, which of course will be attributed to self-delusion, or dia- bolism, or both, as the reader pleas )s. Fraud and violence, at all events, were sui)ei-added to the summons of Gabriel ; when Mahomet attempted to seize the office of Guai'dinn to the Sacred Stone, and nearly lost his life in the tumult. His flight on this occasion, the 16th of July, a.d. 622, commenced tlie epoch of the Hegira, whence the Moslem reckon their time, and which was instituted by the Caliph Omar, a.d. 639. The belief of Islam adapted itself with v onderful fa- cihty to Arabian prejudices and heretical pi-ed lections. It avowed the Unity of God, with the necessary fiction that Mahomet was his Apostle. Speaking about as respectfully as some of the ancient schismatics or modern Protestants would do conceming Om* Blessed Lady and her Divine Son, the Koran evidently depends upon its Anti-Tiinita- rianism, or, in other words, upon . - rational heterodoxy, to find favour amongst the crazy fanatics of Syria, Persia, Egypt, and Afiica. Sound is substituted in the room of sense, and self-indulgence in the place of self-denial ; while over the whole is thrown an illusive veil of ibrmalism, with precisely those counterfeits of real piety and austerity, apai't irom divine gi-ace, which lull the conscience into slumber ; such as certain ablutions, prayers five times a-day, the rite of ciixjumcision, the gieat fast of the Ramadan, the Sab- bath on a Fi-iday, very moderate almsgiving, and the pilgrimage to Mecca. A sanguinary thirst for conquest spread far and wide. His own mission, being a comple- ment of all that ever went before, was to supersede every other; and as he personally declined an appeal to the supernatural, he felt himself under the greater necessity of feeding the nascent zeal of his adherents with at least ma- terial triumphs. His votaries, however, in later periods, supplied an Abundance of marvelo ' thfiy assure us that ca. III.] MODERIf HISTORY. ftf trees went forth to meet him ; that he was sahited by stones; that water gushed from his fingers; that the rafters of a house groaned to him ; that irrational animds orvei-whelmed him with their complaints; that a pai-ticulaf ahoulder of mutton informed him of its being poisoned: Witii legends of similar quaUty, amounting in number to nearly three thousand, f ue genuine phenomenon of his .character lay in his influence over the Saracens. His first Victory at Beder procured the announcement, that warriors tailing in his cause de[)arted to endless enjoyment, in fra- gi-aut and shady groves, where beautiful vii-gins awaited them; where celestial attendants sprinkled them from fountains of the roses of Paradise; while in goblets of pearl and gold they quickened appetite and quaflfed im- moi-tahihr. He then summoned Heraclius of Constanti- nople, Cnosi-oes of Persia, and the Emirs of Arabia, to re- ceive his commands and submit to his laws. He adopted & signe* of the most precious metals, inscribed with an apostolic title. In preaching, he leaned against the trunk of a palm-tree, until this was exchanged for the use of a chair, and a pulpit of rough timber. After ten years of reg-al and sacerdotal digraty, a.d. 622-632, it was resolved to propagate his impostm-e by the force of fire and the edge of the scimitar. "The sword," says Mahomet, "is the key of heaven and hell; a drop of blood shed for • Islam, or a night spent in arms, is of more avail than two months of fasting and prayer ; whosoever dies in battle has his sins forgiven; at the day of judgment his wounds shall be odoriferous as musk, and resplendent as vermihon; and the loss of his Kmbs shall bo supplied by the plumes of angels and cheraibun." He expired of a fever, at the age of sixty-three, on the 7th of June, a.d. edJ, with the he on his lips, that the messenger of death cov .d not take his soul until permission had been asked from the fanatic himself for that purpose. A characteristic anecdote has been recorded of his conduct previous to his dissolution. " If there be any man," he exclaimed, "whom 1 have unjustly scourged, I now submit my ovn shoulders to the lash of retaliation ; have I asoersed thn r«nutatinn of a Mussulman? let Um pi-oduoe my faults in the &i» ~ »OI)E»» HHTOBT, [a.». 633-61. the Green r«lfnirr ^^^"^ ^^e became ancestress of two tC7 1 -'7 ''" T^ ^^y^ ot the celebrated SakHin no less cClVS^f fp^^d ""o;?"" °^ Ti""?« followed r eleven veai-s tn a -n o^k j* a t ' ^*^n^an for six :..ore, to ad 661 Vr^^'^t J T^ ^^' succeeded the deat , of MahompV fV., J ^ ^""^ generation after hours of pmyer in a th ?pS ^ "'""'^'^ »* ^^^ on their heXwTth si W^- ^'^r' ,^ ^°^«« ^^^^an which hJdid.^i«;::,tsii„^rJrrffl CB. III. I MODERN HI8T0RT. holes or patches m his tattered raiment; he was once found fest asleep anK,ngst the mendicants c>MSa°and h^ predecessor left nothing behind him but a T?/ ™n1 meLllf"''- 7f 'h' '"O'^tifications, it if bTre- JsD ri '^ !!''^^i"'f ''• ''leanness of heart nor poverty ot s^nt. Schism already rent asunder the Moslim into ensfof ?h:"K'''*%'* '^'^ ^T^''' ^^' moJiled fhe non' St^lth^Z ^^T' ^^""^.^^'^ *^°"«^"d traditions, ana the Schutes, or adherents of Ali, who beliPVA in thL ^d hoii """i'" du-ecta-deave to the letter oh ». KW°Uk'3ft"''';" t?^ themselves "?.brof ffSraSnt'lS^ r'^^^M^r "'""'• »f instruction and gufemmeiit Irom the humble Mecca to the snlsnHU n. Perished n'""''"''' f't '^' "°^^« AlSdriaL libmry them as « the sK offZCif t' T* f^^M '">' lorm an idea of^the luxuriousness and refinement of the x-ais v-onpi. Cinl, chap, il tm. 1. •i MODERN HISTORY [a.D. 634-760, first, from a silken carpet, whicli was sixty cubits square, inth a variegated and verdant border ; the most beau dfiil picture of Paradise was worked in the centre, whili th« roses, fruits, and shnibs, were embroidered in gold, with all the colours of the precious stones. Before the middle tf the seventh century, the Crescent glittered upon the walls of Ispahan and Persepolis, of Herat, Hamadan, Jleru, and Balk; along the sliores uf the Caspian and .he margin of the Oxus. Byria had no better fate: Damascus, with Its delicious gi-ovcfc and rivers, was stormed into capitulation, a.d. 634 ; Heliopolis and Emesa fell the fol- lowing year ; Jerusalem in a.d. 637 ; Antioch and Aleppo within twelve months aftemai-ds. Heraclius, the Ronian emperor, lost all the imperial provinces from Nubia and the Euphrates to the banks of the Bosphorus. Africa was invaded and conquei-ed from the Nile to the Atlantic Ocean, a.d. 647-709 ; and Spain in four summers, from A.D. 710 to A.D. 714. Under the last of the Ommiades, the representative of the false prophet stretched his sceptre over dominions extending two hundred days' jouraey from east to west ; whilst northward and southward they spread on every side, to the measui-e of four or iive months of the march of a caravan. From the Pyrenees to Cape St. Vincent, from the Straits of Gibraltar to the frontiers of China, over the greatest portion of the temperate zone, the blighting influences of the Koran prevailed. Cyprus and Rhodes were plundered. Within a centmy from the birth of Mahomet, his sectaries shook the fortifications of Constantinople, a.d. C68, and six times in as many ucces- sive seasons were their audacious attempts renewed. About two generations later the second grand siege was under- taken, A.D. 716-718, which principally failed throuo-h the efficacjr of the Greek fire, composed of naphtha, siSphur, and pitch, m certain proportions. This composition seems to have answered many of the purposes of gunpowder • it produced a thick smoke and loud explosion, would bum tiunously underwater, could be poured from lofty rampai-ts upon the heads and hands of assailants, and was sometimes thrown in red-hot balls of stone or iron, or let loose in fire- ships against aa enemy. When projected from copper cir. III.] MODERN HI8TOBT. M tubes these last were fashioned into the shapes of fanciful S r'.r?iT'*^ "" '""^^ ^ff^^*'^^ "Artillery for thow times so that t^e Samcens, until a later era, met with sure defeat around the Byzantine capital, whise inhnbitanU kolced upon their tremendous pfropy as a special^ft ^Tmni '°P'' ^f " *^« ^««^' ^"^^ ^^^ Ai-abs in ♦X^o • . A'°"f ^^ ^'"'■"'•"^ enterprises were under- S Xh '* >rn ^^"^«doc, or Septimaniu, as it ww tTr^^^' 7'^ S'''"'^^ ^^ P^^ °*" Acquitain, fiZ ^l ^T- °^ ^Vr?^'"""" *° *^'^* of *he Rllone, obeyed the sovei^eigns of Damascus aad Samarcand, A.i>.72liu nor was i„ before the mighty en^^ement between Touri aJllt^H '!?' ^^f^'t'.''-''- 7^2" when Charles MarS airested and ro led back the Saracenic delude, that Chnstendom could feel itself secure. At len^h tie sS ^nrrf°°; */.!!! *'''"8''" ^ ""^^^'^ th« chasti^rs, once more burst forth among^st the Moslem. The Om^iades were overturned by the Abassides, 10th Februaiy, a.^ Sni',>"'°'^n°' ^^.' ^ *""™Ph of the Schiites over the Sonmtes. One prmce alone of the former dynasty escaped mto Soam, the famous Abdalrahman, a.L 755: S Fim^i '^^f "PO'? t^« throne of Cordova, wh^re for somewhat less than three centuries they maintained the aK aTh'„°1 *^i%^i^? '' M°^^^y«« Caliphs Abu Abbas Abdallah al Saffah, descended from an uncle of Mahomet, adooted Black as his symbol, having aluTys two S!tJ- *T ^^°°n f Io»riorne'aloft of stave^S S tfil ^^' '"" i ^\ ^''''^'- «« ^rnamed them anf foUowi n?*!^' ""1 T^ '^'^ P^°^«l *« th« fortunes ana tollowers of the rival banner. Al-Mansor the brother and successor of Saffah, removed his sacred cT^ir from Da! rrc":oLt ^r'^ ofthe Tigris, wtare Bagdad wTbuS as a capital m the midst of gardens, which flourished for suls of anf r^'; ^^^ ^^^^"^' °' P^J^o, contained long tnlhei^CTT^ ""^ many single pavilions, all reflectecf }h« Hi3] 1^°™°?^"'° lialf-iioon, upon the waves of S^r^^'ifAT^^ r connected with the amuse- s-tr- MMT .^X73i«SSEi . ' ^MM «tt'' at. least < repared a soil for me I h v.iioto^rv So,nQ acqtiaint- thus paves the way for jrenuine , u S.^^S""" "^^ ^^'-'^^ ^ -^- cousta;;};;o;;ii m m.^S ^^'*"^J':o«Pfi''«ty occasio/ially relieved nnd i lu- minated even Afahonietun darkness f trorg-eous aul ces schod:'* :r^UT' ''' f?-r-fnt> -^th ^chaicS Softools, manufactories, market-places, public e-rove«i nnd cunous water-works. Mofewiyih eslaClished^a 2,S? system of postal communication throughout his immense empire, unon a nlan probably similar to that of trS ?f2.Ti A- *'r ^'^^ ^''•^•°^^«d from the Csian^ tT.« ^? 1 '^ •''^ grmndeur rested upon a gi-oss imposture The whole affiur was a colossal frenzy, an nmied famEism •' the mos imperial heresy that the world verSr^ oro-anisation of error, witli blasphemy in its profess on 'aS hcensed immorality or violenceVor its pmctice. Neverwe"^ the weapons of carnal warfare more ferociously w eTded Like their fore ather Ishmael, the hand of the folIowKf hrb""SL*>vf «V-y other man; nor codd any S r'lnJlfl^^ f*^^"'"? ^'^®" *^<^ instrumental preserver aL r. 1. ^''"^ ^:""^ "" deo:radation unknown to Europe and the hon-ors of oriental barbarism. ^-uiope, 68 MODBRIf HISTORY. [a.d. 51K u CHAPTER IV. A.D. 511-1032. SOcLTv ^""^"""^ ^'^'^^^ "•"=« ^^« "ATE OJ. The genius of Clovis survived for some period with his postenty; amongst whom the Frankish kinnXmSt he Imry consKlered a. hei^ditary, subject onfytol Son 2nlt\i ^'°''^',^''°''«°«e' Austi-asia, Bavaria Thu- nno-m, then comnmhending paits of Lower Sa and Bmnswick toget/ier with G^ascony and LanSiedoc Lm"^ the vast and splendid inheritance ^x)ssessed !? one tK f^J rn^:^\^''''^^y- ^^h« Salic laws ^ve.'e founded on eminently Cathohc principles, in requiring-, sostmndv as nnce. Then- national assemblies not only included tli« bishops, whose advice directed, whilst thS wSo ln,«! cmteA the proceedings of each ChamHe mSs 1)uTtt growing states of the west came to re|ard in thiJ way th! Pope as then- spiritual father ; whilst ife, in i" turn deem^ thiough various divisions and subdivisions. I'L dynX h^L^ '^A '"I' °^ ^^'^''^^''' the sole successor of hS «i rf J'P^'^^ ^•^- ^^1- Meanwhile, impiwident giunts of land and slaves brought into notice aiTpower a CH. IT.J MODERN HI8TORY. 80 class of nobles, who soon claimed their enormous estates by right of prescription, and whose voice began to be clamor- ous, as a middle and potent agency between the sovereism and treemen, in the general constitution. Vainly it j happened, that a third time the different portions of the Merovingian ertipire were re-united. Female profligacy in- flamed the coiTuption of the court and aristocrac?. The second Chlotaire, whether voluntarily or otherwise, in a.d. 015, laid down the great outlines of that domestic policy which subsemiently resulted in extraordinary consequLces. Assisted by his prelates, secular magnates, and liege sub- jects, he conceded full security for person and property against oppression and arbitrary taxation. Spiritual and temporal lords were provided with suflicient privileges and mdependence to render them competent guardians of liberty, as then undei-stood : their possessions were secured to them tor no other purpose; and that the bishops might retain an influence equivalent to that of their lay rivals, it was de- creed, that the former should be the protector of all eman- cipated bondsmen. Dignities were to be held upon the tenure of obedience to the regulations of the monarchy and tlie Chrcrch. Each freeman w&s to be tried by his peers; and by the same code, or legal customs, to which his judges themselves would be subjected. None were allowed to hold ottice m any country of which they were not natives, and with whose customs therefore they might be supposed un- acquainted. These arrangements lasted with more or less vanation until the twelfth century, when the accession of tlie burg-esses contributed to establish an equilibrium. Ihen gradually ensued the depression of the nobility, as a high-road to the despotism of a single niler. After the murder of several princes, so that in forty years six had perished by poison or some other form of assassination, the crown came to be worn by a succession of royal idiots,— tools in the hands of ambitious officials. Fore- most among the latter were the Mayors of the Palace, whose simple duty at first had been to lay petitions or represen- tations Ijefore their masters. The mental infirmity of sovereigns rendered the position a most important onet ^ij iong « grew to iM elective, and men ofenergetic talents e MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 686-712 with the evrora fll " n • ., '°"^f 'J'^""'' ""^ overreach : the who]eTuthoritfoftie%S'°"^ °^" P"'^."^ '"^"'^^^'V turalJy into his S Jnl' .? '''"''^. *° ^"" ^"^<^« ""' successful than ffi'wlikh he n'/T!;''^ " P°^'^^' '^^^ ^««^ sumed the prerooXJwi. ^J.^^^Pted ^ peace: he as- the nationaraSb es whth r'^"'.?"^ '"T^' ^"^^^^^^ suppressed : e^ve aww SI T^^l^"'^^^ ^^d tere^ the finSs^S f r ' i^l"'^"*^^ ^^fs, adminis- pmfessed to seTve'from I^ tr.V5' T^'h ''^''"^ ^^« ment. On gm'uUccaln" t T' ""^*"'^' "^^-ovem- of Clevis apneared hpS v ' t'^e degenerate representative their homiee in J' ''^"*rff ^''' '"=*^'"«»> ^'^d received which he h4ded ovpvTo.Jm "'^*'°» «ff"-ed a donative, dant mLkW^tnnJZ l^l^^T' °^ ^"« ^^^^^6' ^n atten- the next ?Ee exWWt on P^"* ""1^ '^'fT'y' ""^^^ admiration. Se oSed the I^^C ^''^.T'^ ^'' P^^'* ^" includpd +],« n " . -'^"'^fidomofAnstrasa.which bad fallen ea^ sacrifices Th./' """^ T^j; ««^»^Js gians, however^eSedinre.d?fv .r ^"^■'""'"- cleared France from .rlT ru ^^ *''''"8"^ '" disguise. He her rnora^si" ann, n ^u •" '^^'^'-S™^^'" ^o^-ests, drained ta.von"s f Hif I P '''''''" ^'' "^'^^* "^^^« or-hauffhty an- that of Bur.- CM. IV.] MODERN HISTORY. 61 offspring of the late regent, whose talents were known to In ZoJ r "P"'' ^ ^'^'^ '"'*^ ^^^'^ «f ^'« fathe''. received an almost unanimous summons to guide the vacanc helm. Jiesides other enemies, at home and abroad, the terrrible Saracens, as we saw in the last chapter, had pread them! selves oyer the plains of Gascony, Lssed the^Dordo' e, and deleated Eudes, the Duke of Aquitaine ; even Gap and Grenoble had joined the infidels! Thei^ predator? C'' Jntf \^'i?^l' of Burgundy, and a^proaS ■,A il- y^^''^ °%''" Christendom and Europe, Chtu-les IT^ h'' iT'. '"'? ,*^^« '^^^'' vanquished j^rivinc^fs whose ducal leader had be:n his personal rival. ^ The hero On I'^JT^ *' ^n "r ^' '^^ ^^ ^^^rt«^ «r the Hamme,° S"To,n, If'^ J"" ^'^'^''' ^^- ^^2, was fought the battle of Tours, already meptioned. As has been well observed, the nations of Asia, Africa, and Gaul advanced on thS Swl,'''*^ '^""^ T^'^"^' *° ^"^ ^"^'^"'^t^r which would fni ?n P""' h'*"'^ ""^ *^'« ^^'«^^d. The Franks Sl,'l?/ <^^ose and impenetrable phalanx, protected by fXnn 1 ^' "l" V ^^T^''^' ^^^ *'^"« «"st^'»ed without a recoil the onset of the Moslem. Abdarrahman, on his own side, exiiibited prodigies of valour; when, in a^omen the Christian host, animated with sudden fire, rushed iire- su,tibly forwai-d, cairyinff all before them. The Mayor of the Palace was to be the progenitor of emperors, and his kmgly soul now glowed amidst the horrors of the conflic! as tWh he realised the glorious anticipation. The Duke ttTr^-"'''^'^^'''i ^' ^«^«^* humiliation, which he 1^1^ T"' T^^'-. ^/"'■y ^'' ^°*^ paladin fought for a triumph, dependent, m the imagination if each, upo"n indi- vidual as weft as general effort^ At length the ?.Wnt paled Ijefore the Cross of Calvary, and tie day warded- Towards evening, the chief of Islam in Spain, with the mg did the victory orove, that the numbers of Mahometans tllr.drT'r">'S ""'' loosely stated at thi^e ZdS thousand ! The Franks acquired Septimania, which the Saracens had conquered from the Visio-nths- an^ p.^" me son ana successor of Cliarles. was elated twenty yea^ « MODERN HISfOHY. [a.D. 759-800. stXn tLTf y T' '^^ '?*'T "^*^°"' ^•^- 752. Pope ProtesVnS fW\«rf^^asonable, has been raised by duct of the Church at this crisis. The steps have been g anced at in these pages by which the divine and sphS 8uprema<;y of the Pontiffs came to gather around them a tKrtT Th *«"^P-^^.-*hority o^ver theTotent W the earth. Their more immediate subjects on the Seven Hilk found no difficulty, and felt no ielucto^ce at tS W m gradually acknowledging this seculai^ sovereignt^. DrinceKP \r'^T'' ^"*^f of Christendom, wa.sS Dnnee to all visible intents and pu-poses. Si. Gregory J mlT't^.i'"'^ r '^T"^ '° ^^^"- Commands, JSi: mitted to them from the representatives of the Greek S'Zn.* 5"rr accustomed as these last were to de- T Aon, /'"^i^^^ barbarians, could engender nothing kf f^l* *?^ dispositions towards resistance. The frequent heterodoxy of the Byzantire comt natu^in! bSJ:^ %*'W °^ "^T' ^^'^«* *h« greateSiS- Snh!Z '°^'!?^ T^ *^« ^°^y See, through one thT'l !^' T^^^l '^^''"'"? ^ ^'^ht 0*" confirmation on the election of each successfve pontiff. This pretension iln*'pTr % '^' "^"^« °^ ^^«*o introduceTby he Arian Goths. Numerous and protmcted vacancies Ver^ the consequence; during which, sacrilegious simony fS too many patrons at Constantinople. At lenSh on X demise of Pope Theodore, the 13?h of Maj^Tn 64? the Roman clergy and people proceeded to m ndependen? choice, whicl fell upon Martin of Todi, whr.eSfv com^ge and virtue subsequently procured for him S crown of the confessor. Tllat strag-gle ensued whicLJ^v age will see repeated, between the §?ed of th. W^4!iai; a^? tiie astuteness of a world lying in the aims of tho -Wicked Une The oppressor wanted power and money; and ac- ^t'lith ^^ '"^'t'^'l' '^' ^^^''^ '^ «°d ^as the'real laaib with the eolden fleecfl. r)i.w*.rc ft,- »^ i x.._ cw. it.] MODERN HISTORY. 63 sheep -shearing, as robbing the fold of Christ must ever seem to be, were issued in due fonn ; and Maurice and his successors, fi-om time to time, helped out their exhausted exchequere with ecclesiastical spoils. Under Baidanes Philippicus, a thorough schismatic, it was resolved, in an assembly on the Capitol, that the Catholics should no longer obey an insolent tyrant on the Bosphoi-us, or circulate his coinage : h's name was to be omitted from the public prayers, nor would they suflFer his statre to be erected in the aisles of St. JohnXateran. A sedition which ensued only shoves how unambitious the Popes were of securmg the secular sceptre which m almighty Providence put into their hands. Their disinterestedness, moreovei, shone out still more strongly in the subsequent iconoclastic controversy. Duiing the early part of the eighth century, an Isaurian pedlar named Conon, who ttrove an ass as an itinerant merchant of small wares to country markets, founded a new dynasty in the city of Constantiae, 26th March, a.d. 718, assuming the diadem under the title of Leo III. For selfish purposes, he and his family evoked a spirit from the bottomless pit, com- pounded in equal proportions of Judaism, Mahometanism, and what may be termed rational religion. Statecraft ^ Constantinople had two bugbears,~the supremacy of Rome, and symbolism, or the worship of images. These last, as is^ell known by all honest minds, were the ancient ornaments of the sanctuary, and the books of the common people. Not that then- adorations were directed towards the mere wood or stone, but the form served to lead the thoughts towards the ideal and sacred object which it typified. Leo ill. caused these images to be broken in pieces with con- temj)t and abhorrence; and in a.d. 725 he issued an edict prombiting every person from manifesting respect towai-ds representations either of the Redeemer or His saints, casv-- mff down even the great golden crucifix over the imperial palace. Resistance rose in a moment: "in the west, as well as m the east, but above all in Italy," says Giannone, not only was the edict disobeyed, but it excited such indignation amongr the ueoole. that thev l.mlro «..+ ir,+« open insurrection. Nay more,— the exarch, wishing to 64 itfODBRN HISTORY. carry matters with a hie-h hnn ? of t^ ) commotions most .orio J^ t^f^l ^Sr;>"^^"<'«d directions that the ir, g-es shf' ?,!'./ "Tf 8'^^" force, such a tumult foiifwed ;.:;. ^h! r''*-""-^'^- l*^ "^*'« revolted from the emperor "' fc- ..o^^'!^"""' "^'^'^'^"'^ in the Roman Duchv Cn nnr,;„ T'-r?^"" ""''' ^"^^^^ted fforv rr }.nv. .t!" „^.r! P^^^a ana ohe /erranolia. Or^s i P e.. ...nn^ction. With the pen^^^^ti^n oiTSv o^^a.io^ a^^i^ !lS:r ^"'^^^1- ?« ^^ ditierent the LombarcU. wereS ?n r'''^''°^*l^''''" ^^^ then had disooveiS he couli nn **" '^''T ^^^* ^' « ^^aurian Well for the Irld was ^f W ^'^ ■'' ^^l''' ''' ^^^^in. princes ilh^t ^2.^^ Ti? *'^^* * ^^"^^ of able ,?Acerdotal LS S Tamen\'S;Sr ^7'' .^^^-T^^ combined fii-st-rate staJp.ma^ S-' • ' ^^^ ^^^^'^^^ ^^•> '1% beckoied to th^ vaW |i ""? ^^^°^'^'^« ^'^««- against both Greek and rSu ^^ *? P'"*''^ '^«"» m doing- so. S was t^^^^^^ f*^ ^^^^^ ^«r« "g-^t sanction^for hif CDuTar pw/'^PP^ *« procure the papal honour of acting ar&iont^^^^^ ^^ ^' "^"8^^* ^* *^« By a strictalliaLe StweKm elf rXr^' ''[^'■S''^' a revolution not less bpnfifinfn] . i • ^ ^T^' ^^ effected mankind at laSew^^^^^^ than to styled in historl hrDacpd^ i? ^*f "^ Donation, as it is fim and enduiTn/basis P°"^'^''' *""^<^"«« «Po° « I-rn^bS:te^eoreied^^^^^^^^ t°^^*^« P"^^ of the Ravemia, Bolo^a anrFS;nr '^I'J^- *^? *''"^^*o™« of surate ^th i. ive would appear to have ^mien- "rate with tt jcient province of Emilit, n,oh — ij la, jf.''oduced mviiig- given ^ed by main lani fbiiuallj >v>»£ imitateti molis. Or/!" n i'ommtmg ^< therti out. became his i attempted I of a trulv y of his ad- ■ix diiferent " and then -ie Isaurian i or retain, sacerdotal BgT«y, and adilan II., (less lives, •tect them ivere right the papal rht at the St. Peter. le effected 5'' than to 'D, as it is es upon a ide of the s to dis- rst fi-uits tories of '"'bie de- /.'.- 'atic 1 '"^*. md awards umen- CH. IV.] MODERN HISTORY. 65 caiTv it much farther westward than the modern frontiera of the Papal States. Spoleto, Beneventum,- Corsicn, the Eternal City, with its ample Campagna, the patiimonies of the Sabines, Narni, Osimo, and JN'umano, completed the now recognised acquisition. The keys of the various towns, cities, and fortresses, together with the document itself, and a Confession of Faith, were all solemnly laid upon the altar of St. Peter. Envoys from Constantinople applied to the Franks for a reconsideration of the imperial pretensions to Central Italy, when Pepin only answered them with a sort of respectful scorn. It is the remark of an historian in no way favourable to Catholicity, that the Greek em- peror had clearly >.bdicated or forfeited every conceivable vestige of a right on this occasion. The sword of the Lombard had been broken by the stronger sword of the Carlovin^ian ; nor was it in the cause of the Iconoclast that Pepm had exposed his person and armies in a double expedition beyond the mountains. An absolute dominion over the domains of the apostolic throne was thus happily established, liable, of course, to those secular fluctuations which attend all sublunary affairs. It comprised the su- preme selection of magistrates, the exercise of justice, the imposition of taxes, and the command of all civil, military, or naval forces. Not, however, had the municipal govern- ment expired at Rome, the existence of which has led to so much misapprehension and misstatement, as though a co-ordinate sovereignty still subsisted between the Patrician and senate of the city on the one hand, and the Pontiffs on the other. Muratori shows, that when the Byzantine yoke was once got rid of, the ancient system of corporative self- management remained, involving at the same time no trace of any thing beyond a civic superintendence over local interests, or that could clash or cope with the papaJ power. Beyondi^all question, these changes, effected l)y the Franks in the eighth century, were most popular. The provincials had long detested their oppressors. The em- perors on the Bosphorus combined the malignancy of heresy with the vices of orientalism. Little else than emasculated subtlety, and avarice no less greedy than it was faithless ^«M^a triticx^ i^au CTCX t;iarricti ivxjiii xxiilicr Dili? i^Y^MUUXU? 09 cowardly, hZdS^%':;jZ'ln] 'T^ ^^^^^^^^ tion, says an able modern un>f? ^ ""J^'' ^ '^«'^ ^e^truc- sula, was the reaction so comnS fTr.?"^^ *^« P«nin- the boundaries of the eccIe^^Ec *1 , "? '*"feu"^ ^ ^'^^^ ttitive possessors of the soT ih« T ^^^^^ There the pri- . Umbri, Hemicans, and Et^^^^l^L '""'' *^^ ^abines, ?he inore into existence and freeSv7^'^« ^^^''^"^ once most curious fact, that whilstTf tbf Vf/£ ascertained and scended from Romulus An? 1/ ^^^ ^^^'^^ stock, de- vestiges survive hTv?„A:e"n,i^;fj,?";f/«ors^ scarcely'anv wai-s,the invasons oAhe Who • ^"^ ''V* '^^''« *hrougi erations,-the previous aLri±7'°'' T^- ""^^''^^J e'S- seem to re-appear "an rf ^i^^ Tu P^P^^atJons once again pest, of agesTaTe paSt^them .^^^^^^ ^''^"^ *^« *-- the &'t^^^^^^ t>t the Popes we«, of at least the medievfrnnfinno ?^ °P'"'°"il ^•^'' <^he benefit of knowledge, and to pres' ^^^^^^ for the diifusion antiauity ; It « time t?o wC ^^^'^^aluahle works of coulJ anv safety for 'sde'n^e or T^-'' ^i"* ^" *« Church then nobly discharged tbT if- if T'^'P^ ^« ^o^^d. They of kings : they esSst/^n"'* "'^'^ °^ost onerous duties fied th^e shrini's oTreS '{^^^f ^^^ hean ! the aged, the sick an§ thpTnt T^"«^«/or orphanage, as a wall of brai a^«L7!i,*''^°'''''-^^^d. They stood ynder their sS^LX^^I *tt Su t l^«^^-»«-J and freighted with the Lonp? n/o '°^^ ^'^« another ark. tory, bore up^llantl^Zl? f ^"^ '^-^^^^y and a new hiS of trial, ]aS crSe "^Sol^™' '^' '^''' tremendo^ tality. Their woX^h rrt'Sln?''T'>' ^^^ b^" disaster and gloom: foi at a f?i °"?^ '" ^'^ ^^e of governing authority ay prostate r^'^'^" '"'"'^ °'^'' together, their powder rosHS Tif ^*^/^appeared al- wreck and confusion sereneZd? *^f , ^^^t^^ing scene of ruthless tyrants and inforilw 1 7'^^^ ^^«° *" the most rock, immovable Sdst t^e ctoT^r""?' ^* ^°«« ^^^^e a »8^of order, the pTotecVon of tl.« ""^Tl^y- It was the chari^ and i^ht^wer^^hltt^f^t^^^^^^ CH. IV.J MODERN HISTORY. e? which diffused in the heart, cured every pain, and healed even the wounds and bruises of memory. Such were the „r?! I ' ne^vly-inaug-urated dynasty of the Popes: and V such acts as these it was, not'by intrigoie, or arms or amhition,- that the Pontiffs at length became king-s j^ jure, as they had been the kings de facto, of Rome and Its immediately dependent provinces 4 centuries. Pepin m the seventeenth year of his reiffn, a.d. 768 assembled aU his dukes, counts', bishops, and^bbote and with their consent, divided the French empire be weon Si>d TnT'i ^^ff ^""^ ^^'^°'"^- The latter of these died AD. 771; the former is the well-known Charlemagne of history whose sei-vices to Catholicity and civilisation have placed him among:st imperial heroes. In his pei-son SirrV^^.f ''.^':",^'"P"'«' ^^^^'^ h« ^^« ^rowSed at hH r ^ '° *^' 7^V^', °° Christmas day, a.d. 800. ^IftS ""T- ^f'f^ ^'''^"^'^ *^« plans of his father wV T i°^-!f'*'rJ!fP'°*^'*^"^*^'« Pope and suppress- mg the Lombards These last beheld tlieiV kingdom shat- tt« Aln, /^'^*''/° *^^?>' ^ *^«"«^"d miles, from vLtl^ to the Wdei-s of Calabria, the sceptre of the th?fol>!f :J^2^/'. ^^'^''P^'"^ ^'^^^^^ty- P"o^' to this event the Lombard fief of Beneventum had spread, at the expense of the Greeks, over the modern realm of Naples. sL-no was then a capital of no inconsiderable elegance and refine- S vn;,.J ? "^"Jf ^'^ ^^'"^^^ *° Charles,°amidst a thi-ong «l^nni^ tl^^''' '^"^^"^ '^' '"^ °^ their wrists, an! c?f??n^°?*^S grayer magisti..es and counseUors of the en JhaLed wS; "'1 /"^^f "{.'*"*«• ^^^^ ^"^'^^ ^^^t was abovrrn..w*f^'^' ^''''^''' '^' °«<^"P««t, had risen coZ, wShV *^' T.^^t':^ °^^^^ P«¥« thl-oug-h inter- sS nT^vpH ?""' ?°1 '*? ^^evm-chj. His vassala|e in the south proved less inglorious than the crushing deDres<5ion even'theT/nS^*' "i!'^ T?^ «^*^« peninsSa ^^"S Gemanv^fir ' '^1,*^? Tl^^^i f P"^^^^' »« ""ited aU hood n7;h T i:-^ ^^^^ °/*5« ^'^"a*^^ to the neighbom- hood of ^he Laltic and the Vistnln. „r,H«. i„-o .,L" h ciuoaijf i-riesland, iVanconia, He^e,"Tiuriiiia7Tka^ ^^ MODERN HMTORT. [a.D. 800.814* Sr[''ut"^''' ami Switzerland. To these must be fJlhlT^ ? ^ •''"' ■^'® '^'^^'^"•ed Kousillon and Catalonia ■'ad er t^'clir^n "* T ''^^'^ '^' Spanish MarcT maer the Counts of Barcelona; together with Arno-on cSalw l^ *'a^ ?"^' of T..entr' nT'^Lt^d AI Kaschid there existed the aost amicable intercourse the conimander of the Mo.lem presenting- him with a ter m ""'^'u' ^" "rt^"^' ^"d' the koyt of ti. Holv Se^ pulchre. He was lord of about two-thirds of tlifanrnW occidont.1 empire, with large additions of Cto% X ScTave ^ tho;se nations known as the Teutonic and the In statiuT he is said to have l..«ftn fiill seven i'^t hio-l, . «Ki bs crown preser-.d ut Vienna, is S^W l sf^' illfv; / ^ V- enwraj^.d in its feature^ Thev %l ! ' °^/ '°y''''^ ^«^°^«"«' yarding and guS ^g. m.ddie'^.r 3!^,^- tSiCsr^ religious, after a pai-ticular fashion ^ ^ ' . "^airous nd he would have been n king of shepherds who iniled their fect« swoi-d, and with rather mo., iv recreating himse in the If irv letv of A ion m v< • ha.x^ an.f other hterary wor. J, ke Tl ^^^2 ^^ of his circle, and not without reason. In his tallan, T, +he days of Hornet- -i; oue of chose iron vith the staff nnd the ban cai'csses. When iety of Alcuin, Egin- CH. IV.] MODKRN HISTORY. 69 he wag full of fervour and fire ; an adept in the tounia- inent, with an arm as irresistible as his commanding ge- nius, wielding" a ponderous lance like a wisp of straw at play, or plunging- into a river and crossing it, — the might- iest swimmer ot his party. His strength maintained by constant temperance m all respects but one, and matured by daily exercise, astonished his contemporaries : at his appearance every heai-t is said to have throbbed higher, every head to have bent with inference and ii^ve, every eye to hove acknowledged his imperial and penetrating glan'^' His attire, gonei-ally simple, ccjnsf -sted chieily of a doublet made from the warm fur of tuLj otter ; and in public he wore a short golden gown fastened with a gii-dle. On these occasions he also assumed gay-coloured ribbons, placed crossways over his trowsers and stockings, uncut diamonds on his shoes, and a mnntlfc usually either white or green ; the handle of an enormous sword carried his seal. But in ordinary circumstances he beftiended plain -'-ess, both in himself and others ; h^« sumptuary lawF • ';e8t his sincerity in doing so; whilst now and then a practicf'1 joke still further manifested that he was in eamest. It mi. he remembered that however paradoxical sucli conduc, ay seem to us, manners were different then, and folly had to p?ay thj part of wisdom in instnicting rude sulyects. The nobles of his court presumed one winter to ii^re before him in magnificent silk robes, lined with mmever. He watched the opportunity of a \ ry rainy morning, when the signal was suddenly given for hunt! ;, on which the autocrat mounted his horse without funaer notice, allowing none to change their costume, biu carrvine' them at once to the chase just as they were, /hrough brake and brier, through forests and over morasses, rigTit onwai-d amidst the most pitiless weather, his finbelowed courtiers had to ride. No sooner had they retm-ned home than he summoned them to dry their habits before monstrous fires; and laughing at the desti-ietion of their shrivelling finery, he observed, " What a tai red company I have around me, while nt?/ sheep-skin cloak is little the worse ^for wear. Let the w^rld, my i lends, judge of your Smjk. aj merit rather ^ban by gaudy raiment; the last 70 ItODEKN HlgTOHY. f-D. 771-814 <^«m tKx„„T yet rZK'> ""P'^^'y. ;» ''»« cessMt activity TL feti "If 'j"™ "'"'^ '''' '"• promoted the Svn? •^'^" '*'^°°^' ^"'' th« clergy; proved old road,l i T ''^x°^.J"stice, tog-ethS wej. tried Within oeZi^'l^^l'^ttn'l''' ''I ^"'g'^ ™es oi May, the imperial comnwlS ^' ^^^^^^'^^ tl^e middle mons Uops, aLts duke? c^f •^?"^^' ^* >vhose „m Miffs from the cities S T^'j ^^scounts, hundredoS gathered th.rwselve So a 11?"*''^ ^''"^ th« convent? Plamt then and there W^'^?- ^''^"^^^7- Every com eous decsions were reversed nr-*"""^.' '"^ "^rio-ht- from their dimities t^^^^^ °^ «nj"st fudo-es Hpn^Jij %-Iative auTho-ty. hi d^^^''^ P'^^^-^ed to have'Se mimstei^incounciK^tttdwh^nr^ ^'^^^ ^ °"™ber o? Jiie results, in the shape of n^l.!-'^"-';" "^^essary, whi?e liberties of his subfecV•^^^w ^^"'^'^ ^^*^^ ^'^g-ard to tha fP^te of the nation TwhTch J\°'='''''' '"^ P'^-^i the OH. IV.] MODERN HISTORY. 73 of what he called iustSi- ZSI "tl pemlexmg web too intMate for the comionaTv ^, ' "'''""C ""^ '»" ^ the assistance of jmscZX Lt^°7'^''?.'''.''"''°"' »pwa,^ to subve'rt trft„Va«r of^tj Th^ .Mities of the dir 'ifa tbSiriikn!^'"*^ •" *J peasants, for the most oarT „ ™ 1, '"'"' '"* i;**"* "nd ^.at. : his lineaTi '"nrCrreXr°hJidrf wX .nhet'^j-^ht^fis^fc-s-r.^^ Es/S^rL»f«t:t§e/held^^^ jpoaki/g/sef* aLched S the s^" and ITT/ "*"y fen-ed with it n^u^ r ' ^°" generally trans- .0 "mlTt t opptsZTlf'^Sr^ '"'"'^^^^' "-y nsams were suffeiirt t 1 . , , .!^ / ?" , " ™" "J' «n«™t box on the ear, vields his seat to S' »"^f ^Pg" him a customs o-ive ii/an idol nf fL ""' ,S»«h picturesque manydissltationratVS,^^^^^^^^^^ better th^an by sfmilar dukes, of whJ^X^^Z^ ^&J^'' 8^?-«rned -^*° ^«^t^ -SIX, wfieii tile 74 MODERN,' HISTORY. - [A.D. 800-814. where theTtates of the^^^^^^ '^'' ^"^ °^*^^« F^^^^^e had ChaimaS atternDtPrj' tn 7^^ '* ^^^ «"«««eded, who were not e?arHv f S^ ° ''"'^ ^^^^'^ *^^oug-h counts the difficulty by a ii^Sn'r f T-f 7™e"; He obviated the sceptre • hLo£th! '"^«'^*"t^on of the crozier foi of thesep owl ^n^^^^^^^ "'^r^ '^' management with fir4eS Sn nl-f ^PP»^-?"*ft g-entle rule, fortified christianised afthe sam timT T.^ '' ^°*^ '^^^^^^^^'^ ^"^ was necessarily clothed^ wW ^^'''^' 'P"'^*"*^^ ^"^^^^rity often yiofated ord^;nc;s Satfj.'lT'* ^^'^ ""t"* 7«* *o° be appointed by mW o^ ^iL ^ i '"^'^ ^J s^oul/ never prelates wei^ o^be elected 3 I?^ authority; but that all he forbade theh bearint ."^'"^ *? *^' ^''^^^'^^ ^^^o^^; pressing cause nor w3 ^'"l, ''^*^r* ^^^sonable o; carry weapons' or W ?• i """T *^^^ ^«^««^ clergy to dition that they convprfpr^ /i.i i^' } . ^^^^ °° ^O"" binding- for boot Xh J ? '^"fi '^ ?^" ^^"^« ^"to render more Ineral Mol o." ^'Z ^^ *'^"'' ^^^"^ *« demeanour wire enim-np^^fr' '^'''"">^' ^^"^^ ^^^^^ty of and many n^^IlLTiS^^^ thi^ughout; munificence, pZm^T.Z *'f "i ^«"r^'«ion to his Germany, such aXdpJhn ''^j^fected m the interior of came disi'n^rshed a^ S^o ^ti n pT' T^"^^* ^'•^'»«" ^«- pag-anism of Scandiniv . ff '^^.^ "'''^t'amty ag-ainst the in ^he most un^tTed guai^^"^^^^^^^ rej red their heads t-on of the g^el, foX^^^l^i^^i:;. CH. IV.] MODERN HISTORY. 76 l^ouses of entertainment were rare, refiiges for the sick and afflicted, hospitals for lepers, schools for the unlettered, and homes for the indigent poor. The people sought theiJ protection the more anxiously, wlien they obsei^ed that tue pious monks imposed the same reverence upon the em- peror or the gi-andee, as on the lowHest members of the com- munity. Charlemagne died full of days and glory a.d. 814- and lies, or rather sits, in his sepulchre at Aix-la-Chapelle whei-e, on the tomb being opened by Otho III., he was dis' covered upnght as on a tTirone, attired in his imperial robes. Buiing his reign of foity-six years, he had made no less than four pilgi-images to the Vatican; whilst an activity without parallel m history enabled him to endure an im- mense number of campaigns, superintend every depart- ment of his vast dominions, reform the coinage, establish the legal divisions of money, collect libraries, gather about him the leai-ned of every country, methodise the discordant codes of barbarism and Roman legislation, and prepare a maritime force against the impending tempest of the Woi-mans His least fortunate legacy was the partition of his extended empire The last ofliis testaments, drawn im m the character of a pi-ivate individual, received its con- hi mation only just before his death. About the middle of January, coming out of a bath, he felt himself feverish, widwas attacked by pleurisy within three or four days! He then applied his entire thoug-hts towards his sppreach- mg dissolution. On the 07th le fell into an agoHy; and on the 28th finding his immense strength now altoaUher exhausted the attendants heard him whisper in a very low voice: "Loi'd into Thy hands I commend my split;" after which he gently expired, in the seventy.first yem- ofhisage^and tlie fourteenth from his receiving the dia- dem at Rome. His treasures were distributed amongst hs children, or their representatives; with the exception of large sums bequeathed to various churches, convents colleger, and monastic houses. ' His e^-andson Bernard inherited the kingdom of Italy ^nd Louis the Debonnair succeeded to the empire of the pranks comprising Austrasia, Neustria, Burgundy, Na- vaire, Arragon, and Catalonia. Sflinnv. TTnnn,. o«^ tL...„. SI ( ' ^ MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 814-983. Pannonia, Dacia, Istria, Croatia, Dalmatia, and no inoon s derable portion of Poland. With hi-T feS i, the spell oVdominion had departed nLl W^^'^^T' enchanted horn that hun^ bimhe portl of C Jo^'"'' '^' mSEr P^'*'*30°s record tte characteiistics of weak Piid pusilIanHnous pnnces, beneath such epithets as CharLs^he BaLd, Charles the Fat, and Charles the Simple The tiLrv ot Mersen abrogated in a.d. 847, the lasXd^w of^v^^^^^^ tic cohesion, by abolishing- that nominal suinemacvSrh had hitherto attached to the elder brother rK^LpS d pTnWnWitr G^"'T"^ ^^« realm asTi"^ Snnt nfrT 'i ^«™a"y lapsed to an illegitimate de- rntlv uniL ./ep:fl;t ofth p'^^feZt" the Rlione and the A ps, with Pranf.h« CnZ^A "f^^^^^ the former; and the two, as Mended into one, pasilder S,enTS7llf '!" """ffT °f ^■■'=^' - ' 93I 032 ™S™ Xn"Se,"tLtet^ai', C^dTI ^ thl dee^n f/the ctS: i/^td Orftr '"r ""^ tnred to imitate the old mayoS rf thp Ii^IT '/'° "?"• d«r of lot' V '^^'Ise' w?l "JTr?" "P°? *'- WmselfonthevaiXonT'^trcia^^^ that time doohned mto such utter insignificance that fE My of Laon, with some adjacent terltories consto .^ he,r so e ml,errta„ce. The i4mainder of the kinS S powei-ful cobles, whose practical independence and S hons smrit founded those princely peST" de!tiL ., ' i^ CH. IV.] MODERN HISTORY. f'> The SWcens of A?S w^pr«!f ^^^^ P^^t'ons of Europe. Crete, Corsica S^S n? .v°'^^?"^ *^« «°^«*« of Ital^J under' the Sf^a AS of'fh/r'"' ^t^^-^ ^^^ ^"'^"'^^ as thoy e-Ieamed over Tl? ?^ Ci-escent, triumphantly sula deemed iS secure ' ^''^ S'^TV'' *^« P««i°- and ravage evert etpr^; • ^^^ *^' ^"'^^"^ ^°^«'t between f ice and MoZ 1 T °^ ^?™1,' ""'^ ^* Fre.ssinato, colony. The HuniZn^' *^'^ "'^^^"^ «^t«ed a piraticd dread^ful -olleSTt ^dXro^ATSS T^l^ .'""^ savae-e devastations- oJ^ • jj-?- **"^' throug-h tlie r mans%cludbT^^^^^^^^^^ '^'''' '^' ^''^ the sea-king-s of ?he Baltl 1/ . "^^^T^ '" ^'^" ^^^ ^^^ commencedl series of s^llLJi^'*' neighbourhood, had science of cLSm^^eS l ^''''°*j^ ""^''^ *^^ P^e- ment 'of the SaTonf Ld n ''"' ^°^ ^^'^'^^ ^^« *»'«at- barons also Ld erected ttHT fT^t^d. Fierce fortresses, stz-on^ ^f ^^^ \'Y' ^" *^^ ^^^P« "^ on the banks of^e^^ry rivt «? ft' ^''f '^ "?? ^^^''^ ^^^g"^ stances, have becomp oh^olv P^j*'. ? *^eso awful circum- den or Cts 'o?'^^;?^«^tensed either "as beasts of bur- 78 MODERN HISTORY. rA.D. 602-610. I ^i CHAPTER V. A.D. 602-1203. IHB BTZANTINE EJIPIHB rSDEH THE HERACLIAK, ISAITRIAN, AMO- BIAN, BASILIAK, AND COMNEJTIAN DYNASTIES -6TATa OF 80CIETT THROUOHOrX THE PEOVINCE8. Phocas the Centurion, mentioiMd at the dose of the third chapter, began his ragn oyer Constantinople, as tho suc- cessor of Maurice, tae 23d of November: a.d. 602, and ended it on the 4th of October, a.d. 610. Cedrenus in- forms us, that in dbrsou he was a croM^ed, dimmutive wretch, with shag-gj eyebrows, rec hau-, a beaiFdless chin, and a hornd sear upon his cheek. His muad .:s»Tesponded to the man. He tapcm-ed and beiieaded the empress of his predecessor and ^r three dauffhters. 'dg provinces bled and groaned, ixis chiei aficiais wem «ecutionera who became expert m tearing- out tono-ues, m aitipxitatmg hands and feet ; in managing- the Mmurge so k to prolong agonies without uaiiictmg deatt. m bumim: so as to naelt the victim slowij ; or transpiarcing the Wson with the largest number of airows, ana vet not tmich a vital part. Ignorant of letters, laws, and arms, he revelled in ceaseless debaucher--. Crispus, his son-in-law, Herachus, heir ot the Exarch of Africa, and Nicetas, a noble of rank and ability, conspu-ed against tue tyrai«. The second of these sailed with a sufficient fleet from Carthage, and cast anchor at Constantinople, opposite the very windows of the palace, the lofty masts of his vessels being adomed with a miraculous image of Christ and the symbols of the Mother of God. Public indig-nation requii-ed no more. I'Jiocas found himself at once forsaken by his onwards his court, and his subjects ; stript of his imperial oraanents, and oaded with chains, he was seized and ti-anspoi-ted in a small boat to the giiUey of Herachus, who reproached him with the enormities of his reia-n. " Wilt thou aavern better^ were the last words of the fallen despot, as his head was severed from his body, and the latter cast, a CH. V. MODERN HISTORY. 79 taunt with tolerable fairness, by administering the affairs dynl^t.^TJ"\'^"''^T' 7«^-«' ^"d estallishing wJ dynasty for a century. It exhibited the usual vices of the Se ChuTaTd^ r?' '' r" h«resy,_interference a bSi f .«i3 ' f ^^^'' ^^**^" Pei-secution of its mem- sce?e7of df±^- ^'"'^^ *° contemr,late,-and chequered Sep °V?°^«/*^«,"''^"e or foreign Lmihation. The best ?he kini ^tl^'^^y ^f perhaps its founder. Chosroes, the king- of Persia, whom Maurice had restored to his S^e? wTtrTh/r'Af^^?*' ^"^ ^^^^ ^--' ^d S! getnei with the dreadful Avars, n a.d. 626 his tronn« Keleag-uered the city of Gonstantine. f he Cha^n hTd vassdl tribes of the Gepid«, Russians, Bulgarians, and Sclavonians. Mechancal science alone 'saved the capitd; pectattnXTi?. t ^'''^^''' ^""^ '^''^^^ "««^'«d an exi pectation that the Roman emperor was to be presented in fetters before him. He had himself just then g-ained th^ P^""?f« °f r^speHty^ and sitting in the seatTcynfs a_midst the Lrbanc splendours of embroidered hLgSS silver columns gulden lamps, and piUars of porph™ S pnde was startled by an epistle fi-om an obscm-e cSnTf tie of /h^r^ K^ *%^«'^"<^.^ledp Mahomet as the apos- nation « J ^'^'^/^• , ^^' ^-^Jectecr the missive with indig. nat on, and tore it m fragments on the spot : " It is thus " ^claimed the Arabian fanatic, "that Ld will tear the Kingdom, and reject the -supplication of Chosroes '" Be- tore many years the male fine of the Sassanides was ex- throLwl *^'-*^T/''''T' "*■ ^"^'^^^''"^ J^«d contracted through the invincible advances of the Crescent. 600 8 "Tf ' *'"•',? «.^P«dit'<^«« against Persia, a.d. n^me ' H. dS .^""^^"^^^^ with gloiy the Roman name. He defeated m every direction the ai-mies of Chosroes and not only won back the entire realms that had been lost, but caiiied his triumphant eagles Tc^! phpn, Casbin, and Ispahan. The haug-hty despot of tSe cities and their dependencies was at feni muXd W m JUai'Ch A.D. o28. rftstnnno- th« o^«;^-i £—j.-^^^ /. ., { 80 MODERX HIgTORT. [a.D. 628-696. two eropii'es, and surrendering- to Heraclius the True Cross, which had been borne away from Jerusalem in the recent invasion of Palestine. Its restitution to the Holy Sepul- chre was the grand feature of an imperial pile-rima^e, which the emperor performed in person the following year, — an august ceremony still commemorated by an an- nual festival of the Church. His character subsided after these events to its ordinary level. Before his decease, he ventured to meddle with controversial theology j and, at an earlier period, his second marriage, with his niece Mar- tina, had disgusted both the clergy and the people. The Saracens soon deprived him of the eastern provinces, snatched for so transient an interval from the grasp of Persia, to pass with that oriental kingdcm itself beneath the yoke oi the conquenng CaHphs. His eldest son, Con- stantino III., succeeded him in February a.d. 641; on whose death, within little more than a hundred days, the diadem descended to Constans the Second, as eldest sur- vivor of the third generation. This young emperor, only twelve years old at his accession, grew up with religion and humility on his lips, and the venom of a viper in his neart. His grand apprehension was lest his younger bro- ther Theodosius should envy him his undirided throne, and invade the rights of primogeniture. To prevent it, he first forced him into the ecclesiastical state as a disqualifi- cation, and then poisoned him. Thunders of popular exe- cration drove the fratiicide into exile ; but as he embarked on board his vessel, he spat at the walls of his metropolis, and meditated vengeance on mankind. From Athens he went to Rome, where, as a vehement Monothelite, he pei*- secuted the Pope, St. Martin, and plundered the Seven Hills. All that Alanc or Genseric had ever attempted, the imperial schismatic seemed proud to imitate. For nearly a fortnight he sacked the city, despoiled the Pan- theon of its costly roof, collected the choicest specimens of art that could be found, and threatening friend and foe, — the clergy whom he had robbed, and the Lombards, with whom he waged ineffectual war, he put to sea once more, with th^ puroose of inflicting similar depredations along the coasts of Sardinia, Calabria, and Sicily. When off the CH. v.] MODERN HISTORY. n latter island, an Arabian squadron fell in with his fle^f captured his priceless treasures, and cannid them infn Afexandna. they were never heard of Serwlrr. and thus penshed, m the opinion of some learrfedTn ^^^8 Z mT'""? *' '? ^"«"* '"'M^'-' «nd paint r than catastiophe. But it Constans could flv from hi«. lu^nr^U he could not fly from himself: the re^mo.r of h Hon: science created a phantom who purs,ied him by land and sea by day and bynig-ht; and the visionary fflosius rj/T»'"^, V'^'M^' a cup of blood, said, orseemed which was poured the hot water, September ad 008 His eldest son, Constantine IV.,'stvLd PoLCtus as^ sunied the reins of g-ovei-nment, and died after^an adminl tration o seventeen years, in a.d. 686. He supmessXn usurper m Sicily ; opnosed to the best of h7power the aTaTnTtletat/r T f ""' ' '''' ^^^'^^^^^ ConsCn^le' against their attacks for seven successive summers Th« ^t^Stf tr'M^f f ^'^^^ « -asonSXersion' fiJr A^ ^^ Mardaites, some auxiliaries originally from Armema, contributed towards a prospero-is ?e"uit He was also orthodox in his religious creed and uXr his auspices the sjcth CEeumenicnllouncS asse'mSd, it 680-1, which condemned Monothelitism, affirmino- the onlv true Catholic doctrine, that two wills o^ ene S a^e har momsed m Jesus Christ. He sent the ha i- of his two sons Justiman and Heraclius, to be otferei on t le shrke ^^ A 1^^ ^^^^"^ °^ *^'^'^ P""<^es alone ascen Jed and di^- ^ced the throne to which he was unhappily boi^ H s cruelties brought about his banishment, r i ei a d ^^stro^ s mtei-val of ten yeai., in a.o. 095 j and fi^r aiotSci- nt S of the same duration a couple of pi^tenders, LeonSs aLd * " •"" i""!'"- =""' .--•xcer.ied ,.ib crimes, a.d. W MODBRN HISTORY. [a.D. 705-776. 696-706. Personal mutilation seemed ti.. order of the ?hYbr„; *^^^^'^'^ '™p^^-°^ '"'"««j*' ^oii^ted aid from the Clwzars and Bulgarians without his nose and . h but seHn w .r 1 °"' V'"'''\'*^'''" ^««"lt«d the ves- suUested ft n ''' ^«*""^'»f? J'on^e, and an nttenrhnt Sffi 1 .1 *" '^'^'^ of eenen.1 torf,nveness mij^ht pn ve acceptal)le to heaven amiakt such fearful perils and hi In pecu lar nn occasion. ^ What-sj, -ak to^m of for^v ness ! exclaimed the vindictive Justinian ; " may I IfJCe waves,-if I consent to spare a sin,^le head of my eia . aes '" His recovery of the diadem was indeed postpoSbrhe J^vived the menace and lived to exooute 1 . Capturing fwA f chanot-races of the circus; whilst, stanZ^ tbJ he A fto'tr^ \Y^ ^^'l''^ ^" ««^'^ '^^ their nfcks ^^^J^^if^"^"^' '^°"*^°^ ^'' ^'^^ sujrg-estion,- ^ J :t 7^ "P°i! 5^',^'P ^"^ *^« 1 asihsl^ and the to; -^o he dragon^shalt thou trample under thy feet'" axe i "^ ZPTa^'I^'' 'T""^ ''"'8-n, he consid^ed the r^v^Itv S./i^? '^'^' ^' *^« «">/ instruments of Sni Jn" ^'*f '^ favourite was an inhumai apporitor Stephen s„mamed appropriately "the Savaffe" wS ZT'lf^- P^'"^^^ ^'' ^ *'«^ of the cEnites who had insulted his master in exile, the answer was? "AH are giulty, and all must perish !" Seven of the nrinrintl n^ this Bv.Lf.^n P 1 '"^r*^^^ ^"'"*"^« *he hideousness of tt Sr r.%t- fi ^'""^h ^' assassination, S wav for lH ^"' 'i°* long-1)efore Christmas, made AnLl • ^"'./"<'*^««sors, Bardanes Philippicus, a.d 711 • Anastasius 11., a.d. 713; and Theodosius IIT. ad 716' all strangers to the race of Heraclius, which \^s' If in' «««ie. to their nameVIpsLar SLVntiZ"' ""' '"^ •"^"''^*^'^ OH. v.] MODER N H , -^TORY. 88 m«n.,no. ^>i ^vnasty was that of the Isaurians, com- SJZaTJ' •""' Z"""'® than a rural huckstt,, and afterwa.ds a Riazier. The i.mily name, as ." ,dy men- toned, was C^onon ; and it is safd thnr' so, ,WZ tune.^.,lers had promised him the Roman ' ..e, on his road to a country fair or market, if he woui, but aLish h,- wo,sh,p of Idols. TJ>e pervei^eness of hi. MLequent Z' >.' "' ^^" "^ '^'^' '^f the majority of rS s^ms neither n.or. nor less than an anticipation of the mad Je ro. 'nnff* ' ^r'^'' ^nihtaiy service ofthe^a^ds Et flnf° f''^'"^"'' J*"^'^'- ^ ^^'^ administrntion ta" nt? wTt. ^ T' yn."^«°ifested no inconsiderable ta. nt., which unhopmly, his evil genius prompted him to employ ao-mnst the cWrch of Gof. The longer rei^ of fron tL l^tf '"^'r ^-^ ''^"^^ ^^«° CopronySms, iM W AB 77^ ^Vf^^'it'^- ^^^' *° *^^« 14tll of Septem. infant' wvl i ^^'' P^""*''''^ °^^'''' ^Japtismal font as an TcciS eiTa? b . ;iV ""T. '' denvod,i;ight have been ,wl • ' * ^^' "^ ^^'^ «°^«"' a"d n^ade an indelible nTsKrv •' "^'^«r*"°-t%analog7 with its initial .ign. nabln for I; ' '^"'' of iniquitic. too vile and aboSi- vest of ir I'^'^'f ?"' '''' '^ 'r^^' «"^y *^« "^tural har- vest othf-sv; false principles blending with despotic rl ?ffij,r . °""T^"^ *r"?-h «^*«-^» cu-cumstaCs into the foulest practices. His father had been an avow. ' enemy of sacred images,— of those holy representations Lamfa^r «ynibo1s which the Chu4 sS^s no as a means of putting the type in the place of the sacred objects typified but For the edification of her children and Sai '±^ '^"."*° ^ ^°T '^^'^ ^°d His Saints 'Hu^ SmXn^^l^^^'^^^t^r^'^'^'^''^^'^ fr««^ devotion so sTvS .r a^. obedience to spiritual authority: de- servedly wa. the entire empire shaken from the east to the west. Impenal persecution raged in every quarter- pro- vmces were lost for over ; the fanal throne ToS^L itsC rouhleH?^^ '' ^ts ecclesiastical Lm majestically oJer its troubled waters. Copronymus went bevoid his sL in ^Ko IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I "^1^ Hi 11:25 i 1.4 2.0 1.6 6" %^*' ^ ^% ^v \\ »* MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 775-829. then prosperous, yet perhaps ofS 'drme ' Thr™'* may be sa d witli iv>'8W»'k m Thisce and of hi! Z^^h ' r„ « " ""' ™"'!" « ae beginniaj cipally to settle the succession • Ixf T ' f ' ^ P'""^" niindind body/ H s TnS^^^^^ T^^^ ^°*^ ^^ doxy mght have eSrili he"" ST Sv*?!; °^°- a"^'d^Srrhi?T'»'/'^"^''V'r^^^^ soon sullied all"h«e?ir'm^fj'\'"' "^'»«'' ''"' "l" most unnat J'XTuC™ o'^mSlS to'thT"!'^'' PMs in th. uL *?f '"'mphed, and the banished em- ECXtfd^;'''"^'*^ "«' "■'»-"»'* the ShS^'/d'S^fr' ''t".!:^ ''^'''"e: ^'^-y •'fort made in more into « b^fe j *''««'' patriarchs sank more and witb.p;r„t^3 KsTdetr'^Kr-'?' w^dispen^s'^te ::^:^^ Pleaded that fened by such aH?,,!? 'ncarnation would Ije pro- dynasty, ,0 termed ffem Am»i?„ ttt J'il *"'™:'?' in heresy and war and fnn . !!i ^"'P^r"'-^ weitj zealous 86 MODERIf HISTORY. [a.D. 837-867. denoted the object of his clioice. He fixed finally on Theodora, a very lovely and virtuous virgin, whose modest silence had attracted him, and who wjis no less famous for her orthodox piety than for her personal cliarms. She be- came mother of Michael III., who succeeded his father the 20th of January, a.d. 842, and to whom she was left euardian, since he wes but in the fifth year of his ag-e. Immediately the fury of the iconoclastic pei-sccution was assuaged ; and for thirteen years her mildness, mingled with profound pnidence, restored order to the finances and a semblance of peace to the metropolis. Finding- by this time that her influence could no longer be serviceable to the state, and that her superintendence and counsels had clearly become irksome, she withdrew into retirement, to assist the voun^ emperor by her prayers. But the son of Theodora had fallen amongst evil companions ; and flattery and licentiousness, pomp and prodigality, acted as so many syrens, alluring their victim to his perdition. Heresy opened wide the floodgates of atheism; while three succes- sive patriarchs, for seven-and-twenty years, had disgTaced the See where St. John Chrysostom and St. Gregory of Nazianzum had once illustrated the glories of Christianity. Michael insulted every object of public v '.tion ; one of his buffoons was invested with the epis^?< vestments- devoted to the sports of the circus, he received nis theatrical garlands fi'om the statues of the Blessed Virgin Mary. A more worthy representative cf departed saints at length presided over the Byzantine Church, in the perean of Ignatius, who boldly rebuked his impious sovereign, and excommunicated Bardas, the prime originator of innumer- able blasphemies. The emperor ieposed him for his fidelity, A.D. 858, s'lbstitutine" in his stead the more courtly Photius. The Pope, St. Nicholas the Great, protected Ignatius, and anathematized the inti-uder, a.d. 864,— defying as thy latter did the authority of St. Peter, and denying the procession of the Holv Ghost from the Father and the Son. Hence, as is well known, arose the Greek schism, pregnant with the pride and miseiy of many centuries. Michael espoused the vile cause of his favourite prelate, setting no limits to his iniquity; he and his parasites i-ode on asses tiu-ouo-h CH. v.] MODBRN HISTORY. 87 tlie city in the habits of bishops, amidst shouts and obscene ge^'tnres, - tlie multitudes around them reviling the most solemn mysteries. Laying- aside at night their ecclesiasflcal masquerade, they dared to use the consecrated vessels of the altar in their bacchanalian feasts, pi-etending to ad- minister communion in a nauseous compound ot vinegar and mustard. After some such scene of intoxication and riot, in the tuirtieth year r>f his a^o, this degenerate son of a pious mother was slain in his sleep dming the night of Michaelmas Day, a.d. 807, by the founder of a new dvuasty, his colleague, Basil the Macedonian. This prince is said to have derived his genealogy from the ancient race of the Arsacides ; his father, however, had been reduced to the cultivation of a small farm for subsist- ence, and an incursion of the Bulgarians had apparently ruined the family for ever. Escaping fiou. uuvery with difli- culty, on the first night of his amval at Constantinople he slept on the steps of a church beneath the oi)en sky, having neither friends to receive nor money to support him : the casual hospitality of a j- >ligious thus saved his life, and the favour of a charitable matron subsequently advanced his fortunes in the Peloponnesus, After purchasing consi- derable property in Macedonia, his wonderful strength and a^hty augmented his iume, and ultimately procured for mm an honourable situation in the imperial stables. Bai*- das, the uncle of Michael, and a patron of Photius, had been suffered to^oveni in the name of his worthless nephew (for he was brother to the excellent Theodora) ; nor was the title of CcBsar, which he had long assumod, an empty sound. But the emperor hat^d his regent, suggested and ac- complished his murder, elevated Basil into the vacant post of power within a month afterwards; and was about to repeat his bloody experiment of caprice by removing this second coadjutor in the empire, had not Basil anticipated his design. The latter ruled the provinces he had seized with talents worthy of a more legitimate claim, and Ignatius was restored to his ecclesiastical prerogatives ; yet so wily were the arts of his learned competitor, that when denth removed to a better world the rightfid patriarch, Phoiius OBCS mere emerged ffom his moaastery and was reiiiatated. 88 MODBRN HISTORY. [a.D. 867-960. He was even intrusted with the education of the heii* to the throne ; for tlie new sovereign aspired to be a fi-iend to literature, and had become dazzled with the erudition of the heresiarch. Basil turned his entire attention to the cares of state; order revived under his cautious administra- tion j the finances agnin flourished, so soon as an equili- brium had been secured between the receipts and disbui-se- ments ; and he instituted that code of jurisprudence which, under the name of the Basihcs, expanded into sixty books. His abilities found ample employment both in peace and war,- and the Roman standards no longer receded before the Sai-a- cens. His buildings embellished the capital, as well as manv other cities ; roads were constructed, aqueducts and hos- pitals repaiied, fresh monasteries and convents founded, and at least one hundred magnificent churches raised for the worship of Almighty God. The lady who had helped him to rise, when in Greece he gratefully accepted her as- sistance, now resided at Patras, and had legally adopted him for her son ;— heaiing with dehght of his advance- ment, she resolved to pay him a visit. This visit affords us an idea of the times. Her journey of five hundred miles, to Constantinople, was performed in a litter or soft bed of down, carried on the shoulders of ten slaves at once; two hundred and ninety more being in attendance to relieve the bearers at easy distances. The presents of Danielis,— for so she was called,— comprised two hundred youths, one hundred eunuchs, and the richest silk, linen, and woollen manufactures of the Peloponnesus. Her serfs were num- bered by thousands; through her will, after discharging all legacies, eigtty large landed estates augmented the im- perial domains. The emperor received and entei-tained her with fihal reverence ; appearing, it must be admitted, to much greater advantage in remembering benefits than in forgivmg injuries. The rebel Chrysocheir had long eluded pm-smt; whilst his sovereign felt provoked to pray that he might have the pleasui-e of driving three an-ows into the brain of such an audacious traitor. His wretched desire was gratified ; +he culprit when caught was decapitated : the trunk was dishonoured, and its head suspended to a tree : nor could the connuArnr. nrm nf *ha mna* a^^*^. .. L.D. 867-969. f the heif to )e a iiiend to erudition of ntion to the 3 administra- as an equili- md disbui'sor dence which, sixty books, lace and war,* ore the Sai*- well as many lets and hos- ats founded, es raised for 3 had helped pted her as- ally adopted lis advance- it affords us idred miles, I* soft bed of tonce; two e to relieve ' Danielis, — youths, one md woollen were num- discharging Jted the im- ei-tained her idmitted, to fits than in long eluded >ray that he ws into the ched desire decapitated : ended to a CH. r.] MODERN HISTORY. 80 archere of his day, be induced to forego the unworthy reali- sation of his vengeance. No one, after this, will wonder at an incident connected with the conclusion of his prosperous ctu-eer in March a.d. 88G. During the chase a furious stag had entangled its horns in the belt of Basil, and lifted him from off his horse j an over-zealous attendant rescued him by drawing his sword, severing the girdle, and slaying the animal : his reward was an immediate execution, foi* presuming to aim a naked weapon against the person of nis august master, although it was to save his life : such was tlie etiquette of desi)otism. Either the fall or a con- sequent fever terminateci the reign of 13asil I. ; who was followed by his son Leo VI., tne Philosopher, remark- able for little beyond his marrying four times, and obtain- ing through his last consort Zoe, Constantine VII., usually styled Porphyi-ogenitus. On the demise of his father, a.d. 911, and in the seventh year of his age, this infant prince and his mother were pro- claimed sovereigns over the Basilian inheritance. But a female arm being found too feeble to restrain the effoi-ts of ambition, Romanus Lacopenus acquired the supreme au- thority A.D. 920-944, and shared the aug-ustal honours with his three sons, Christopher, Stephen,'aud Constiintine VIII., allowing however the lawful emperor the fifth place in this curious college of autocrats. Constantine VII. meanwhile devoted himself to literary studies ; nor was it until the death of the great statesman who had eclipsed his hereditary rights, that, the family of that usurper being «et aside, Porphyrogenitus at last, in a.d. 944, obtained un- disturbed possession of the whole easteni empire. He sur- vived for fifteen years, by no means disengaged from occupations better suited to a study than a palace ; whilst his empress Helen mismanaged public atfahs, one vile minister after another contending for her smiles and favours. Poison was supposed to have terminated the life and no- minal administration of her husband, on the 15th of Novem- ber, a.d. 969, who atone time, during the encroachments of his overbearing coUeagTies, had been reduced so low in circumstances, as to eke out a scanty allowance by the sale •0 MODKRK HISTORY. [a.D. 000-1041. tions of hi. penand pencU, thus proved the re»I consolers of an wistence to which a diadem was not less a disLrrace than It seemed a hm^en His son Romanus II.^wL twenty yeai-s o d when he received the purple, as it wa« suspected through the complicity of parric'ide, in so fer as he might have acquiesced in the murderous aiiibiUon of his pai-tner. Personaf strength, and beauty of foi-m and countenance, appear to have been his chief characteristics : alter wasting a morning in the circus, and feasting his senators at mid-day, he would proceed to hunt and deiti-oy tour wild-boars m a single afternoon. He was tall and ^ri ^y \y°"°gr cypress, with a complexion fair and nZ' t!^'^\^yf'' broad shoulders, and a long aquiline nose. The wicked woman whom he had man-ied fecame an mstrument of the vengeance of heaven; her name was llieophano : one crime led on to another; and after an in- glorious reign of four years, she mingled for her husband the same deadly draught which she had composed for his latner, a.d. 863. Attempting to imitate Irene and Theo- dora, as the guardian of her four children, two sons and two dauffhters, the mfamous possession of her charms was fcS f upon Nicephorus Hocas, who had recovered t/rete trom the Saracens, and obtained victories throus-h his generals against the Bowides in Syria and Lesser Asia His admmistration of the government on such guilty terms ended, after a period of six years, in the renewal of domestic inferaahsm; the assassination of her paramour by a conspu-acy of her own contiivance, since he was uirlv old, and avaricious (26th December, a.d. 969), enaM hei-, as she imagined, to substitute an Amenian here, John S?3 ? ^'' P^-^"'- ^°° ^^^' *« *b« yo'^nff' handsome, and gaUant conspu^torwas, to make the carefses of Theo- ElTlf *7«J7 r°ad to th? throne, he despised and punished her when he had achieved his purpose, fes struggle with tibe Russians perhaps preserved Byzantine domination irom premature destruction, and certainly exalted the t&me ot many an exploit; but some eunuchs at court had token offence at bs reproaches; nor was his death alto- gether free from the charge of violence, when it occurred, amidst general regret and even lamentation, in Januaiy MOOEllN HISTORT. 91 CH. r.J ^.D. 970. Basil II., and his brother Constnntinft TY ♦!,„ two sons of the second Romanus, havinrattaS ^he^^ manhood, then asserted and established dtrsway tL fiaS;rr''! ""'^''^^^ *^'« responsibilities, leavlng^to his hatemal ool^eague the pomps and pleasures of a scentm SiuTuSTr '^"^ ''r'T' -°*'^- unh„j.;ii;x^: S tor Ta 'n' ''T' ^^* ^'^'^ ^'^ *''« spirit of 1,is an. hnally forced back into helplessness. The kingdom of t%TS ^'■°'" *^'' '"^"'^^ °*'*»'« I^«""^« to the borders of the old Epu-us, went to pieces through his enei-edrrnr^ sv totth^*'''^ r^ ^^'- with X yrj cnieity from the royal palace at Lychnidus ho carnpd called Argyi-us: then MicWl TV Tiio p° /r^™^'^"^ ^'^v W MODERN HI8T0KY. [a.D. 1041.1100. TrniJ" ^P"^'.,^-°; 1042, she, with her younger sister bnef m eival. Such a union could not Instj for the for- m«. had Jong lost every vestige of tenderness or pur tv. Zoe had poisoned hor eailiest consorf, and put out tfle eves of hor adopted heir-; at the aoe of 'sixty, Ihl shocked tie Greeks themselves by her thii J nuptials^^ith Constan- tino X, sui-named Monomachus, who £vcd to perform the at itriT f ';•' 5^""^l«"«d nurtner and patroness; untd at length, by his decease, in November, ad. 1054, Theo- telJrS"''^*^'' 't-^\T^ ""' direct repi^sentative of the i^il r^'*^; ^'V''.' ^' ''^'"^ to nile at Constan- tmople in August, a.d. 1050. «nri?f/^*'fl "^'"''^'^^ of public affairs had long fallen Zd^dth^" T °^'''"^'? '"""«^'- four of whom per- suaded their mistress to nominate for lier successor a mili- ^IrT^V?.^^'' ^''""/' ^^''^'^'^^^ ^^'> St'atioticus. hL th« Ih r'"^'r '' ""^'"^ *'*'"" ** twelvemonth, made way for i«nfr.."T <^o"^»e«^an emperoi-s. Isaac Comnenus as- cended the throne, a.d. 1057; yet, finding his health and vigour decline beneath the burinL of hisStation, he en- quently, pi lars of an hereditary succession. Isaac, never- tkless, resiped, and in the monastic habit of St. Bail recovered his strength; he died about two years after h^ voluntaiT withdrawment from the purple.^ His fViend f HOSO 'ST'-T'-' 'f'^ -?-ed^t^rom his hands, A.D. lu&y. The triple male offspring of this elected des- pot, assumed ifi chifdhood the titles of MiclLl VII^ An dromcus I., and Constantino XII: their sire exni ed hi his palace. May, a.d. 10^7; some montks afSrwliich event his widow Eudocia man-ied Romanus D oge^^^s, a noblo soldier, announced to the provinces as a collS with his consort in the diadem' and guardian of W cliildren, under the title of Romanus III. His ab ht es might be great, but they failed in defending the fron m he incurred both defeat and captivity, tk^ugh the m ns of Alp Ai^l^ and the Seljukian'lWli^ and only ^ajS OH ▼.] MODERN HISTORY. 98 from diSCToco abrond to meet with treason and disastei -♦ home. His assassination was in August, a.d. 1071. The seventh Michael then attempted to g-overn. Virtuous in momls but weak in mind, his surname of Pamr)inace8 alludes to a i-eproach whicii he shared with an avaricious mmion, who enhanced the price and diminished the mea- sure of ^J^ead-corn. On the Festival of the Annunciation, A.D. 1078, ftlichael g-ladlj sturendered the imperial en- sig-ns to a fortunate g-enerul, Nicephorus III., Hntaniatos: acceptmg: m their stead the sackcloth of a monk, and the Archbisliopric of Ephosiis. His daughter formed an alli- ance with the Comnanian family, to whom Nicephorus liotaniates, and the other phantoms of soveroio-nty con- ceded their pretensions in April, a.d. 1081, when Alexius Lomnenus began his reign. He was the third son of John, the biotiier of Isaac, the first founder of the dynasty and the father of Anna Comnena, whose filial and pai Ual pages affectionately record his achievements. His ad- ministration of thirty-seven years afforded an era of com- parative stability to the empire, which it had seldom more ur^ntly renuired. On the eastern quarters were the Sel- jukian Moslem advancing with rapid fortunes: in the west, Robei-t Guiscard, with his valiant Noi-mans, pushed forward their ambitions enterprises against Durazzo; where, on the 18th of October, only six months after his accession, tbe IJyzantine monarch, having fought like a lion at hay, bad to escape on his fleete«it horse, with a shivered helmet and sullied laurels; in ■. y noi-th, a lowering cloud of Kussians overhung the political horizon; nor coidd he fiear without anxiety, as seasons rolled on, the incipient murmur of the Crusades. He undoubtedly proved himself a very jackall of statecraft, with respect to the first of these niiglity expeditions, for in forwarding the soldiei-s of the Cross to their destination, he fleeced them to the uttermost on tlie road; cautiously watching their footsteps, and gathering np every golden result of their victories! AH his conquests bear the stain of inherent selfishness; thus sadly demonstrating the heretical and worldly dete- rioration Greek Christianity. Not that the emperor , .,„_^ £iiiii=cii uuisrvrise cnan orthodox j but the entire nivkt! 94 MODRRN HISTORY. [a.D. 1100 <^3. cast and chnmcter of his people and j»olicv had contracted a tiunt at once indohble and misernble'; an absence of general lionesty and tnithfulness ap[)ear8 throughout each department, each treaty, each civil measure, each cam- paiffn: orientalism had got thoroughly engrafted on schisraa- tical p' vity. Even the sincerity of his moral and religious virtue tell under no little suspicion towai-ds the close of his Me; and the Empress Irene, hearing him utter on his deathbed some pious ejaculations afwut the vanity of the world, reminded him with indecent indignation that he was dying as he had lived— a hypocnte ! His son John, the handsome, so styled in irony from his diminutive hideousness, liad incurred, perhaps on this account, the dislike of his mother, who would fain have postponed him m favour of her accomplished and celebrated daughter. Anna, as it appeara, had no objection to furnish the mate- rials of history, as well as compile them; her able brother, however, consigned her to the retirement, which lie considered far more suitable to her sex than the labours of government. His activity repelled the Turks from the Uosphorus and Hellespont: the Sultan of Iconium was confined to his capital; for twenty-five yeni-s, a.d. 1118- 1143 the troops kept their ground upon the imperial boundanes, whilst internally, the penalty of death is said to liave been abolished throughout the provinces, and the theory of the court itself was chaste and modest, frugal and abstemious. An accident terminated his schemes: for lie was contemplating the re-conquest of Syria, to the Eu- l)hrates and Tigris. His son and heir Manuel exhibited a singiilar contrast of energy and sloth; and chronicles seem ut a bss whether to deprecate the excess of his hardiness or effeminacy. He ruled and revelled ; he fought and feasted through as many summera and winters as Lis prandfather Alexius, a.d. 1143-1180. In one day, he is declared to have slain forty barbarians with his own sword ; to have transpierced gigantic champions with his Innre, or cut them asunder witJi a stroke; to have drao-ged four Turkish pi-isoners to the camp when fastened to the rmgs of his saddle ; and to have performed marvels in de fending the poop of a galley with an enormous buflkler md CH. ▼.] MODERN HISTORY. Qf a flowino; sail. He could sleep in the sun or in the snow; lie couicT wenry the stoutest soldiers in the fatigues of a march, or waste the most preoious hours in the paradise of on isle in the Propontis. We may probabl\ estimate him as the Alcibindos of his age ; with nobler fortunes, but greater responsibilities than the Athenian hero. His morals fell far short of purity. Pleasure, luxury, sen- sualism, adultery, incest, marked the descending scale of his vices ; and in his grave were buried the glories of his race; although it continued to wear the purple, in some Bha|>e or other, for several generations. His only male heir, Alexius II., was but twelve or thirteen years old when placed on the throne, the 24th of September, a.d. 1180, which a further brief period transferrea to Androni- cus Comnenus, cousin of the late Manuel, and grandson of the first Alexius. Appointed guardian to his young kins- man, he had him cioielly strangled with a bowstnng, ' the month of October, a.d. 1183. The adventures of this monster in human shape form as romantic a tragedy as can well be discovered in modem history. In his cfu^er from childhood to anility few could match him in mere corporeal vigour: tfraperance and exercise were his physician and surgeon j his frequent diet was bread and water ; if he ever tasted a stag or wild boar, it must have been one he hunted fii-st and then cooked with his own hand. Full of profaneness, he professed himself a pious uuritan; eloquent in speech, flexible in address, he cherished in his heart seven devils, — in other words, the seven capital sins; which soon trans- formed his bosom into a nest of serpents. His cousin, the Emperor Manuel, had seduced his own niece ; Andronicus imitated his example in ruining his sister. The latter fol- lowed him to the Cilician wars : his imperial relative openly rebuked and secretly favoured this impious com- panion of his pleasures ; yet, as the union of partners in profligacy is never permanent, they soon came to hate and even execrate each other with an intensity tnily dia- bolical. Falling at length into the clutches of justicp— for having attempted and failed in the private murder of Manual, he WBA immnSnnoH fvrolva xranna I'rt « *n—'nm n« - - - — -.- ..^,r,r> Its « ^.-VrrTTl WV ff «i MODERN HISTORY. [a.d. 1183-1208. Constantinople, whence he twice escaped in a marvfllJm,* njannerj as also a third time, when sJbseiuentr he w^ intercepted by a party of wandering WalacLns?^ Ex^r^! tion with the Russians ag-ainst the Hungarians, obtained ^^mZ^nZf''"^': "?T^^' ^"« freeVdoCanTeS Eated diiV°'t.°* *^'? Meditemnean. ^Here he lahcinatecl, dehled, and forsook the beautiful Philiona of ^SeT h^ 11 ^f °^ ""^""^^ ' '^^ pretendSngTpi^f i 3 wit t^r^ shnnes, went thither, and ingratiated wXw of A!i2- jT'\ '"^'°'"* crusaders. There the wno, Deing by birth a Comnen an princess onr^P mnJ ness and exposure. Androniciis had to flv for his life- ,3 ' J """'■■"fed a fiuendshipwith tlie Sultans Nou. ifAsl w't"' ""'* «"«"y if 'ed among tt S 01 Asia Minor. Exoommumcated by the Chu?ch ha com KS^o? ri ™»l "■" apo^ti' St- Paid. The prostituted wueen ot Jeuenlem bore him two children- and wh™ JTS^ frh'*"™' »" *''.^ S°^™ of T^bitS S^„. T '"<»'»s. power and sent them to tlie Byzantine monarch the fugitive followed them thither! to oS another full and free forgiveness from hi" riva? S singular audacity at least Sverawed Manue! AndroS ftttorsi^^h^ '^'' '''p!?""^ "'* tears id pS qujty he vvormed himself upwards to theSne onnT sitionmiailed before him; ^Scriptures the rosf^ppTK S ™!? ^-'^ *°"^'' *^^'^ of subtlety the mS ex- ^K f I """i 'ng-enwus undermined or removed eve^ obstacle. Meanwhile, Manuel paid the debt of natur? and the general voice summoned indronicm to V^^ cii. v.] MODE R 17 HISTORY. 97 pohs. His mai-ch thither only appeared to the multitude- as that ot a maityr to conscientious sciniples : on his amyal he secured the pnlace, restored order and tran- quiJity, visited his unsuspecting: ward, committed his mother to custody, prepared for their speedy extinction, and then approached the recently-closed sepulchre, where the remains of Manuel had been laid. Stoopina- or kneel- mg- over the awful corpse, he thus gave utterance to the murmurs of triumph and revenge : " I no longer fern- thee my old enemy, who hast driven me a vagabond to every chmate of the earth. Thou ait safely deposited under a seven-fold dome, from whei thou canst never arise, until the sipal of the last tnimpet. It is now my turn- and presentfy will I trample upon thy ashes and thy pos' tenty." He kept his dreadful word.' At the coronation of Alexius, his guardian, holding aloft the Blessed Sacm- ment, avowed everlasting fidelity to his beloved pupil whom he soon assassinated, as above mentioned,-havin<^ first bow-stnina. tlie empress hei-self. The innocent bod? ' ^inff "uTi ^ti^ ^' '* ^^y' exclaiming with inhuman and thyself a fool!" His government was a hideous series of butchery and abominations j one week, during which Sli J""^ ^f" '^'f' 'f'^^^^^ *he appellation of the halcyon days. Isaac Anoelus, a descendiit in the female Ld tr^'iF^i ^^T^^' '' ^'^^^ '^"^^^d the emp^e whli?i!.ni'^^"°"l"'' sanctuary of St. Sophia, to which he had fled for his own safety, an indignant revolu- Se f^^lf ^^/"^l/levated him U the sunVeme power. The late tyrant -for his power expired tie moment a eader coufd be se ected-was simpl^ delivered iHetters to the vengeance of the capital. Excited thousands i-ushed rJ^pToLn^' 'Tf T^ ^^t'^"^ 'y^' ^"^ I'">H became the wretched satisfaction of their i-age; rescued from a Wis mob only that he mie-ht drink to the dre-s^he bitterness of deatli, he was pTaced astride upon aYamef amidst blows and outi^ges. Executionei-s at last sus- pended him by his two feet, between a couple of pillars sup^poitmg^awo^and a sow, as emblems of^is feS aiiu moral nithmess; m a long and painfid og^y, W MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1186-1204. "Lord, have mercy on me ! why wUt Thou bruise a broken reed.' were the solitary expressions that escaped from his hi)s. Two friendly Italians finally plunged their wea- pons m his body; and thus finished ^is mortal suflFer- ings, the 12th of September, a.d. 1185. Isaac Angelus then swayed the Byzantme sceptre for ten years; bSt in A.D. 120a- 1204 the discord between himself and his brother, Alexius III., who had dethroned and blinded him eigt yeai-s before, introduced the Latins to the conquest of Constantinople; for even Manuel Comnenus had excited the enmity of Venice, and rashly plucked the beard of her potent and reverend seigniors. We may just take a part- mg glance at the eastern relics of.Roine in the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries. ' The inheritance of Arcadius and Justinian had fearfiillv dwindled; Its subdivisions came to be called themes instead of provinces, and were twenty-nine in number,— twelve in Europe and seventeen in Asia. After the Sara- cens had approDriated a moiety of the oriental temtories : when the Morabeths had made Morocco their own, as the disciples of the new prophet Abdallah, a.d. 1056-1069- wMst the caliphs, or rather their lieutenants, were con' solidatmg their settlements in Spain and the islands of the MediteiTaiiean ; or hiter still, when Norman adventurers and the Seljukian Turks were lopping off branch after branch from the ancient tree,-the Macedonian or Basilian emperors had reigned from the south of Italy to the bor- ders of Mesopotamia; and the Comnenian emperors con- tanned to reign over Thrace, Macedonia, Greece, Cyprus, Rhodes, Crete, the Eg-ean Sea, and large fragments of Anatolia, from Belgrade and the Danube to Nice, Tre- bizond. and the winding stream of the Meander. Candia changed masters, ike Sicily and Calabria, several times thTt 1 1 ^'"'''^ "/S^"'^""' Y«* ^* ^'" be perceived that even the wrecic of Roman grandeur was still extensive; that the noblest cities and raost fertile countries were in- cluded within Its limits; that provinces adhering to the empn-e would be probably enricU by the misfortunes of those irrecoverably lost; just as Constantinople is known to have acquired the ixiffitive trade and commer'^ nf a u. CH. V.J MODERN BISTORT. n andria and Tyre. The Peloponnesus could boast of no less than forty populous towns, ftdl of wealth, manufac- tures, mansions, churches, and monasteries ; the silks, woollens, and linens exhibited matchless patterns of artistic ingenuity and texture,— so much so, that a sing-le entire piece of the last could be rolled up into a hollow cane. Scarlet and green were the favourite colours of the loom : and we hear of the spots of a peacock's tail being worked m over a carpet large enough for the floor of a church. Eiiibroideiy was raised in silk or gold; expanded into stripes and flowers, or adorned with pearls or gems. The revenues of Constantinople alone were several millions sterling; and the Crusaders were perfectly dazzled with its magnificence. Theodora reminded her son Michael, that he had inherited 109,000 lbs. of solid gold, and 300,000 lbs. of solid silver,— the mere fruits of pjuental economy. Basil II. could pay and reward his victorious armies, witlbout break- mg into 8,000,000/. steriing of coin and ingots, which lay buried in the vaults of his palace. The pomp, parade, and luxury of the Byzantine court, appear during these ages to have been almost boundless; patricians seem to have enjoyed and expended vast fortunes on their palaces, villas, gpardens, baths, porticos, aqueducts, plate, furniture, and jewels. The Emperor Theophilus siurpassed perhaps bis predecessors m the splendours of his imperial residence, which could boast of enormous extent, with gUded domes, apartments lined with porphyry and variegated marbles, columns of Italian sculpture, a throne like that of Solomon, besides ornamented halls, corridors, and staircases. Its greatest curiosity was a golden tree, which sheltered a multitude of bii-ds, warbling their artificial notes; with two hons of massive gold, and of their natural size, which (glared and roared like their originals in the forest. An mtelhgent reader will scarcely fail to observe the childish- ness thus blended with barbaric and oriental ostentation. Ihe same ideas must arise when we listen to the sonorous honoui-s and titles of the sovereign and the members of his tamil/, and the officials of his household ; or when we survey the gorgeous vestments, the red buskins, and the j-v-^«uo, iO x>im uiupurur ; cne vanety oi i obw and ^ MOBBRN HISTORY. [a.D. 1000-1200; ooronefes the grand officers of state, and the paffeaatry of the eatire ceremonial. It must be rememberetf Siat it was all a passmg- vision of corruption and decayj the glittering ahadow of power that had departed, the mockery of reS greatness, the spectre of retribution to come, decorated with gory glands. Magnificence is alone genuine and tolerable, when it is a natural halo and irradiation of that which IS real and substantial. Processions and acclama- tions, the proud reception of ambassadors, guards in bur* mshed buck ers and showy uniforms, misled the minds of tHe metropolis, and maintained that painted mask which covered and concealed the face of public misery. The army depenaed for its strength upon foreign levies, the navy upon its machines and the well-tested efficacy of the Crreek hre; the former comprised a certain number of regiments or bands, as they were termed, usually about three hundred strong ; their infantry drawn up for an on- set m ranks ot eight men deep, whilst the cavalry charged with but four. Armour was still worn, but not put on un- til just prior to an engagement, being carried for that pur- pose mto the field on light chariots or wagons; swords, spears, and single or double-headed axes constituted their principal weapons of offence. With regard to maritime warfare, a squadron of galleys stiU advanced, as in the tune of Thucydides, m the shape of a crescent, rushed to t^ front, and strove to impel their beaks against the feebler sides of an antagonist. Courage and loyalty, however, ^ not but have declined where the breath of freedom iJftfl no existence, and where emperors violated the solenui oeta alwavs taken at their coronation, that they would ojey the decrees of the Seven Synods and the Canons of the Church of God. Ml- OB. VI.] 1C«^BRN HISTORY. CHAPTER VL A.D. 610-1268. ^""Jit^*^"^^'' RUSSIANS, NORMANS, AND HtTNOARUNB-OERMAirT UNDE, THE SAXON, FKANCOWIAN, ANO 8WABIAN EMPEROH8- JSkJI^JdTkT^^'' "^""^ *^"''"^^ ^^^ ^""^ WOHLD-THE 8EL- DuRiNo the six hundred years elapsing between the reigns ot Herachus and Isaac Angelus, Arabian fanati- cism, in Its mightv assault upon Christendom, had broken up into various divisions, each of which could at times make itself both felt and feared. The Moslem became often victorious, not so much through any remarkable skill m mere military tactics, as in the sympathy mani- fested towards them by oriental forms and phases of pre- vai mg heresies, and the consequent weakness of those who stiU nominally professed to believe the Gospel. From the Koran they seemed to acquire a characteristic of fiery en- thusiasm; and they are even thought by some to have been the mventors of tournaments, which probably amidst the earlier crusades were mtroduced into Italy and France, and afterwards from tuose countries into Germany. Their means for supporting the contest with the Byzantine or occidental powers partly arose from their own internal trade and commerce : the gardens of Yemen, Persia, and Barbaiy abounded in frankincense, balsams, cassia cinnamon, and coffee,— this last was gathered from a shrub originally of Abyssmian culture. Other valuable articles are also enumerated, such as the precious and more or- dmary metals, ivory, tortoise-shell, flint-glass, haf«hets, knives, cloths, and military cloaks, besides tartans, dyed mantles, and gu-dles for the Berberine markets. Fine mushns, Imens, silks, and coverhds were manufactured at Moosa; coarse cottons, long sashes, and stained rugs from Suez; with Chinese fans, gums, spices, gems, evefT sort offemale attire, and slaves from the interior/circu- lated from the Red Sea to the Atlantic Ocean, throuffh — ^' vaTRrcins, muvmg- siowiy n'oiii tiie vallajB 102 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 800-1000. of Mount Atlas, halting at Timbuctoo on the banks of the Niger ; threading the deserts of Sahara fi'om one wa- tering-place to another, now buried in the sand, and then returning on their weary camels to homes which could alone be reached on those useixil ships of the wilderness. Thus it was that Fez and Morocco and Spain, and the central regions of Africa, maintained their ti-affic with Ethiopia, Abyssinia, Nubia, Egypt, and the celebmted cities of Mecca and Medina, or Bagdad and Bussora ; in addition to their extensive maritime intercommunication, so largely participated in, and latterly almost monopo- lised, oy the Italian commercial republics. Before the sugar-cane had become well located in Sicily under the Normans, its sweet saccharine, together with honey, spike- nard, pepper, and ginger, found its way into Europe fiom India ; but, as already intimated in the last chapter, the loss of some imperial sea-ports and provinces to the Sara- cens augnaented the opulence of those that still clung to their ola faith and government, and Christian merchants often supplied the stibium which tinged the fair eyelids of oriental or southern harems, as well as the storax and odoriferous resins so agreeable to the merchants of Da- mascus. Meanwhile, however, the scymitar raged with fearful fiiry ? wherever there were Catholics to spoil, there were infidels to invade; and as the Carlovingian period passed away, we find Pope John VIII. addressmg Charles the Bald in these pathetic terms : " How many and how great are the things we are suffering from the Saracens, why should I attempt with the pen to describe, when all the leaves of the forest, Were they turned into tong-ues, would not suffice to narrate them ? The blood of Christians is poured out like water; the people devoted to God are slaughtered. Captivity the most ci-uel, in perpetual exile, is the lot of such as escape the destruction of the sword or fire. Behold the cities, the walled towns, the couiitry villages, bereft of inhabitants, have sunk into ruin; and their bishops, dis- persed in flight, are no where sure of refuge but round the tombs of the apostles. Wild beasts usurp the sanc- iuaHus, where btood the chair of docti'ine ; instead of bi'dak- CH. TI.] MODERN HISTORY. 108 ing- the bread of life to their flocks, they are now doomed to beg" their own. Behold, most beloved son, the sword hath pierced to the soul; days have arrived in which we exclaim, blessed are the wombs that never brought forth ! The mistress cf the nations, the queen of cities, the mother of churches, the consolation of the afflicted, the harbour of refuge for all who are in distress or dan- ger, the seat of the apostles, — yes, Rome, — sits desolate and overwhelmed. In the year gone by we sowed, but did not reap by reason of the Saracens ; this year we cannot hope for harvests, since in seed-time we could not till the fi-ound !" His Holiness then complains that certain rebel- ous barons, calling themselves Catholics, were scarcely better; that, tainted with heresy and schism, they fre- quently sympathised with the enemy; and that the last days of calamity had fallen upon the world. Distresses just as great, and proceeding fiom ihe same sources, per- vade and sadden tne tenth and eleventh centuries. When- ever and wherever the true religion culmmated, then and there the universal firmament of public affairs for the time being brightened; the Popes were the princes of peace, lust so long as a wicked world would keep its nands from off the sacred chair of St. Peter. From Con- stantinople to Scandinavia they were perpetually called upon to cast oil upon the troubled watera : whilst a Greek patriarch could remind a Bulgaran monarch that it was u sin, in the same category with the simony of Elymas or the crimes of Ananias and Sapphira, to slight even the admonitions of a Roman pontiff. These Bulgarians had a Sclavonian origin, and acquired by war or treaty Dai-dania, Thessaly, and the two Epi- 2-uses. Their metropolis was Lychnidus or Achrida ; and for 377 years, a.* ^40-1017, the Byzantine court di-eaded their name and prowess. The Emperor Nicephorus led an expedition against (hem, which terminated in his de- feat and death, a.d. 811. The imperial head, after being exposed on a spear, was deprived of its hair and integu- ments ; the skull was then enchased in gold, and from its caoacious hollow, on grand festivals, some successfiil general imbibed % large libation in recollection of that signal ykUsej, *^ MODEHW HWTOBT. [a.D. 811-988, Basil II. afc length subdued the kinffdom; of which iJiack feea. £he Russians fu-st emeree from their histori cal obscuntv no great while after the fate of NMioZ Iiad aroused Jus successors to watch more cLS th^ shoL'^"'/T'^° ^f'y- ^^oeeedin^from tie Ix be tfenH f ,/°''°^ themselves in the^forests of ScX they had fallen upon the Finnish tribes, and ZtlTne^ the Lake Ladoga. The fiiture cities of Kiow Tnd Nov^ ^md were then founded, probably as mire statfoM Rune, a Scandinavian chieftiin, in Id. 862 LtabliS iis to" roieT\t°"^\^'^^^" ^"«"-- ^^^^ nis two heroic brothers : they soon gave laws to the Esthomans and Livonians; whilst their count^an In! S^»dSr^ir8^rfe-S connected more or less with f)i« *Za-^- ' ..' declared to i.,f Cn I tu^S^^ Tt^ ■aval mvasion, the Gmn/^ke Wa had t™ S™, '" "^^ T"™' *<' Bulgarians by aZ«d Ni ™ wS !L;k\£ ?'^?-- ^*' ',' ""^ "■« Christian religion der, whom the Muscovites had so long adored was drai" i>M •arlMrt Cftthoho prmeetti established wads; mcud CM. VI.} MODBHN HISTORY. 106 bridges, promoted communication between different and distant hordes, and facilitated tlie progi-ess of civilisation. Camps and fan-s on the banks of navigable rivei«s enabled tbem to collect such commodities as ftu-s, wax, amber, and hydromel, which they exchanged for horses, silks, ffold. and silver. Vladimir, the gi-andson of Olga, established schools, and reached the Caspian by means of the Volo-a: betore his conversion he lived with 805 wives ; slept in n bear s-skm beneath the ojien canopy of heaven, with his Head on a saddle; fed upon broiled horse-flesh: used no utensils but those of wood or horn ; and hated the Greek missionanes, who were then orthodox, and had been sane- tioned by proper authority. Many of hig people had, nevertheless, witnessed the splendours of St. Sophia • all were charmed with the sweet images of the Madonna'and her Uivme Infant; and the rumour ran, that 120 veai-s betore, when theu- .rude ancestors first entered the Golden Harbour, a precious relic of the Mother of God was reve- rentially bathed in the Bosphorus, at the advice of the patriarch. The new faith even spread its blessed influences from Iceland to the remote Greenland, or Vinland, as it was then termed; for from Pe.imia a regular market with these people was supported on the White Sea of the Polar regions. His son, Yaroslaf; was a legislator, composing his ordinances so as not to run counter to the prejudices of his subjects: as, for instance, when he enacted that who- ever pulled a hair out of the beard of any man should undergo a punishment four times more severe than if he had cut off one of his fingera. No wonder that, in a later age, the imperial orders to shave so nearly effected a national revolution. The whole aspect of this vast empire appears more Asiatic than European ; and it may well be cornpai-ed to an enormous glacier, shelving down with its weight of snow towards the warmer climates of the Medi- teri-anean. Yaroslaf also promoted both religion and lite- rature; he encouraged translations from various Greek authoi-s, and having intercoui-se with Rome, relations wera attempted with both Fmnce and Italy. He gave his dauo-h- ter,_Anna,Jo the Capetian Henry I., to whose feu^dj^ ' «w»rn me iTonnan* wei-e already so formidable. '^^ HODKRlf HISTORY. [a.D, 800-1081. Of the same kindred with those who founded th« Russian states were the Harolds and VarangianTof Nor^ Ste of il^'^f T''''^' ^r'°^ *° ^« satisfied wSh a tribute ot hides, feathers, and cordage, which the Pin« p«ud them for liberty to fish in their^tranlcent fiords foot of the Nomegian mountains embarked in their vesse s Jialtic. Then- native names were nearly as nuiSerous aJ their ships; but the appellations of the Danes the vTwLt or gi-eatest of all, tl/i;rormans, h.ve abSid or sS Tntd '^'a ''^'''' ^'^^ ^'^^^^ Heptarchy of EnE united under one sovereign, failed in finding means suffi' raUdltPrf??°^?^^^°^«^- Their g^^^^^^ rRhine the'p 1?".';;^%^? '^'^ ?T^ devastaSon uj vnl T J y^ ^^"®' *h® ®eme, and the Loire, into the very heart of France; nor did the anticipations of Charle! magne, who had foi^seen, and indeed by his northern campajgns partly produced the evil, reSL unSised NeustH T:J'" T^ ^ff^^^r^ or RoUo, conJli^refdi Weustna, and called it after the name of his Llowers iZ ?. •• u^-^^^^^' ^'^^ '^i°^P^« deemed himself fortS that this chieftain seemed contented with his acmiisS which was to be held as a ducal fief from the^ Sench crown, by ;,«r paraoinm.. The conquest o™ England bv William a the battle of Hastings, a.d. 1066, pWved Z the long lapse of generations more advanta Jo^g than otherwise to the House of Capet; for when tfe Duke of Normaiidy became a foreign potentate, the French nobles ?^ T'LT"'/^"'"^^ *° ^^eir own monai-ch, S whom they had then less to fear. For two centiir,P« hiftZ^vT • portant event, Italy rankedVemTnCri;!^^^^^^^^ the Arabs, the Hung-arians, or the Normans. Her beauS glad to hu-e the northern seafarers, who were to Ta rJLT nsrated out of what *i^-- « .-j .^"°/^®™ ^ '^e remu- ..u_i, ...^j „vTj««cu- iiieioreig-neniiuiiiiled CH. vr.] MODERN HISTORY. 107 their undertaking", and were then cheated of their wa^es. Siicli inf^nititiule reaped its natural reward; for the Nor- mans, with little delay, proceeded to help and pay them- selves. The Popes, too, at this crisis, plagued to death between the Greek and German Emperoi-s, favoure»l the cause of justice and policy by affording' their sanction to tlie new-comei-s. Tnese last made a grateful return; rendering most material services to the Chair of St. Peter in many an hour of peril. Numerous bold spirits, from their fresh settlements plong the Seine, crossed the Alps in the garb of pilgrims; i.ringing clear heads and strong swords to participate in the enterprises of their fellow- coimtrymen. Aversa was built for them by the Duke of Naples, A.D. 1029; twelve or thirteen years afterwards they made themselves mastei-s of Anuglia, with its capital, Amalfi. Robert Guiscard, or the Wizard, with nine oi his eleven brothers, distinguished themselves by their am- bition and valotir; turning their backs upon their paternal ' oast.le of Hauteville, near Coutances, and seeking their fortunes beyond the far mountains. The middle of the elsventh century witnessed their heroism and success. Eich conquest became a fief held of Holy Church. Capua and Salerno illustrated the prowess and wisdom of Robert; tho schools of the latter rising into immense fame for at- tainments in jurisprudence and medicine. Amalti extended its trade to Aintioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria. Sicily was act juired by Count Roger, the youngest brother of Guis- card, A.D. 1060-90, and one of those who had remained at home with their father Tancred; its princes were declared, by a singular bull, hereditary and perpetual legates to the Sacred See. In a.d. 1081, the aspirations of Robert t)rompted him, on the score of an imagined slight having )een shown towards his daughter, who had been betrothed into the family of Constantine Ducas, to attack the eastern empire. Alexius Comnenus having gained the Byzantine scejrtre, through setting aside his immediate predecessors, met the fiery Normans in the grand engagement of Du- razzo, the 18th of October, a.d. 1081, ana lost the victory. No gi'eat or important results ensued, any more than from a second expedition against Greece, three years later, 103 MODKHN Hl.TORY. [a.D. 800-1000 Venice YctZw^loBiT' 1^' *''° ^""*"'^ ''»^*'- «^ Apuglia died in tto Island ■nfrr;'''"«''°"' ^""^^ °^ oAhe fbliowinsr J Jv nnH f^ Ceplialon.a on the 17th its undisguised^ Jadn^rn^ r "'""'"^ ^"'■^^' ^^rough nation fVonrriStrsT^^^^^^^ shm.l, the r tits w2 nil T'"'"? *^"6">'«'-« «>• M^^- the .incient Pm-th .n^ • ' ''""''Tr' ""^ «^«" ^'e with with arLexmcZU^ ovejwlielmino. their jnu^uers, not carry awav +««.r,o "^'^^ i vvi. .. , couJd heap, ofUrfferr „s°"Th:?Lr';f ?""'='' '" be ne- DossPssPf] ),v tR •.•,•! ^^^^ heathens: and MODERN HISTORY. iris- cir. vi.l nnd refined, just so far nnd no farther than as the Chi.-,. Uaui'.y ot Rome roached and subchied thoir rudo nutives. J ho latter, in course of limp, f-11 into schism, even durinir the medioeval period ; and suffered accordingly. The -a- vigution ofthe Dorysthenea was forg-otten; orifrfmem- bered, only led to that servitude and ignominy which blended with oriental heresy from Uyzantium to Ecvpt' threw open a floodc-ato to the Turk's and 'J'artars The former was reserved for analogous degradation and chas- tisement, in the later days of Luther and his colleague^ Meanwhile monks and missionai-ies emulated the hiLoui-s ot the anostles. They visited unceasingly the tents or huts of tlie hercest savages. The Hungarians, wild as they were, at length listened to the voice of the charmer. They subsided into a settled location upon those fair and tortile plains embraced by the Carpathian mountains; and in the millennial year of the v/orld, reckoning from the Incarnation, St. Stephen, their real reformer, received tiom Pope Sylvester II. the title of King of Hungary, with a diadem or crown of Greek workmanship. Long, however, betore this felicitous change, the lineal Carlovingians had lost sight of Italy, and were deprived of the purple in Ger- many a.v. 912. The great nolles elected Coni^d, a rela- tion on the female side to the family of Charlemagne : who was succeeded by Henrj the Fowler, Duke of Saxony. At the commencement of his reign, a tribute was paid the Hungarians: but he soon surrounded the hamlets of his subjects with walls and fosses from Thuring-ia to the Danube, and enacted that the tenth man of every villaffe should remove into some adjacent fortified town The royal courts were held there; a third part of the produce of the vicinity had to be stored within these, or similar asylums Certain trades and professions were appropriated to the burgesses, by whom hefs and honours were to be attainable : thus vore the cities of the Germanic circles established. Fresh bishoprics were also formed on the Scla- vonian borders; municipal corporations, and the authority ot religion, together with the useful arts and sciences could now once more obtain rest for the soles of their feet Tha » •'■'-"'J "--sc i=ju ..riii aiocrei/ioii, ttnci executed 110 MODERN HI8T0RV. [a.D. 912-1100. after that the invaders continuecf their demands hV met a stm^mnS"'^ and defeated them. His son Otho 'a hieved a still more important triumph : and, amidst sevp.-n«ni!^ ST yr\°f.P«-^e^ a84ulture'beg.n t^Xpt t?ni "i!'5\i,^l?^' P'^""'^^^ ^° secular^historyme- tinies called the Great, since he subdued the kingdom of Italv, and for ever fixed the imperial crown of the oSars we eia, a.d. 962, it came to be a maxim of s^eneml iiu-is diet, acquired the subject kingdoms, with all their vao „« ni^ roga ives, fit)m the the and Ode'r to the utmostlmits 'f firpn'S £axon emperoi-s fancied themselves to have de- scended from Witikind, the grand warrior with whom ^^nT^^ ^'f f? "°"*«"d '"^° '"any campaigns S Jrst Otho proved himself to be at all events S't^!?! demands made unon his talents by he exLnS ^f tl times. Beyond t'he Alps he lowered the pSSe of the nobles by acting with the Church, and exe3?ce f^^^^ mipor ant cities from secular jurisdiction. BeCfn 1 ow ever, his own personal pi-etensions, as respectedihe 1 Zn of popes, the rival violences in the opposCdl^Son ofS Byzantine policy, the fearful confusions Tf tl c b™s th« bt. Peter had to encounter sucli storms of distress nnr?rl? plexity, as would have sunk and dest^ved a thoninW .^ over any system that was not inh Sy of ^S fn Su'' tion. The existence of occasional saken by his own children, and abhoW^d of God and man, Henry IV. at length died in the aC of sTof thetlT^ misery at LiegerA.B. 1106. His se Ld son ot the same name, and sole siu-vivor, who had alreadv seized the sceptre ere it could naturally fall from t^m- H^i^Tft "i™'°i^tered the empire ir eighteenTeSs £e To %f^r^--^^-^jdji.K^t Utfecht without of w>,; if v '^S^'^'^'T ^^'^^^^e^i absolution from Rome almos as 1?.F ^ f ^ *^^> ^" ecclesiastical matters h^ The decease of Henry V. was followed hy the «1^ cm, VI.] MODERN HISTORY. 113 tion of Lothaire, Duke of Saxony, who guided the af- fairs of Germany and Italy fi-om a.d. 1125 to a.d. 1137, when he expired at Trent ; having- had but one child, a daughter, married to Henry the Proud, a prince through heirship, wedlock, or resignation, possessmg the duchies of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and Brunswick-Lunebui^. The two last had been the original patrimony of Henry the Fdwler, whose female representative Lothaire himselt had espoused. It was hoped by his father-in-law, that Henry might have occupied the vacant seat of power ; but the Gennan electors, a.d. 1138, enthroned the House of Swabia, in the person of Conrad III. of Hohenstaufen. Henrjr, his competitor, bore the gi'eat surname of Welf or Guelt ; and Conrad, upon feudal pretensions, seized first a portion, and finally the entirety of his territories. Hence originated the titles of Guelfs and Ghibellines, — the latter appellation being derived from Wibelung or Ghibelung, a town in Fi-anconia, whence the Swabian princes are con- ceived to have primevally sprang. These respective war- cries, as is well-known, were but the trumpet-sounds of those who contended for papal or imperial interests. It will be presently evident enough on which side lay the real welfare of society. Althoug-h Conrad left a son, the choice of the electors fell, at his own request, upon his nephew, Frederic Barbarossa (a.d. 1152), who Ijy his second marriage with the Princess Beatrice, within five years aftei-wards, united Tranche Comte, or the free country of Upper Burgundy, with his hereditary domains. When at the commencenient of his reign the Guelfs were rein- stated, he separated Austria into a distinct dukedom, and endowed it with peculiar privileges, — thus unconsciously preparing a basis on wliich the future house of Hapsbui-g would eclipse the grandeur of all Saxons, Franconians, or Swabians. Albert the Bear had already begun to build up the principalitv of Brandenbm-g and lay the foundations ot Berlin. A subsequent renewal of the quarrel between the two factions shooK the imperial throne, yet terminated in the temporaiy ruin of Henry the Lion as heir of Henry the Proud. Barbarossa had now no difficulty in secur- ing" tiic Succession lOr- ais son, nenry VI., wno assiuned I ?' ^ M IW MODERN HISTOET. [a.D. 1190-1268. regai tme, tiemj VI. therefore crossed the Alns to ^a ahse his conjuffal inheritance. The prowess of^he Hn" henstaufens cuSninated to its zenith iusnth?, iw mature decease brougJ.t a cloud^vrteenti^rpe'ete He had already manifested to an awful extent 11.^X1 cruelty, and i-evengefulness of h^hamc^Pr «Efr*^^^ SSLf 'rp^^^"'° --template an'tb^b;^^^^^^^^ Oriental and German empires, as well as to rendeTthfl W dateofthfl"Wou7a i, J t!' , ^^ *^® favoured candi- --, upuxuj aammng that the two" last supportedlli^i,. MODERN HISTORY. 115 OH. VI.J glory to the end of the chapter, but that the first was dis- gi-acefully crucified! This is the potentate whom po- pular writers denominate the Protestant emperor of the thirteenth century. He died atout a.d. 1248 or 1250, leaving his son and heir Conrad acknowledged but par- tially by a few princes, whose sudden decease m four years bequeathed the fading inheritance of the Hohenstaufens to Coni-adin tlie last of his race. He was cruelly executed at Naples by Charles of Anjou, the 26th of October, a.d. l2bo. Meanwhile the conflict between the Church and the ^orld had been raging for many generations : as the for- er grew rich the latter became covetous; as the one .tibuked the vices of its antagonist, pride and indignation waxed rampant j matters had gTown to such a pass that emperors, princes, and great men resolved to consider spu-itual.furisdiction as emanating from the State,— a ques- tion which reached its crisis during the eleventh centiu'y in the grand contest about investitures. Satan had worked his engines of wealth and power with so much success, that, in conjunction with external enemies, the vineyard of Al- mighty God was laid waste, and the sanctuary seemed in ruins. The spirit of Simon Magus appeared for a dreary interval to have proved more than a match for that of Simon Peter; benefices were to be bought and sold throughout Christendom, and the holy celibacy of the priesthood had withered into most foul corruption beneath the desolating influences of incontinence. Just as in na- ture that hour is darkest which precedes the break of day, so was the ecclesiastical catastrophe at its worot exactly before an avenger was at hand. This was no other than the mighty and saintly Hildebrand, the man of his age, known in history as Gregory VII. : of humble origm, there seemed nevertheless the stamp of eternity upon his destiny from the very commencement ; withm the cloisters of Clug-ni his soul cherished the seraphic fires of divine sanctity and charity; but it was from heaven alone that the fervid idea descended ofrestoring the liberty j3 — ; — „„,„v«<-.g viic ii^iiia ui liw uitars. JUS tmnness of purpose was hewn out of the rock on which the no MODERN HI8T0BV. [a.d. J 078. persuasives; witHeaiXe i^'," ""■'' '^'*'»''» was that in his eye wS contl^ • Mpression, there .0 nothin. less 5mn a L nfTS/''tl,"?'^ Othos hadperpetrated murJi ^iLl-f^.^' • /"® ^^xon coman He„y the wrtdTotta^ d^^^^^^^ Of that name set a hell unon ^a^th - ^ 5' ^"® ^^^^^^ genius and holiness of a SZ Zh^^lTfT.'^^^'' *^« seen, nor will easily see a^a^n ft *u^' ^^^ "«^«r Jefc better told than il iS own wnH '"'t '* '^" scarcel/be close of January a d iS?? Z^'* ^'.T *«wards the with snow amidst a 1st sTvWe froTth«^ ^?f • ^°^^^«^ penitential garment of white linen iVti: u^ f ^ *^^ descendant of so many K 'nd ?] ""'*? ^^' ^"«*' ^^^ nations, ascended alonp nnK ? .?® """^^^ ^^ ^o many led to the ouriteof the fo^^^^^^ *5p'"'^^ P^*^ ^hi«f kept there three days without nn^^ "^"^^ treating- mercv wifY JI ? anj mai-k of attention en- the att?ndaSorolTu7wtTC-""' ^"'\*'^^^ «^"« violent supplications on SsbThVft"^ "'^'*V*^ *^' "'^'^ out that S;was not aposToffi^^^^^^^^^ ^utT "^^"? cruelty. Tie offerprl +« ,«„! \i ^,,<^' ""* tyrannical God and St Peter ppomisTno' '\^^''' satis4tion to for the correct; ;fhrSalsnST '' *^« "^'^^^^ gi^nthim absolution. AUastwS''^^'"' ^°"^^ ^"'7 overcome !" The emnpmv If ,^^^'"^,*^ ourselves to be wards in impie y iTfCoiS fv^'S^^^ 'J^' "°^'« ^f^^'"" on for nearly another Tlf 3* ^^V^"^'''* '*>"" ^azed be^n with fcldXand so it wnrj' ^* "' ^* ^'^^ ^^en upon his plans, and by the verrno- f"'' "" '° ^^^« ^P'^t, cat^d for the Vrpose u^td '^ FT^Tt"" ^^ ^^''^ «d"- t"sIl.,Henrjf cSdSnaVi; V^^' "°^^^ ^^^^i^- titure by rin/ and crS Jo M T. *''^^*-^' "^" ^nves- tog-ethei^wit! pe2ct fr edom o'f ^^-^ 1^^°^ ^^^^"^^^' consecmtion, as^well as trtn^/ ^''^P?* ^^^^t'«" and Sacred Apo tohc S, i^^Kuif |f ^^^^^ *° ^^« ^^. Paul, and the Popes their Imut^cJLf^l^^^ Thu» CH. VI.] MODERN HISTORY. H? corapleto was that great victory, granted by Almicrhty Crod to the prayers and energies of St. Gregory VII., sup- pQrted by tlie arms of the Normans, and consohdated by the piety of the great Coimtess Matilda. Through her hberahty he also obtained for the Papal chair a far more complete and extended claim than had ever been realised before to the entire Duchy of Spoleto and the March of Ancona; his tnumph over clerical incontinence was not Jess remarkable than that over simony, and the unrighteous pretensions of the laity with regard to investitures. In one word, he drove back the imperialism which would have enslaved the priesthood, whilst he re-established its ancient discipline upon the foundation of the Scriptures and the lathers. The Franconian dynasty, as we have seen, had its ex- tinction with the first quarter of the twelfth century, when with the Swabian emperors a struggle of another kind had to be maintained. As the action of the Church against the Henries had been for the vindication of rehgion and morals, so now with their successors she courageously ^ught for civil rights and municipal liberties. Fredenc Barbarossa expected many advantages from the old Roman juinsprudence, which during his youth had been rescued from it^s obscurity, and a good deal disseminated amongst his subjects. Bologna was the principal university for these legal and courtly studies, which endeavoured to adapt the maxims of Augustus Caesar to the prerogatives of Teutonic princes. The Lombards opposed to it the feudal law, wliich Obert of Orto, a Milanese senator, had compiled; their strongest towns had formed themselves into a league for mutual support and free government: Alex- ander in. filled the pontifical throne; the confederated cities availed themselves gladly of his protection, as Guelfs cordia ly desiring to preserve the independence of the Churcli together with their own. On the other hand, J^raderic had mterfered, contrary to all acknowledged justice, with the ate papal election,-being resolved to ren- der himself absolute; his supporters were, of course, the Ghibelhnes, or imperialists. Both factions flew to wms- the emperor entered Italv. bumf. r.r.nr»^ „«j .- xv.' 118 MODERN HISTOKY. Tad 1160 94 "pon the site of f bSLes anS n'.f ' ^T^'^ ^^ °^«adows severance less tha7those of /l! ''J ^^ ^Jents or peT- thered the storm. His InLf *°'^^'' ^°"J^ ^avre wea- the dojnination of A^ddTfe fj *^ P^^^fd under of his time; secret societip. Tf f' ^^'^ heretical socialist pontifical states, as we ras7tsnoSh^'"°*^°,*^ convulsed the boms. The Ro^an popZce^ZX'^ Tn '°"*^«™ ^^^S^. f vain; baronial l^Crmen wi^l"^ ? '°^ '^'^^^^^^ ferocious mercenariesffortifiTtLv/^^''^"" titles and l;^mty; the Coliseum rdthV^n' '"^^^'^^^t^ of an- beleaguered by nominalfv Pi, • .• "" ^«^*e possessed or gjaded than tL SfKrottlT "T' ^'^ '"-^ d- Pied beneath their feet sT a , °'^ '^^o'" *hey tram- emperor a.d. 1167 whikfV ?.^''^*' "^^^ stormed by X very halls of t/ie litS * tnH'*l''"!f^-/^'"« ^^ook^he he roof over the poSof S iif f'J'r^'' "^'^^^ the Pope, although defeatpH ll • , ^ of the Tower: yet retreat, never qufi^dfhtLtd 1'°.?^ '°^ eompell^* cause, which was that of fhf A i*^® excellence of his n^antle over the munTc pal fitdom nf\'^^^^^^ ^'' «^^d end, after years of mise?y auoZf J^^ '"^>'*«- ^^ the " and death, the onorps^m. iu ?? ^^^^^^a^tation, distress Guelfs and GhSZlintTf'' ¥^^ ^'° his puS respective factions C atrlkn" h' H '^' ^^^^^ oShei; nuns, and a new citv had h« ^^^ fe-arisen from her "ame of that brave a^t? pS'.'^'^^ «^«^ the Almighty God, the existeCe and fu wfj ^'"^"™' ""^^r Lombarcfy were entirely due Fr^5 ^"^°* P'^^P^rity of at the g-reat battle ofLegSano l^flL''^' overtlu-own year La )i„r«i.i„j i- ^^a^o, a.d. 1176: tJho f^ii .• "" ""^ K'eut oattie ofLeeTiflTin a t. iV.;/. " "vertm-own year he hu bled himseKe^e S^ H ?' *^' ^°"°^'""ff kissed his feet as he hast-npd fn ^'^^^hness at Venice, conducted in peace as ft • ®'"^''*^® ^im, and was ^"; a^, for instance, rteSTJ;"^?"" ""^ ""■' '"o™* Ixv CH. VI.] MODERN HISTORY. 119 litans and Sicilians. The victims of his vengeance had to sit on stools of red-hot iron; or, in other cases, crowns of the same kind were forced upon their agonising temples. Horrors such as these should warm our gratitude to Heaven, for having enabled the Popedom to assert the claims of humanity, and develop the charities of the Church, during the darkest periods and under the most diflicult or distressing circumstances. The progenitors of those unhappy pereons, whom the Swabian tyrants thus dared to torture, had fought valiantly m inany an arduous engagement during the period re- cently reviewed. With slight exceptions, the Normans in Italy were amongst the best friends of the Papacy, as already mentioned; nor did Hildebrand himself, in sur- veying the varietie. of his position, forget the sword of (xuiscard. On the death of that chieftain, his followers laid aside for sixty years their designs against the Eastern ±.mpire. The policy, however, of Roger, the first king of Sicily, and nephew to Robert Guiscard, rekindled hostilities between the Byzantine court and the sovereign of Palermo, ihe latter soon launched a powerful fleet against the Ionian islands and the Grecian cities. His admiral then insulted the Hellespont; whence the Comuenian emperor ""ii!.o^n °°"*^®^* ^^*^^ ^®"^^^' ^'^P^d^y repulsed him, A.D. 1148-9. A truce ensued of some years in duration: put trom that hour Manuel Comnenus conceived the pre ject of restoring the sway of Constantinople over the southern provinces of Italy. Calabria seemed still at- tached to the Greek language and worship. After the loss ot her dukes, Apuglia was chained, as a servile appen- dage to the crown of Sicily; and a collateral descendant ot the departed Roger himself invited the enemies of his family and nation. As Henry VI. had expatiated in dreams on a union of the East and West, for the special benefit of the Hohenstaufens, so did the imagination of the imperial Comuenian gloat over similar fancies on be- w\°, j\°'''" ^^'"''•''- ^^'« des\o;as, therefore, upon the West led him to mingle in the fearful frav then raginir between^ theGuelfs and Ghibellines, a.d. 1165-74 Ale^ X.XX. twice received his amnassadorei in the Vatican; MODEKN HiSTORV. (a.D. 1180-99 lost .he ffie„d,h,p „? r iwin" z fc°:sLtf SarZnM qf J^ ofwho^^ere often assisted }>v the oaracens. Iheir final hostilities occurred in a d llftfi. InnS *o.SFacuse and Girgenti. The sack of Thessa- pontificate of Innocent III. He also reflected to peffec Z the mind and intentions of St. Gre-ory VII an§ wftS recounw the long catalog^ze ofZ^. mXltcefors ?Sfir*r^ after centuV, few thin .smore S^^^^ ttitwv. ^T ?* ecclesiastical sovereigns! They nZh the Wcnes of the Koran; an nnmitigable enmSv couU Srbarism n 5L f Gregory haj^ looked pog-anism o,. t! OH. VI.J MOTJBllW HISTORY. 121 ?/fiS"^ ^"'^"^^ "^"^ ^''*' *° '^'"'"*' Jerusalem from the « v\^^ Holy Sepulchre had fallen under the sceptre of the Seljukmn Turks, who had erected in the eleventh century a solid and splendid emi)ire from Samarcand to the con- of Greece and Egypt. Their ancestors, the Turk- mans, had long lost their Scythian grandeiu-, which com- menced about the time of Justinian. The Hungarian colony had subsided into the order of a Christian country Mahmoud, one of their princes, had established the Gas- navide dynasty, a.d. 1000, upon the throne of India- which was subverted by the house of Seljuk, a tribe of kmdred origin, a.d. 103^. Under Togiul "Beg all Persia was conquered by this same people; who also adopted the creed of Is^am as their own. rfe delivered the Abbasside cnliph at Bagdad from the tyranny of the Bowides and their meaner instruments, a.d. 1055; who solemnly in- Btalled him as Sultan, or temporal lieutenant of the vicar ot the false prophet. Dying childless, in a.d. 1063, his nephew Alp Arslan overran Armenia and Georgia; frus- trated the far-famed triumphs of Nicephonis, Zimisces, Tr^ ^m\' ''"if P*;""f^ *''^ P^"^P«''or Romanus Diogenes A.D. 1071. The following year, his son Malek "Shah, Who reigned /or twenty summers, from Cashgar to the neighbourhood of Constantinople, succeeded to the Sul- tany ; which, on his demise in a.d. 1092, broke into four divisions, governed respectively by the dynasties of Persia, which comprehended the largest portion; Kerman, in- eluding extensive regions on the shores of the Indian Ucean ; Syi-ia, of which Aleppo and Damascus were the capitals, and Roum, which included many of the Roman provinces of Asia Minor, having Iconium for their Turkish metropolis. But the most interesting of all the Seljukian conques.^ was, of course, the Holy City. The Black or Abbasside commanded of the faithful tolerated Christian pilgrimages upon payment of tribute ; but whilst, as Ma- hometans, thejr professed to revere our Lord as a prophet, their unitarianism felt profoundly offended at the ortho- doxy of the Catholics. When Palestine came to be trnn^. xerrea to the (ireen or Fatimite Caliphs, a.d. 069-1076 1S9 MODERN HISTORY. [A.ii. 1070-99. with one considerable intermission, under the sncriletrious Hakem, the condition of Christianity rathei- improved than otherwise ; whdst the practice of pilgi-imag-o wonderfully augmented, partly through the general revival of rdigion after the miseries of t\u>. tf^nth century, and partly from the charity of St. Stephen, King of Hungary, affording as he did so many facilities for a safe transit through his ^T"^^""^'. i?" ! *''*' overthrow of the ^^atimites by the arms of M: .-k Shah, A.D. 1070, introduced disastrous changes JNot only was an aureus, a piece of gold worth eleven shil- lings, exacted from each pious stmnger, but the sacred city Itself had darkened into a den of lions. The Church of the itesurrection was defiled and disgraced by every species of savage rudeness. A demoniacal resolution was evidently rising, throughout the length and breadth of the land of the Moslem, to extirpate Catholicity itself by the sword and the strong hand; assisted, as they trusted would be the case, by the factions, schisms, and heresies, which were known to be rampant within the limits of Christendom. Hildebrand beheld the ueril with the eye of a prophet and the faith of a saint. That the Cross should not succumb to the Cres cent; that the sacred sign of baptism should never be violat-^d by the knife of circumcision; that freedom, art, science, and literature, with social purity and order, should be for ever presei-ved in the ark of the only true Church,— there was a trumpet blown which vibrated from shore to Shore; and Peter the Hermit was commissioned by Ur- ban II. to preach the gi-and crusade. CHAPTER VIL AJ). 1099-1291. TUB CRn8ADBS,TO THE LOSS OF THE LAST LATIN POS8E88IOH IS THE HOLY LAND. The Hermit who shook the world towards the close of the eleventh century was like another St. Paul from the deserts ot Ihebais, small m statwe and strangely picturesque in OB. VII.J UODBRN HISTORY. 188 •Dpenrance ; but l»is eye sparkled with celestial fire, and his eloquence possessed that magical power which moves masses of men, as an earthquake heaves the mountains. His diet was rigorous, his prayers long and fervent. With bare head and naked feet, his body, meagre as a skeleton, wan wrapped in a coarse garment ; whilst he bore and displayed a wei-rlity crucifix, beneath the shadow of which his shri- velled hands distributed the alms of the affluent,— his voice at the same time appealing in thunder to the deepest sensi- bihties of the hearts of his hearers. The very ass on which he rode became sanctified in public estimation by the ser- vice of the messenger of God. Amidst the agitation of the questions about investitures, and the scandals which disgraced the courts of European princes, the Popes well knew that these sinnere in sciirlet ana fine linen only crawled upon the surface of society, leaving the multitudes, whom thev enslaved or despised,'^open,to more magnanimous sym- pathies. The Council of Placentia, in March a.d. 1095, under Urban II., had a mag-nificent attendance; as had that also at Clermont in November of the same year. The Festival of the Assumption had been fixed upon for the de- pai-ture of the pilgrims : but a thoughtless throng preceded the real Crusaders, and atoned by their dispersion or destruc- tion for much of the confusion resultinof from such prema- ture entluisiasm. The leaders of the fii-st expedition were Godfrey of Bouillon, his brothers Eustace and Baldwin, Robert of Normandy, Hugh of France, Robert of Flanders, Stephen of Chaitres, Raymond Count of Thoulouse, Bohe- mond son of Robert Guiscard, his cousin Tancred, Walter of Limoges, accompanied by his lion, which he had rescued from a serpent, and which never deserted its deliverer ; a thousand high-bom chieftains shame.» 1? , ^* °'' claimed. A serf twelve oxen wer' accumulated to "/' 'i^V^^^^ ^^-^^ or war-horse, and a sum nf fW i, 1*^",^^ ^^« Pnce of the fixed, i„ the age of cWvI,^^^^^^^^^^^^ wL noble animal. Amon^sTtS tlt%V^^^''^ °^*^« «ore archy we find enummted t£ P ^^"^^^^^'^^^ «f the mon- berias, of Jonpa an" of^BeiW 'J^'f^\--d Ti- and some others besi/p, t„ J- it' ^eraclea, Marcab but by far theTmeS tlwtfc^^^^^^^ '^^ ^desTa gb^ous knig-hthood, two ofXh ^mr-'l^'"' °^ Hospitallers, the Templars fln7f{,V 1 "ourish, — the nity; they wei^e bounlto the^ rSn ^-"^^^ Oonfrater- most solemn vows —tn tot 'respective objects by the protect the roarfr^m^robbe^ Tiwl ' "'T, ^'^^'^ dience to their superiors 3 4,vi ^ '".^ebbacy, in obe- to be the first irbatl'lrtt^tf-'"*^ P°^^««^^°°t earliest of these assumed Thl %^'^ '" ^^^''^a*- The V; "20; the lat erTal ^ot J nnT. '^ «''™« ^^^^^ of Acre, a.d. 1190. sTran-e «ffl"'^ "'^^^^ ^^^ «ege appear between things dS\nV> association may oftin tbat the electric chffn Sd ll "'^'^''^f ^"^^^/better than with hell. The chivalry of leT"'"*?^ with-'heaven to objects of charity, vaS and r^r'^^''' ^°""^ *J^em secret societies of their annL^-, refinement, whilst the tion of murder and i^^e^^ ° ¥h ^^l^^^^ *^' ^*'^«^- tarn, as he was termed, XresenteJ ti ^"" f ^^« ^«"n- *'"-^"] MODERN HISTORY. jq^ less disgiiises/Xch tnowlTJ''^'^^'^'^ assuming- enZ through%lI cC nt and i^™/" P.'^' "P ^'^'^^o^ their (laagers were n w/- ^.^ of society in the earth, ^^^^iors^nrin^^or^TAZl^ breasts of the braves frits, or rather SonySLfcV^'^'' '^"'?«' *>f ^^^^e the boundaries of cStiL ,Sw ' ^'''' '"-T^^^ ^^^^in with the Bx:c^lrse^Thn^^'ff^?'^^T^^^ from the bottom of his fm,Wl,-'^\ ^^^^7 abhorred > PossessedTlovf foJ God „n5 ' ^^l^^^^ble cfevices; for getW with the peari o?2umSL"Z^^°^ 'T^'^' *°- of the champion. WininrT^f 'S^ enchased m tfie heroism wisest as w^I as^he m^ ^f tS^^^^^ ?" «J *^« turersj with one stroke ofhTsword h! t "'^'^V'^^^"" in twain from the shni,]dr«,"> ^^^^'^^ ^e clave a Saracen cut off the he^d of a camel b,T!;™ '' '""^ ^'*^ ^"^ther short: within two ySS his ^1' mgn seemed only too him, who was folZld^X^'^n^^^^- TT^«^ title. Bv femalfl f:un..r.Jl- "^^/°"sm, the second of that Melh-sendra luStroHh^l T^''' *^«" P«^««d to Count of Aniou tfp ItT, t ^""'i' "^^"^^d to Fulke English pSgenets theTr ^ " ^^''"^.^ ^"'^"«« "^ oS Amaury, waeSfrstrenum?« °^^V Medina to acknowledge hCrti.'TP'"'^^^^^^ «°d . and subdued, throulh l^T^^lf "f *«?Po«»l prote^^^^ Yemen the Happy^^i^^ jl/fe*^^ ^^^^'^^ of a set of circumcSed enthusiast; nS .^H^^^^^^^^dins, the Koran certain mSmsXr^^^^^^^^^ ^^"^ of this century overcome thp m1 wi^^"* l"" *^® course Morocco and Wrrifrfca bS. ^i- ^T^''> ^"^ quisitions in the A wSspvillf n "!f ^'°S^ ^^''^^^ ac a» i«t .^ ^ iTS/S^ ^o-S; tt^r^: CH. VII.] MODERN HISTORY. 129 City, a.™|iLt tffito yel'^ofT^ll';?/''''' "°'y J'ero a leA a child, a ?ady,^ coward and ^^1!?"' LuMgnan was taken prisoner at thJ^h^M^'Ji-u ■ *™'°''; on tSe 2d of OctobefA n 1?«7 i- > pf^i'"'™'! and the dome of th^ '^.d ^<£^?iZlr^t7C^r and lamentations Sf the Christian, »;7jv!f^ ™ '«•" gi'atnlations of their enenUeT' * *° "'™°'*'« «>■>- the Italians nevertheferosTlS *^ ""■" ,™ '""™ • t^' ffavfnna and Vi^-i^^^^ ""''<"' *'» P^'ates of 8% Denmark ^I'priesSr ffiP^™ ' MODERN HISTORF. [a.P. 1188-93 He had reacSi the froaSfo? SvH.'^^f ^''^ '^^^^l^^^ the spot wheiP fha-Ma^r - ^"*^ ^^^°> °ot ^ar fi-om incuSd the 4]?^'f ?/f^^^^^ conqueror of Darius had no, "pluf^^^^ sjmilar aceident, Frede- waters nf tJ.o «„? I '""J!^^* and horse into the icy cold .pX; oMh^f it"i' rs 'Tft" ^'^"^^ °' lis remains from tho river Vs^eJm.A^r.r'™'"^^ check, ,„d hL related fr^^te'^'i^'P'*-^' the royal pa^lions S'«f i ^f *i""? penetrated intb September A d lino i,!f Sepulotoe By the treaty of -e. and worship of cLtS^^^^a^'^ tZl tlhl' CH. VII.J MODERN HlfTORY. 181 LIf f °?/^ '"'-X '°^'*5 that tho temtories on the sea- coat should vemam in the possession of the Latins and iLtd'tl ^M f "'^^ !>« -t'^Wished between t^fe'Cm- thP Infw 1 oT rJ"'"- ^* ^' remarkable how completely the latter haa put the entire merits of tlie contest uSon X being, a strug-g-le between their Unitarianlm on tK side as contrasted with what the Sai^ace^c mi ers T wit HM •'%*'\*^ ''^t^'y «^'T"nitarianism ?r?heTther tl cene "nf t\^/'"8' ''^^^^^^^ ^^- the het of Jiut softeneil the asperities of warfare,_such as the m t^Gu^Tha'v^^ ^J^ ^ 8'°?™^- It ^as Ultimately so6 ^ a.D the o^uns presei'ved some position MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1193-1200. in Palestine for nearly another centurv Th« ,«oi j nfjf /^"""""rif/ ""^'^ renovated the decaying- pieTv of 2l f n""' ^^' '"'^P^ °^^^«^'«i ^a« wrapt "n^ire\e oracle of Osma was c othed in power- hnth v^J.J^' • Co" 1*?^^^^-^ -d their rS::e\mleZ\^e Wed Pln'^'"^/^V *^^ family of the Counts of SeK learned, eloquent, able, attractive, enffa^ing-, and o-enprZ" his frugahty in private e^peus^s aWleS hfm vast^ruS the poor, ^or tU encouragement of art and sc ence for the restoration of prosperity to the EcclesiastiS S/ofl for the assistance of fieii and dLmtt^eef^^^ maintenance of the true religion in Palestinp tL? }u ^and CEcumenical Council ffLater^nw^^^^^^^^ auspices; and whist he decided between the aspZn^ the German and imperial diadem, his supreme S,.n^ At_the feet of his legate it was t.iat the wretched brotW of Richard suirendered the English crown- andTf l.i=! • t-oCrusades the fourth and filh,Vern:^Z^^^^^ The former of these expeditions, indeed, was aiCted £m Its original object : Isaac Angelus, who had wreaked th neZfnn77?81^'^'""^"^' ^^^ ascende7tt Byi" ward, t^eyouthfi^^^^^^^ into Sicily, whence in due course of time he went to Rn£l to salute the threshold of the apostles ZZlf - ^' Slices couldnotfail to have ^rSZny^^:!^^^^^ tions in the mnds of the occidentals towa^J^hfmeLZs" of the oriental schism. Originating as far back k iJ, earliest forms, as the reigns ofConstantine and Ws descen dants, an opn breach seemed to be first (^ffJntZ\hH Z the wickedness of Photius ad fi?? ftfifl i '^''"^^ heresies and .jealousies W^d'^aU^IlfVorTllTTo S ZitT *'; '^T"^«J of disciple 3ai- fiTuage, until tne Crusadera inflamed the soreness to an ex- CH. VII.] MODERN HI8TORY. 133 tent absolutely intolerable. The advent of Andronicus to his metropolis was sig^ialised by a ma.>saeie of the Catholics, A.D. 1183 J their houses were reduced to ashes, the clergy were burnt alive in their own churches, together with the sick in their hospitals, and no less than four thousand of their numbei-s were sold into Turkish slavery. The head of the cardinal leg^ate was severed from his body, fastened to the tail of a dog, and dragged with savage ignominy along the streets, amidst anthems of blasphemous thanks- giving to Almighty God. Retaliation was only natural: yet It proved most hideous and dreadful. In addition to these alternations of catastrophe, the Bulgarians had be- come an important element in the dispute. Since the days of Basil II. they had endured, as well as they could, the yoke of Byzantine servitude; Isaac Angelus provoked them into revolt, a.d. 1186, bv depriving them of their flocks and herds. Invoking their patron St. Demetrius, they quickl;jr and successfully asserted their independence; an application made to the Pope for his benediction and protection, as they avowed their conversion to orthodoxy, was graciously received. Innocent granted their leader Joanices a license to coin money, the royal title and prero- gative, and a Latin archbishop or patriarch. In this man- ner, what is styled the second Bulgarian kii^dom obtained Its establishment— a fruitful source of mortification in the East and of triumph in the West. The son of Isaac Angelus, therefore, could hardly have appeared at Rome at a more cntical period. Fulke of Neuilly, an illiterate but powerful preacher, had trodden in the stem paths of Peter the Hermit and the sainted Abbot of Clairvaux, arousing by his sermons Md miracles the mighty peerage of France to the rescue of the Holy Land. On his passage through Italy, Alexius heard that the choicest warriorsof Europe were assembl-'no' at Vemce to embark for the fourth Crusade, and a gleam of hope enkindled in his bosom that their invincible swords might be employed in the restoration of his father. It must be remembered, too, that the proud Queen of the Adriatic had her own private grudges ag-ainst Constanti- nople, which at least predisposed their minds in a particular direction. An alliance was formed between the Er«nch 134 MOBEaN HISTORY. [a.D. 120U8. Z'ITT^-''"' '•" *^'' °'^"'"ff y^"^ of the thirteenth cen- tury; their pnmary efforts were directed aonins Zara vol T? '" f'^^S ""' ^'l^o'^-in Dalmatia, wrShnd^ vdted from the Repuh he. Both there and at St. Mark^s the young- exile phed his entreaties. Worldly wisdom ent a hstenin^. ear; so much so, that Innocent cSved tW m,g It waste the entire season in the Adriatic, and lose S of their hio-hest object altogether. His excomtnunTcatfon of certain False confederates helped to brin^ them E t^ their senses. When Dandolo the Do-e,^ Wer had gamed his point in persuading the allies to 1 stenTo A^xt and undertake an expedition to the Hellespont aniSos ^itJidiew. Ihose who remained were the mnident and th« trthosV^fT""^ -V^^■^5^'^^' whosJ m^n7-^fe were those of power and plunder, to be obtained bvdeen counsels and strong arms, at any risk of life or comuroS of conscience The defection o^f their formed coZanTons had mdeed left them compamtively fewer in mere numbe," LI d^eSln^d'*'^^^^ ''' *'^ ^°^^^^"- -- «-ly S Arrigo Dandolo is said to have been ninety years old at this time, and nearly blind; but his mental e/ethad a S."^iTT "''r ^'^' ^"^ '^'^'> «o that?e was thj Nestor of the whole scheme. His pilote conducted the fleet S.n2 "i^'"" "'""^ the southern iape of the Morea, by the islands of Ne^ropont and Andi-os, to Abydos on the aL « pt;Vtfth^'""rt' ^^'^"^ *^« oL^afan^d' 2 i'lopontis they gradually approached the capital havW jriutted Zara on the 7th o/kpril, a.d. loo^and 3 t^eir g-oal on the following midsummer-da^ As tW ghded towards the Golden^Hoi-n, immenseTas theVa/ miration of such a metropolis as none of them could have ever seen,-the glorious creation of the Constantines, with Its domes and spires rising from their seven hiUs Tnd towering over the continents of Euixjpe and Asia^^ Th«^ IS a curious account still extant, drawn up by thenselve^ as a narra ive of" what happened, for the pLsal of t?e ft^T^ t\lZo}%"''^f'M ^? ^"*'^"% transmitted n. xne mtellect of a politician, y.v< iiioTs a v^rusaaer, IB CH. VU.\ MODERN HISTORY. 186 amusingly visible : " As we could not but apprehend that we should by om* great multitude be burdensome to the Holy Land, and as we lotirnt that tlie citizens of Constan- tinople wished to return under the dominion of their law- ful emperor, we thought it expedient to settle the disquiets that existed there, in order to secure for ourselves tlie ne- cessary supplies and assistances for our future proceedings. We foundf the city uncommonly strong, the citizens in arms, sixty thousand cavalry, and all the implements necessary ibr defence ; the unlawfiil emperor had told the people that we designed to subdue them, and reduce tlier Church in obedience to your Holiness. Being only stocked with pr'^visions for fourteen days, we were obliged'to repeat our attfV'ks without intermission. On the eighth day we broke into the city : the emperor flying with a few of his followers, we seated Alexius IV. on the throne of his father, after setting free the latter from his dungeon. The new emperor promised us 200,000 marks of silver, provisions for a twelvemonth, ard his assistance in recovering the Holy Sepulchre ; he only desired us, on account o? the Greeks, to remain in our camp without the city. Soon after this, he suffered himself to be persuaded by his father to fall upon us by surprise and set fire to our fleet. The project was discovered ; the people, afraid of our vengeance, cried out for a sovereign. The emperor, in oixier to ap- pease us and them, sent to the discontented his kinsman Murtzulph (Alexius V.). The latter betrayed and murdered the emperor and his father, and closed the gates of the city against us. There is, Holy Father, in the whole West, no city like Constantinople ; the walls are lofty and wide, con- sisting of squared stones : at every interval of 500 paces is a stone tower, supporting another of wood six stories high; between the towers are bridges full of arms and bow- men: double and very wide fosses allowed no play to oup machines. Often during the night they sent fire-ships out against us. Our land forces alarmed Murtzulph ; but I e preferred to die rather than surrender. He had killed the young emperor with a club, and he gave out that Alexius Had died from other causes : he obtained advantages over iq/i MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. VJOB-4. us; but at lencth t)ie ships Paradise and Pilflrim und«r tr";"tLen'^Sfrf^ nf fhl 1?" 1 *"® ^"^^"-'^^ «aw tJ»at the who e fbrrM mthoutord«,Uecl with i,To,i!XfZ t ^mS of Venice elected Baldwin/Count oSdert h'e^T peror of Constantinople; the fouith nnH- «?%i • " not to publish the bann of the Church aoaini rT } ' who, instead of realising their vov^l n PaC v. ^l^'I ^rrents of blood and Iposed Sri tL e~^^ he said, on a more Ml pnn* took possession of th^ tZl nf}t n ^'''''- V«°'«« DandolodiedinimmeLeitf ^'''' °'<* and the Peloponnesrw^rf d^d^^^^ ^'^haia • hy great magnates minv nf ♦? ?*° ''""^"^ ^efs, held IVaSce. Otho de li KL 1 «'"" ^^'^^ «"^ °°bles of of Athens; Theodore T^r' ? ^"'•8^"'*«n. became Duke wreck of the Bvzant f« cLn^ f J^^'' P'^served a which formed a^Sonoir^n'Jf ^"^ ^'''! '" ^^«'™/ Minor, under the ^^^AaV 'CJ^S,^'^ °^ ^sii founded by membeiVnf ti^^i .° °*^^'" »*ate8 were Trebizond/by a Sion o?!h? T'"'"" /amily-one a* bore the ducal ti§e«nTw ^^^"^^"'O'^s Andronicus, who of the BlSea from S^^S'? fJ'^^ "^«°^ '^' ^^ores generations, £ dt^nfeVaU d'tS'''^'f ^" *^« ^«*«' An illegitimate scion of th«>.n?^ J^f^^ehres emperors, also contrived toTmitaL tf,? ' ^^ ^ngrelua ComnenuA mother fragmen^ftSGrlekdZ-±' "^ JPPropriatiny be called the Desnnt«f« nV S • "°™'°'ons, which came tS but importanf pTvince^w^^^^^^ '^^'^^^^ Etolia, and ThSv l^ll I ¥"*'*' of Acaraania, Adriatic across toZ'coS o^Ze f' ^^^^^ °*' *^« win of Flanders theW T !!• ® ^^°^'P®^«^°- Bald- Constantinoplermet S «" ? T'P^o^ the diadem of queen solicited his vhtne^hL » • ^*."»ed, that the Her husband: orhrsSsI^r«f T'^T- '? *^« ^^^s of upon him the extreS and mutilated, he w^seal flr^f"''' dismembered devoured hy birds Xi^v whn.; T* ?f T* ^^^^' *° t)e to have been protr^ctKor fhrl 3""^ H*^"^* ^« '^'^ absolutely depS from hiTJ^f "^^^'^ ^^°'« ^^« had •flaceedea inX^st 4 b ^9n^' T'"''^' ^'' ^«>ther, yea«,-^the only S;vd of S^ ' -^^'^ ^°^ *«« iosphoi^s presJnSr^r symZms oTr^°" °° '^« pent,. Hisendeavf„,.l,rcS^Krs:;C i.D. 1304-61. aiid thrown an column, a t myriads of ces, Venice an Sea; old 3ple,- Achaia us fiefs, held ad nobles of ecame Duke genius, who preserved a n Bithvnia, ity of 'Asia states were I}'— one a« onicus, who r the shores Fn the late* i emperors. Comnenus propriatingr 3h came td that small Acamania, ice of th« :o. Bald- diadem of 'om Joan- that the i hands of '■ wreaked nembered Jad, to be 5t is said life had I brother, for tea t on the or pros- subjects en. vii.J WODERN HI9T0RT. 139 are thought to have dmwn Urn into some compromises: and, certainly, in the Catliedral of St. Sopliia he deserved censure, as the Pope justly told him, for presuming to place his throne on the right hand of the Patriarch. Henry died at Thessalonica, in April a.d. 1217, when Peter of Courtenay, his brother-in-law, undertook the government. Misfortune dogged his footsteps. The despot of Epirus made hira a prisoner on his jom-ney from Durazzo, in company with the papal legate; nor was he released from captivity but by a natm-al or untimely death, in A.D. 1219. His second son, Robert, accepted the shadow of imperial power— for it was no more,— and augmented the public calamities. Theodore Angelus attacked him, from Epirus on one side, and Theodore Lascaris from Nice on the other. His morals were not immaculate, nor his abilities equal to his station; shame, grief, and impotent resentment extinguished his earthly existence ^'\^ff°' His youthful son assumed the paternal diadem as Haldwm II.; but with a hero for his colleag-ue and adopted sire, m John of Brienne, an aged nobleman fi-om Champagne, of gigantic size and stature. Beneath the weight of fourscore years his vigorous intellect had only acquired wisdom, without losing strength. He preserved Constantinople, for a brief period, from the Greeks and ^ulganans. Contemporary poets compared him with Hector, Koland, and Judas Maccabaeus; but beyond all reasonable doubt he was the champion of his metropolis; nor will Catholic piety fail to ad.aire his ambition, after fifty years of secular glory, to enter Paradise in the habit » Yn^J}P^^^^^ ^^^- ^^ ^is demise, the 23d of March, A.D. j-^d7, the fate of the Latin diadem in the East was sealed. His pupil, Baldwin, dishonoured the throne for frfo«T°iJ-^u ST*,®'' ,°^ * ^^"^"''yj "°ti'> in July, A.D. 1261, Michael Palaeologus, as colleague and guardian of the infant John Lascaris, recovered the capital of the Constantmes with little difficulty and less bloodshed. Jialdwin, m deep humiliation, survived his deposition thirteen years: through his poverty and distresses very many most interesting relics became th« "ro—rt" -' Preaoe— such as the ^crown of thorns whiolb "^oms«3 140 MODERN H18T0RT. [a.D. 1SI8-43. on a i-eed to His lips Ldthp'!f «»\that was lifted ticians considSed from thr.lfn "^^ the wisest of poll- in the East, ?hat a Wow st4k Kl^n^^-^l^ '"'"^^'^ road to Mount Zion SZiPtJa 7^^^' ""'^^.^ °P^° ^^^^ Moslem; but had to hp Hf V'''' T^'*"'^ ^o™ the management oflts caotL S'"^' T^S^ ^''^"^ *^« "^^s- of the%ituatio°n S ^TX^s!::!' 'T,*^^ ^^'^^i"-« Austrians, Prisons, Germans wlN l^^^""8•a™ns, away beneath the heat of tK„n jVomeo.,ans melted was courageous-fearinff nef^WrT ^' P''°^*'''^ ^ ^e unbelief afd persond p^rofl?^^^^^^ "%"^^"i hi« o^n ordei^ of Palestine: triSs"" J sf^t^ '^' ^'^■ themselves in battle army aSt th'^ T^^ ?" ''"-^'''^ seeking an alliance with the^Ss of n! P^"''' *^^'« with tie Sultans of Cairo In ADlo^nT^'r^'?^^ mians, or Choresmian«> castles of the HispiffirsiS^^ fl ft ''7T^ alone remained as a bpapnn nJi, ^ ?^' ^^^^ of Acre Louis resolved upon attemntil T "^ ^''^^^'' ^^«« St. fe'nJar Crusade nartiv n« +? ^ the seventh and last re- under the inlu^n^oe o?Ch„ t oTa"*''" t \ "°^' ^^^^J = ^ ^TopxcB ana iswiiy fixMo ca. VII.] MODERN HISTORY. 143 the Pope, persuaded him to strike at Mahometanism on the coast of Barbary, partly through an idea that the chief of Tunis was willing to receive Christian baptism ; but above all, and mainly, inspired with the desire of advancmg the glory of God, and supporting his holy Church. The Abuhafides and Merinides had succeeded the Mowahed*' dms tlux)ughout the states of Northern Africa, affcer the family of Saladin had passed away. With a squadron of six thousand cavalry and thirty thousand infantry, he embarked on the 1st of July, a.d. 1270; and when over against Cagliari, in Sardinia, it was decided in coi-ncil that an attack should be made on Tunis, which, had it succeeded, would no doubt have facilitated subsequent operations on the Nile, and for which the Neapolitan fleet was promised to afford assistance. That fleet had not airived, although its delays proved the cause of manifdd misfoi-tunes, when, amidst the heats of a bui-ning season, St. Louis landed with his forces ; a siege on that spot, where the ruins of Carthage were still visible, commenced imme- diately, but around the walls pestilence and fever oiily waited for their victims. John Tristan, Count of Nevers, a most beloved son of the holy monarch, was the first per- son of distinction who fell ill, and he expired of dysentery in the tweuty-fii'st yeoi" of his age : on tne very day of his death the king himself, with Philip, his heir, sickened. During three weeks his health and strength slowly wasted away amidst unremitted attention to the duties of his ex- alted station, the augmente.f. nrifK « »,v;i.v>x: : ^ , , „ viTiuoatiuu ui many respects X 1270-91. r% name." ' only said, lately after he 25th of jur months ne months, t upon the y and holy D these ex- aser draw- devil, too Oharles of d with his sxchanged ifeated the he 30th of onditions ; \es set at ec', an an- l iUO,000 y towards 'itory still me yeai-s e secular IT, and a IX of na- ne titular lis, many lameluke igth cap- King- of pe, found lated the ) recover polls and CH. VII.] MODERN HI8T0RY. 146 superior to their own : the manufactures, tttide, commerce, arts, sciences, and learning of Italy, France, Germany, the British Isles, and Scandinavia, one and all reaped some advantages. The mere process of intercommunication proved useful to the ruder occidentals; it enlarged their views, wore off their prejudices, engendered new ideas, softened their manners, and formed many earnest desires after domestic amelioration ; the state and tenure of pro- perty became wonderftiUy affected; the iron image of feudalism was smitten upon its feet, although generations were required for its fall ; the vast landed possessions of peers and knights and nobles were broken up, and par- celled out in time amongst more numerous hands, with some capital and mdustry to exucndupon them, and whose consequent tendencies led to the formation of middle or burgher classes. The absence also from Europe of many potent v-issals, accustomed to control their sovereigns, afforded an opportunity for the latter to extend their power and prerogatives, which they were not slow to avail themselves of, and which, through the protection of the Church, assisted them to abolish private warfare, and promote a more regnilar administration of justice. Govern- ment in general assumed more regular forms almost every where ; together with security, wealth accumulated ; the sea became as productive as the land : Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, as maritime republics, with the cities of the Lombard League and the Hanse Towns in the North^ de- veloped an enormous traffic, through their ships, hai-bours, staples, markets, ingenuity, artisans, sailors, and silken, linen, or woollen fabrics. The establishment of communi- ties ensued, with freedom, intellect, domestic virtues, and refinement in their train ; chivalry itself was christianised, lofty aspirations and magnanimous sympathies multiplied and irradiated throughout those lower though not less im portant portions of populations, on which the prince and the peer had been othenvise too apt to look with disdain. The mighty adversary, which in the names of Allah and Mahomet had defied the Church of the living God, and plotted its absolute overthrow, recoiled upon its own cor- ruption and hoUowness ; and tJthoug'h dangerous for some MODERN HlSXaRY. [a.d. 860-1300. CMtm"Ri^W° ™"'' r^ P^"°-^P«^*« of triumph. zaieth, on the Mount of Ascension, in the Valley of Jehos- haphat, or on the summit of Thabor, aloS^he Brook whnl?-; ^''°"«^ '^« and ten-thousands of minds, of whom histoiy never heard, listened to the tale of ^e re Uvmng Cnjsader, and an'chored their souls less on tho" V r^lS tt Z'*'' present scene; ..sting morthan nf iin- 1 ^i^^T °"'y ""^"^ ''0™e must be in heaven them n""" '"' •^'^^^ Jeinisalem, even in its niins, remTnded JK;;i;^nn7''*'T''^"^f '^« characteristic might be of DrLni^fP T'S^yP*'' ^T""' '^"^^S down Lm the llSZfn!^ 'T^^ pi-epared as a bride aliomed m celestial apparel for her admii-mg husband. ^oowai CHAPTER vm. A.D. 850-1800. . THB GREAT COMMERCIAL REPUBLICS OF THE MIDDLE AGE« WITH A SUOHT TKRKITOniAL SKETCH OF CHRISTENDOM TO THE ^SK OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY-BONIFACE THB EIGHTH. In 'closing the histoiy of the Onisades, we have had « glimpse amongst their other consequences, of the Mu I -ce which they exercised u on commprcp Th;» ? ^ hitherto subdivided itself into two pS;r;egiois^ ^"ifs^ ing out of the geogmphical circumstanced of EmS t he R.£'« ^nprehended those countries bordering^n the iialtic and German Seas, and the Aflnntlr. n^^ i southeni included all the ThoresV^" Med'^S^^^^ I aly, Spam, the South of Fmnce, the shores of bSJv the Levant, and Constantinople, had for aoes afv^m.^' mtercommunications peculiai^t^ tllsdT AmSfi X subjugation by Roger the NoRnan, King of Sicily, pi a A.D. 860-1300. OH. VIII.J MODERK HISTORY. 147 had been distinguished from the tenth century, and pre- ceded Oenoa in fitting out naval armaments against the Saracen corsairs ; within anot' er hundred years she con- ouered Sardinia from the Moors, sharing out the island in districts amongst several noble families, who had em- barked their capital or services in tlie expedition. These successful magnates became feudal vassals of the republic. Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica were acquired at a later pe- riod, and not long retained ; but the transport of the sol- diers of the Cross opened rich sources of lucre j thei-e grew up a regular cairving trade, connected as to pecuniary transactions with the inland towns of the Lombai'd League; as bankers, the extravagant rates of usury, or interest for money, afforded them immense advantages ; together with their still more remarkable contemporaries and successoi-s, they enjoyed extensive privileges in the Christian prin- cipalities of Asia, after the sea-coasts of the ancient Phoenicia had been wrested from the Crescent. Through the warehouses of Pisa the produce of the East passed to the ruder nations of the North. Before a.d. 1282 she had added Corsica and Elba to her insular temtories j whilst her factories at Ptolemais were some of the most ext^i- sive and opulent in Palestine. Her cathedral was the won- der of its time,— that of Hildebrand ; the leaning tower, the baptistery, the arcades of the Campo Santo, ai-e of later date, yet still prior to the residence of the Popes at Avig-non. Her fii-st conflict with Genoa seems to have occurred about a.d. 1120, fi-om which year there ensued a struggle of interests and arms, more or less, for nearly « couple of centuries. Such contests, although to be de- plored, no doubt bmce the nei-ves and energies of those engaged in them. A naval engagement off the little isle ofMeloria, in a.d. 1284, may be styled her death-blow ; thirty years afiteiwards her dominions melted away. The crown of An-agon acquired Sardinia, and her commerce dwindled with her greatness. Grown haughty, as well as wealthy, her effoits and predilections had been exerted on the side of the Ghibellines. The rising states of Milan and Florence fought over the defunct remainder of her poUtioal existence: and in the fifiteenth oafitm'v. for a mm 148 MODERN HISTORT. under her power, she mn"ntaTned ff^ P«™anently fallen decision, and for' a ProTracteT nerioi^ ^r"*"^«"* ^^th sea-board of Ligurir. WaTmuph ^T ' . ^"' continental ble than the sh'p of iralian ^nLf^? j/^*'?'''« ""^ valua- >t was, ho^v.Z thrreeoverJ'p^^^^'^ competitor; Greeks in AD 12fil tf^T ^ o^ Constantinople by the and n.„,C- J^^^.'S;' So^T^h?!^' T""^^ whose enterprise thflTo+,C „Jl ?* *°® Venetians, by were sjll maSint, u;o„\h7oll^^^^^ assisted Michael PahpJlo J,7;nnf ^^"^""^^ *^« Genoese tion; they obtained I ^ ' overturning that usurDa- or GWtafo^erTgai ^rfflnV" ^"'"'^ ^^^-^^ settlement, wher/thei7 coLy 1^ n^^^^^ '" "^'^^"^^^'^^ sent from home, who^o anS-Z^^ ^"^ ^^,'' magistrate capital, and eyenoyemwed"tSv''^"'"*i^ '^«^«d the mtrepid sailors. From thi. 31 . ' ^'""^^ ^^^^^^ ""d extended her traffic ?nTo the f^^P'^S^om station -Genoa principal factory at Caffa in ^rp'-""^ established her supplied the Byintine popuktSn ^Tll ^Z '"^"^^^^r former caught at the moith ofTe nnn\S i ^."^ "''"' *^« from thehamsts of the l^Aine T'l >.' ^?**'' '"PP^'^'^ route to India, by the ^tei^^ of fL t*^°"°"^ ^^^^-^and the Caspian, an/the olur J ^^^e Tanais, the Volga, and HghL 4„e fab!t ^fX Eb' and IT' ^' ^^'^^1^ of three months, the Carizmifln i«^o' ' *^^®'' * ^a'-ch with Italian vess'els in the S havTn nf?. T'""^'''^*^^ sonnesus. Caffa grew to sSL o f °/ *^^ ^'^""« ^her- within its limits S suburbs Cv ?"* '? *" ««"^Prehend and to be called Grim Stamho,,] ^ t"' thonsmd houses, commanded the adTcent S.n.^ ' V^'^" «f fortifications habitant, into subSS nrifel Two fear^l w^i^^r^fca" t^^^^^ ^•i>. 1201-98. Pisa mfirgt«(j, the house of ling h*ke cer- ment of the nently fallen nment with continental 1 and valua- competitor • 'ple by the commercial notions, by placed, and he Genoese lat iisurpa- •b of Pera, ti exclusive magistrate flehed the alleys and ion Genoa lished her industry corn, the f supplied overland le Volga, ■s, spices, ■ a march mnicated ric Cher- iprehend I houses, ifi cations ative in- s. But ! to deal of Pisa, hausted OH. 7111.] MODERN HIBTORY. both republics. Soma of tlie galli 140 been repuuiics. ooma or tlie galliots seem «. .m*c ueej of stui)endou8 size, at least in that age,— their naval archi- tects might well then fancy them floating fortresses; but m the long run, it must be admitted that the Queen of the Adriatic was to illustrate the more plorious career- her history arches over the interval between ancient and naodem annals; and the fiigitives who fled from Attila in the htth affe laid tlie foundation of a republic upon their hundred isles destined to expire, after a millennium of fame, amidst the frowns of a French Directory. It Imd lonjr been the policy of the city to attach itself to that party on the contmert which appeared to promise the most pov.^. ej-tul protf ction for its liberties; hence the mag-nanimous spirit with which Alexander III. received secular .^uprwi-t an his eftorts on behalf of freedom, made against Fredcnc Uarbarossa. The constitution of the republic had an early onginj It might be said to have been built upon the waves, or, at least, upon four insular marshes, ea-h of which m the beginning could actually boast of a separate government; nor was it until these, and a number more, liad come to render the lagunes rather populous, that they united m time of war, under a common leader, Paulutius Anatestus, who, being invested with the supreme power for hie, was, in fact, the first doge or duke, a.d. 709, or ac cording to some, twelve yeai-s earlier. This nflice lonff I'emained as elective us any other municipal mayoraltv lussisted subsequently by the formation of a regnilar coun- cil, compnsmo- 480 members; these were selected bv general suffraae, but through intermediate tribunes, from the entire body of citizens, and administered in separate committees the financial and judicial affairs of state. The entire system passing into various changes, graduaUy took the tm-m of a jealous aristocracy,—;, politiral Argus aU pyer eyes,— esteeming espionage as the element of its ex- istence. The fourth crusade aggrandised its commeicial mfluence, as we have already seen; anV>1ir ♦v.n ,.-,i _i?i S ... -""V '"= '~yc vi aur scare; 50 luat ^•® MODERN HISTORY. [a.D 1204-4]. it aime in the end to ...clude Cundia, Corfu, and the otlwr Ionian jwssessions, Naxos, Paros Melos Andrni Mycone Scyros Cea, and Lemnos. The broS ht^Tf Lysmpus were also among-st her ti-ophies. ^oz had th? Wn^'o?" Sclavonians, and the Normaif^j noi naa tlie Saxon Othos ceased to reiffn wJien Dalmntm acknowledged her sway. The,^ were .eveaS G»-eek S oua WHICH, like Venice herself, became republica for want pfamasterjRagusawasoneofth. . Aeu- subLS reoeiiions, or the ambition of the neiphbourinc- kintra of o^r fi'noT^ T "^^ '^r '^'^'^ of loose„e(f tKasp the i co,X' "" h'- "«T^t'«> styled himself duFe o? mllJhi I'n ^'' P°^',''*^^^ ""d mercantile ffnmdeur meaawhile daily increased; no Christian state pre emd so consderable an intercoui^e with the Malfomet"ns Genoa, mdeed, held the keys of the Black Se^ Zt hi competitor indemnified lier^elf at AWmiSf ' a ?u more easy ti^ific with HiSiX ta^of ^h^ Me ^d it^hTJ ^^^^-'if' broi^^tTiod of Srce cW L f""'- ^7"'^ *^« ^™ ^'a« not altoo-ether closed to her merchants; she had a settlement fn the fcute to^^r"' "T ^^^^ ^-de throu7TaT4 ine ioute to China was from AzofF to Astrwhan- and thence by a variety of places, no longer found b our ma^s to Pekm or Carabalu; the journey occupying about 3t months going and returning. Religion was ^lot wS Cnfr!^'lTr'' ' ^.""r "* IV- ^«nt out John duK Carmn, with five or six Franciscan friars, in a d ]24fi ?o atmSaHet %^'r°--' T' ^I «^ -o^'Jd pa'^^^^^^ 8^ missionaiies. St. Louis accredited Father Rubrioiiis in the same character seven years after^vards, who came k,rk by the Euphrates to Tripoli in Syria. Marco Polo tf.« of Cenl'l ^^«"!V«-^o haveUsedlHasU^^^^^^ In all n?n, ?V*'.^'°^ Scanderoon as his startingSl Inall or most of these cases, it was the divinino-rod of oooises. ^eChmese had been acquainted fca-g^^^ioM CH. VllI.J MODERN HISTORY. 151 with thp polarity of the magnet; and, probably throuffh some such channel as a wandering Italian adventurer, iiiuropean mariners derived the knowledge, and availed themselves of it in navigation. The story of its discovery by a citizen at Amalh, in the fuiirteenth century, is a ^Igar fable; smce, besides the clear evidence of Guiot de Proyins, about the pe •..' of the fourth or fifth Crasade, Jl.dn8Si, a Saracen f ooif7-»p> r, mentions it; and he flou- nshed A.D. 1100. Windm; s and the compass appear to have attracted a ,fe. ion iu he West nearly in the same century, and were h^^u amo/^- the consequences of moi-e frequent intercourse w ■ iue Orient. Some of the French seaports bordering on the Gulf of Lvons partook of its wlvantages. Marseilles could hardly ever have lost her Phojnician traditions : and Narbonne, Nismes, and Mont- peher, backed .by their fertile regions of Languedoc, claimed a share with Genoa and PLsa of the Mediter- ranean commerce. Barcelona and the Catalans were also commencing a prosperous career, quickened by the intra- auction of silk into Sicily, by Roger Guiscaid, at Palermo, in A.D. 1148 ; m the next age this became a staple manu- lacture of the Lombards anclTuscans, whose laws foi-mally enforced the cultivation of mulben-ies. Woollen and linen tabrics multiplied every where and amongst all claoses above the menial or serf; some plants of tTie sugar-cane had been brought from Asia, and followed the traclc of the silkworm, from the foot of Mount Etna into the southern provinces of Spain ; but it was from the Adriatic and Genoese Riviera, principally, that the traffic began on anv thing like a large scale uith Bi-uges and the Hanse Town;!, in Germany, after the death of Frederic II., Walpod«, an opulent burgher of Mayence, united various cities on the Rhine, from the Alps to the efflux of the Maine, in a league tor then common defence against usury, unlawful imposts, and robbery by land or water. Shortly before this combination, the example of Hamburg and Ltibeck, A.D. 1J41, had occasioned the confederation of all the lower German and northern commercial towns in the gi-eat Hanseatin Lea-ue. They were upwards of sixty in num- per; hoidujg time xegujar «e««(»s at W^nana, Mente. a^ ^^^ MOUBHN HISTORY. [,4.D. 1241-1400. Strasbourg; and soon increased in extent to more than eighty, comprising Cologne, Brunswick, Dantzig, Erfurt, and Bremen, with associations in London, Bi-ugesTBeriren and Novogorod Little correct knowledge of t he S prevailed when William and his Normans were medifaS their expedition against Harold. Adam of Bremen a earned man for those times, had no idea, or scarcerany that Russia could be reached by that sea; amongst wE ^^ds, moreover he reckoned Esthonia and SJS The fact IS that Danish and Norwegian piracies had ex tinguished the light of scientific information, untU the mammae regions of Mecklenburg and Pomerarda wer^ to ft'^A'T' ^^ '\' German Vnces. Subs^quentiy t^ndp]tlo^^'''*T°.f'^''' ^^^'"S" co'^q^ered Prussia, ex- ^nfini ?S^T °i^* 1'^'* comparative civilisation to the X^X^^^f^'^i'Z^''' '^ ^^'""^'^ '"^^^^ tte intellectual eurora borealis of Muscovy and Iceland. The CimbrS peninsula, with HoMn and Riga in Livonia, emei-ge into notice about the same time; and Kdnigsbiig wa? then founded by Ottocar, king of Bohemia, ^om such souses ongmated the opulence of northern commerce. The Hanseatic Union made itself a power of no second-mte importance ; through London and Bruges, ItSs ^d IrSv / ™'^^ f^ Archangef; and as sailing was suffi- c ently sW and dangerous, intermediate stations, or sS- pks, as they were styled, became necessary. Flanders fr.^ 'Tr"". ^rs^'' ^°^ *^^« piuposc-through til mdustry of her mhabitauts, the coJveLnce of he? sit-s it?nnn7 T^' ^^ constructing roads and canals, and the amount of her v.ooUen manufactories. Her Count BaJd mn, A.D. 958 had established markets at Brnges S uh' ''^''' J5' ^Y "^"^^"^^ ^^ i"^P°rted from E^. n^^fL^'ltr'^!? "P ^^ *^' Flemings; so that an author of the thirteenth century affirms that all the world was clothed from English fleeces wrought in Flande^i S ^emng-fishenes alone constituted a mine of wealth to the ScandinaviMi communities, just as the sturgeons of the -X"^^^""^'*?'"'.' Tl' ^ *^« ^"^^'•^ 0? salt-fish a? ^afe. The coasts of Schouen exchanirflH t.T,«,v w«„*.l CH. VIII.] MODERN HISTORY. 163 for gold and silver, for silks and sugars, for purple, scar- let, and fine linen. Bruges, at last, almost emulated Tyi-e itself; she was the link of intercommimication between the Hanse Towns and the Mediterranean, for the ingenious productions of the Netherlands, or the bulkr stores of Sweden, Denmark, Rugen, and Thora, as well as for the Indian rarities, and beautifiil fabiics of the Levant, the Egean, Africa, Italy, or Catalonia. It was this felicitous action and re-action of wants and wishes, of necessities and supplies, of advantages and inventions, which engendered the germs of om* own future greatness, — wit' ut a parallel, as that was one day to be, in the modern development of nations. England, however, had hitherto played but a very secondary part in the world of commerce or the drama of history. When the concentrated kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy had fallen beneath the Norman sword, the con- queror exacted the services of vassals even for allodial estates; so that the great thanes were degraded, from the rank of comrades to the sovereign, into that of his subjects. The feudal system was introduced, with all its hoiTors and few of its picturesque alleviations. Wai-s were no longer to be canied on, according to the resolutions of the Wit- tenegemote, or Parliament of Wise Men, but at the behests of a master and a tyrant ; the whole of England, with relation to its military constitution, was divided into 60,000 fiefs, each appropriated to the support of a knight. The entire aspect of society put on a new face, as compared with the noble days of Alfred the Great or Edward the Confessor; even Canute and his Danes could have been more easily tolerated than the illegitimate descendants of RoUo, or at least so it seemed, — the former, at all events, had betaken themselves to the waves and were gone, but the latter displayed their determination to build nests in the country. Wood and water had become regal posses- sions, — of which our game-laws still retain some unhappy vestiges ; and the cm-few extin^ished hope. Rufus, or the Red King, never dreamed of mitigating the yoke ; but Henry I. happily found himself under the necessity of seeking to conciliate the nation, all writhing and boiling Ifi4 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1100-77 •belhon was vis be at a verv earl v r^pi^T. ^^^^^/f ^^ ^^^ re- check whiclTthe Church h^mn^XttnJlT'^ of Guienne, counteracted the eiFects of other mrf T^^, pohcy. H,s grandfather had shown tha he ?oLd bet false as his descendant. When mshmTf^SlV^\^ dttd%tL^!\'r -e.bledrtsL^^^^^ £^! subjects, to respec/your libertie^s/rd^a^entlyTs S^S vour prudent counsels, if you will onlv stand hi Whenever you desire it; I s/ear t! oW^ tie laws'ihTch ?lf??'?'-°^'r"' ^""'°''3^' °o* ^^ithout the heborGid c»*S r* '" these realms." With the abolitbn of t) ^ OTomanees, tha cheated people were ob%ed to remain MODERN HISTORY. 1S6 CH. VIII. I satisfied. The relics of the e'ood Confessor still attracted thousands to his shrine, and his Anglo-Saxon libp.i-ties lay deep in their memories; but although similar promises illustmted the reign of each successive sovereign, from the little of Hastings to the last lying Plantagenet, the throne was disgraced by broken promises and violated obligations. A more legitimate feature in the career of Henry II. was his attempt to gain respect for his crown by an equitable administration of justice. Our provincial assizes derive their origin from tliis period ; he also favoured the towns, and encouraged their markets. Metaphorically speaking, there were acoras sown, to grow into oaks afteiwai'ds. Despots are seldom remaikaole for the gift of long- sightedness. Through the aid of sums paid by the nobles for their military exemptions, mercenaries were hired, which served the monarch unconditionally. Together with the feudal anay of such as appeared in pei-son rather than in purse, C0,000 infantry and 20,000 cavalry constituted an anny which overawed the country, maintained the palatinates of Chester, Pembroke, Durham, and Hexham, on the marches or frontiers of Wales and Scotland, and enabled Strongbow to annex Ireland, at least nominally, to the dominions of Henry, a.d. 1170-7. The blessed labours of St. Patrick, in the fifth century, had illuminated that island with the light and waraith of trae religion ; so that for a felicitous inter- val, previous to the desolating incursions of the Northmen, it proved an asylum for piety and learning; whilst the Roman empire was breaking up into fragments, or bend- ing beneath the blasts of Arianism. Tanistry and the Brehon laws prevailed in all the four or five divisions of Jjeinster, North and South Munster, Connaught, and Ul- ster. Their sea-ports possessed some commerce; Dublin is spoken of as a sort of rival to London, The wines of Languedoc, through Bordeaux probably, were imported in exchange for hides. Among the rural population pastur- age j)redominated over agriculture ; restraint and labour were deemed the worst of evils, freedom and indolence the most desirable comforts. The women and children ««M««M^ VkAWTA Waam am 1a«*a1.* Ju. ^A. — .> ,^^ ^— a - -1 A. •-- /*_ .- ^^^ MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1100-1268. most higuAr„s''^^^^^^^^^ that he m„„astio fo„„datio.5 had somewhat fateS Xiiigiana. How far the usurpations of Hpnrv U o„^ i.- successor, may have proved bLficta?^ otEwYse to iJe' and must remain a question fai- too extensiveTnd imoir" tant for discussion in these nfto-p« ti.^ t? impoi- Irish dialect, was a brIncT of tlitceS btSed'wTh": good many words and idioms from the old IbeSn or pL nician colonists. With resnect to t^o «„ ;"®"»" oy hoe- they are by the writerVoT^nt^i^^^^^^^^^ CaS?5'* '' ""^y, «««^««ary\o%emark thr^ S Caledonia m very early times, thev firs- mad^ 1 f.2)^ tlement there in^the inth centuryVt ttT^o 4LT. wild regions north of the Clyde and J^orth ^'^iSn I ^ Bouth of these limite was di^ded into Glwet" and l7 tbian. This territory formed a section of -^^- • (UiC'x6ub CH. VIIT.] MODERN HI8T0RT. 157 Noi'fchiimberland, peoj)led by Saxons, with a mixture of Bapes. Their chieftains wevo perpetually employed in maintaining their independence against the Normans and English. The sons ot Henry II. endeaA^oured to consoli- date their paternal inheritance with various results, Richard obtained fame in Palestine, and a prison on his homeward jouraey ; yet his memo-y stands connected, justly or other- wise, with the maritime laws of Oleron, founded on the Rhodian code. J.>hn, his feeble and pusillanimous brother, nearly lost Ireland, as well as Norma^-'^.y. Through his fortunate folly, regal despotism recei"«a a blow from which it never thoroughly recovered ; and the barons of Engla." '' , vnder the sanction of the Church, a.d. 1214, compelled him to promulgate the Magna Charta, — the basis of Bri- tish freedom. There were, at this eventful era, 1115 cas«* ties of the nobility, scattered Hke the strongholds of high- waymen throughout the realm ; nor any better than titled robbers would their proprietors have proved, had it not been for the Pope and his prelates. The celebrated Magna Charta forms the first of a series of ordinances, whereby the rights of person and property in these islands have come to be clearly defined. It directs that the judicial court shall be fixed in one place ; that no subject can be deprived of his goods, country, or li% without a trial according to the common laws of the land, before sworn arbiters selected from his own rank. It hedges round the possession of liberty, the enjoyment of fortune, the privileges of ecclesiastics, the secui'-ity of elec- tions, with the talismanic protection of distinct and regular enactment ; no impost could be levied by the crown with-^- out the consent of the archbishops, bishops, earls, and great barons of the empire personally assembled, and of the inferior vassals, who held immediately of the sovereign, summoned according to districts by the sheriffs o- bniliflfe. In A.D. 1263, it appears from Selden, that 150 tempoial, and fifty spiritual peers, were called upon to perform the service due by their tenures. These traces of repi-esentation are the first that occur since the Anglo-Saxon times. Under Henry III. they multiply, until the British Pftrlinment begins to rise out of obscurity and insignificance. Ar the m m moDarclis get poor and weal:, and os the hv ev classes en- riched themselves throug-l, i rade or industry, tlie third estate l^v '?^'"' r^" '' '■ '^^'^ ""'''■' important in the Attachment to hearth and ho.ne s ruck deep root info the natioBi? mind from the cottage to th^ casti<^ wh-n the Cmsaci-rs and some of their associ.tic.- had t.:Snated' tm nohie himself; .hut up in his cstlo, and cut off from mc^mmrse w^ta towns, was thrown after the fatigues of the caar^ into a thousand ramifications of endeam^t sprinjr- ^;; h-om ms hall or fi,-eside. Hence ^ v-tuous women, a£i *.^^.Mt cli, uren came to be the visible r, .gels of daily life: ^^essenbully different from the circun. stances of Greece wT •.^''T' "^^^'^ "^"''^ ^'^'■-^°^« ^'«s almost flTf "^^«^^' V^ a cmc or public char.< ter,-the baths, the forum or the basilica afforded the ch.ef Sources of sol r^Zl^^f'K'^ England, favoured perhaj.. by its insiJar floumhed more than m any country of the earth: evei-v Englishman must have a house to Welf if he possibly ^L /l -"'^ iT'o-'"' ^^?^' '"'^^^ parliamentary write Z ? .VTi^ 7. ?'"^°" ^« -^°°tf°^t, the city o7Lon, «1ZfS 'i ^? %h walls and numerous towers, was tS^ v^ ^^°>' °^ '*', "^«^' i° a *^act beautifully di. n« ff/T? ''°°'^'' ""f '^°^'' ^'^^ 8'^'-^^«"«- Adjoining whfit i?rf ' Y-^' ^^'^ venerable fortress of its kings, which IS still standing. It was already beg-inning to1)e a great commercml city, whither Arabian Spaniards im- ported purple and spiceries from the east an/ south, Nor- mans brought their iron and arms, Russians their peltry, rhe Sundays after Mass, were devoted to martial ex^. S W.T1 t/*'""^'^' "*'^^^'' 5 ^""^ ho'i'^avs ^-ere often celebmted by the representation of a sea-^ht. Bear- baiting, falcons, and cocks, set to tear each ether in pieces were favourite amusements; and in ree-f e- anv frao-! roents of lost freedom, the permission to ^ in tLTu?- Biiit or slaughter of game most gratifi. he ruml yeo- Zt2" T°' ^"r^ of Leicester, arj - other wish, in MOJDBRN HISTORY. 159 CH. VIII.J self, or perhaps his own order ; but the great abilities of Prinee Edwai-cl propped up the totterinj^ th)-one, whilst St. Louis and the Pope mediated a pacification. As to religion, the mendicant-friars wore endeavouring to nrouse the national apathy, much to the annoyance of the secular hierarchy and clergy, whose wealth and endowments had swollen into enormous dimensions. The zeal and fervour of the new orders rendered them naturally popular; yet, being looked upon by worldly plm-alists as the pillars of the Papal power, an outcry came to be every now and then raised against Rome, flavoured by those who feared the reformation of abuses ; as also by others, whose appe- tite for spiri.ual plunder was already formed. Symptoms of that state of things which gave Wyckliffe importanc© in the fourteenth, and Archbishop Cranmer full and most disastrous potency in the sixteenth century, could not be altogether hidden li'om disceniing observation even before the accession of Edwaid I. This monarch, on his return from the Holy Land, was affectionately received by Gre- gory X. at Orvieto, in Febiruaiy, a.d. 1273 ; but, although m his subsequent intercomse with the Chaii- of St. Peter he paid the annual allowance which John had commenced, his govemment was evidently flowing with the stream. He and his subjects might still respect Catholicity ; yet they loved their own pride, pelf, and power much more. He conquered Scotland and Wales, avaihng himself, as to the former, of the disputes between the houses of Bruce andBaliol: his Holiness Boniface VII L claimed his just and pai'amount authority over the Cnledonian kingdom, as a hef of the Church of God, a.d. 1209. The Papacy was most ably administered by the suc- cessors of Innocent III. They canied out his policy perfectly ; maturing the growth of fi eedom in the Ger- manic towns and cantons and in the various Italian re- publics, assuaging the local disorders of the ecclesiastical states, preserving the realms of the West from Teutonic despotism, and endeavouring to reconcile, so fai' as it was then possible, the Greek and Latin communions. On the extinction of the Hohenstaufens, Charles of Anjou, brother iu St. Luuib, Lad beuu htivesl^iil wtii Napi«i# au/i Sicily. I J^O MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1268-88., He had also been nominated Vicar-General for the Holy See in Tuscany; and the decline of the Ghibellines maV Thus'nwp^n *^"; ^'""'^ ^^ F°"^^^'°' *^« last s:s Thus nlaced theretore at the head of the Guelfs, with the ChurcK and populace on his side, he be^an to Jp re at a sovereignity over all Italy. During the nteZjSuS fol owmop upon the decease of Frederic II. thrC ml autEonty south of the Alps was altogether susS- ?£,- uT''^. P""''®.' moreover, possessed ma^ of the vices, without any of the virtues o? his familv beinj avaricious, as well as ambitious, artful, hauS^^^^^ constant. Absolute master of his na ive aSa^p^ vence, and titular Senator of the Capitol, ErSitated not merely the assumption of a Germ^an diadem, but an me^nth^iri.^ ?1?.^ ^'^^^'- ^^« Sicilian 'subject meanwhile abhorred him, gi-oaning as thev were undAr mnumerable fiscal and milit^ oppressions?^ At Nanlt where his predecessors had occasionaUy boiled somX happy victim ahve in a cauldron of oil, the presence of fh« tyrant who wore their mantle might for thTmoment ^! press complaint; vet John of Procida, once l?rd of th^i small island on wJiich the gaze of the traveller resL bl t^een Ischia and Misenum, havmg forfeited this fnherir ance through attachment to the Souse of pSsTaufen Z:.t:n '",?*TP' ^* ^^"«"^«- ^e may betrS aark lantern. He passed as a spy, in all sorts of ^ia guises, throughout &e whole couSV,C Messina S Syracuse ancf Trapani, visiting the^trong^oW ofeac^ baron or vassal where assistance might be gained for Ws cause; thence proceeding with equaf secrecy tTthecourt^ of Constantinople, Sara^ossa, and Rome; obtaining at tlS last from Pone NichoTas III., a transfer of he^fiefs of ^ththl^f ''T '^^^%on; and then concerting with the astronomer Brunetti, of Romagna, his signal fof the Sicilian Vespers. On the vigU of fiaster. a d 1282 mollZr^''''^^? f ^H^'-r ^«d *° the'massacr' o^ 8000 Frenchmen Charles of Anjou was astonished and c^founded; his dreams melted aWay. The Anngone^ fleet appeared off Palermo. John of >ro«,Vl. ntlS^l"! .D. 1268-88. ea. VIII.] MODERN HISTORY. 161 flames of a general insurrection, terminating in the acqui> sition, by Spanish monarchs, of the jewel of the Mediterra- nean. War broke out immediately between Philip the Third of France, on behalf of his uncle Charles, and Peter the Thirdj kin^ of Aragon, who had man-ied Constance, the daughter of Manfi-ed, an illegitimate son of Frederick the Second, and the usurper of Naples and Sicily for twelve years, a.d. 1254-1266. The unfortunate Con- radin, at his execution, was said to have thrown his glove amongst the multitude, with a message intended as a con- firmation of the Aragonese claims. Peter, as husband of Constance, armed his Catalan sailors in the cause. Ilis efibrts ended in a 6eries of mortifications being inflicted upon his rival, leading ultimately to his disgrace and death fi'om vexation; and to the transient settlement of James, his second son, on the Sicilian throne. The house of Anjou retained the kingdom of Naples. Alfonso, the eldest son of the third Peter, succeeded his father at Sara- gossa; but upon his death without issue, James assumed the crown of Aragon, and renounced that of Sicily, which passed in consequence to his younger brother Frederick. The Spanish Catalans meanwhile directed their arms against the Greek empire, devastating the shores of the Helles- pont, or insulting the majesty of Constantinople. In turning for a few inoment« to the Iberian peninsula, we are struck with the singular contest maintained for so many generations between the Moslem and the Christians in that coimtry. Spain . ,is to present a microcosm of its own, analogous to the variations of that mighty strag- gle, commencing in the seventh century, between the Cres- cent and the Cross, — between Mecca and Home. When the fii-st invasion of the Saracens had broken in pieces the Visigothic kingdom, every man who had escaped the great shipwreck of liberty and religion in the mountains of Asturias felt himself to be an important individual, since not a single arm could be overlooked in the efibrts of such a Lardful of heroes to re-establish their faith and policy. Tf . lice is derived that external elevation of man- ner and iharacter so commonly obsei-ved in the Castilians. The Arabian monarchs of Coi'dova, amidst all their magoi- M '^ MODERN HISTOXT. [a.D. 718-1238. ficence and refinement, could never permanently retard that develo|,ment of decay and effemiuicy which are inhe- ^tm oriental ms^' ,t;V u.. iheir p-ovgLs sultany sepa- It- nfTf . '-^^^'''ons, more or less ,.rosi>eiou8, into the d^?.nH n? 'f'i^".''''^!'' ^^"P^^"'^' «nf the Pyrenees also there sprans: "P the httle realm of Navarm ; the small town of Jaca, nestled . mon^ its southern ridges, expanded into the monarcLy of Aragon ; the j.rovince of ! ..1 cS grew from a county into a kingdon., absorbing its neigh- WofLeon as time rolled on, until at last Alonzo the Sixth recovered its ancient metropolis, the city of Toledo Anvgon also culramated with equal rapidity, enWing- her limits to the Ebro, and in a.d. lllS, ^„Sng Kssa Bur2:os Osma Repulveda, and Sai.nutnca, were cSd m the tenth cputu, V as free settlements, where warned of thenght religion, an a subsequent age, formed their char- tered communities pr. ty much as the walls of Jerusalem had >n bu ^ under dras and Nehemias, with theirl^ dustrj in one hand and their valour in the other. Feudal- Sn^'p --^-r ^p^«^^^'°"«%°ever prevailed throughout ^pam r. did m Fraree, althoug , villenage existed in some quaneij; and the ree miHtJry oi«ders of Cn'aSv^ bantiago and Alcantara torrreci a wealthy aiicl ostentatious chivalry like that of the ^^ .y Lnnd. Thl free r.S how! ^rii.f rT."* *°' ''*"y 1^""*^ of genuine fr^^euomTo ^rmit knights, 1 ,, kings to ri^de aughshod ove? either .rgesses iie. try. Ferdinai I UL, in a.d? 1238, reunited for er the two principal f -nnches of the Gothic royal famih^. As sovereig-n w!S. or purchase, strengthened jlhanl' nT''^^ ^^ ^^^^P'-^ct aacl Hessia formed a Sh Lr • 7^"i:'"8-ia, Meissen, famous for the inaiZtnfT-^''^'''^^' of Saxon oria-in aiKl for mine^o^Se pre >^^^^ -•^. "I? at the splendid tournaCr]^lld at t^.r'^"^*^^^' *^^-* thei-e was a tree exhibited StZ ^°'^^.^"sen, a.d. 1236, apples among, its kinche, Cfll ''^?^' ^"^*^ e^Wen valuable characteriS iSno-^"'! ? ^'"^^^ ^^"^^^ 1"« in- sense, and a just appreciatfon°of^bl '^2; "?'"""* °^ «°""d ^vas placed. He loolpd 1 " ^'^^culties in which he g-ather them himself oral wThff^^-''^^"" «°^ I'o^v to V' he mnniftted consZ^^^^^ In vaHous cities, for solid surn^T.^*' ''^'''^'"' conceding- to pm.ogmives,'preiV ^'icholas IIL anThSru e^^^^^^^^^ *^'« M bZ emperor cordially as wpJI fc «;^«ently favoured the new his power and S^^ disceiring-t ambitious projecKf- Clmle otl^^^^^ cotmte.poise to the tion Rudolph watched S!^. Tl' .^'^^' equal cau- hach, seate^ut Munich in C"^''^ S' ^""'''^ ot%/itteL ^.indefinite anS- S,^^ ^IL'- Sltl^"'"^"^' ^^^^ solidatmg- into onp nf i-i.o ,v? '""'*?. ,"'at of feaxony, con- died fiom the pride of Hemy ^r?"^"'?' '^'"^^^•hafc dwin- then little ant cipate^l aT^tS ^1^ "'.'"^^^ ^ ^«««°y wards to develop'e nto ?he rSta,^ V '"?,^'"^"J8-, afteZ 'l}e NetJierlnnds were pxuLw t J "^''.T '^^ ^^""^sia. a. 1167-1201. i^ho had now iburg-, Baden, nces in Upper 3king-en, with d bj compact ig-ia, Meissen, >axon origin, d A.D. 1157, luctive, tJiat, 1, A.D. 1236, with golden well, his in- ^t of sound in which he the flowers ind how to others. In needing- to d uncei-tain 3ted on i-e- nd mortifi- es, as also lio-ht have Holy See. id the new ceiring" in 'se to the Jq'inl cau- fWittels- nine, with ony, con- le electo- lat dwin- a destiny g", after- l*i*ussia. i felicity ^ing- the ' genius 3 stornui CH. VIM.] MODERN HISTORY. 107 m of the Baltic; Mecklenburg was an acknowledged fief of the Danish crown, recog-nised as such by Rudolph; Pome- ramawas so sometimes, her fortunes varying with the abi- lities of her sovereigns. The counts of Schaumburg, in Holstem, also threatened to become potent, as did Silesia, Livonia, and Estlionia. A branch of the Piasts, from Po- land, had helped to civilise the first; and the Wendish Breslau owed its prosperity to Peter Ukst, who erected seventy-seven churches for the service of its different dis- tricts, A.D. 1253. The two last received the GosT)el, and with It civil amelioration, through the eflbrts of Albert, Bishop of Riga, who, under the authority of Innocent III metamorphosed the soldiei-s of the Cross and Sword into the pastore, conquemrs, and lawgivers of these rude regions. Ihe leutonic knights, with tlieir gi-and-mastei-s, had con- verted their pagan subjects, from Masovia to Courland, before the close of the thirteenth century. Poland itself Was molested on one side by Russians or Tartars, and on the other oy analogous or kindred Sclavonian tribes. She had, nevertheless, assumed the royal dignitv; Premislaus II. being the earliest Piast, as it would appear, who substi- tuted the regal for the ducal title, a.d. 1295. It required the conjunction of Lithuania, in later times, to give the nation any real importance; yet the successor of the Czar Alexander Newski had fled to the throne of the Polish Piasts for protection from the Mongols, and a tiibute was thenceforward paid to the khan of the golden horde by the house of Rurik for 220 years. It consisted of the skins of a species of squirrel, then used for small currency; for corned money had got so scarce, that cities ransomed them- selves from plunder with five rix-dollai-s. Novogorod alone was at this time civilised or independent, enjoying its in- dustry and opulence beneath the shadow of the ifanseatic alliance. Sweden was expending her vitals in dissension, denvmg, with Norway, whatever twilight might fall to her shore through the beneficence of the Popes, who settled a universitv at Skenning, a.d. 1219, and ordained that schools should be attached to nil the greater churches. Her monastery of Wadstena collected more than 2000 «.^=.«=-...i,«, i„ iw lirji-ary, ana attaineu tiie same rank in ii H' I i; MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1291.1803- ScamUnavia which Bang-or held among- the Britons or s/ GraJle among- the Germans. Thev escanpH thl M ' T turns w?«T/LdIct r i^'pj^ir tf;^ -- tiom and welfare ortk mvn'ff Jv '?Z J'' "'''^ consequence, he had donThi be f lo pS "^'"f T^ advanced no-P a t» loni T • Provide. He died in benels lol^ocietVZuo.^^^^^^^^ T^'""^^ *'^« ^^«^t«^t tranquillity ^ §^ *^® I'estoration ofoiSer and the S cVuCLtdl^oSst^^^^ ^'*^T^^«' -« of throne ; upon wh e ';ertSS ^TlZ?'"' '''' ^'^'' the more comoletfl 'nfnr^.of- "L • "^'^8"ammous career whose gp nt in realitv id^n^-^o^ ''"""7" .7 t"e Church wnrlfl TT,-c f y ^ JOentihed itself with the nresent a £!±S3 £'sl;;a^f j^U'£?1 servation of universal peacS and the repTes^'S P''" ties appeared as thoua-h thev werp q„U.!? • ^^^ f^'^"^* tion to 2-ovem without wTf '""'"^^^f P w a resolu- mil of A^g^trSkS instel7n7' '^^ f ^^r^ *^« debrand, he Should seem to' fe^^^^^ en. VIII.] MODERN HISTORY. 169 combined to blacken his character. H« published the famous Jubilee ofA.D. 1300; of which such numbers availed themselves, that Rome, throughout that year, is said never to have been without 200,000 pilgTims in addition to her native population. A nig-gardly temper towards the Holy See had, however, e-ot abroad amongst many nations ; and in France, Pliilip the Fair, who had cheated his own sub- jects in the matter of coinage, resolved to fill his coffei-s from the well-replenished pockets of the hierarchy. Pro- testantism is perfectly ready to allow that his conduct was a tissue of injustice ; only, at the came time, upon so large a scale as to approach the almost sublime rapacity of a later Reformation. The Pope, moreover, had been obliged to proceed to extremities against some rebellious Ghibelline barons, and more particularly two or three potent cardinals of the Colonna family. The traitors fled to France, and were received with open aims. Boniface, on being ap- pealed to by the oppressed clergy, asserted his temporal and spiritual supremacy, just as Innocent IV. had restored order to Portugal, a.b. 1245, or as crowns had been dis- posed of by his predecessors, not to mention that of Sar- dinia, which he had himself awarded to James II. of Aragon. Philip stormed like a roused tiger, and burat the papal bulls. Unable to deny the statements of his holiness, he condescended to answer with equivocations and pergonal reproaches. For such purposes he convoked his states- general, impugned the election of the Pcntiff, and sent a military force, headed by William of Nogaret and Sciarra Colonna, to assault the venerable reprover in his own town of Anagni. Boniface remembered his meek and divine Master, and refiised to oppose violence by violence. Ar- rayed in fiiU pontificals, and kneeling before the altar with a crucifix in his hands, he calmly waited, as he hung over it like a confessor, for the ajmroach of his enemies. Sciai la, with his drawn sword, ancl followed by Nogaret and his ruffians, for the instant felt overawed; but at last, seizino- their august victim, they insultingly threatened to carry him off to Lyons, where he would be "deposed, as they dared to aver, by a general council. " Here is my head, here is my neck/' replied Boniiace ; - 1 will patleatly beai-, that 170 MODERN HISTORY. [a.d. laoa i, a Uatholic pontiff, and lawful vicar nf Pl.,.,-cf t. demned and cTeposed by heretics I ISL . >• ^f ""T faith of Jesus and His 43'' Til ? ^'^ ^°'' *^« After a rude and ctupI iTn^!^ ' assailants quailed. people rose tLoSh vcrv shC T'/^ ^^''^^ '^''^^^^^ J»« theii- noble sovS Z 1^' 'J"^ indignation, liberated on the thirtieth SfhiWfiS?^^*^ ^"^ *° ^^'^^^ ^^^ere, in his 87th ylV^rgiV^^^^^ q^-tly expired him, and edifvine- thp wjSi! ^-f 7^° ^'^^ ®^«'' ^°. "i-e'' Baintly ci,3Lt Tf t Xroi'^^l'^T^^ ^^« doubt the latter was WfJl • f °' hastened, as no experienced^^ A„7t^i,\*^t,i°^^^^ *''^*"^^'^* ^« h«d PrVtestant historian stvLlfh'P' T *° ^'^'°^ ^^^^^^^^ affi™, that "hTenl^j'^e poStS Ts^rf^fv^^ tWl it'f ' '""'/f ^^^ - it as trgi'' t'e mal JS/i'^toYh^re'j^'^^^^^^^^^ tA- *h«S of entirely for theTaTe of tho ^Z T't^/^^ 'P°^^^ ^^^ ever bitterly opposed^ J^^^^^^ ,, ^f'' ^''^''' ^^o^- reluctantlv vet^nf fll r "^ *f"*^'' ^'^^« hardily and like SsS t^o fhp Jnl ''a ''°''.'''^' "«°^«^ something nobli head o? h^ Chtch flfT ^^^^^^^^^^cs of thf consonant with aLS n^L J T^°'' f^'^''^'^^ ^^^ ^^en existing, reir^^^^^ mi'fSe^'"^''^^'^ what may be termpd f„-Q\.n^i • 5^'^*0"une was, that duced a LastropT^^^ has notln?^ ""'i^^.^''^ P'-°- pared to the BaUhSca^LS^JlT'^^y '^««? '^°«'- en. IX.] MODERN HISTORY. in CHAPTER IX. A.D. 1303-1492. THE P0PE8 AT AVIGNON— THE PAULICIANS— SUBTET 0» BOCIBTT— LITERATUBB OF THE MIDDLE AGES. In apparently triumphing over Boniface VITI., a blow was struck by Philip the Fair against the Church and society, of which the effects were felt for ages afterwards. The political action of the Pontiffs for the good of Europe seemed to become paralysed. Throughout the foui-teenth century they were under French influences. Benedict XI., elected into the placfe of Boniface, only lived a few months. A.D. 1303-4. His successor, Clement v., reigned ten years, and finally transfen-ed the seat of his goverament to Avig- non, on the banks of the Rhone, the capital of a small ter- ritory called the Venaissin. Both he and Benedict, although they absolved PhiKp, fully maintained the Cathohcity and soundness of that supremacy which their courageous pre- decessor had proiTiulgated in his bull Unam Sanctam. Human violence is only an earthquake, which agitates and I)eihaps deforms the earth for the time being, and in a par- ticulai- place, while the firmament of ti-uth overhead remains unchanged as the arch of eteniity. Catholics should never forget so simple a fact. Clement acted with Philip in sup- In'essing the Knights Templars. These had grown so opu- ent as to reckon 16,000 manors but as a portion of their enormous possessions. Such wealth natui-afly brought cor- ruption with it ; and a solemn investigation demonsti*ated, that within the limits of their order there existed a secret society, heretical in its prmciples, and abominable through certain profano and profligate practices indulged ampngst its member: Oa the death of Clement, a-d. 1314, there ensued a a a: anv^y of two years, when at length John XXII. was choser ah. T316. 'His ecclesiastical troubles lay in Betting soiv' fanatical IVanciscans in order; and his po- litical ones arose fiom his struggles against the Empei-or Louis of Bavaria He died a.d, 1334. Benedict XIL fol- ys^&i% ever a«u aaou casuug' wisuui iuoks luwarcui tiid 190 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1334-1414 of hope. "^His succerr cSm^VT tS^f t ™''?'" bom that notWuff could bo ™i^L 1'' • '^' '""'™- w« for th, p^seft i"e4atewedLSf'i"„l'" '^' away by the torrent of circumstaDMs Hf. ,! fT!?^ number ofPrench cardinals n (1,7 i ""K^iW *« city of Avijmon M' Z snnm P^chased the Quien of nK. whT'wt^S,T "f"' f^M, from the plified and ISedte ™5°^Ctrth if "''"°" • ™: Then- shatterec and almost ramen^Tln n ?*'^7- Pontes to adopt many mrjyopSZ^T^f''^ *^« suitable subsistence as rn^S^ST^- n ,^^"" "'^'" i-ants coerced tnem into ot W nomSv fc 'tS*^"^ .*^- of the prospent.^ of the Chnr^r^rin^^ii^/T"*'"^ graiidisement of the kings of^4ce tC^ ^' ?'."8- Fables have been circAtel^'re^^T?^''''''' accumulated h^■ the Podgs ut 4 tni!^^ ? ^^ treasures that they should be ,, ml!! ^^^°''- J* was necessary crime of ^hristldom thK'"' ''^^^^^iJ«^ i* was the where it oS ^ have £ H.rT"^ '"'^^^^'^^ ^^« °°* pointed/ Cemenrvr,n^"f,''^^'' ^"'^ *% disap- less liberahtr Hi! bu Id^n '^^';f T''''""''' «^itlf bounS- absorbed val'sum as weK/."."^ ^''''^ "'^'"'^^^^^ ^i«° CH. IX.] MODERN HISTORY. 178 be celebrated at the end of every fifty years, instead oi only at the termination of a century. Innocent VI. k-o- yeraed amidst various confusions a.d. 1353-62: such as the ravages of civil war in Italy, and the invasion of Ro- magna by the Turks; whilst, during the same period, France and England were maintaining their destmctive contest, which led to the peace of Bretigni in a.d. 1360. Urban V. declared on his election a firm determination of returning to Rome, which he realised for a brief interval, dying, as St. Bridget had predicted, in December a.d! 1370 J nor was it until a.d. 1377, that his successor, b-regory XL, who reigned a.d. 1371-8, ultimately restored the papal chair, at the urgent solicitations of St. Catherine ot bienna, to the metropolis where St. Peter had established It. Un the decease of Gregory commenced tlio great schism. 1389-1404; Innocent VII., a.d. 1404-6; and Gregoiy AIL, A.D. 1406-1415, presided over the spuitual admmis- trations ol Italy, the Empire, England, the nations of the n orth, and sometimes France. At Avignon, the anti-Popes were a second Clement VI., a.d. 1378-94; and Benedict Xni A.D. 1394-1417; to whose obedience, as it was termed, France at first adhered, with Spain, Scotland, and Sicdy all throughout the period. The Synod of Pisa, a.d. 1409, summoned hy the cardinals and several Catholic po- tentates, added to the confusion; for the assembled fathers deposed Ooth Gregory and Benedict, without deciding upon their respective pretensions, and elected Alexander V. by their own assumed authority. There were thus three claimants of the tiara at one and the same time ; nor were mat,ters mended by the removal of Alexander; for John iViA^® nominated as another anti-Pope in his stead, A.D. 1410, whose mam merit, however, was the convoca- tion ot the Council of Constance, a.d. 1414. All the con- tending Pontiffs now either abdicated, or were set aside- the satisfactory selection of Cardinal Colonna, as Maitiu \^ ' healed m some raeasui-e the breaches of the Church, and once more enthroned her in her native land of the Romans. It may be scarcely worth mentioning, that Benedict XIII. ....,.„ ^ „™ „,.,,_,.,,„ ,^^^ ^ .^.. .^.. ^^ lieath-bed, uu 17* MODERN HISTORY, [a.D. 1304-37. at Peniscola, a.d. 1424 ; where lie bound the two cai-dinals who still paid him their allegiance to elect a successor, under pain of eternal damnation. They chose a canon of Barcelona, and the court of Aragon ratified their choice, comDelhng its object to usiirp the title of Clement VIII. On the 26th of July, a.d. 1428, this last shadow of iniquity voluntarily resigned ; so that the rifrhtfiil holder of the Apostolical Keys maintained them without a rival until his death, in a.d. 1431. Yet enormous, as may well be imagined, had been the amount of mischief perpeti-ated. Italy, without the Popes, was a decorated casket deprived of the jewel which l)e- longed to it, and constituted its princijml value. With theii' adherents, the Guelfs, they lad always been the fnends of the people in Germany, Lnmbardy, the Poriti- hcal States, Tuscany, and Naples. Their competitors, the Ghibellinos, were nearly all imperialif-ts, panting for those positions which many of them speedily obtained; when, under the denominations of dukes, marquises, counts, and barons, they might play the character of tyrants on a small scale, each one over his own town, city, or district. The Pontiffs had constituted by their presence a third poli- tical power, distinct from the aristocracy and democracy • far above both as to their origin, objects, personal virtues! and sacred office, and yet able to balance one against the other, so as to presei-ve the equipoise of all. Their with- drawal gave a shock to society, faith, and morals. The houses of Luxembourg and Bavaria, in wrestling upon the fair fields of the Peninsula for the prize of empire, to- gether with the meaner rivalries of Florence and Milan V enice and Genoa, Naples and Sicily, renewed the earlier devastations of heathen barbarism. Instead of the rough but plenteous prosperity of the Cai-lovingian years, in the urst three quarters of the ninth century, misery and vio- lence brooded over the land. The gi-eat companies of con- dottiere, or freebooters, men whose swords upon an or- ganised system were to be bought and sold tor a given pnce in any cause, sprang like evil spirits out of the uni- versal anarchy. The Catalans of Spain had set the perni- cious example; it was followed in Lombardy, and more or MODERN HISTOnV. 176 less throup:hout Italy, not to mention other parts of nomi- nal Christendom by the Visconti, and a celebrated band under Werner This noble robber-for he was of ducal rank, wore a silver plate on his bosom, describing himself M an enemy to God, to pity, and to mercy T' Three thousand cavalry, with many more infantry, acknowledged his command ; they moved from one territory to another, leaving behind them ruin and desolation, and carrying the same with them wherever they went. Hawkwood, an ±.n^Iishman, with a variety of similar adventurers, iust enlisted by their fame or pay a few parties of these irro- g:ular brigands, and at once they became the terror of a province. The papal forces alone made any thinjr like honest efforts to abolish the evil; but the permanent ab- sence of the Pontiffs appeared to have let irreli^on and immorality loose. Petrarch, the poet, had come to Civita Vecchia, A.D. 1337, and dwells upon the loveliness of Lapramce, a seat where he was staying, in the possession ot one of the Colonnas. Yet from this sojourn, otherwise so agreeable, he says, "All the blessing "of peace is ba- nished. Nowhere amidst this enchanting scenery is her heavenly form to be met with. The shepherd, when in these regions he betakes him to the pastures or leafy groves, ffoes armed to the teeth, anticipating an attack. Ihe husbandman ploughs in complete mail, and urges on Ins oxen with a lance instead of a goad. The woodman wears his buckler, the fisherman his sword, and the vil- lager uses his helmet instead of a pitcher to fetch water from the rivulet or sprino-. In rural econcmj and house- hold pursuits one is startled with images of war. Honible shouts and cries constantly disturb the nights j and this country (ot Italy), beautiful as it is, seems an image of hell tor every thing in it breathes hatred, war, and cam;age '" Ihese intimations are but fair specimens of a state of things then unhappily too prevalent, fi-om the general dissolution of order and morals. The anchors, moreover, which hold down the heart of man to an orthodox belief m the nght religion here, connected as that is with a judgment to come^ hereafter, had been moumfnllv and miBeraoly lifted. l<"rom the twelfth century an inundation 178 MODERN nZSTORT. A.D. 870-1800. i r of fresh heresy had broken ir\ wpon the Church. After a tolerably lonff obscurity, the Manichean theor if two principles bad revived in the wet-tern parts of Ai nenia, and was pr pagated by the Paulicians. These sectaries ascribed the creation of the world to an evil sh'it} . the author of the Jewish law ; hence they rejected the )ld Testament, and consii rably curtailed or modified the gos- pels, just as the Anti-supematui .ilists do now : they vu- jectea the veneration of the Blessed Virgin, the presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the adoration of the ( ' oss, and the reahtyofthe death and resurrection of the k iviour; holding rather to the phantasmal notions if the ancient Gnostics. They aven-ed that no priests were required under the new dispensation, and that the Epistles < St Paul were the parts of Scripture most essential to be stu- died ; from which circumstance they probably derived their ll«!na. Petrus Siculus first described them in the t< ga of |jn;-il the Macedonian, a.d. h70, wlun they had been driven out of Armenia into Bulgaria. By the course of the t>mube their doctrines stole into Ilungaiy and Ba- varia, sometimes taking the route oi' Lombardy into Switzerland and Finance. In the southern and eastern districts of the last country they became conspicuous as Catharists, Pi cards, Patarins, but above all, as the Albi- genses. Their eiTors and habits poisoned the fountains of truth and rectitude. Innocent III. and the Fourth Coun- cil of Lateran, as well as the zeal and fervour of St. Do- minic, encountered them with the weapons of the spirit to confiite their principles, and with those of a coercive police to counteract ana restrain such of their malpractices as violated the foundations of moral conduct or the pro- prieties of life. Confounded with the Waldenses, and passing into all the Protean shapes which heresy can so well assume, more especially in connection with an appear- ance of personal piety, they spread into Spain, Italy, Ger- many, Flanders, and France. England soon caught the infection, from which were no doubt engendered the Wycklj tfites or Lollards of the fourteenth century. These circumstances ought always to be remembered €m. IX.] MODEHV HISTORY. 177 true religion can ever be expected to do, in a mixed state ot attau'8, (essentially probational and not pRrari isiacal, was done. An enemy can.<. and sowed cockle an onc-st the wheat, exactly acvordiny to that Satnnf' '-cy which has prevailed m tlie wuild since tii.. fall ■ first i irents. VVhat Protestantism or infidelity choo,- o call the super- stition of those ages is immensely exa^o-'^rated. Some- thmg ofthe sort, I -yond all question, occurred, such as the LrxiHade of the Children, the fanaticism of the Pas- toureaux, or he Fhig-ellants, the persecution of the Jews, and such fabulous mu-acles as a yenniing- after the marvel- lous will always prcxluce in every period and country, anti-cathohc ones not excepted. None of these absurdities hud the approval of the Church, but just the reverse ; it was she alone who could at all stem or direct the currents ot enthusiasm, and bring- g-ood out of evil ; her influences giuded and msti-ucted the public and private mind, wher- ever ami whenever the principles of mischief had not ob- tained, as they often will, a teinT)orai'y mastery. Numerous *°.^ Rioi'ous saints illustrated the apparent "g-loom of the middle « -ituries, much to the amazement of their more CTitjcal udversai'ies, who might possibly have felt as Adam did wien t! fl first days sun went down, that illimitable dai'kness V s at hand, when, in fact, the main result was an apocalypse of myriads of stars. The asceticism of many monustenes and convents must of itse!f have borne testi- mony to the grand realities of truth ; nor need we be of- fended at the ocasioual corruptions of the cloist*. , since whenever they were really proved, the most condio-n penalties vi>ited the offenders. Thus, even King John of Jingland cleared out thirty nuns from Ambresbury on charges fairly brought and fully supported, but which by no means wammt sweeping surmises or universal suspi- cions The vast substratum of private, unseen, and un- recorded piety, which in effect preserved the social fabric trom falling to pieces, will only be known when the hidings of all hearts shall be unveiled. Some of the most valuable labours of the Church proceed in seci-et; so far, at least, as the proud present world is concerned; and the very - ^stisements and humiliations which it was her daily lo4 ■VMt IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I ItilM 12.5 Ijj "^ ■■■ ^ MS. 12.0 IL25 i 1.4 1.6 Sciences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STRICT WIBSTIR.N.Y. 14S80 (716) 872-4S03 iV 1^ y'j^ 4s^js. Y ^' ITS KODBSK HWTOBY. [a.D. IIOO-ISOO. upon her Bo,a fSm the fm^Je oTl^'r?"^ f^" pmuine efficietcy of her effZV w'/ffi^f.""^ ?^'' Lly taken i„t/.he ^tt'^^ ttguf c^a^Sn'S tended or ,„.™„,ed the '^rJZ.^Xl^tnS^l gradually introduced fbrS^t Su chimneys were fn.™h.„L.„„/co,^ge»rht"m4SttMe'TCC' apartment, without division of XZ=f!i ^ ^ f '"8^^« 179 Her OH. IX.] MODERN HISTORY. flming-ed, as that in some places tliere was nearly as mt.ch ground cultivated as dniing. the leig-n of Georg-e II. Tho backward ; whilst every where, as compared with modera unprovements^^ mediaeval crops would ie now cinSS then thought tolerable; but the rent on an averas-e seems to have not been much more than sixpence or a shilling- for and under the plough in the thirteenth age, or about t^breo times that amount for meadows. Wheat ;;ould appeS to have been about a noble, or 6s. 8d. the quarter and barley ess than half that sum. The usual niTcro^ land under the hoiue of York might be ten yeaL' LchJi'^ In France and Germany mattei-s of this sort wore iH nearly similar condition; but Lombardy, whenever peace pi-evailed for any period, shook from her ap a perfect cor! iS"'/^^^'"*^'; Notwithstanding her au^gme^nted popu. garrienin"- by any means unknown. th. 'fiff^ • '" *'",?^''V*''^,* throughout what have been called tbLTnirVt ° ^f''b f' ^*^?"™& ^J«^s«s ^ere better off than since the belauded era of private judgment and indivi- dual independence Beneath the warm wings of a Church caring matei-nally for the bodies as well as the souls of her children; when to feed the poor was a privilege i-ather than an obligation, and low inartificial rents thj order of th^ «Iay,-opemtives and their families obtained an-abu^dance of coarse yet wholesome food in remuneration for their work In the fourteenth century, a haiTestman had a groat, or fourpencea-dny: eighteenpence a-week were the 7n^VJT V ■"'^Ti ^"^ ^''^^ *^^^« payments, meat, Ih} Ki '* ''^'' ^emg httle more than a fmiiing a ^und the able peasant could procure for his household a fa^ larger share of substantial sustentation than at present chase, between Sunday and Sunday, a bushel of wheat'and twenty.fom. pounds of animal food: Less than a moiety ofthisis all that an ordinary day-labourer in the country can obtam now. The entire population of England, how- ever, when the Popes returned fi-om A vicmnr,^ w-=' ..» -i. r ever UXIUOX' ^^^ MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1300-1600. two miUions and a half. Such comparative abundance must have told materially in favour of honesty and ffeneraJ virtue; romembering- how liaid it is to make an empty bag stand upngrht, and bearing in mind also the healtln- neps of theu- out-of-door sports,-the Maypole, the game at bowls, the village green, the wrestling match, iad the quarter-staff. Similar obsei-vations will apply to other countries, allowing for differences of locality, adventitious circumstances, or the varieties of climate. Catholicity was beldm solution throughout society, pervading the customs ot a district or manor, as well as those of the saintly festival or holiday of obligation. It was witnessed in the rude picture on a wall, the blessed crucifix in its niche, the fig-uro at a tountam, the cross in the market-place, some favourite legend of our Lady, or the awful mysteries of every pa- rochial sanctuary. People then miglit read religion as they ran, as they walked, or rode, ate, drank, or slept. From the conception and birth of the infant, to the passino- bell which announced tlie transit of an adult or elder into eternity, baptism, confirmation, matrimony, and Exti-eme Unction! besides innumerable lesser solemnities, all helped to teach the unlettered rustic how to live in holiness g- s in peace Let these simple statements be compared the posi* tion of ow lower ranks in England, Scotland, i-'i-uasia, and Scandinavia, with the universal profligacy and incontinency ot our manufacturing and agricultural districts ; or the in- tanticide of the burial clubs, deforming and disgi-acine- thli evangelical island. It is the pen ot'^Protestantism itself which points, m a leading journal, " to the tendency of that new era opening upon us m the m' ddle of the nineteenth cen- tury, after generations of philaiithropy, education, and re- torm ; when the worst scandals of barbarism are revived, and surpassed by those of our mere intellectual civilisation." Uuring ihe period when the priesthood had always the ears and generally the hearts of their penitents, one may con- ceive the perpetual processes, through the operation of which no inconsiderable degree of private virtue was pre- served, and a gi-adual elevation secured of the lower classes, blaveiyand serfdom wei-e frowned upon; although their •wstenoe at all, as it may fairly be admitted, was far too MODERN HISTORY. 181 CH. IX.] itSl „«♦» c '""""8, ™^ causes ot moral imnrovpmpnt' P«; rate warfare and l«ns«I roblreiy recS XtonI H^' the multiplication of wealth wi-fhtl^^fof ^^'® T'^^ ^" naturally arisino. out ofTw J« if ^^' ^'''' ^e^^en^ent mense sJcialTfectg Th'fiTnv! f ''^' "°* ^''*'^°"* ™- "yphufp t ca Ban r'v"" ^"f^^- wheat w*^ „„i, foufshit^th;; t^rZ^b 1 ffiven sum under TjZv^ttt '• i^"^'" considers any "surjr, „, the theoI„„^„„, love ,„"'o.fiXl„ JreX^e' clme, m extravagance of amoimf f..««, ♦! -^ • ^^„°e- Lombard and H^nseat^c Sant ^1^'^"*^.°^^^* per cent; tL sUe at Modena ^ lo^o^^f^ ^^^^^^^ deposit was established a.d. 1401 W W A ^""'' ''^ moreover, it becomes abund^t hr evS fZ "' 'l'""' transactions w«r« ,•„«-.-./-!: :_y.®^'^®."* **»»* monetary „,..,„^„,j. ,jj importance. Even the 189 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1336-45. founts Whon f T'/!."!"f ^^'^I'^to'^erl to immense amounts, wiien tlie Baidi failed nt Floi-ence a n l.^dfi the conq«e.j)r of a^ssy and Poictie« ol d tl im Lhv a ?S1a ^f^ ^"''"'5 ^^« bankruptcy of the PmS un? veiled a claim upon him for 000,ioO more • a nu lit lln rndtl^Sllft^'^^"?"^^^^^^^^^^ t^rer, l.S^ ? of Comca, which a company of ad ven- tuiers held and governed, just as our own Leadenh-Sl SnTk^ST^^"^ da^s^cquired nnZuled thov^ Cn^-iolnf "'*""• '^^' ?^^ °*"P'°«^ tln-oughou monev^ TiM'Ti'''' ^^"'P'^*^''"^ ^^'*'' ^^^ value of ^nSJ'v 9o°s'derably prior to the capture of Constanti- Zmplrr ^'"PlT^lO'000.000 ofWats in herrn commei-ce, from which a gi-oss return was sometimes realS ?„ lol J P"; ''?*""• f^' "'°^ ^"'^"^"y coined a miS Lrt "°^,«'Jver and she drew a millL more in sS from her Milanese dominions. P^^ soci>VYrin'l''t^°l?LV'^r'"' ^™"^^* t° ^e'^'' «Pon K2J; ^ ,*^® ^'i^^^ ^^^'^ ^-as that of ChivaG- butfoTt^ ''%'?r1 ^° "^™°^* immemorial antiouit? ««i 1^ ? / era of Charlemagne it took a regular milituV^^ fS^- ^ the peculiarity of serving on hoi-seback from disinterested motives, towards any princeTrt^^^^^^^^^^^ &t/f '*^' °' r'^^^'- ^^'^^^^^^^ o^nighthoSSt;;^; whSh wt T^''^' ''"' '* ^«^ "ot until the Crusades^ which clothed the system with a religious chni-orter S It rpSrilvT'l ''' ^" ^r "^- ThelresSir " wanTo? wkh^{.^! P'*'°"' ^^'Sohvd, or .ome celebrated S LI,^ol^- /""°"'' ^P"'''' ''"^ «^^«^d' constituted a iftam external feature in the ceremonial; aiid among the MODERN HISTORY. 183 OB. IX.] ^ood Anglo-Saxons this was preceded by a confession oi sins, and other pious rites ; the order, moreover, being- re- wived from a priest, instead of a layman. Even the giddy Normans, in laughing at the effeminate sanctitv, as it seemed to them, of their new subjects, permitted William Rulus to be knighted by Archbishop Lanfranc; and the recovery of Palestine soon imparted a sacredness to chivalry altogether. Evenr soldier assuming the Cross had his ambition ele- vated. An object allured him forwai-d to fame and i'cr- tune for both worlds, should he only prove himself worthy of his hi^h vocation. As a candidate for the equestrian dijrnity, there wei-e nights to be passed in prayer, sanctu- aries to be visited, sacraments to be received, the bath to be entered, a white robe to be put on, emblematical of his purification and future innocence of life. His sword Avas solemnly blessed; for it was to be drawn at every Mass its weai-er attended, while the Gospel was being read, to sigTiify his willigness to die, if needful, in its defence. The es\)e- cial veneration of our Blessed Lady heightened, and re- fined, and conseci-ated the souls and valour of her ibllowei-s: who, so long as their faith and perseverance lasted, derived through her favour and patronage a moral purity, which must have been othei-wise unknown, with a glowing gal- lantry of bearing inspired fiom above. But the most ex- ouisite beauty, when once degenerated, astumes the most nightful hideousness ; and as corruption legained its ns- cendency, another sort of g-allantry unhappily supei-seded its predecessor. The celestial vision dnrkeneil into a car- nal dream. Female fascination, one of tlie surviving flowers of paradise, so long as it is fresh and fragi-ant, and free n-om sinfid defilement, became gradually tui-ned to bad ac- count. In the Norman period there seems to liave been more roughness in the social intercourse between the sexes than was the case later; for if we remember right, the Con- queror overcame the repulsion of his consort Matilda by rolling her in the kennel. Courtesy, however, was at least an acknowledged offspring of chivaby. Nor could the knightly spirit of gentleness towaids women fail in pro- ducing some improvement in behaviour, some taste for ele- ViiUitt *** MODBKN HI8TOKY. [a.D. 099-1240. The mere silent appeal of weakness to strentrth for per- sonal j)ro(-^rt.on, would do much towards awakeninir trene- rosity and magnanimitv. It was only when relig-ion had altog-ether withdrawn tf.at the scene changed for the worse, whilst even then, although the i)hoenix had flown away the ashes of her pyre remained, and contributed something m the shape of loyalty, liberality, justice, and polished man- ners for the amelioration of mankind. The character of the knight gi-adually subsided into that of the European gentleman, which distingviished high-bred society in the sixteenth and seventeenth, just as the other did in the pre- ceding centuries. ^ Literature meanwhile effected more than either money or mannera amongst those who had ears to hear and minds to cultivate. Most exaggerated notions have prevailed with i-egard to this subject, as though aU rajiks and classes, through what are called the Dark Ages, with iust here and there an exceptional individual, were buried in iJhteracy and barbarism. It was far from being so. Pope Sylvester II., who ascended the papal throne, a.d. 999, shed a light upon his position and times, from the apex to tHe basement ot the social pyramid. He was accomplished m dialectics, arithmetic, mechanics, philosophy, and astro- noniy ; he wrote treatises on all the sciences ; was familiar with every depai'tment of literature, as well as theoloffv- constructed an organ, of which the bellows seem to have been worked by steam; and regulated a chronometer made for the Emperor Otho III., by celestial observations earned on through a long tube on the polar star. The use of the astrolabe, the quadrant, and even a globe, is descnbed in his remains. We are indebted to him for the introduction ot numerals, as at present adopted. Otric of Saxony, Adelbold the biographerof St. Henry, theleai-ned St. iJerwai'd, bishop of Hildesheim, their predecessors under the reips of Charlemagne and his sons, up to our own Vener- able Bede, present a galaxy of light, such as must have made many a cloister glad, to say nothing of those whom there is no room to enumerate, or whose names and works, mice well known, can be discovered no lonaer. The ladv Roswithtt, of Gandershdro, cultivated both histoi7 «"1 OR. IX.] MODBRIf HI8T0KT. m poetrv under the Saxon emperors; and it would appear tJmt hercommunity-for she was a religious -loved leanj- mg and 1. rters ns keenly as herself. The Latin hymns and sequences of the breviary and missal, some of them bv prelates and pontiffs, might alone be sufficient to refuti the calumnies which have been levelled at the annals of the Papacy by uncandid Protestantism, or malevolent infi- dehty Beyond all doubt, the difficulties under which literature laboured must liave been enormous; and that tHere were htful seasons of altcraate night and day, tern- **vu ^"^, f»"«^"ne> one sometimes following the other with a suddenness analogous to natural convulsions, is also most ti-ue; yet all these allowances make the amount of Uterary evidence which has come down to us so much the more conclusive, as to what must have constituted the real limits of inte lect and knowledge throughout the calmer mtervals of the middle ages, ^he scarcity of books, in- deed, raised theu- value prodigiously. RecoVds and minu- Bcripts had been written by the Romans, either on parch- ment or material made from the Egyptian papyi-us; but of the latter, supplies became rare after the settlement of the Saracens on the banks of the Nile. The former was too expensive an article for ordinary purposes ; nor wa- it until the manufacture of paper from linen rags, introdu ,.' about the close of the tenth century, accorcfing to Muw ton, Montfaucon, and Mabillon, that authoi-s could have any means for multiplying copies of their works. Tim- boschi places this invention a good deal later; notices of such tradesmen as booksellers are certainly not found before the twelfth and thirtee."*h centuries; and it is con- tended, that cotton was used as the substitute for linen in all specimens of paper still extant of any period previous to the Cnisades. Monasteries were for many generations the only places where the laborious process of transcription could be regularly canied forward. The trouble which even bt. Louis may have experienced in forming a library at Pans, can thei«efore be conceived. That at Oiastonburv Abbey, in a.d. 1240, contained no less than 400 volumes. mtii Livy, Sallust, Lucan, Vu-gil, Claudian, and many other ancient authors in the cataloffue. At St. Albani 180 MODERN HI8T0RT. [a.D. 1300-89. fiftv-ei{rht books, were transcribed under one abbot, a.d. i'iOO; - mi-ely n noble, intellec unl harvest, to pi-oceed, as it did, irom a snijj e scriptorium. Ti,e leurnei lanjruaires may be ti-ulv 8a,d 1« imve owed tlieir survival to the pS ^f i> "^'''^ ?'^,' '^>« «"t"'«'"''^y °^ the Roman I'ontiff, the liturgy, the breviary, the sanctuurv, and the cloister, preserved the voice as well as the works of anti- Quityj wlnlst the study of the civil and canon law; the joundotion and maintenance of universities throughout Chmtendom, to which students flocked by thousands ; the culture of theology in the schools, which produced such prodigies as Scotus and St. Thomas Aquinas; the efforts made successfully to recover and understand and illustrate the choicest classics, as models of taste and genius, demon- strate that the assertions of vulgar history are calum- mes, based upon prejudice, and the results of suiierficinl in- vestigation. Whatever might have been the intervals ot drearmess throughout the lapse of a thousand years those sacred altars, which are identified with Calvary' not only shone with the sacrifice of the Sun of Justice, but they scattered abroad the radiancy of mind and science lor the instruction and improvement of myriads, perhaps less intellectually enlightened, yet certainly more hum- ble and happy, than the conceited millions of modem times. The Latin and Greek tongues, as spoken by the com- monalty, were rapidly corrupting into the Italian, French, Spanish, and Romaic, intermingled, as all these became! with a multitude of words, idioms, and varieties, fi-om contemporaneous or collateral sources. The Teutonic and Hclavish nations contributed their full proportions Pro- nunciation ceased to be regulated by quantity ; the dialect ot Komanze formed an intermediate state between the lan- guage ot the Western empire and some of its modem deri- vatives; whilst of the principal vernaculars throughout iJ-urope, none seemed so tardy in its growth or application to the purposes of litemture as the Enghsh. This arose, as Hallam observes, out of the Saxon spoken in this island from Cumberland to Cornwall, until after the Conquest! ile pomts out a poem, by one Layamon, a priest of Era- en. IX.] MODERN RI9T0RT. 187 change SccuiTin A ^]%o'^ ^^'T^^' ^'^ "" ''"l>«'t«nt nental words and n}„H^.cIr " • "^^ ^^^ ^"" o^ conti- dei'ed at fJ1« -P T^'' •* <^"'<^»mstance not to he won- court of Wonfl^SentT^^^^^ ^'T^ «^ *^^« occupied neailv S t!3.il- %• , ^ ^ their clergy down^otheZsl^^^'^^^^^^^^ «* ^''^'ooli constnae their Cn 1 ..o^s iniavlf''? ''^'^,^^^Sht to standing the statutTuL^^ ^- ^' ^",''^' ' ''"^ notwith- Erai'jpd vnf i.„ ^L • ^ .' "• Chaucer has been cvpr- Chaucer w„SWa°dUi,„«°V? '^ ^'"^ '«''''" B '""i i-»"gBu;iy, ana ptu-a- >rOD««N MI8TOIIT. [a.d. 1285.1321 genuine annloRiM „ro to Im iH™. «! p ii- "' '"" »"»' resemblance; imajrinution ii fnn ♦»,„ * liw-Jike never weakened by its fliJl "^ani^; ??' '° ^ 'P®^*^> '^^ OB. IX.] MODKRlf iiraroRY. 189 ■pin, still further forward, the coruscations of Paradise SmuZf' d'.vane scenes nn^F circumstances produ eTan actual apotheosis of his own soul; the most ethereal sul^ 8t..nco of his spirit never found its way bock Su to Si'- rr ""'"?• ^^■'''' '^'^^'^''^'^ 'nnjesty^of tie Almighty had withdrawn him out of the body, "in those instanta^ neous g-hm,,ses, his thought became si thorough; XoS m Its principle that it never quittotl it to nil eternity , and what renders the int.>llectunl gnu.deur of the whole so in- terestmg even to the historian, i«, that the ..oemi neither of all that was uppermost in the thoughts, the hones and the affections ot' the Italians of its own period!^ t en- chained the attention, not only of his own cmintr ' hll itTV'rlfV^' ''^'^^^^ '^' undeLtood; i wasarS flection of Catholicity, ensh.ined in immortol song ; it was and IS, read, not as an amusement, but as a woilc renleti wrth moral wisdom, recondite love, and relig-ious instnic! ton. Even the Protestant master of the Middle Aires Ss warm with his criticisms and admiratio,-.. "l^o^npir! fccfua? h Toi^'oT ^r"^^"?-l« «n epoch in JheTtel lectual history of modem nations, and banished the dis- cournging suspicion which long nges of letharertenLl ft «c,te, that nature had exhnusid^her fe t .^^n te^'t poets of Greece nnd Rome: it was as if nt\on e o? tl e ancient pmes a stmnger had appeared upon the lin and thrown his quoit among tlie mm'ks of former castTwhich "n o?D 1"£'1 '^ tl'-'-'Vods: burtL^admra- lm!L„ ^nfe though It gave a gt-nei-al impulse to the human mind, did not produce imifntoi-s; his Lb it s .t^U all his own and the track of his wheels can nevei hp rnn iounded with that of a rival "* Tl p vpS1« V • "."" lections as u Ghibelline a^etifficilnd/dfsSit^"^ ^'"'^■ comLVt'.^T'"^^'^^ ""^'^ "'"^t ^« mentioned, to complete the mediaeval triumvirate of Italian literature — they are those of Petrarch and Boccaccio. At A wl?,o7 whei^^ his parents .^sided, the former l^came qSly' *Bdlan. ii 190 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1300.?4. his sonnets, which are mnrUc ff !f * *,° ^^^°" "Po^ wearied hbr .ir^ 11 J^^'^ °?^®'' consisted in his un- successor, Innocent Vr Imii i,! J ^^ement VI., and his althons-h the frPpSnmAV 1?- '^^P^somely patronised him: crowned as laureate on^hrSl a ^ \m' S^-""^?'^ of love! Irv Sendshin^°v.lT'- ''""'T^' ^"™^^"'"ff ^^^^^^ one vi;id sZ-t vTt&;/^^ .?'■ ""^ P^t^-'otism, 111 into an effect .-i;;dh::;?ra:^^t^^^^^^^^^^ - W^ion to produce read lectures on the Bhine C-c^wS but h« 'l'^^ » '* jear after his fiiend Petrarch «nT«ofi t^ *'^"* ** to his jovful acceptance o?Si^^^^^^ best towards a revivfll nf fil i^ t .P* Y^a^so did his CH. IX.] MODERN HISTORY. 191 miracle of ehborate erudition If ??<• *"»»«, <'»ys » depTOinte the Ss th,r',i "^Z"? ""'■ '^«»™ «» surely few can heln Jnm. ^"^^ .'«vel ot their age ; yet insliion,-?indeed i Z^^^^ fFI^T' ^* ^^^^'"e a the genius ofTntfo iitl ' w "'I *''^ ^°^" ^^ ^O'-^hip of th^e Wind LK fl^tn o^^^S^ *^^^ T^' g'^"^^"' fame and aSt on "noS^^^^^^^^^ ^^ "^«<'h The holy SeripJJrs; andl llluZf S' thetif ' '"P'^^* myth cism stole over niany membei o fZ'ri ^T'^'l'^^ would have shocked the soid Tf4 P T\^ *^^^* have heard the deSes of Oli^!. ^^''^?'7 *''« ^'^a* *« of, as though thenadP^irnr ''^PP,««^««^ *«. or spoken Theology itself bJJntn I? P«««essed a real existence, seemed^^s fhougltete^^^^^^^ ^^^ >* with the J'ather of Tilt +^ • ^?^'^^^ ^^^ combined sepulchiL the peetre 0^ ™ 'nT'.- ^^^ ^*^. ^°'-^°"«« with the prophetWantl. ^S ^"*11"'*y'. ^nd invest it cold when SciatTons u^fh f I "''^. "^''"^^ ^°°" ^^^^^d present and the future ^vit *^\Sn tt' '°? *'« or a play of Plautus/ ruined S^^^^ cask, exo»<«d -««.»♦—---.-.• '^'. pernaps out ot an old , c..«G ^..„^, «,«jnHoa tiito the Gosp«Is of the m MODERN HIStORT. [a.D. 1204-1400 llii fnJIhl ^'"f "^ ?f Constantinople was now drawing- rapidly towards a termination; nor (fid it ever recover W the T'TfTf '^'^' fourth crusade. Dandalo and h s W t ans; the two sieg-es of the citj; its sixty years oocupa- offen^^eTdl'^rr'"' ^^°^« «^^«*«"- ^-"^"dThe ottensive badg:e of foreign conquest ; its comnarativelv easv recovery by the leneralV Michael ES the aff i/n? T^- ^T¥p on the part of the latter tS the attair of a single night had effected so important a c W ; the loss o! most of the islands in the S Xo and tlie provinces of Greece, from Thessaly southward - ^together sapped or destroyed the loundations of hoje for future prosperity or securitv. The ancestors of Pateo^oc^s had assisted to enthrone tfce Comnenians j and wlee^l afterwards more or less comiected by marriage wTth the imperial family. His own ambition now began^^olwaken It was not enough that he had been acknowledgedlthe col' leape, guardian, and in fact the master of the younff John Wis, whose grandfather had established ^he K monarchy; but on the return of the Bvzantine court ^ ^eir native metropolis, he insisted upon, and obtabed^ N;rA°^-^''.r^f '^r^^i^^" ^" *^« CatLdral of St Sophia l^ot sufficiently hardened in crime to murder at once hia nnfortunate pupil he simply deposed him from the auo^stS honours and cruelly deprived him of sight. This opSon was performed by destroying the visual nerves StZ mfernal glare of red-hot" stiel basins. His excrmmuni' cation and absolution involved a fiirther schism S?n the general one of the Greek patriaSrunderThe de^^^ mina ion of the Arsenites, a.d^266.1312T succeeded' m settling his dynasty, such as it proved, throu-h a load ai!Vy^T'^l'^ ¥ «°°«iderable abSities.' Sos Chios and Rhodes togetlier with th- eastern side of the Moia d^Z'Tft ^'""^ '^' ^^?^^' ^°^^ ^^^^"'•ed to the fading r« ,1T % ^^^^'P^^o^ of Constantine. His tempomrf re-union of the Oriental and Occidental Churches S boned, so long as it seemed sincere, by Qrtg^X atX general Council of Lyons, a.d. 1274,^^S hilZ MOOERir BISTORT. 198 CH. IX.] factory results. He had associated his sod, Androniciis ir., nine years before his own death, a.d. 1282, in the ad- ministration of public affairs; and the life of this latter Srince subsisted for another half century afterwards. An- ronicus had taken into his service the Grand Company of the Catalans a^inst the Ottoman Turks, a.d. 1303; yet so outrageous and disastrous were the ravages of both, that it seemed hard to decide whom the wretched pro- vincials most dreaded. His father, however, had got too entangled in the meshes of false policy for his heir to have learned that uprightness is tnie wisdom. Michael VIII., Palaeologus, had instigated the revolt of Sicily, through the conspimcy of John of Procida against Charles of Anjou, king of Naples, which led to the Sicilian Vespers. These transactions inevitably brought his family into the vortex of Aragonese connections and revolutions. The Catalonian mercenaries fought manfully against the Maho- metans, as also against the subjects of Andronicus, when they felt that he was defrauding them of their hire. Amidst the honors of what amounted to another civil war, the fragments of an empire were trampled under foot : the principality or duchy of Athens became a dependency upon Sicily and Aragon ; three intenial contests between the emperor and his grandson, Andronicus III., a.d. 1321-8, exhausted the realm. Michael IX., son of the elder, and sire of the younger Andronicus, had appeared as an imperial shadow, and passed away, a.d. 1295-1320- until at length the grandfather abdicated, a.d. 1328, and died m the cell of a monastery, indigent and neglected, Idth February, a.d. 1332. His successor wore the purple for thirteen years, an adept in vice and wickedness, down to his decease in a.d. 1341 ; when his son, John IV., as- cended the throne, a child of not quite nine years old, under the able regency of Cantacuzenos, the Great Domestic of the Palace. Tliis remarkable personage subsequentlv usurped the diadem, a.d. 1347-1355: endeavouring to rule ^ sole autocrat, although from the commencement of his administration, he had assumed the external symbols of supreme authority. His private wealth, one would have thought, might have satisfied any desii-es not ftbaoluf«lv 194 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1347-01. insatiable, including: money, plate, and silver, sufficient to Tl ' onn*^ &«"eys ; ntures stocked with 2mZ>^ cattle, oO,000 hog-s, and 70,000 sheen ;_besides an ex- tent of amble and, pi-oducin- enormous stores of wheat and barley, with 1000 yoke ot\,xen employed upon it! cul 00,(,00 acres. Yet so entirely had the pui-suit of power dis- «pated his substantial opufence, as well as the national toea5ui-es, that at his coronation the banquet was seTved n pewter, or earthenwai'e, and the absence W^old and leweS supplied with a thin sprinkling of e-enuineSs 2^ 1 ai-tihcial display of ^lasS and g-ift leatC E^TteJ ei&ht yeai-s; but John IV. lad taken up armrasi^st him A.D. 1353, until he i^signed in January, r^.E' becommg- a zedous monk of Mount Athos, and disputing with theological keenness as to the nature of the Kt"S the Iranshgtimtion of our Lord on Thabor. It V^ " topic which agitated all the subtleties of the Oriental iSnd for a decade of yeai-s, a.d. 1341-61 j nor was it seS but by a synod, which established as' an artice of fkitJi that tlie glory seen by the three favoured apostles "^Jsun. nnJ^ ?•• .^^*«''!'^«^°^^' ^^o presided as u theoloo-ian and L S •" ^"*''"' "^^^''P^'- H'^ ««" attempted a rebel: lion, but mvam, since a patemal rebuke, and humble sob suits. He received a letter from the pope in a d 1375 and exmred at a marvellously advanced' ,^^e in a.b.' 141?' John IV., whose nominal domination may date W the demise of the third Andronicus, gave his name to tracts ofgoveiTimentfor fifty years, feeanwhile the rich com! mecal republics of t^e west contended fiercely for S factories m the east j and their struggles with each otW and the imperial sovereigns of the fiosphoiis con^ibut^^^^^ ni.ffhtik to the ultimate ruin of ConstanLollT^^^^^^ FUtt'T" T3|o'"^Tir/"v^' Can/acuzei:, mil oc „ S ' ^'^'}^P' consolidated the prosperity of Pera P^wei.Ml\fli^\r^^T'^^' ^'** so^nJepenllent and poweiful as to be able, m the name of Genoa, to dictate D. 1347-01. sufficient to 2500 bi-ood 000 homed ides an ex- 3S of wheat pen its ciil- upwaitls of ' power dis- he nationnl iS served in '■ and jewels lis over an eign lasted ns against I. II. 1355 ; disputing" ^e light in It was a intal mind it settled 3 of faith, is was un- Jgian, and ■^•as called 1 a rebel- mble soli- ! chief re- .D. 1375, .p. 14X1. from the I the acts ich com- for their ch other iti'ibuted L victory los, IStli of Pera ent and • dictate on. X.] KOSBRir HISTORY. 195 terms to the emperor, and banish her rivals from his pa- tronage. Islamism roared at the gates. The emperor sought .afiige at Rome, where he was received into the bosom of the Church, a.d. 1369. His eldest son and grandson rebelled against him; the direst immorality pre- vailed on all sides. His second son, Manuel II., was asso- ciated with him on the throne,— that throne now sinking amidst the billows ol dishonour, and already overshadowed in anticipation by the baleful blight of the Ottoman ban- ners. At the death of John IV., a.d. 1391, the Roman empire had shrunk into an angle of Thrace. Whatever remained of real piety and learning hastened into Italy, where an asylum oifered itself for the Greek language and literature, with multitudes of admirei-s quite ready to ap- Pi-eciate the erudition, and amply remunerate the instruo- taons, of the venerable and commiserated exiles. CHAPTER X. A.D. 1 200-1 628. BBTIBTT OP THB GREAT ASIATIC NATIONS— THE MOGULS -- THB TDRK8— AND THB TARTARS— CAPTUBB OF CON8TANT1WOPLB — DECLINE OP THE OTTOMAN POWER. We must now look back to an earlier period for observing how some of the changes in the thirteenth and fourteenth centimes wer^ produced, or at least strongly affected, by revolutions which occurred in fax- distant x-egions to the eastward of the Roman empire. From the spacious high- lands between China, Siberia, and the Caspian Sea the ancient seats of the Huns and Turks, there emigrated in the daj-s of Richard and Saladin, many pastoral or nomad tribes of the same descent and similai- manners. The name of Mogoils or Mongols has prevailed amongst the orientals: but It has been thought by some that they were in reality the Black Tartars, subject to a Turkish horde often called the White Tartars. AccowUnir to anothflp ar-^nunt ♦!,« 1 1 106 MODERN Hwtonr. [A.D.lg00l4. Moguls cdrtstituted the imneriiil r«,^. k * u , . may, a ffreat khan, who SdTver 30 ^rJ."J ^,-*^" '^' »* banks of the Sehnira dLThJI ,-'^^ f&mihes on the r^^achedmaturity^^^'heejanthP-f^"' «on Temudsin had nous leadei-s. Thirteen famifc '^ '"P"'"^*'^ ""^«'' ^a- allegiance, and it was Iv,^! -^^""^ persevered in their heirfwith'his nossesXns 3 ^^« ^^ung as a matter of^ourse amo^^t .^ f '"^^'^^' «'' ^^'"''ed out rebels. The resuirhowevef prted"^^.? "^ ^^'•''"^'^"^ versity concentrated the natu J tlf ?^ °?'^''^-'?e- Ad- oppressed prince th,,? fw! • "'^"*' ^"'^ ^'enius of an peXd to re^rso^oly upon S "^'°" ^'"^'''^' '""' '^^'^ with a soul L golXl 2Z "'T''?- H« S-rew up courage, which^?uS ^df,*tS ' "iZ^?'^ ^? ^ ^■«."«*'^'«1 porary humiliation into uhwV • * *""'"Ph, and tern- moreover, an inZcZ^'^Slh!ol"^^^^ i T. y^"''''''^' to seize opportunities Jic^-"^^ ''°*^'*^^ ^""^ al'vays handful of?Ll d 2>ctf wrth^n^ *^"^- ^' the desert, living w ffr enTs or fn i tf" ^* *^^« *«"* ^nd his followers, fidlv aw«vp Sf ^f obtained, lie gave it to thanan amp e SSit tfh. ^Ti ^°''J"mself more ment. His Jamn^Seas 'd "verv iTf "^ '^'''' ^''^'^'- fresh tribes volunterX sfibmS ^"' *^''''*"'^ returned; cess begat ^uccesre",!^^';^^^^^^ sue' achievements of its favourite tKfnf g-enerosity and was all ready to burst into a bin 1 u °^ ^"P^rstition itself national conLtioHioS d be held unor.r"'""-"^^^ '\'' ^ Selinga, for pui-poses e-enprnlfv „t? ^ " *^^ ""^^S^" of the myn'^ads, there rose up a Xdslm n^ /"'''^'^'"T^g'^^^d venerable age and vSuL « fci? T> .^«™ ^^r his seen a visioS. The Seat God nf w'"' '^^^ ^ " ^ ^^^e throne, sv^omded hT^esnL^^V^f' ^" .^^ ^""'^"g' C». X.J MODERN BISTORT. " igf and He gave the dominion of the world to our chief, lemudsin whom he appointed Genghis Khan, or the Universal Sovereign." the Mongols at once held up a torest of hands and arms, with volleys of ecstatic adiiu-a- tions that they would serve him in all his enterpnses. This was m ad. 1206, a memorable era for the orientals, liie elected of his people bowed at the voice of the pro- phet, who was a naked falceer, and believed to ride upon a white horse, whenever he pleased, through the clouds or azure of the firmament. Genghis Khan assured the diet tuat he wwi resolved to traverse the whole earth, and only ^''tJ^''^^ }"" *^® conquered. He was in some respectg another Mahomet, although not by any means a personal beheyer m the Koran, which he lived to trample uLder his leet m the mosques of Bochara; but there appeared in his entu-e system a similar whirlpool of violence, enthusiasm, valour, vast conception, worldly wisdom, and essential cruelty. His sword reveUed in bloodshed. After liis first victory, he placed seventy caldrons on as many burainjr tumaces; and when all were heated to the uttermost, three- score and ten unfortunate victims were cast headlonff and alive into the boiling waters. The wondrous sphere of his atti-action underwent continual enlargement, by the ruin of the proud and the submission of the prudent. Like some Kmdred barbarians, he drank his liquor out of the skull of an enemy, enchased with silver : while the inimour ran that, m this instance, it was no less a head than that of Prester John, khan of the Keraites, who had corresponded with popes and Christian princes, which answered the odious purpose. He soon overran the five northern provinces of China, A.D 1210-14; laid siege to Pekin-whose citizens are said, when their ammunition failed, to have discharged mg^ts of gold ^-'silver from their engines,-and at last took It, alter the inhabitants had been decimated, and com- pelled to devour one pnother. The palace alone burnt for thirty days J an illummation of which the ashes metaphori- cal y reached Japan, for the peninsula of Corea immedi- ately yielded to the yoke. Marching westward through the mountains, he then subdued Thibet, proceeded to Cashmere, and fell upon the confines of Chni-SHma «- 10^ MODERN HisTonr. [a-d. 1214-79. Carismo. The sultan of this country reismed fmm tha Peman Gulf to the borders of Indi7and Turkes Z- hiS us Irontm- town, with gunpowder. IW 2 ci^ Z or re sia. Aiter repassing: the Oxus and laxmt^q hi Uie rebellious or mdependent^ingdoms of TartaiT He S '^; .^"t'^^^of '^ <'0d6 of laws a'dapted to the p7e*serS! Sv IZr" P'^S "°^ *^« «^«'-«'^« of fore^rtos or oxen tt^J7^' "T*''' Pf J"'^'' ^'^^ ^^e theft oFlio,-ses with^t^Z J T"* capital crimes, and punished as such without respect of persons. In the diets/or erand assem bl es ot his people, he sat upon a ruff of coSse lr3' mmistenngriustfce, or directing the a^ff^rs oHiis elS; Important regulations, admirably caiSl nfo prSe* kept enormous Losts in order, supplied them wftJ, t?f i ' safety and honour of his companioLTZi ,1 ' Mt of Homan conquest breathed in the maiim »1mL)T™ J CH. X.] BCODERV HISTORY. 199 Khan nrofessed perfect toleration; but it mar well ba dm.bte^ whether this was any thing more in ,7aliTy h^ the vulgar pretension of universardeism and latitudin^ nanism. Ostentatious proclamations announced his belief m the unity ot God, as the author of all good, filCr n Thiol? ''''•' ^''*'r ^'^'"« ^''''^'' °^*h?t alJgSf I V IJ . '""^'"°"«'l C'«ation into existence. Catho- IS • ■ ''''?'' ''T® '"*° ^'o^^a'^t w'th it, would have tested his sincerity; for the human mind wi 1 often treat ffil.T"i-"''"V'''^ «^«7 *o»'m of error so long as the Truth itsel is absent, or tlie claims of its auth?ritv un- known. The great Mo^l died, in the plenitude of im^. W,^ t-'^' ''{^- ^^^^' ^'*^ ^"« ^«^* ^^'^^^^ exhorting a?d instructing his sons to complete his career of conquest tw.^ vf*^°mL'"''''''r ^™5 l^esides whom he left three daughters. The numbei-s of his harem are differently have enjoyed decisive rank and preference. In his legis- lation polygamy had no limits, except such as taste, conve- m^? w,i°)y Jf ^^'"^"y "»'g:Jit suggest. Industry and honesty met with the greatest regai-d; yet slavery was not dis- couraged The remains of Genghis found a simple resting. lu^LT^'^ " beautiful tree, which he had timself |. ??r i!h ? J^""^ preserved as a protection for his sepulchre. It .w/^"«i'''^ ^"f ^^ '^ '^^^^' °^ his return from the chase. Pilgrims, who resoi-ted thither out of respect to his memory, planted others. In oriental style tfc soon expandea gi-oves, gardens, fountains, and edifices all around the grave, on.a mountain called Lupan, in Shensi. His family were not likely to forget him. 1 hey accordingly received the scymitar of victory V}T^J^A .^!i!" it' ^'7 'P^* °^ ^«lo<^h- Acting witi the leadei^s ol the Mongofian tribes, they fixed upon Octai as the supreme head of the empire, in the place of hU lather ; but without enumerating the gradations and vari- eties of succession, we may remark that, in sixty-eight years, the descendants of Genghis had subdued almost allK as well as a large portion of Europe. The gi-eat northern and southern divisUs of China suUitted to his grandso™ Cublai, iiom Tonkm to f.bA avur,A w«ii . ^ SnoA «« ' aODKEN HIiTORT. fji.D. 1234-58. i^gu, Thibet, and Bengal, not to mention some of tlw saUs whTf, Indian Ocean with a fleet of a thousand Sdl HoW^"^ '^''- ^!,'^? '^ »«"^««- Another grandson Holagou, acquired the whole of Persia, ex- tmguis led the aetestable Assassins in their mointaS- cathat:c^-Tl Tfl; V''' ^fP''^"' andlolSn caliphate of the Abbassides at Bagdad, a.d. 1268 Mo<. tasem was the last of his race, an/with him sank the sea tl t7^'° «'vil,sation. The Mogtils then spread Wond DamZnt ^"d,^»Phrates pillaged Hameth, Aleppo, and Uv^T'f?^ threatened to join the Franks in th^ de- n Zr ° '^Tt «™- B"t tile Mamelukes, at that time in possession of Egypt, met and defeated the ravages Ask mZ;"" ^'t'l'^'V?' ^^^' A°^*«J'«' howevef, or «ilSn?TV "-"^ °^'' ^'"^' ^Ttance; and the Seljuk an n^Sh onf * i^^'^ ^^'"^ overwhelmed, towards the SSsk PoE' k' '^''* territories of Kipjaick, Siberia^ rrioqf'^if *^'«^"°^3:, Senria, Bosnia, wd Bulgaria A^. 1236-45. Batou, with half a miUion of men, in r Sl/T "^^^T.^ ^ "°« °f «"«cessftil invasion iver wJ«?f^''' fV'^^l^'^^ °^ «* q"^r of the drcum' ference of the globe. No obstacle could oppose his oro- intil ^*^^'''l' ''°'' ^^ ^^^*"^»' nor the Danube his Wh!l r^' ^^° ^1°''''°' °^ ^^« ^^«' or passed them in ieathem boats, or on the pontoons which transported theS cavalry and artillery, 'fhe fall of Casan S Wm ihe occupation of Georgia and Circassia, the conflaSr; von^Ttl'S'* ^°Ti '^' ^^*^"* '^^ ^««°J^«on from lT vonia to the Euxme, the extinction for the time of Lublin and Cmcow, the overthrow near the shores of the BalS th^K^'r ^^t%^^ ^P^''^ ^''''' ^d Palatines, and some Sfa nflh^ ^T'''^ ^"^7' ^°"^«3^ ^ °"r ^^^ some Idea of the circle embraced within the Moniroiian conq««,ts. At the battle of Lignitz, near W^l^T.^ OH. X.] MODRRir HISTOat. 801 m2, nine saolw were literally filled with the right ea.-8 of AmfiHt^n'ry "'"*'?, ^'7^'''' anaio-ous to th? scalps of Amencan Indians, fereslau was burnt; the savages were expected at Berlin and Meissen; MuscoU bowed ir neck M«i T f"«°"ltot centuries; alllKuropo tremble'l Man^u ,t IS true, had vouchsafed some gracious civilities to the Franciscan missionary from St. Louis, a.d. 1253 • but the head of Christendom was haughtily infomed, t"ia the cluldren of God and Genghis were Invested w th a divine authoity for extirpatin| the nations, and tla he he mfan";'''^ '""'* I '"^^ ^' ^«'M•pliant to' the victors if he meant to escape tiie general destruction. The pious leader will nat^mlly think of Sennacherib. It is nTa httle remarkable that, from the moment of this insolen? menace, the shadow on the sundial at Camcorum S lo'aJitvTf r^'^'^T''^^^ T*^ '' ^' ^»^"- "-« --'^e locality of the court and the emperor, about six hundred 7hLt 2 K ^'^^ ^ dissolving view. The khan of vagrant raftn' •'^ ^T '""T '^^ •'"P^"^! «"*°«™t' hi« gene- rals into pnnces, his slaves into servile and avaricious of t V ' ir^T%°^ ^'^"^ ^"^ ^^^"^^ ^"*° '^' conven-rce -ni ?• J^' i'- V^^ ^T'^ '""^ ^ park or pleasure-ground fnLl ' '; *^^ Ff ^'^"s "petals, a tall artificial ti-unk of foliage, with wdd lions at the four corners pouring forth from their mouths as many torrents of wine. There were two streets of bazaars in this extraordinary metropolis wfnlf ^It^'f by Rubruqius, who visited it, to Ce been altogether less than the moderate town of St. Denys ht£^f A ''^"' °^''"'^' ^'^'^* *''« residence of Mane^u himself seemed scarcely equal to a tentl! part of the Bene- t^mTJ^^W^' ^T'\ ^^P'*^^ ^^dicated to hat same samt. In other words, the whole affair was Asiatic and nothing more. Each inhabitant of Caracorum, in lug r^?^"'^T.'^^'* *yP" "^«" ^'« ^'^'^^^^J ^«ch nomad of o^UT'^'^'^A '''''^y ''^' ^ system of 'castes as opposed to one of classes, and those too of a very nido y .-^„,., uc no iimiviauanty 01 c&»- 202 *ODBRlT HrgTORY. [a.d. 1258.1801. ^'^IIZ:^^^^ - I-^hened or con- oil usefu seed that St CYn ^- n'"''^ iniprovomont ; mass of mere m H a,^ ffsno^ism /'" "^"^^ *^« 6-'-««>t« struck into the fSat on K h'''''T "'^ '^^ ''""^ be flowered for a brief in tervaNvnl '°* ' '° *'"** '^^^'^'''^ 8i«ls in vain attempted the adontion TA. • u , ^^ *^°- manners, which were J; M. ", P^'°" P* t^hinese habits and ditional/ With nSaSLi'T "?'//'«'" "a^ral nor tm- try in ...D. 1307 ' ^"^ ^pulsion from that coun- cite surprise, but can easily be ex pfredTLT 1^^^ crusade had concentrateH nlJ +h^ n^ i ^"^ "^"^^h mained after Zi^noamreof^^^^^^ '^''' "" Nicene sovereigiity 7tSZLJ-^''^''\''PIV'' *^'« tnces, between wLhnii??! Lascans ond John Va- existed ft soL brief in?ervS' ^"""'PVfu^""^'^^^ t^^^e Seljukinns of Iconium On fhe of!; "?^"l^'"?^^'^*«'' *»>« ofThessalonica wer^added to thte of nL A '""*?•? un,on no inconsiderable amount of strSLS°"\.^^r'^ nccnied to the successor*! nfthJn ^^"^^"8^" and chivalry teinal „nd domestr^aeltn^tr^^^ conducted, the rova^ domnfn! iL ^.i. 'P'"^"'/ ^ell garden of Asia! Znomy and p^^^^^^^^^^ '^''^ ^r'"" ^^ a match for the enemreven ifSr fhf '"u"^ -^^ than had been swallowed u J Sol nofl '"'?"' °^ ^°"™ to the public and piZte Xrnl " ?,7 ^' ^rathered as presentiU his empSss w^h "'^ f °^ Y^^^'^^' ^^^^ J'" monds, which hThlllfd fJ\^T °^ ^'^'^ ""^ dia- m^ on. X.] MODERN HTSTORT. S08 omit the circumstimce, that the Alani and Conmns, driven from their native jeiits by the invaders, enh^ted in tlie (rreek service, and formed soino of the very best soldieiu Holaffou, liowever, would lenlly liave marched upon the Bosphorus, had he not liated tlio Moslems, md hirsted for the overthrow of Bagdad. Tho decline also of the khans ot Persia, in their twin, made way for the Ottoman lurks: whose obscure oriLnn may bo ti-aced among the hordes which had once followed CJelaleddin. In his m r- son the Choresmian dynasty expired, before the advancing fortunes of Genghis; some of the defeated tribes ha3 attacked Syria and Jerusalem, under the name of Cari»- mians, a.d. 1243; otliei-s eng-aged under the bannei-s of Iconium, i)aiticulaily a chief styled Orthogiul, the father ot UtJiman ; they, or at least their ancestoi-s, had foi-merlv pitched their tents near the southera banks of the Oxus in the nlains of Mahan and Nesa; so that the same districts produced tlie fii-st uuthoi-s of the I'arthian and Turkish empires. When the Selj.ikian thrones had been destroyed, ana the Mogn s were declining in power, Othman fo"'und Jiimselt at the head of a resolute army, on the verge of the 13yzantine provinces, every invasion of which the Koran sanctioned as a kind of holy war; he and liis people were «ealous disciples of the prophet of Mecca; several der- vishes, excited by opium, danced themselves into those ecs- tatic visions, which eleva*- fanaticism into ferocity ; and as the chieftain communicated their predictions of paradise to his so!diei-s, he assured them that the standard he lifted before them was a glorious s;^'mbol of victory, pi-esented to iim by the last of the Seljukides. The Greeks, Vy their po- Iitical eiToi-s, unlocked for him the passes of Mount Olym- pus MJnch, until the reign of talaeologus, had been vigdantly guai-ded by the militia of the country, who were repaid by their own safety, and an exemption from taxes. I he empei-or abolished their privilege, and assumt^d their office; the co; senuence of which was, that while the tri- bute was collected, the importance of protecting the defiles came gi-adunl!y to be disreg-aided. On the 27th of July, A.D. IdOl, the Ottomans may be said to have descended UDon (.Jhnst^ndom ! ^no*- ii^d. i.: — j_„ . , . ittLi^xiitiu was urecxaa m "04 MODBHW HISTORT. [a.D. 1301-96. earliest transit of the T ,vVr£f ^ ^"'**^"^®"'*^ 5 the through his able policy ad 134 %^"T1^"^ '^''^ estab&ment, thCg^' Tco opel^^^ yet unpatriotic father-in-law, TdiS53.o ""5""*^ wonder that his son and successor A Sv, ? t,"?'"^ ^'^^ the knowledo/of no Xr ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ '"^^ ^''^^''^ *' ss"..Sr.r»Kj;e s%'' ^--i: -ss of CH' X.] MODERN HISTORY. JQS from the Danube to the Euphrates, over Moldavia, Thmce, Macedonia, and Thessaly. An offset of tlie house of Abbas still existed in Egypt, living upon the charity of the Ma- malouks, who revered him, or pretended to do so, as the veritable representative of Mahomet: Bajazet solicited and received from him a patent of sultanv, which, at least in the eyes of his own people, rendered him a vicegerent of their prophet. Once again was there a vital wrestHng at hand between the Crescent and the Cross; for Christendom had summoned her chivalry to confront in Hungary the irresistible champion of Islam. Sigismund, who, without the piety, yet wore the crown of St. Stephen, marched at the head of 100,000 warriors from Ofen to Nicopolis. The flower of all that France, Bohemia, Bui-guncfy, and the Magyar nobility, could muster, assembled on that fatal held. Many of the knights had boasted, that should the sky fall, they would uphold it on their lances ! A few French and English, with some Hungarian archei-s, had obtained some slight advantage, when Bajazet, suddenly developing his entire forces, suiTounded tHe whole host of his adversaries at once with a quarter of a million of Mos- lems : then rose from earth to heaven the shriek of defeat, ^e groan of despair, and the shout of triumph. The Duke of Burgundy misconceived the nature of the peril, advancing to meet it with mere personal courage, unsup- ported by skilful manoeuvre, or concert with his confede- rates : the ground became red with gore, as the Ottoman scymitar rolled myriads into the dust, or swept the survi- voi-s into the Danube. This dreadful catastrophe happened on the 28th of September, a.d. 1396. In vain was the Galhcan war-cry uplifted and resounded by the gallant Count of Artois,— " Mountjoy and St. Denys !" ; in vain our own ensign of St. George waved over the dead and the dying; in vain Sigismund flew from rank to rank, until cavalry and infantry got confounded in one common tumult ; scarcely an unbroken battalion escaped from the engagement, nor had the sovereign of Hungary more than five knie-hts in his train, as he barely reached (Constantino- ple. Ihe conqueror evinced a strange mixture of joy and rage aixer the victory, for it Lad cost, him dear; in tiui I ( ^^^ MODERW HISTORY. [a.D. 1396-1406^ pride of his heart he menaced B„dn. and Vienna, Germany and Italy declannor that hewonld feed liis horse with oats n .1!^'- i- ?^^*- ^'*'' "* Rome:-iIIness, however, ■ u?if CO r ' I?^"' '°'""'^ l^-f tward. He amused himself ■ uith se.^.I,ns• the ransom of his innumerable prisoners, or surveymg- the presents which had been sent to propitiate his anger from the occidental and Christian powers, or from Lusio^nan, king^ of Cyprus : amon^t them there was a golden salt-cellar, a cast of Norwegian hawks, scarlet cloths and fine linen from Rheims, with tapestn- from i.ir.r'i'''!"*'"" ^H ^'*'°"' of Alexander: liis interest semed about as much excited with such baubles us with the contemptible factions at Constantinople. John Palieo. logus had died five yeai^s before the battle of Nicopolis, and was succeeded by his second son, Manuel, a.d. 1391* i!rl'- r- i'"\^T^''^''' patronised a nephew, John of Selybria heir to Andronicus, the eldest representative of John IV , insisted upon and obtained an immediate though reluctant resignation, and from the palpable distress of tie Byzantine metropolis, already conceived an idea of appro- pnatmg it himself. Manuel withdrew to the cou?t of I^rance, soliciting aid against his tenible tvmnt and tor- mentor. Amurath I. had married a daughter of Manuel, and given her two sisters to two of his sons. Baiajset wai SI«?T/t .'"°!:t P'f '^*¥ "P°" *^^« Bosphois, when Timour the Tartar thundered at the door of his destiny, and suspended for another short interval the extinction of the Greek empire. This mighty murderer of his fellow-creatures was the l?r t"i, f-''^"l^°'".^^"^^''' probably by the female Ime. Like him he aspired to the dominion of the world, and before his death had placed on his brow seven-and- tiventy crowns, which were won in the gory course of thirty- fjl '^TJtiP\^^'\^''t^' '^'^^ '■" ^•^- 1'335, and he died m AD. 1406 : although there are slight differences of state- ment ansmg from some confusion between the lunar and calendar calculations, he must have lived about seventy years. His ovenvhelming artillery, and amies numbere'd by hundreds of thousands, supported, as both seem to Mve been, by an extraordinaij flommissariat, earriod aH CH. X ] MODERN HISTORY. ' 207 before him. With the Koran in one hand, and a spell of demoniacal slaughter in the other j lame, awkward, and tall, with the soul of a despot, the genius of a legislator, and the arm of a conqueror ; the grand imperial Tartar, not unfrequently styled Tamerlane, was to all intents and pur- poses a mere repetition of the founder of his own i-ace ; n revival of the MongoHan hurricane ; himself the soicerer, careering upon the wings of the storm which he had raised, — and then passing away, like a vision of judgment, san- guinary, devastative, spectral, and tem'fic. His inroads, rather than acquisitions, involved the entire extent of Jran, from the sources to the moutlis of the Mesopotamian rivers, besides Chorasan and Candahar, in addition to his patri- mony of Zagatai, the capital of Transoxiana. Proceeding to Western Tartary, he traced in blood the coui-ses of the Tanais and the Wolga, from Azoph and Astrachan north- wai-ds to Moscow,— at a season when the rays of the setting and rising sun were scarcely separated by any interval ; so that his vanity was gratifiea by the intermission of evening prayers, agreeably to the Mahometan superstition. He then retui-ned eastward and southward to invade India, amidst murmurs from the hosts which followed him ; who recoiled in imagination from the mountains and deserts that must be crossed, the waniors in armour that were to be encountered, and the elephants whose bulk and weight could crush their assailants into atoms. But Timour had shut the g-ates of mercy on mankind ; and with ninety-two squadrons of cavalry he crossed the Indus at Attock, ti-a- versed the Punjaub, pillaged Delhi, passed the Ganges, and penetrated to the rock of Coupeie, the statue of the sacred cow, 1100 miles from Calcutta. After a return along the northeni hills of Nepaul to his capital of Samar- cand, he summoned all the hosts of Peisia to Ispahan, from whence he began his expedition throi'gh Georgia against the sultan Bajazet. The Mongolian and Ottoman conquests touched each other in the neighbourhood of Erzeroum. Timour was impatient of an equal ; Bajazet was ignorant of n superior. Tlie former, after an exchange of menaces be- tween himself and his rival, invaded Syria, where, as v.ell as ui j^igjpt, the MtuuulouliS still reigned; though the h pi mi 908 MOaXRN HISTORY. [a.D. 1400-Vi «. dynasty of the Turks had been overthrown by that of the Circassians. Both found themselves unable to withstand the invincible representative of Genghis, who had in- stnicted his troops to train the enormous quadrupeds they had once so dreaded, and which now bore upon their hug-e backs tiu'rets fliU of archers and Greek fire. He sacked Aleppo A.D. 1400,— as also Damascus and Bagdad the fol- lowmgyear; erecting on the mins of the last a pyramid of 90,000 human heads. Preparations for devastating Ar- menia and Anatolia occupied the earlier part of the summer of A.D. 1402; where, on the 28th of July, in the plains round the city of Angora, was fought that memorable en- gagement which has immortalised the Tartar. It has been disputed whether cannon, such as the Europeans already had adopted, were used on this occasion or not ; but the effects of an explosive compound, tantamount in its fearful operations to gunpowder, and employed on a tremendous scale to project missiles, and overwhelm battalions amidst thunder, smoke, and flames, materially contributed to decide the fortunes of the day. Bajazet fought with the fury of despair ; but after his noble anil faithful janizaries had fallen to a man, the sultan abandoned the field upon one of his fleetest horses. Suffering, in addition to this mortification, from the anguish of gout, to which his constitution was always liable, he yet turned upon his pursuers. But they threw a mantle over him, that he might be captured alive. Brought into the presence of Timour, his victor is said to have at first treated him with courtesy ; until from jealousy revenge, or caprice, he quite altered his policy. The un- happy prisoner was confined in an iron cage, which accom- panied the movements of his conqueror, and exhibited the humbled Ottoman, like a wild beast, to the gaze of multi- tudes. Against the bars of it, Bajazet is even said to have beaten out his brains in a fit of desperation ; whilst another account avera, that he died nine months after his overthrow, of an apoplexy, at Antioch in Pisidia. The great Mogul expired on the road to China, probably through an indis- ereet indulgence in ice-water, which helped to inflame a fever from which he was suft'ering. He played chess to perfection, and endeavoured to enlarsre and comnlicatp the CP t.] MODERN HISTORY. 209 g:ame. Often he encouraged very learned men. His famous code of institutes was promulgated to govern posterity ; but his own living voice not unfrequently administered a kind of rough and ready justice, with the promptitude and in- di?:crimiuateness of the most savage manners. The vastness of his empire vanislied, as tlie grave opened for his remains. His children tind grandcliildren aspired to reign for them- selves and tlieir sellisli ptirposes, as they quan-elled with eacli other, and witli their subjects. The Ottomans, on the contrary, like Antitus, when he had touched the ground, sprang up again into more than their pristine prowess. None of the European states could prevent tliis retum- ig prosperity, after Mustapha, vSolyman, Issem, and Mousa, ye four foolish children of the late sultan, had torn each her to pieces, or corrupted their disobedient pashas : their follies and civil wars only planting a firm ladder, for the ascent to fame and potency of their fifth and famous brother, Mahomet I. a.d. 1413-21. His worthy heir, Amu- rath II., in an administration of thirty years, restored the Janizaries, consolidated the fabric of Turkish gi-eatness, and although he failed in his siege of the Byzantine capital, A.D. 1422, yet so reduced its spirit and character, that a path was prepared for the triumph of his more brilliant son and successor. The Greek empire itself was limited to little more than the suburbs and lofty walls of its still beautiful metropolis ; matchless in the majesty of its posi- tion and aspect, its numerous porticoes, its three hundred convents, and almost countless palaces and churches. On the defeat of Bajazet, Manuel hastened home fi'om Modon in the Morea, where he was staying after his vam visit to France, England, and Italy ; pushed aside his cousin, John of Selybria ; reascended his paternal throne, and entered into various alliances with the representatives of the un- fortunate Bajazet, But the arms of the second Amurath broke in apon his learned leisure. Whilst composing theo- logical treatises in defence of schism, his apprehensions rather than bis convictions compelled him once again to look westwards ; and his ambassadors presented themselves at the council of Constance. On sinking into his grave, A.D. 1425, his son, John Paiajoiogus, was pennitted by the m 21 1) MODERN HI8TCHY. [a.D. 142«-61. Ottoman to reign, on payment of an annual tribute of 300,000 aspers, or about 2500/. sterling. This emperor had been already associated with his father, and imitated his example m opening negotiations with Rome for a fresh attempt to reunite the Churches. The pontifical e-allevs conveyed him to Venice, a.d. 1437-8; and the fathers of i-lorence, under Eugenius IV., could rejoice, though but for a bnef and uncertain interval, in the ortliodoxy of the East, apparently accepted even by the Nestorians, the Av- menians, the Maronites, the Jacobites, and the Ethiopians. Hollow as it all proved, the fault of its insincerity lay in the incurable subtlety and lubricity of these nominally Christian Orientals. It can never be too often repejued, that continuous heresy must sap and undermine the foun- dations of virtue, integi-ity, and religious principle. Hence the Greeks seem to have been actuated solely by their fears and temporal interests. The extremity of their political distress formed the thermometer of their professions for a genuine return to unity. The second John Paloeologus lingered on until October A.B. 1448. Out of his five brothers, Andi'onicus died of a leprosy, after having sold his principahty of Thfissalonica to the Venetians ; the four others, Theodore and Constan- tine, Demetrius and Thomas, shared between them the Pelo- ponnesus, which had been recovered, through some for- tunate incidents, to the empire. The three fast survived, and Constantine, the eldest of them, received the imperial diadem. Meanwhile Amurath was declining in life, as he culminated in secular glory. He had grown great through rare wisdom and moderation. Ha exhibited generosity to. wards the gallant but perfidious Scanderbeg, whom he twice vanquished and twice pardoned. Towards the strong he was firm ; towards the weak merciful. In appropriating Greece, there were at least plausible gi-ounds for the inva- sion, as he disputed the validity of the Venetian sale, be- sides being able to advance certain claims upon the Morea. Subsequently to his siege of Constantinople, at the com- mencement of his reign, he was never tempted by the absence, the poverty, or the injuries of Paljeologus, to ex- tintruish the flirlfwrjnp' BnlonHnm* nf a nr>nwn n-.Vk »..'l.;_'U v_ o ^^ — ^.w««.w.w,- «- ,» ^.svYTii men TV iiuiii i2o CH. X.] MODERN BISTORT. 211 was not at war. Twice he laid down his own sceptre, which he Imd so vigorously wielded, but to which he nre- tewed retirement, and the society of dancing dervishes. IJunng- the interim of liis fii-st withdrawal, Eu^enius IV had formed a leagnie against the Turks, which resulted in the tatal defeat of the Hungarians, under their yountr Kinir Lladislaus Jagellon and the celebrated Hunniades, on the held of Varna, ad. 1444. At the approach of peril, the fultan had quitted his retreat, and gained this important victory; yet, after nobly recording on a monumental column the royal valour of his youthful adversary, who had fallen, he again secluded himself from the allurements of pleasure and power, to fast and pray, and turn round in ceasless gyrations with his fanatical recluses. The confu- sions of Adiianople again summoned him into active life ti-om which his attached sulijects would never let him any more retire. His son, Mahomet II., inhei-ited many of fus able qualities, with greater ambition and love of enter- prise. From the moment he assumed the sultany, on the death of Amurath, in February a.d. 1451, he concentrated his whole soul upon seizing that prize, which his father had •J ?. J 1. ^'^ ^?® "^^ twenty-one. His mother, it is said, had been a Christian; yet so thoroughly was his own mind imbued with Islamism, that before age and pros- penty had relaxed the narrowness of liis bigotry, he always washed his hands and face after converse with any un- be lever m the false prophet. His vices were those of a polygamist and an autocrat; of a will corrupted by power —inflamed without being refined, through a certain amount ot mental activity and intellectual attainment. He could speak or understand several languages besides his own- Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, Latin, and Greek. With history and geography he was familiar; with the arts and sciences fie was not unacq^uainted ; and in military matters, if we could forget his formidable resources, and means almost irresistible, he might in that age pass for at least a pro- digious proficient. Accumulated preliminaries were has- tened towards the promotion of his gi«and design. An opportunity he was resolved to find, nr Tnak« nr,^ f«« *i,. purpose. He built a fortress on the Bosphorus. '^Thi V>:r 212 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 1451-3. Byzantine sovereign respectfully remonstrated, throiig-h an envoy, who, on delivering- the message from Iiis master, was allowed to depart in safety, though at the same time informed that the next ambassador ])resuming to impeach or criticise the conduct of Mahomet, might expect to be flayed alive ! Every trifle was now mag-;.:fied into an oc- casion for offence. Constantino foresaw the cnsis, and shi-ank not from it. As the vital spark, in departing, will sometimes blaze into marvellous vigour and energy, so the last C4n-istian emperor of Constantinople resolvecf "to die at his post with dignity, and illuminate, if he could not pre- vent, destruction. His final announcement to the sultan sounded full of Roman magnanimity : " My trust is in God alone ; if it should please Him to soften your heart, mine will rejoice in the happy change ; should He deliver the city into your hands, I submit without a murmur to His holy will. But until the Judge of the earth shall pro- nounce between us, it is my duty to live and fall in the defence of my people." Mahomet, on the 6th of April, a.d. 1453, commenced his memomble siege. With 258,000 men, and a navy of 320 sail, including transports and store-ships, the standard ' of defiance was unfurled. Cannon of enormous calibre had been cast at Adrianople, one of which, founded in brass, had a measure of twelve palms for its bore, and would pro- ject a stone ball of 600 pounds in weight. The figure of the city formed a triangle, of which two sides were water, — the Propontis and the Golden Horn or Harbour; the third, or only land side, had a double wall, with a ditch 100 feet deep ; and the whole fortification four miles in length. Here were made the principal attacks on the part of the Ottomans. Incessant showers of lances and airows weie accompanied with the smoke, flashes, and thunder of ai-tillery, supported by smaller fire-arms discharging five or ten leaden bullets at a time, as lai'ge as walnuts. After innumerable accidents and immense loss of life, some im- pression ajipeare to have been made : the object with the assailants being to fill up the yawning fosse, and so make u i-oad or bridge for the main assault; the besieged, on the oontraiT, were of com-se chiefly anxious to preserve the 2ia CH. X.] MODERN HISTORY. abyss clear between themselves and their adversaries. At one timo, a wooden tun-et, of the loftiest size, covered with triple hides, and advanced on rollei-s, was pushed for- ward ajnunst the tower of St. Romanus, witli which it was to be connected by a drawbridg-e let down from the upper story A breach was thus effected, amidst a death Sf f, °V*''l^"'''fi description ; but darkness came on betoie the rurks could enter, and during the ni^ht so in- spiring: and successful had been the courag-e o? the em- peror and Justiniani his Genoese ally, that the mischief was renaired and all the dial^hcal eno-inery of Mahomet mlucea to ashes. Meanwhile a small U gallant convoy of five first-class vessels, laden with supplies and reinforce- raents, fought their course through the Ottoman navv and dropt their ancho.-s safely within the areat chain of the haven. The genius of Mahomet then perceived that Sl!.n A '^'f 'i-"'^ for success was to make a double attack upon the city from the harbour as well as from the land, mid that to realise this plan, he must remove his vessels from the Propontis into the upper waters of the Golden Horn, a distance of at least ten miles. To force the mouth ot the haven was out of the question, as it was far too strongly guarded. There was nothing left, therefoii but to attemnt the overland road, of whiclAhe groimd was' un even ana entangled with thickets. Myrikds of bmwnv arms, however, soon constructed a comparatively ieve^ platform of smooth planks, rendered slippe.-y with the Wed fat of sheep and oxen. Upon this singular groove or wooden railway, the lighter Vessels wei^ liftfd and shoved alono. by mam strength, much assisted, moreovei^ w^ni fill' X^-f' ^''PP'"'^ *° ^« favourable, and to canvass. The exploit was managed in a single nio-ht during which foui-score long-boats^as they woufd now be called under the momentum of many thousand men po! tent breezes, rollers, pulleys, and windlasses, slowly yet S^ellZnl^'r" way amidst songs and acclama^i.^: tir«l.oi? P .° ''Tl' ''**^'^ '«^ of Marmora, across to ±±'tZ :.^.*T!.°i the u,,per harbour, where they roTe .. „,.,„ ,,„„ ucaviur ana lai-^e:- ships of their amazed 814 MODERN HISTORY. [a.d. I46a ?rivTn f'-ft T^y^hen rapidly contrived a floating bat- y on a raft of casks and hogsheads Jinked together with ivou. Nocturnal sallies attempted to destroy tLe works but m vam Massacres of tile most relentless charaS tTe'fin^aTC'^"" .^°*^ '''^''- ^'*^>" *he w2 worn tracted into a hell of evil passions, the foremost of them bemg despair; outside raged the bitterest foes ofVCsteT .nin' ^"^ W^"^ ^"*? ^^^"^^^ ^y *^«ir efforts, '.v.bich had continued for fprty days. Breaches opened in every di- ec .on as battlements after battlements tumbled i.tolst MoslL. « "''''"T^ supported bv more than 200,000 J^o Z' ?"p ^'°™ "°°S *° ,^'^"'^^^*- ^'^'« leaders of the ^nv^f ^^"TPf^" ^eP"^Jics also rendei-ed confosion larrels" Th '^ ^^ *'l"' "^"^easonable jealousies and quairels. The emperor alone maiutuined his dignity he rejected dishonourable terms. The .ultan resolvf d to sue! ceed : promised double pay to his troops,— brought into tJi !i ' '°'?-''T *?,P^"^y *^'«^'' ^^ie« ^ith no less than seven mystical ablutions; and after consulting his asfa^logei-s an^ the stars, fixed on the 29th of May for Z i« ^ -Ti,- .^^"'"»?> «° eye and ear witness of wS passed in the imperial palace, informs us that on the pre- vious evening Constantine, having assembled his friends officials and most faithfiil commanders around him,!' pai-ed them m a solemn address for the duties and dangers of the imminent catastrophe. There was no hope bu?S their courage and swords. It was a pathetic scene. They wept they embraced, they devoted their lives, the majo- nty departed to their posts. It was then that with a few cTuroh of sf .''r*'%T" *H^ emperor resorted to the cliuich ot St. Sophia, and devoutly received, amidst many tears and prayers, the Sacrament of the Holy Commi^fon He also solemnly solicited forgiveness fi-om all or any whom he might ever liave injured; after which, indulging in a til r^^^^^^.fepose^ Je n^o»nted his horse before day- break to visit the guards and explore the motions of ie enemy. These last relipous ates had bean t«,W f!«*Kni,v. en. X.] MODERN HISTORY. 216 The drendful morning broke; and the nssnult began without further signal or command. The entire line of attack presented a twisted skein of conflict and carnage. The voice of the emperor was heard encouraging liis sol- diers to achieve by a last effort the deliverance of their country. In that fatal moment, says Gibbon, the Janizaries arose, fresh, vigorous, and invincible. The sultan himself, on a war-steed, wielded an iron mace, and directed the tide of battle. The cries of fear and agony were drowned in the martial music of drums, trumpets, and attaballs. Danger was in the front, but death in the rear. Justiniani was at length wounded, and fled through a breach in the wall. The panic spread ; the defence slackened ; the Latin auxiliaries drew back ; the ramparts were a heap of ruins ; the Ottomans against the Greeks fifty to one in number. Constantine, who had never failed for an instant, mourn- fully exclaimed, " Cannot there be found a Christian to cut off my head ?" These were his last words. He had cast ftway his purple, through fear of fulling alive into the hands of the infidels ; and by some unknown arm. he must have perished amidst the tumult. When his body had been discovered beneath a mountain of the slain, resistance and order ceased. The Turks entered sword in hand, driving the fugitives from street to street before'them in the rage of promiscuous massacre ; 2000 Christians were slaugh- tered on the spot. The siege had continued for fifty-three days altogether, so that pillage and rapine went fbr\vard withoTit check or restraint either from the private soldiers w their chieftains. Houses and convents were deserted, their trembling inhabitants flocking in untold multitudes to the sanctuary of St. Sophia. It is remarkable enough that they thronged to this asylum for their personal safety, •Ithough not long before, when an tmion between the Greek flnd L-Zin Churches had been announced from its altars, these very people pretended to abhor the place as a profane and polluted edifice. Their present confidence was founded upon a prophecy, that here an angel would come down from heaven, and destroy their enemies with celestial weapons. But Ducas, the historian, justly upbraids the oustmacy md discoi-d of his countrymen; "for," says he, 916 MODERN HIUTORr. fA.D. 1468-1627. hftd that nngel notimlly apneared— had he offered to ex- .crmmate your foes ifyoii would consent to become orthodox Catholics, even then, in that fatal moment, you would have rejected vo.n- salvation, or have dared to deceive your God " In the afternoon, Mahomet paid a visit of state to the crand cathedral, which had alreacfy been cleared of its captives. ay his command it was immediately transformed into a mosque— the crosses were thrown down— the walls, covered with pictines and mosaics, were washed and purified, that t^io whol, mifvht be reduced to a state of nakedness, wliich must be hiohly eddying: to philosophy and Protestantism. Un the same day or the ensuing: Friday, a crier ascended to the lo tiest roof, and proclaimed the public invitation wfiich Islam offers at the stated houre of prayer. An iM' ."'•«> poached, and the sultan himself perfoi-med the oHice ot supp hcation and thanksgiving- on that hijrh and magnihcent altar where the Christian mysteries lad so recently been celebrated before the last of the Constantines. m the Atmeidan his eye had been attracted by the twisted column of the three serpents; and as a trial of his strength he shattered with his iron battle-axe the under jaw of Sne ot these monsters, which the Turks imagined to be the Idols or talismans of the capital. The amount of spoil in the hnal poverty of the empire has been valued at 4,000,000 ot ducats ; an amount small both in value and interest, as contrasted with the hidden treasures of silver, jewels, and gold,— the precious curiosities of art,— the decorations of that miraculous dome which, nine centuries since, the proud em ot Justmian had consecrated, and which his successors loved to compare with the firmament of heaven, the vehicle ot the Chenibim, and the throne of divine gloiy,- to say nothing of the lore of literature accumulated m monasteries, libraries, and private collections. The conqueror must have surely experienced no ordinary emotions, when, on enterinjr those imperial abodes, where a hundred emperors had reigned and revelled, but which a few hours had stript of the pomp of royalty, he repeated an elegant disticS of Pei^ian poetry,-" The spider hath woven her web in the gorgeous palaces, and the owl hath wailed his watchsonjr on the towers of Afrasiab !" * CH. X.] MODERN HISTORY. 217 The corpse of Constantine had been recoffnised by the g-oMpn eagles embroidered on his shoos. It was decently inferred amidst the lamentations of his late subjects ; nor is the accotmt very credible, which mentions, that the im- perial licad was sent round through the oriental regions of Asia Minor, Persia, and Arabia, as a token of triumph. The fallen metropolis was re-peopled, and adorned with new mosques, minarets, groves, and fountains. The families of Coninenus and l^aheolog-us gradually wasted away on the obscure thrones of Greece and Trebizond for a very few years, and ultimately disappeared altogether, in the sha- dowy titles claimed by some of the reigning houses in Italy, France, or Spain. The despot Thomas of the Morea con- veyed the head of St. Andrew the A.postle to the Vatican, a scrvire not to be despised, and the solitary one which he was ever accused of rendering to mankind. All Europe was moved, as well it might, when the intelligence spread that the Crescent had displaced the Cross on the dome of St. Sophia. Greece and the whole of Western Asia ac- knowledged the Ottoman sceptre. Selim I. afterwards secured the subjection of Moldavia, and still later that of E{2;ypt and Syria. Damascus and Jeioisalem were the prizes of his victory at Dabek, a.d. 1616, when he over- threw not merely the Mamalouks but the titular successor of the Prophet. He thus became Chadim al Haramaim, or Keeper of the Sacred Places ; and through him the present Grand Sigruor is in a religious, as well as secular sense, the Supreme Head of the orthodox Moslem. Sehm I. was succeeded by his son, Solyman the Magnificent, a.d. 1620, who acquired Erzeroum, and a large portion of Georgia, besides defeating the Knights of St. John in the island of Rhodes, and the army of King Lewis of Hun- gary at Mohacs, a.d. 1527, whereby the crowns of St. Stephen and Bohemia idtimately passed into the Austrian family of Hapsburg. With a single exception, a period of nine reigns, from the elevation of Othman to the dissolu- tion of Solyman, is occupied by a rare series of warlike and active princes; the princi{)le of hereditary descent was universally recognised, and instead of vanishmg into anility, or even political annihiiation, in three or four generationsj A-'l'- H!;!^ SI 8 MonisRir HISTORY. [A.D. 1617-1C98. tile Ottoman succession has now suh^Ut^ri f«, av« ^ • and a lialf TnT.v;ci, a i- °""?'stecl tor fare centimes ' tenZr*!,^ • Y®^«."Pon the temtorial surface of Chris quest of Rhodes: t t&l:^ulnm,mMS:^: Onto " D Hjf i"''""! g"™'! the g,™d battle of D^w of T,',^!, ' '^'°'" *''° '*^«' °f "W* the naval thebwl^H "'"""?'.'? "" development at Stamboi: the T^tol. l*^°°""°1 ""° " ""^ dominant soldiery' frfcr , "f °»ws'n"?. himself the slave of slave. .m^uisned there could never be any amr'ifamation- »«to •ftu-s of rehgion, the hvo nations simply abhoS ZX g Si "bw wTr" 'T^-^i" -f^-h - wS MSu^„i. ■ • V "■* '■"''« =!»«"'" °f a nomaiBc horde •ntagomsue m its natim to the demands of modSmoivSS CH. X.] MODERN HISTORY. sie tion. The Turkish tongue, intermixed with innumerable Arabic, Pei-sic, and Zagay words, has different chai-acters for the use of differtnt classes. The vowels have no cha- racters at all, and the thirty-three consonants only seventeen, to express their extraordinary varieties. European litera- tu)-e, therefore, could exercise little or no influence on the Ottomans. Bagdad and Candia were their ultimate acqui- sitions of any importance, as Amurath IV. was their last great padisha with regard fx) ability; and he died, worn out by intemperance, a.d. 1640. His nephew, Mahomet IV., m the person of his grand vizier, received a decisive over- throw on the banks of the Raab from the imperial general Montecuculi, which led to the treaty of Temeswar, a.d. 1644, disastrous to Turkey, scarcely less so than the subsequent one of Carlowitz after the victoiy of Prince Eugene at Zenta, A.D. 1698; preceded, as tliat had been fourteen years before, by the retreat of Kara Mustapha fiom the walls of Vienna at the approach of John Sobieski, Two circumstances occurred providentially favourable to Europe when slie might have had most to dread from the consolidation of Ottoman frowess : the first was a considerable check on the side of *ersia, which, escaping from Mongolian thraldom, and pass- ing through the usual course of Asiatic revolutions, settled down under Ishmael Sophi, about a.d, 1500, attainmg its greatest influence under Shah Abbas, a.d. 1585-1628. The Sophis belonged to the sect of Ali, and were therefore opposed to the Turks with all the acrimony of religious as well as military rivalship. The other fortunate coincidence was the introduction of that balance of power throughout Christendom, which constitutes so distinctive a feature of modera policy. We shall see how this celebrated system ■rose in the course of the next chapter. 220 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1282-1421. CHAPTER XL A.D. 1300-1500. '""" "" 7; «"-- - -«oPK rnnovonour xn. «>„,. wanis Charles of Anion f if. ''^"i^e^ce as manifested to- ■He had extifg^ stei w'ithot?^"' ^?'^'' ^^^t. Lout henstauffens,So selTl^^^^^^^ *^« °dio"s HoT have passed into Ws ownVo"om ^°^")T^^^^ had /oj.n.ed a partial Iqutr'to t^f^^ «f Hapsburg while the Siciliah VesnersZTL' ^ang-erous policy, be ever forgotten. X re^S^i^Yn^'''"" *? ^'^^^' *« Naples and"tm,,^itt"d ^f^^^^^^^^^ realm of n., had married Mary, the sistPr ni^f 7 ?1 ^^'^^ Charles Hnngarv, throue-h J]^inh ^. °^ ^'adislaus, king- of witho^utiLurtKr^wnsofX^^^^^ them fiefs of the hZ See hF^lT^. ^"T^^' ^°*h ^^ with each other. An-evin l'.! ^^ ^trangely entangled fourteenth centur/acCredT„d V" ^^^*> ^^^^'^^hout the pies, Hunffarv DalSio q i ^ governed Provence, JVa- &o Wh^iJaffaSllaS:^^^^^^^ ?"°^*^^' ^^^ ^olS. ritories since the time V rL?l '^"^ "^T extensive ter- rdons been but unS urdr^^^'*. ^^^ their domi- ability, it would haCL^mee^^^^^ ^w °^ commanding powei- in Europe. On Xdecel ^}t^^^ *^^ ?^««test vived Maiy, Cement V At a, • ^ of Charles, wlo sur. of St. Steptn rcJarob^rt ^"!f °^^^«rded ie sceptre sentative of Marv • hf^S ^ p-a^dson and legal repre- of Charles IlTaTci ?hl%I '*'.*^.? ^^^««* ^ivingTon the two elder Uhtchtle^^^^^^^^ 1306; robert, and Louis, who St J?]? ' ^he father of Cha' cead. Robert reined wenH«-^?^^^^^^^ '^^«' ^^^re the ascendency of the Gielfb ^^^V "'"'f^ "maintained "eially inseparable from fw 5"^ P^^P^^ influence, ge- usuipei-s m Lombai-dy, and the two CH. XI.J MODERN HISTORY. S21 emperoi-s, Henry VII. and Louis of Bavaria. No male issue survived Robert, whose crown descended to his erand- daughter Joanna, espoused while a child to her cousin Andrew, son of Cliarobert the Hungarian monarch. She was imagined to have murdered him, a.d. 1343, thouo-h she was pronounced innocent, on her solemn trial before i;ope Clement VI. Her comparatively undisturbed admi- nistration of thirty years followed ; yet remaining childless by tour husbards, it soon became an important speculation as to who should succeed her. Charies Duke of Durazzo had married her niece ; and after the queen had been de- tlironed, and sniothered with a pillow m prison, he consi- dered his government secure, under the title of Charles UL, A.D. 1378. He was then tempted in an evil hour to accept the throne of Hungary, which terminated in his assassination, a.d. 1385. He left an heir, Lladislaus, ten years of age, against whom Louis II., Duke of Aniou waged a civil war for Provence and Naples, claiming both the county and kingdom as bequests from the late Joanna. Ihe toraier he contrived to retain, but the latter, after various fluctuations of fortune, he ultimately lost. Lladis- laus grew up to display remarkable energy incmshing the potent feudal aristocracy of his states, which unhappily emboldened him to strike at the patrimony of St. Peter Rome itself fell into his hands, just as spoU is seized by a robber. His decease, before he could attack either ^q~ rence or Lombardy, transferred the tb-one to an elder sister, Joanna II., a licentious princess, under whose feeble sway anarchy rode rampant over the south of Italy. In A.D. 1421 the leaders of two factions were Sforza Atten- dolo, the great constable, and Gianni Caraccioli, a royal mmion ; these brigands sharing between them whatever their mistress might have to bestow, and the first of them callmg m a pretender to the crown, in another Duke of Anjou, Louis III. After many varieties of conflict and devastation, and the nomination by the queen, after his death, of lus brother Regnier for her heir, in lieu of Al- phonso, Kmg of Ara^on and Sicily, whom Caraccioli had 8ugg;ested, and in which suggestion she had for the time acq-tiieocea, — tne Jmai tei-mination turned in favour of Al- 222 aroDKBW kistory. [a.d. 1468-W. phonso. This sovereign, suraamed the Magnanimous, perman«i% founded the Aragonese dynasty of Neapo- litan and Sicihan monarcha. His illegitimate son, FeiSi- nand, on the demise of his father, a.d. 1458, had to Btrnggle hard for his succession ; yet it came to be ffene- rally acknowledged, a.d. 1464. Henceforward, for at least ft generation, the hrm grasp of an able hand upon the helm of affau;s kept the state afloat; but it was at the perpetual sacrifice of good faith towards his subjects. The nation was agam ready for revolt against himself or his sonAlphonso; and Ferdinand is supposed to have died through apprehensions of the tempest about to break upon ms tamdy, m the approaching invasion of the liing of Meanwhile, during the period when Rudolph of Haps- burg and the crafty Charles of Anjou were laying the toundations of secular gi-audeur for their respective houses. - others began also to emerge from obscurity into greatness with proportionable strides. The Counts of N^sau de- rived their descent from Otlio, the brother of that Conrad who obtained the diadem of Germany on the extinction of the Carlovmgians, just before Henry the Fowler at the commencement of the tenth centurj^. Adolnlms of this Imeage, or at least that branch of it bearing the name of S iT* 1^ S^^^f^. ^ ^^« «'"P^''« 0" *he death of Kudolph. Albert of Austria succeeded him, and was assassinated a.d. 1308, after a series of successfiil affgres- fflons upon Meissen and Thuringia, as well as upon numlrous states, which effectually excluded his posterity from the imperial thi-one for four generations. Henry Count of lAixemburg succeeded Albert, and also obtained the crown ot Uohemia for his son John, who had married the sister ot the last representative of its ancient sovereigns. Henry vn., having crossed the Alps with no fi-iendly views for Italy, was poisoned at Pisa, a.d. 1313. Lewis of Bava- na was elected m his place the following yearj but the cfaiejs of the house of Luxemburg, coafescine- with the Oriielts, effectually counteracted the Bavarian familv of Wittelsbach; notorious as the latter has always been for ite intwtine quan-els and divisions. 0« the deoeaso of en. XI.] MODERN HISTORY. 228 Lewis, A.B. 1847, Charles, son and heii- of John kin? of liohemia was universally recognised as King of the Ro- mans and Emperor of Germany. It appeared to be his chiet object, during an administration of thirty years, to increase the powei- and splendour of his family, by obt^n- mg from the alienable domains and privileges the greatest possible amount of money and other advantages. He had invested large sums in procw-iug the diadem, and therefore telt justified, as he thought, ii making whatever he could out ot It. He was careful also to support such a degree of external pomp as seemed consistent with the majesty of his unpenal rank and position. An almost felicitous medio- crity ran through bis entire character. On his journey mto Italy, he sold fi-eedom to some of the towns ; and in- dependent power, on the other hand, to certain tyrants WHO domineered over and oppressed considerable districts m that country. With liim, it was simply to pay and !!* ^6 Fomised, moreover, never to visit again the garden of Europe, without permission from the Pope, and never to spend a night in Rome. To Charles W. the mpire was mdebted For the Golden Bull, which regulated the election of foture emperors, a.d. 1356. The number ot electors was absolutely restrained to seven; and at Metz. in the mai-ket-place, a dramatic entertainment was eiven to Illustrate once for all their precise character and fiinc- tions. Prelates, prmces, and magistrates attended on the splendid occasion. The emperor and empress, in their imperial robes, having heai-d a solemn mass, repaired to the sumptuous platfom raised for their accommodation. Amidst universal acclamations the archbk-^Ani, of Mav- ence, Treves, and Cologne, as the three Arch-chancellors ot Germany, France and Italy, appeared on horseback, each having a seal depending from his neck, and a letter m his rigbt hand. These were followed by the four secular ejectors, aU magnificently mounted on caparisoned chargers: first the Duke of Saxony of the Wittenbom-c- branch, with a sUvei- peck measure Ml of oats, as arclS marshal of the empire ; and as it was his dutv to rec-ulete thejroceedings, he alighted, and an-anged fiis coUe°igues 22 MusjT rigav ^mm. ihtw tjie Ua^gptve ot Urauilen- 224 MODERW HI8TORT. [a.d. 1306-1419. bui-g., dismounting- presented the sovereign and his con- sort with a gro den basin of water, and an ewer of the same precious metal. The Count Palatine of the Rh ne in e^' ofTn°^^r'"^*^" ''''''^ "P *b« viands on a service of gold; after which a nephew of Charles, to represent a^S r "^ ^?^'^'^' ^^''i ^' «"" ««rn'er of 2 2 a golden flagon of wme, out of v/hich into a cup of ffold lie poured a suitable draught, and presented ft to S emperor. Charles IV., beSg 'himself king of Bohemia aggrandised it to the utmost.^ Having acquired BranTen' cession m a.d. 1373, he annexed that electorate, with which he had invested his own sons, to the Bohemian monaTchy. so that It seemed as though he had a certain prospect of always securing a second vote in the interests of Km ly SLT'*?;'^; T^'^ "J ^'-^^'^ ^hi«h he great^ eS: hshed with handsome building-s, and a somewhat cele- brated univemty. Silesia also^igmented hiTpo sessSS both as to territory and wealth; For he valuefthe S omte as much as the former, having never been able to Sd bv hiit Tf^'J"^' '' ^°^^^ ^« had once been wrested by his butcher for an unliquidated pecuniary de- mand. He had obtained the imperial succession fo^r his i;l.^ jV .f' • ^^^^> "^^^ nevertheless deposed and imited to the government of his hereditary domEsU ^ 1400 Frederick Duke of Brunswick was chosen t to his place, and murdered almost immediately by a nriv^^ ^ enemy. Robert the Count Palatine, and jJdochus^ M^ grave of Moravia, a prince of LuxemWg, Z nephew^f Charles IV. each wore the coveted iniiiliia, one after th« wt";t" 1 ilh^rr^ *^y°"°^«^ broth% Wen" many, ^..d. 1411. This personage, so prominent in his ^^ tory, was already soverei^ of Hunffary Salmafift «S Bosnia, through L mairil^e with Z^of Anfof eldes^ granddaughtei. of Charoberl, on the death of te/ fathf; iewis II Eight yeai-s after' his election to the empS^ he vvencesiaus. iTvom the Pope he received the diadem, to MODERN HISTORY. 226 OH. XI.] aU which digaities he added the sovereignty over Mora- via, Lausitz, Silesia . and i^randenbiug-. Cahimnv lias connected with his name a violation of safe-conduct^ as it has been called, in permitting the execution of John Hns-^, at the Council of Constance; and for eighteen years the adherents of that enthusiast, under the blind John Zisca and Procopius, both able fanatics, bo shook and thwarted his administration, that it was only for a few months prior to his decease that he could exchange the sword for the sceptre. Zisca, although totally without sight, has won the fame of having invented the art of modern fortification. Joy his skill he rendered a famous mountain, near the Bo- hemian capital, on which he imposed the title of Thabor an impregnable intrenchment. Having perished throuo-h the plague in a.d. 1424, the skin of their deceased captain was stretched by his followers upon a drum, that its sound and associations might awaken their valour, amidst the horrors of a midnight foray, or open onslaught. The sect of the Cahxtines, who were desirous of participating in the chalice of the Holy Communion, even whilst remaining amongst the laity, arose out of this rebellion. From the battle of Nicopolis against the Turks, Sigismond nar- rowly escaped ; and so poor was he, beneath the weight of 80 many honours, that he sold the electorate of Branden- burg for 400,000 marks, to the wise and warlike Count of JVumberg, Frederick of HohenzoUern. Another Frede- nek, Margrave of Meissen, purchased for a quarter of that sum the electoral hat of Saxony. The hereditary estates of Hapsburg, which the Swiss had seized for the imperial use and benefit, and under his own order, the destitute Sigismond felt also compelled to alienate. Bohemia generally manifested a mixture of the elective and hereditary principles : the sceptre passing, in ordinary circumstances, to the nearest heii- of the roval blood, un- less for some strong reason. Feudally dependent upon the empire, it required an investiture for eaeh new monarch • who possessed, as we have seen, the lOght of exercisino- °^%.. *^® ^®^®° elective suffrages in return The daughter of Sigismond, by a second marriage, became the consort of Albert Dnlffl nf Aiiefri" wVio aiinAfxrs^i^A ^.u- _.. ,i . — i„y , ^-ittCvv'taca, vu iiic SlltJIJgXii SSft MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1440-1500. of tliis alliance, liis imperial father-in-law in Huoffarv Dying:, however, two years aftenvards, and leS J[s relieving BelZg'Tn 1^ T" h^'"""'^ "'' «°d aftPr tii^ a]!F ' ^^^"- I^^unniades expired soon Joyal nil arp""'"'' n?y/°"o^ed moreoE^er by iSs 3 rP".»^ Pi-ague. Matthias Coi-vinus. son of f hp feZtthZt^'.'''' '''''' '""'''^'^^^ adomV?he c own haddlSifrrm'^i^?^^^^^^^^^^ h.s posthumous represeftativellX^^ was dected L^r ?l ^^^t-^%> « private nobltt; boarff beinff extiL fL tTY • ^'^^.^ouse of Luxem- Uladi8k,.r^c^ f ^ • . Bohemian diet pitched upon brotl.er'„f Charii'v l^S'* of Austria, the voimger ■Duigtmay and Aries, had become blended with th^ n ■-i— MODERN HISTORY. 227 CR. XI.] did also the ecclesinsticnl foimdntions of St. Gnll, Spcken- gm, nnd others. Every vnriety of feiidnlism long" ling-ered and nestled among- the Alps, or around Bei-ne, FriUoing-, Basil, Zm-ic, and their ricli i)lains or valleys. Albert, the son of Rndolnh, count of Hapshurg:, afterwards emperor, was their earliest oppressor ; and the confederacy, wliich emancipated the cantons, may he dated a.d. 1308. The victory of Semnach, seven-and-seventy yeai-s later, con- solidated their liberties ; and their burghei-s and peasants must be numbered with the principal restorers of Greek and Roman tactics, w hich place the strength of annies in a steady mass of infantry. Their absolute independence, howevei-, was not politically recognised or mtified until the reign of Maximilian, in a.d. 1500. The House of Savoy, we may also obsei-ve, had foimd its ancestoi-s and oldest possessions along; the lakes of Annecy and Geneva. Throug-h the marriBg;e of his parents, Odo and Adelaide heiress of Ivrea, Count Amadeus was enabled to combine all the Lower Vallais, from St. Maurice to Chillon, with the district of Aosta, Tui-in, and the country of Piedmont, nnd a number of foiti-esses reaching* to the MediteiTonean Sea. Commanding" the entrances into the passes of the Alps, liis descendants acquired nearly the entire Pays do Vaud, aggrandising themselves from time to time at the expense of both Guelfs and Ghibellines, until from Charles IV., a.d. 1365, tlje Green Count of Savoy received an imperial vicegerency extending over twelve dioceses; to which the ducal dignity was added by Sigismond, a.d. 1416. It is remarkable, that all the i-uling princes of th'j family fought at the head of theu* own aimies; which may partially explain the strong tie of attachment which has ever subsisted between them and their native subjects. Their policy has been as profound as their valour. Among their neiglibom-s were the princes of Montsemi., deriving an origin from the Greek emperors, with whom the House of Savoy formed matrimonial connections, securing the succession for themselves. In the middle of the fifteenth century they established, as a domestic hw, tlie right of primogeniture and tire indivisibility of their dominions. "From, a younger branch of the House of Upfwr Bur« ^r 8S8 11 MOOKRf HISTORY. [a.D. 1440-1607. gundy descended a family with fortunes somewhat analogous to tliose of Savoy, only m another part of Europe,— the lords of Chalons, afterwards heirs to the Prince of Orang-e, and ancestors of an illustrious heiress, who brought all the estates of the Chalons-Orange lineage into the Houpo of Nassau. We must except, however, the canton or county of Neufchatel, in Switzerland, over which the representa- tives of a female stock, derived fi om the ancient dukes of Longueville, were suzerains for two centuries and a half; until, on the decease of ihe last without issue, the citizens declared themselves in favour of Frederick king of Pnissia, A.D. 1707, also descended from the family of Orana-e. Frederick the Burffrave of Niimberb had purchased, "as we have seen, the Alarches of Brandenburg- from the im- poverished Sigismond, whilst in many other ways he proved nimself amon^ the most able ancestoi-s of those potentates who founded in modem times their regal prowess at Berlin, and illustrated the Prussian dynasty of Hohenzollem. The son of this Frederick, a.b. 1440, sowed the seed of future pretensions to Poland, which partially his posterity realised under Frederick the Great. That kingdom in the four- teenth and fifteenth centuries undement a variety of revolutions incident to the wretched form of its const' tution and government. The ancient race of the Piasts expired A.D. 1370, after a duration of 500 years, in the person of the celebrated Casiniir, a conqueror and legislator, the founder of the university at Cracow. He was succeeded by the son of his sister, Louis of Anjou, king- of Hungary, and whose father had given up Red Russia to Poland for the prospect of the succession. Sigismond had manied the elder of his two daughters, who were his only childi-en, obtaining thereby the Hungarian crown, which oiight to have carried with it, according to compact, that of Poland also : but it did not ; for Hedwiga, the young-er princess, retained the Sarmatian throne, and placed on it, by her side, Jagellon Grand Duke of Lithuania, who, together with all his subjects, adopted the Christian faith, a.d. 1380. This alliance combined under a single sceptre, noc only the former possessions of the Piasts and the principality of which Wilna is the capital, but also Volhvnia. in addition MODERN HISTORY. 9S9 CH. XT.] to Red Russia. The eldest offsprinf^ of the first Jac-ellon. by a ourth marnag-e, was the young- king Uladislaus, who StHa CasimiV "'^' ^^""^ "f ^""^a^T revolting- to struggle withXlSTonfc E^^^^^^^^ Polish Prussia, but a feudal superiority also over the re- mainder of the Priissi an teiTitory. After his dissolution m A.D. 1492, his third son, John Albert, was elected the following year, the eldest Uladislaus being king of Bo- hemia and Hungary. On the decease of John Albert, A.D. lOUl, without issue, the choice descended upon Alex- ander, fourth son of Casimir; who dying a.d. 1507, trans- 1( rred his dignity to his elder brother Sig-ismond, the second son of his father Casimir. No wonder was it, that by this time the House of Jagellon began to excite considerable attention, it not jealousy, throughout Europe in general, and Germany m particular. Its sovereigns had inter' mamed with Russian princesses. Just as the Greek empire was sinking m the south, the Czar Ivan Basilovitch, equallv immersed m religious schism, was emancipating his conn- trymen in the north from their thraldom of two centuries to the yoke of the Tartars, a.d. 1462. He endeavoured to enkindle some spirit of national energy and industry — began to overawe his neighbours,- bestowed much en^ com-agement on the commerce of the Hanseatio League,— claimed Smolensko and Pleskow as his own, and concluded atreaty of partition with the Danish monarch Christiern. against Sweden. The race of Woden had expired in that region long before; and in the fourteenth century, the old .u^A f"^ J^y?^ genealogies ended in Margaret, usually styled the Semiramis of the Baltic; who, after defeating, Jith the coura-e and genius of her forefathers, Albert of Mecklenburg, sovereign of Sweden, compelled him to abandon his pretensions, and united in her own proner pei-son the three Scandinavian kingdoms, by the grand Pa- cification of Calmar, a.d. 1398. Leaving- no children at her death, m a.d. 1412, her cousin and successor, Erich the Pomeranian, after an administration of t^venty-seven veara. Tv« ciuuu ana aetnroned, when Denmark invited Christo^ 880 MOOBHN HISTORY. [a.d. 1430-94. )hcr the bavarian, a.d. 1430-48, wlio wns nlso ncknow- edged by Sweden nnd Nonvny. Tho Ho.ise of Ol.leu- biir}5-, on the decease of Chiistopher, obtninml tlie united ci-owns of Denmark and Nonvay, in the poison ofClnis- tiei-n the Fu-st. He and his ffrnndson, the second of the Mrae name, contended witli Cliarles Canuteson and Steno btin-e for the Swedisli prize ; a contest lastinjr for seventy ycais, to the a^e of Gustavus Vasa. The auperioritv and covetoujness of the Czars of Muscovy thus beaan to an,)ear at an early period. ' ' Ivan, among-st other symptoms of civihsntion, opened an intercourse with the German emperoi-s. On the decease of Sigismond, a.d. 1438, Albert l/. of Austria, who had marned Ins only djiughter, was elected to the imi>erinl diadem, as well as the thi-ones of Hungary nnd I3ohemia. ills leraovnl b;5r dysentery, within a twelvemonth, led to tne election of the next surviving- representative of the Austrian family, Frederick III., of the Styrinn line. 1 hi-oughout a pi-otracted and uninteresting- i-eicTi of iiltv- thi-oe yeara, a.d. 1440-93, he acquired tlie sSrname, or rather nickname, of the Pacific, studied chemistry and a.stroIog-y when he should have been governino- his sub- ]ects, and from low living and slothful huhits contrncted an nicer m his leg, win h led to amputatitm. Yet he lived to witness the extinction of all his colluteml relatives,— to see Ins son Maximilian nominated as his successor an- pointed heir to his cousin of the Tyrol, and espouM d to the heiress .f Burgundy,— and to ieclare, when lie helield jus own limb cut off, that a healtliy peasant was more to be envied than nn infirm nnd mutilated monnrch. Yet he liad the sound sense of religion in a sufficient degTee to add, tlint the greatest good which can befal anv man, is a happy departure out of this life; in other words, to suffer here rather than hereafter. The position of his successor was miserably uncomfortable. Seated on a throne 'of thorns, he had to maintain the highest secular rank in the u ^l^^ *'*^ smnllest means. His style in historv is that of Maximilian the Moneyless; vet it was under'his i-eign that the European nations began to comprehend the necessity of attending to a political balance of power en. XI.] MODERN nrSTOBY. S31 for the security of the weaker nfrninst the stronirer iro- remmentti. 'flie expedition of Churle." VIII. king- oi France, a.d. 1494, against Nanles, piodnced tlie nmtii- monml alliance of his son Philip the Fair with Juanna, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, the Catholic sove- reigns of Spain. Towards the termination of the thirteenth century, the Christian portion of the wninsula was ruled over hy the four kings of Navarre, Aiagon, Castile and Leon, and Portugal. Ferdinand was the son of John II., who had inherited Aragon and Valencia, Cataloni.i, the Balearic Isles, and Sicily, from his brother Alphonso the Wwe. Isabella was sister to Henry IV., the last monarch of Castile and Leon, with Murcia and its dependencies. The happy nuptials of the Amgonese prince with the Castihan princess, a.d. 1469, blended into one common interest mord than three-foui-ths of those fertile rcions between the Bay of Biscay and tlio Mediterranean, '''i'lie conquest of Grenada, wliieh alone remained to the Moors, was accomphshed a.d. 1492, seven hundred and seventy- eight years after ' a- Him imiption in a.d. 714. Naules and NuvaiTe qiuckly followed in the wake of Fenlinand's astute policy. Portugal, moreover, was diverted from acting agpi«e8sively against Castile by the more alhuing development of her maritime and commercial greatness. Her career from the twelfth century had been, upon the whole, u culminating one. Sancho el Poplador, a.d. 1 185, advanced with unshaken courage in tlie footsteps of liis father, the fii-st king. His gi-andson, Alphonso III., as- sisted to complete the acquisition oft! e Algarvn« At -i still later period, Denis, a.d. 1279-131?5, prevailed on his more powerful Christian neighbours to forego and sui- render every vestige of paramount supremo >y over the smaUer country. Both powers zealoisly supported the Church; and received fiom Rome various favour? and in- dulgences in retura. The reig-n of Denis shed lustre and tehcity over his land and age. Pedro imitated his grand- sire, A.D. 1357-67 ; but his only grand-daughter havin"- espoused John king of Castile, and male representativel felling, the nationality and insulation of the Portuguese . affam SAamflW in Haniroit A -n I.QfiQ A* i.1.: Kt ItiCuI j«ino S82 MODERN HISTORY. [a.d. 1888-1496. ture, John, an illegitimate son of Pedro, and Grant^ Master of the Military and Ecclesiastical Order of Aviz, placed him- self at the head of the patriotic party, as against the Gas- tilians. The States at Coimbra elected him to the crown, backed by the voice of the people, from the Minho to the Alg^rves ; their choice being mrthermore ratified by the splendid victory of Aljubarotta, a.d. 1385. The reign of Don John lasted forty-eight years. His armies conouered Ceuta beyond the Straits; while his third son, Henry, resided on the coasts of the ocean, and by his discoveries gave the first impulse to the establisiiment of a new order of things throughout the world. Under his auspices the geo- graphy of the globe was explored upon scientific principles. Madeira was reached a.d. 1419, by Zai'co, who found on the island an Englishman named Machem, or Markham, diiven thither and cast away in a storm. Cabral landed upon the two Azores, dedicated to the Holy Virgin and St. Michael. Terceira, Fayal, St. Thomas, and the ver^e of Afiica as far south as Congo, were successively examined. Alphonso v., grandson of Don John, defeated the Moors of Fez, took the Alcassar of Cegu and Arzilla, entered the gates of Tangiers, and laid trains of influence and cir- cumstances for those coming after him; which enabled them to investigate the almost forgotten paths to fame and fortune of the Carthaginians, the Pharaohs, and the Ptolemies. At length Vasco de Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and pushed his adventiu-ous navigation to India, a.d. 1497-8. The Portuguese established them- selves on the shores of Malabar; made themselves masters of Goa, Malacca, and Ormuz ; and monopolised the rich trade of the Orient. Nor was Spain behindhand in the com- mercial race. The voyages of Christopher Columbus and Americus Vespucius, followed up as they were by the ad- ventures of Cortez and his other countrymen, unveiled new empires and fresh fields of enterprise for merchant heroes and European governments. Before the discovery, however, of the western world, Don John II. had suc- ceeded his father, a.d. 1481. He married his only lawful son to IsaboHa, the eldest daughter of the Spanish sove- reijms : but the young prince dying before himself, she was MODERN HISTORY. 23a en. xi.J inducod, though reluctantly, to enter into second nuptials with Emanuel, duke of Beija, who ascended the throne of i^fe^^i^® ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ without lawful issue, A.r>. 1495. Such is a rapid sketch of the state and re- lations ot the Iherian peninsula, when the attack of France UDon Naples eifected that matrimonial alliance, of which Lharles V. was the offspring-, together with his brother l '"' """'""^ "^«^ br the domineering, and la^vlls T^^f !. ^i^^?^^'"J'«^•!>-»■ hj the domineering rdllr ''PP-^''*^ ^^'''" «^^'" harboui' 4 followed thSu^liSf JC^^^ C'-^talans, sfie followed the c^SouTexS^^ '' ^'^^ ^'-^^^^-^^ a^Ioan,Jhrou,hJar,e sur^^^^^^ ^ ..... .a« puoao revenues were pledg^cf fbr"repaym2l' ''XT^ S86 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1476-98!i Corsica still remained in theii' poss€?ssion ; but the Genoese were pulled down by the violence of their own parties, the Adoi-ni and Pregosi. Like a pendulum, they vibrated be- tween France and Lombardy ; and in a.d. 1488, the Duke of Milan became sovereion, with an Adomo holding office as his vicegerent. Galeazzo Sforza had succeeded his father Francesco j and by his debauchery, tyranny, and iqsolence, having excited a conspiracy against him, in which he was assassinated, a.d. 1476, his infant offspring, Gian Galeazzo Sforza, nominally assumed the government, in the person of his mother, the Duchess Bonne of Savoy ; although she had soon to withdraw from the regency, and yield to the brother of her husband, Ludovico Sforza, com- monly called the Moor, a.d. 1480. This monster, after proclaiming the majority of his nephew, usm-ped an ab- solute control over his inheritance ; finding, however, when he had done so, that one crime requires to be completed by another. He therefore secretly contrived to undermine his constitution with a slow poison ; but standing in fear " of Ferdinand of Naples, into whose family the injured prince had married, he excited the King of France to revive the Angevin rights upon that realm, and attempt the conquest of at least one of the two Sicilies, a.d. 1493. Charles VIII. was only too ready to listen to liis sug- gestions. Venice meanwhile was not to be overlooked, since so much might turn on the part she would be disposed to take in the struggle. Until the middle of the foiuteenth century, she had remained contented without acquiring territory in Italy. Her solitary possession there was the Dogato, a narrow strip of sea-coast bordering on her lagunes. Even the Treviso, theu- earliest annexation, was lost in the unfortunate war of the Chioggia, and not re- gained until A.D. 1389. But upon the death of Gian Ga- leozzo Visconti, a.d. 1404, when his principality went to pieces, the Republic, in order to keep down an obnoxious rival in the family of Carrara, reduced Padua and Verona, and extorted a cession of Vicenza from the Milanese. From these dominions, besides a million of ducats per ftlinilTin in />niTi. aha Aremr naavlv as mii/>Vi mnna in valiiiiMi: «*«^».»«v CH. xr.] MODERN HISTORY. 237 cloths with almost incredible profits realised upon her manufactures and commerce. Her house rental in the capital was 500,000 ducats annually; and Sanuto allows tor the whole about fourteen years' purchase, as the prin- cipal thus represented in the ordinary metropolitan resi- dences. Her trade at this time employed 3000 merchant vessels, protected by foity-three galleys of war, and 300 smaller ships, manned by 1 9,000 sailors. They soon added to her continental domains Fiiuli, with a portion of Istria, at vbe top of the Adriatic, tog-ether with Brescia and Ber- Ramo, to the river Adda in Lombardv. Yet tue mass of trus teiTitorial power depended upon the Condottieri of tne clay. Ihe hrst Sforza, among the most remarkable of these mercenaries, found a competitor for his military ser- vices in Braccio di Montone, a noble Peruvian. Oriennallv a peasant in the village of Cotignuola, the former resisted the latter, both m their own generation and their respec- tive countries The next age even earned on the contest. 1 heir descendants or representatives assumed the prowess ot sovereign princes. Francesco Sforza obtained from l^ope Eugenms IV. the March of Ancona, as a fief of the Holy See, which materially helped forward his subsequent succfjss at Milan, and his extensive influence in the south ot i^aly, A D. 1450. His sword had been generally at the service of Venice, although he also contrived that it should never fail to carve out his own fortunes. In the Levant, at a rather later period, the Lion of St. Mark culminated! A lady, named Catherine Cornaro, tlie flower of one of the senatonal famihes, had espoused James II., sovereio-n ot Cyprus, the natural offset of Poitiers Lusignan; Char- lotte the legitimate heiress, dying in poverty at Rome, and transfen-mg her title to the Dukes of Savoy, who had previous claims on the crown of a matrimonial nature, and who still style themselves kings of Cyprus r,nd Jerasalem. un the death of her consort and their only child, the Bu- centaur of the Republic brought away Catharine Cornaro, recognised as gueen of the island; when she, after her safe return liome formally handed it over to her countrymen, resolved as they were to acquire it, under the pretext of pfotscung u irom tne Turks. Cypnis thus cwne under ^'^^ MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1490-4 the standard of Venice. The Morea, Ne^ropont, and (oeek provinces, had indeed passed to the Ottomans foi- a s(\asoii; and Jier commerce with India, throug-h Eeypt, was about to receive its death-blow from the adventurous energ-ies o' the Portuguese navigators. Still her revenues and political weight placed her in the foremost rank of at least Italian powers; ovei-shadowing as she did the lesser princes m her neighbourhood, such as the dukes of Fer- raia, Modena, Reggio, and Mantua ; not to mention Ur- bino, and some otliers. Her statesmen carefully watched the approaching tempest. We find them employed in oc- casionally estimating the relative forces which tlie various nations of Europe could use for offensive or defensive pur- poses. They conceived that after the fall of Constanti- nople, France might be able to raise 30,000 men-at-arms, and employ half that nun-ber on any foreign expedition. TJieir own army they ratea at 10,000 , the ling-s of Scot- land, jNonvay, and the Duke of Axilan, they thought might support about a similar array each of them the ci-owns of Spain and England they deemed equal to l-i-ance ;^ the Duke of Sav-y might maintain 8000 sol- diers; tue King of Portugal and the Pope each about OUUU ; the empire, upon a pressure, could possibly call out ten times that amount, as ould also Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary together, and even more. These calcula- tions ot Sanuto are curious, and mark the more extensive views that were now taken as to the resources and disposi- tions oi the different sections of Chriitendom. The survey usually terminates with a sort of fearful glance at Turkey Yet the master of politics, at the close of the fifteenth century, had departed to his final account. Lorenzo the Magnihcent, of the famous family of the Medici, under- took tlie government of Florence, about the year a.d 1409. It was a noble exception to the general rule, "as well as an interesting feature of the times, that the abili- ties of a mercantile familv should be able to found an important sovereignty, ancf that too in the most polished portion of the civilised world. The ancient Guelf aristo- cracy were the party of the Albizi, restored to their ascen- dency soon after the Popes had returned fi-om Avijfnon, OH. XI.] MODERN HISTORY. 239 They retained their power from a.d. 1382 for half a cen- tury, with sh-gjt disturbances. The Medici were amonSt the most considerable of the new or plebeian nobility. Gio- vanni was drawn Gonfalonier in a.d. 1421, which^reated pat sensation. It was his son Cosmo, however, who in- i> hoIKTT''"^ °P"]'"'' ^''°"^ ^"« ^■^^*h«'-' ^«'"l^i°ed with It both talents ond ambition. His connections were exten- sive, especially with the Sforzas; his popularity rested upon wealth generosity, immense patronage, and un- bounded protessions of att.K.hment to the filedom of the S in ^^ff'°"' had always got into sing-ulai- complica^ tZnl """^^l ™'''^ "'^''^ '" *^^^" elsewhere; consti- ratC tb??' '? '" r7 r-''''' «*' inc^nsikencies, rather than regular and orderly forms of society, it Flo- rence, the dominant oligarchy certainly had no basis in the populra- affections, although its administration had been .uccessftil to an emment degi-ee. The acquisition of i'lsa, with other considerable cities, had ae-oTandised thA republic; while from the port ofL^horn^nTps h^ begrun to tmde with Alexandria, and sometimes contend aftS? ^\^onm; the manufactures of silk and cloth ™^ nT '''i r^^'°"5 Jit«»'«t"re experienced libei-al support, and architecture flourished. Cosmo and his a^ herents took advanta-^e of an unprosperous war with Wa; and m a whiilpool of crosscurrents, insepamble on^e Snw'r''?; ^^f)7«?trived to drown th^ superiorit' ot the Albizi. Dante had compared the political changes of his countrvmen to the fretful and fruitless turns of a sfck Zn^o?- riT-s'"'f^^ °«<^ a« i"«Pt illustration. The foundation of their policy was a division of the citizens into companies, or mediaeval guilds, each of which had a council of Its own, a chief magistrate or consul fbrjudi! purposes, and a banneret or military officer, to whose Jtanaard they repaired whenever any attempt 'was made to disturb the ^ace of the city, o/these confrat^iStles iT; 'TA^''' *^"t^.' ""'^ ^ft«™-<^« twenty onj!!! seven of which were called the gi-eater, consisting of the S!ll^± clothiers, banker, wo?^^^^^^ ^£,^ «r.j65«t:,, BUiw-iut-rcers, ana lurncrsj the remainder were S40 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1294-1464. \ Styled the lesser, and comprehended the retailers of every kind. The administration of g:eneral criminal jub dee belong^ed to two foreign magistrates, the Podesta and the Capitano del PopOxO. Certain councils also existed, with the ballot prominent in their procedures ;- as well as a system of rotation in office, sufficient to make the heads iiin round of those ambitious spirits who fancied liberty was nowhere else to be enjoyed than between the bridges across the Arno. Dissensions, as may well be imagined, ran high between the aristocracy and the plebeian orders ; but from A.D. 1295. the latter predominated, through what are termed in Tuscan history the Ordinances of Justice, a soil; of charter obtained by and for the democracy. Amidst a world of noisy but con ^jaratively harmless confusions, the Florentines at last ■ remind us of the frogs in the fable, when they unhappily wished to exchange King Log for King Stork. Tlie commonalty, in other words, resolved to have a dictate!"; and so Walter de Brienne, titular Duke of Athens, whose Grecian principality, derived from one of the French crusaders, in the preceding century, had passed into the house of Aragon, was appointed signior for life, A.D. 1342, with very extensive prerogatives. He soon found, however, his sovereignty too hot to hold him ; and a speedy abdication once more enabled the republic to shake herself free from her fetters. A college was then established, consisting of eight Priors, selected by suffi-age frc n the foiu* quarters of the city, sixteen Gonfaloniers of the companies, the Signiory,and t\N elve Buonuominijwherein every proposition was to be discussed before it could be offered to the councils for their legislative sanction. Some modifications of this new institution ensued in the disturb- ances of A.D. 1357, and the more prominent elevation to power of the Albizi in a.d. 1378, particularly from the ambition of the 30,000 artisans employed in the woollen trade alone; but Cosmo and the Medici managed, by a dexterous and perpetual appeal to popular associations, to turn all the entanglements of the commonwealth to good account. Florence had acquired something like territorial nnnoaf%nanAa in T f.a1 V la the fourteenth centurv'- an inde* CH. XI.] MODERN HISTORY. 241 'pendent nobility occupied the Tuscan Apennines with their castles, as the robbers of the mountains. Judicious piir- chases, and the occasionui application of force, gradually disj)laced many of them ; their estates and fortresses be- came appendages to the republic; the population of the city ana district comprised 170,000 men of military a^ej her annual revenues were 300,000 gold florins; whilst, her expenditure exceeding- her receipts, she felt obliged to bor- row sums of money from various mercantile firms, which formed the first national debt on record. There were fifty- seven parishes and one hundred and ten churches within the walls, besides the matchless Baptistery. Pisa was con- quered early in the fifteenth century, ana Pi-ato had been annexed before. Florence about this period usually acted with Venice, to preserve the equilibrium of Italy as against Milan and Naples. The advancement of the Sforzas in Lombardy somewhat altered their political sympathies ; and the new Duke of Milan had been the constant personal friend of Cosmo : yet it did not hinder the Quadruple Al- liance of A.D. 1455, between Venice, the Sforzas, Florence, and Alphonso, king of Naples ; of which the objects were an arrest of the Ottoman arms, and the succession of Fer- dinand. Cosmo was the richest individual in Italy : after numerous changes of fortune, he received the appellation of Father of his Coimtry, which his influence governed without a title. Beneath his roof the Greeks fi-om Con- stantinople foimd a shelter, with all their literary treasures; for even as early as the days of King Robert of Anjou, Barlaam, the learned monk of Calabria, had illuminated Italy, A.D. 1339, more than twenty years before the Ho- meric lectureship of Leo Pilatus, a.d. 1360-3. Such an opulent and powerful merchant could also advance the in- terests of knowledge through the ::nere channels of his com- mercial correspondence. His house had no less than 128 branches in as many firms resting upon his name, in Eu- rope, Asia, and Africa. The discovery of printing had in him a patron of no ordinary munificence ; he aied a.d. 1464, in a green and honoured old age. His son, Pedro, left two representatives, Lorenzo anrl Julian, of whom the second iierished in the consniracv of the Pazzi? but his 242 MODEHN HISTORY. [a.D. 1404-94. elder brother weathered the stom, and ultimatoly returned, amidst the acclamations of friends and foes, to i-eign over his native repubHc, with a simphcity of greatness supenor even to that of his grandfatlicr. His penetn-ting genius and profound nndprstanding- rendered him an oracle not only to Italian statesmen, but to such foreign potentates as Matthias Hunniades and Louis the Eleventh, the Grand Seignior at Stamboul, and the last Mameluke Sultans of Egypt. His vast private resources dried up, through the perpetual drair.r of literary patronage, an extension of poli- tical prowess, charitable or public expenses, and the ruin- ous demands of more guilty pleasures ; in fact, the general treasury alone it was which rescued his affairs from bank- ruptcy as a merchant, at the cost of his wisdom as a sage and a monarch. His premature dissolution— for he was no more than forty-four years of age— has frequently been considered, as Hallam observes, among the causes of those unhappy revolutions that speedily ensued, and which it was supposed his extraordinary foresight would have been, in some degree, able to prevent, or at least to mitigate. Yet this may well be doubted, as regards the impend- ing invasion of Charles VIII. The best politicians after all were the Pontiffs of Rome. Pius II., in conversing M'lth Cosmo at Florence, explained very ably the grounds upon which he deemed it proper to support Ferdinand of Naples as against France ; he evidently felt that in acting thus he was adopting a line of conduct the best for Italy and thereby involving the welfare of all Christendom! Happy would it have been for the Church of Almighty Ood, had there been no worse occupants of the Chair of St. Peter than the learned Eneas Sylvius. Unfortunately at the crisis of the French expedition, Alexander VI. filled that elevated station, over whose enormities it will be only decent to cast the mantle of oblivion. Wicked Popes, of which however the number is very small, have ever been among the severest proofs that divine vengeance was aw akening against nations professing the tnie faith, but in reality denying it by their works. Riches, temporal power, yith all the appendages of secular grandeur, were comipt- mg the prelacy and clergy of an age emerging from the OH. XI.] HODERN HISTORT. 243 twilight of science and literature, and nearly as conceited as our own. Hie revival of classical taste and knowledge f,V)i «• • T"°"iP^°''^^ ^y a «F"* o^" paganism, highly offensive, beyond a doubt, to tlie Will of tlfe Ho^ Spint. Humility seemed at a low ebb every where: nor without It could piety be generally diffiii^ed, notwithstand- ma- the fervid exertions of such saintly heroes as Savona- rola, or a few more like him. i'he German hierarchy was degenerating into a confederacy of ecclesiastical pdnces, almost independent, not only of each other, but of the head of the Ohui-ch himself. The poison of the Paulicians bm been niently creeping for generations through the arteries of Christendom; whilst visible eruptions of heresy Had inflicted wounds, of which the scars still looked thread ening, throughout England, Boliemia, ami other regions of the continent. The sheep wei-e as bad, or worse in lome places, than their shepherds. The universal human mind was heaving with throes of an approa<;hing revolt against the truth, and that sanctuiuy in which alone upon earth It is both enshrined and enthroned. Abuses were rife, and morals rai-e As it pleases the Omnipotent Alchemist to turn every thing He touches into u-old^ so out of the evils and calamities of the time a marvellous result of ultimate advantages came to be evolved j and the genuine Reforma- tion, achieved by the Council of Trent, compensated Xr those fepriul disasters which accompanied, or rather ushered in, tlie sixteenth century. Its piedec. ssor closed in clouds xipon Naples had lee-a/ly desVendc.!, after the death of ild Re^ier appointed Tieir by the second Joanna, to Rea-nier Duke of Lorraine, his gi-andson, by a daughter, whose marnage however, into that familvlhad so IspleLed her father, that he bequeathed his Neapolitan title along JSh bs real Datrimony, the country of Provence, to a Count of Mame, by who.e testament they became vested in the crown of France Louis XL tooi jK>ssession imm.dktSy distant kmgdom he /eft for the vain pursuit of his ambi- tious successor; not that he had any objection to interfere in Italian affairs wherever anv rflal ■afinin 944 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 1483-03. for h«3 had troated Savoy as a fief of his own, and acted as regront tl; >re on the douth of Philibert, its duke. The Marquis of Saliizzo too, po.'sessiug considerable territories in the south of Piedmont, iiad done homag^e to Fi-ance, ever since a.d. 1353, thoiip^h to the prejudice of his real superior, tlie Didce of Savoy, We may conclude this chapter with the observations of an eloquent writer, who has profoundly studied this important [»eriod of liistory : " As long," ho says, " as the three greaf nations of Europe were unable to put forth their strengt , through internal Be[)aration or foreign war, the Italians had so little to dread for their independence, that their [K)licy was alto- gether directed towards regulating the domestic balance of power amongst themnclves. But in relieving himself from an immediate danger, Ludovico Sforza overlooked the consideration that the presumptive heir of the king of France claimed by an ancient title that principality of Milan, which he was compassing by usurpation and mur- der. Yet neither Milan nor Naples was fi-ee from other claimants than France, nor was she destined to enjoy un- molested the spoils of Italy. A louder and louder strain of uissonance will be heard from the banks of the Danube and the shores of the Mediterranean. The dark and wily Ferdinand, the rash and lively Maximilian, have entoi-ed die lists; the schemes of ambition are assuming a more comprehensive aspect; and the controversy of Neapolitan succession is to expand into the long rivalry between the houses of France and Austria. It is while Italy is yet untouched, and before the bright lances of the Gaul gleam along the Alpine defiles, that the transit occurs, ■cm the Middle Ages to the history of modem times."* * Hallam. CH. XII.] MOI^KMN HISTORY, 2ib CHAPTER XII A.D. 987-1520. tlLUCB-BtrnOUNDY-r .. .,o_xUK ECC.K8M8TICAr. RKVotT AT THE COMMEN ;.MENX ... THE SIXTKENXH CENXU«V enormous fief to the crown • hut IT' .^r' '^^^ °^" occupied the renu.iX ofThe' rea m sixTf ^/^'^''^ '"^'"1^ at a subsenupnt tmm ♦i,. f • * "^ °* ^"^^^ obtained, th™. Duke, ofNo™a„dy,.„xtB,Tt'ifv sse:-:.''" of Bnr^ndy, on whom the Count of Kivemofa d, , Zh^,i'~ ._r_, ,„ ^ crownea during- his lite; an MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 1060-1349. example imitated by his successors; until, in.thp days of Philip Augustus, the custom was dropt, as being* no longer necessary. Still, the mere legal authority of Hugh Capet, even over Paris and Orleans, his own peculiar domains, was frequently more nominal than real. It was the pillar of a cloud, irom which future ages beheld a majestic despotism emerge. Dreary intervals had to be endin-ed, throughout which the Capetians could only increase their resources by territorial inheritances, stumbled upon often with little foresight, and not at all made the most of, as they might have been, when they occurred ; so that in- stead ot the old Prankish form of government coming back again, with the associations of Clovis or Charles Mar- tel, tliey gradually re-united many subordinate dominions under one head, who had to reign with all the rights existing, of which the late holders, or their progenitors, had contrived to possess themselves. In other words, the iceptre of France became a royal rod of Aaron, swallowing up the less fortunate rods of the Egyptian magicians. The Abbot Suger it was, whose sagacity as minister of Louis the Fat, and some subsequent sovereigns, foi-warded a fuller development of this policy. In the twelfth cen- tury, expeiience had taught the French nation that it was necessary to have a stronger executive power than the thi-one had for a long while manifested. Louis VI. ren- dered the royal courts of justice attractive. They offered themselves, in favourable contrast to those of mere feudal vassals, as protectors of the helpless ; of freed men, or such as wished to become free ; of burgesses assembled in towns, seeking only security for their persons and pro- perty, without aiming, like the nobles, at rivalshij) with the king. T^ouis VIl. had married Eleanor of Guienne ; but conscientiously restored her hereditary estates, when be repudiated her for gross adultery. Our Henry II. provea less scnipulous ; yet while his disgraceful nuptials with the divorced princess undoubtedly aggrandisea the Plantagenets, it threw the French nobles into the scale of his competitor, less potent than himself, and therefore less exciting tlieir jealousy. The French and Enghsh wei*e thencefcrward the national and anti-national pai-ties. Thn CH. xri.] MODERN HISTORY. 247 pressive exactions of ariSocS' vZ^\ '"'°^f^* °" °P- in£>-ly nuo-mentpd flm nS. j l^n"'P Augustus amaz- Tl?e s Sd S' n ' i>f '^^ ""^^ ""«'o'«s "'tl^« crown. A D 'oSL^j^ * of Nomandy was declared a forfeiture the Auveig:ne, *.d. 1270-85 ffi le Bel VuT """' Nav„™, ^a the is^es sri,:;;^ STf;i^,t ages should Zt b inhS t t h^fS^LfV'K'^^'^' tlie consolidation of tirrSrn^nl '^*^^.?¥^ ^'"^^ wns grentiv promoted Trfrn "*" undivided country linments ul counci s of s^inlT'"'/ °^'^'""*'^ *''« ^^'^ the sovereign SSfnr-^ .1 J"^^^«t"'e> repi-esenting- served ^H^fl ud Z ^Ifi *!^^°^« ^'/'^'d their decision'^s i^^' Heals^^^n^^^^^^ «°d defective ill' 248 MODERN HISTORY. [a.d. 1300-1466. the gabelle, or tax upon salt; and fleecing" the Church by all kinds of unpopular exactions, the blame of which some of his successors were base enoue-h to cast upon the ham- pered Pontiffs, whom their worldly policy retained on the banks of the Rhone, instead of replanting them on those of the Tiber. He summoned, however, the States-General, for the purpose of votino- the extraordinary sacrifices re- guired by the public misfortunes; and in order to attach the citizens and burgher classes to his interests, he ad- mitted the principle that their deputies should always claim a place at future meetings ; and favoured their ex- emption fi'om forced loans and military services. Their contributions inevitably gave them influence: nor could the door fail to be opened in so popular an assembly for calling wicked mmisters to account, or inflicting punish- ment upon them. The kmgs of France therefore came to be very cautious in the handling of such double-edged weapons; yet meanwhile the more prosperous provincial capitals expanded in wealth and weight ; they even ven- tured on the fortification of their suburbs, upon their own account; and symptoms already appeared of those u-re- ligious tendencies, which preferred the despotism of a secular master to the ecclesiastical welfare of the King of kings. He died in the thirtieth year of his reign, and the forty-seventh of his age, a.d. 1314. His three sons ruled in theh- turns : Louis X., Philip the Tall, and Charles IV., styled the Handsome, a.d. 1314-28. The celebrated Salic Law having been sole' ..ily sanc- tioned by the states of the kingdom a.d. 131.% Philip de Valois, the next male hen- to Charles IV., whose queen had no other issue than two daughters, one of them pos- tl raous, assumed the crown a.d. 1328. In his time commenced that fearful and protracted contest with Eng- land, which lasted for a full century, and entirely arrested the progi-ess of civil order and constitutional legislation. The unfortunate foundation of the House of Burgundy had its origin somewhat later than the second of those two gi-eat victories, which prostrated for the time the vigoiu' of the French monarchy, namely, Crecy in a.d. 1346, re- sulting in the fall of Calais ; End Poitiers, a.d. 1856, con- CH. XII.] MODEHN HISTORY. 240 ?«1?^'?7'*\*l!- ^^"'^, "^ *'^^ ^^^'^ P^'n'^e, as well .s the calamities of his roval rnntivo Tii^n^ t i mi on me field. After the peace of Bret g-ni, tlie last of tlm r.L ' p^"*«^ J* '° "ie way of appanae-e to Philin This ?nnn? X^^''. "'''"'«'^ ^^*^^ A'^'^et, heire s^'to the Cmint of Flanders, acquired that province, ttSier wi?h Artois, FrancheConite, and the Nivernois. ' Plifriamev^e and g-i^ndson, entitled the Good, acquired a I trot£ Ne herlands n-hich at that penod'abo?mded w ith a nate Setf^T.^rf?*""^.^^^ "P°" fi-eedom and com! meice. llie dukedom of Bureamdy thus eww ir>tn Ir. equipoise to the French crown itself.^ ircoStVeSted L'o^?h:tnte^^^^ '''''''' by none^rthH^t^f di3v An oil °^j*l««^«^-e'8:« Stood next to the royal A f 7;io^« l^^^ administration of nearly fifty year* A.D. 1419-66, had enriched the nobility as well -is H.« commonalty: on the accession of ChaSis the Bold It Order of the Golden Fleece mig-ht yie w th tt cSy of vS! 'S */'" P^'^'" P'^*' «^^««d«d 2,000,000 of livres b In 1 PI Jif '^''"f""' ''W' ^«*^'««" the femilies of Va oS proper to mtripe with either party. The question oTuf lld^ZriLf^^^""^ had advanced his pre,;'' ! ous claims These rested upon the imtig-ined riUtof his W f!f ^''S'' '^' '''''' °^**'« ^^^^tbree Capetifn kin^ Apart from the existence and confirmation of the S law, there were no less than five piir.esses with nrPten sions supenor to his own ; aware if which fhct^dwa,^" set up a distinction, that although female We, hid d maie issue. Had this even been so, there ^^f^i J^np flm c ...g.cv aoser tu the crown oi r'mnoa i 250 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 1328-5)5. than the representative of the Plantagenets. In vain Pope Benedict XII. adjured the Eng-lish monarch to beware of a rash attempt, which might afflict the world, but which c uld produce no permanent advantages for his own dy- nasty. Ambition, however, has no ears; nor can it be denied but that throughout England the French war was always popular. The nation had developed various ele- ments of prosperity since the termination of the thirteenth century. The Scotch and Welch contests had gi-atified the conquerors not a little ; nor was the idea even an un- {ileasant one of retaliating the Norman invasion.' Warfare, with its exciting accompaniments, found favour at almost all times in the hearts of our native gentry and active yeomanry. Their nerves and sinews felt hale and strong ; their education, diet, habits, and particularly their field sports, appeared to qualify them for robust contention j their very prejudices were so warm and deep that they almost assumed the more respectable form of principles. The weakness of Edward's father, the guiltiness of his mother, and the follies of regal favourites, were forgotten in. the glories of his grandfather, since whose vigorous administration substantial opulence had been brought into numerous markets, through the sale of Enghsh wool to the Fleming-s. The new monarch had also exhibited no ordinary spirit and prudence in rescuing Isabella from her life of intamy, in consigning her vile paramour Mortimer to the hands of the common hangman, and assuming the reins of government a.d. 1330. His personal character, however morally defective, presented many features of knightly courtesy, courage, and magnificence, which pass for virtues with the vulgar, and are not in themselves without inherent importance, so far as they rouso pa- triotism in the people. His victory moreover at Halidoun, A.D. 1333, over the Scots, effectually efiuced the painfiil memory of Bannockbum nineteen years befo o ; and all domestic dangei-s had disappeared pri ' to the g?eat naval triumph of the English over the French I'eet, 24th June. A.D, 1340. ' Some interval had been suffered to elapse on both sides, ei-e an appeal to arms could openly be resolved UDon. Ed- OB. xir.J MODERN HISTOHY. SSI Normandy With 80 000 mm ' T?' ' ■^'''^»^'' '"™''«' and the bLle of cZ7^o.ZrS?S^l'^i tT^ amonU S^^ by mar;;^''^*^™"' foitiinps TVia S,.vv, i-"^ "'""J' viiTues, out mtivc mis- ..„„«„g lor nance. Her government was prM- iB im MODEHN HlflTORT. '"A.f . 135i3-80. trate,— her king a captive, — her nobility wassaored, — lie*- demagogues rampant, i'amine ravaged iier tairest fields and her most tnagniiice. i- 'ities. Peatilence fell alike on friend and foe,- - the Connie, ors and the vanqriished. Th»t dreadful plag-ue of the fovrteen^h cen'-uy, denou rata ft-d the Black Death, had alreailv de-olat "d a. large poition ot theei'th; making its earliest ap pec -.uice ii) i^he i^o'th of Asia, encircling that vast contiiiem, crossiiu over into Afiicsi, and finally sweeping Euro] e iV; m oiib end to the Of.iter, Sortit have declared that a third of the inhabitants ot .'lio tliice continents must have perished. It has been p f;ertuin:^d that London alone lost liffv thousand lives from vji awtul presence. During the paciii ?ation consequent on fehe triumph at Poictiers, the Free C )'upanies, having no occupation either from John or Edwa. i spread themselves from Artois to the Alps. Traffic and lonest labour were for a long period altogether suspended. Pillage devoured the land in every direction. The roblrn-s even refused to spare Avignon in their furious career ; nor could the Pope redeem himself at a less ransom than 40,000 crowns. Some at length betook themselves to Italy j and Du Guesclin, the flower of knighthood in that age, conducted immense parties of them across the Pyrenees. The bonds of societv thus dissolving, the peasantry of entire districts displaced their masters, and turned order upside down, in an insurrection which has given a name to all others, — the Jacquerie. Communism and socialism revelled in their hell upon earth ; and the Dauphin Chai'les it was, who, under Almighty God, presei-ved the whole realm from floundering in hopeless and irretrievable destruction. The extremitv of the peril may be said to have assisted him, since to his standard whatever remained in the country of conservative principle naturally gravitated. He possessed a genius which has seldom been found to exist in his family : at once inventive in wise measures, unshsken by the most appalling aspect of adversity, and with ^'licient calmness to contemplate occurrences in their true they appear to ordinary persons carri' ' pidfr. :>f the moment, — ^he resoi. ir^ Mid eniable abuses, and thus <■: .n« ii-s, and not as •Way by the im- rooted many jeal wind out of the 253 CH. XII.J MODERN HISTORY. sails of the more inftiriated reformers. His mind also pos- sessed a fountam ot cheerfulness within it^elK from which others also drew an antidote against the suggestions of rashness or despair With untiling economy Te restored the hnanoes -and thus merited the appellation of Charles tlLolu', i*n'"'^'§'S' ^^ conclude j^ what some states- men called the Great Peace, a.d. 1360, upon terms which assigned to Edward all Guienne, Gasc'onJ^ Poito^ Saint- Unge, the Limousin, the Angoumois, Calais, and the country fl W^ ''".^^^ sovereignty, as an ample recompensi for his renunciation of title to the crown of France, besides the payment of three million of gold pieces for the emanci- pation of bis royal prisoner. King John, as is well known meeting with many difficulties in effecting his obligations! most honourably returned to his old quarters in the Savov where he soon after died m April a.d. 1364. Charles his sagacious son and successor, assisted by the chivah-ous Du truesclin, performed wonders for the resuscitation of the ex- hausted state. Both the Edwards were now declining-, one from age and the other from disease. The Black Prince, it was felt, had failed m a most injudicious enterprise he had undertaken into Castile on behalf of Pedro the Cruel : for al- though victory attended his arms, its results were very shortly dissipated by the well-merited discomfiture and fate ot the wretch his mistaken policy had patronised. Aquitaine thus got involved m debt, to liquidate which required taxes. Ihe J^rench subjects of an English suzerain naturally enough looked to their ancient lord paramount; the latter not at all unwilling to sympathise, and even re-assert his not for- gotten rights. Thus hostilities were renewed, for Charles had summoned the younger Edward feudally to answer certam charges brought against him before the peers of France. In a.d. 1368 hostilities recommenced. Within a few campaig-ns, nothing remained to the Plantagenets but Bayonne, Bordeaux, Calais, and inexpressible nfoitifi- cation. ^ Charles VI. succeeded his father a.d. 1380, as a minor only thirteen years old, under the ambitious and rapacious guardianship of three uncles, the Dukes of Anion, Berry «iu ^..„guxi..j. xuci-cnuwueu iTinceoi Wales had fallen 954 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1376-1420. a sacrifice to his disorder four venrs before; an event fol- lowed I)v the demise of Edwai-a III., 21st. J„ne,A.D 1.377. Kichard IL, his grrandson, was also under aire; so that the Xn Tt pf.'"^ ^"' ^""^« ^^'«- n'ow tenanted by both nations; and robbers alone remained. ' Charles bore anv nIT. °^,'°^«7^ f«r. i'^^-^y years, without fiilfillin^ any of Its duties; his nominal reig-n being- little else than a turbulent repncy, leading to the subsequent conflic of Agrmcourt. J requently insane, an accident, through which h mS' ^«d taken fire at a masquerade, atfgmented s, fwTf '"'^'^"''- "^^ .?" ""^^^'^^ ^^^ J»« f»tJ^r were Scf *^r'%^'^"J ^"'''^'* t'^« 8^««« corruptions of his ^S^lT'+*^u ''^'" 1 pageantries of the comt, and the misenes of the people, heig-htened and inflamed by the factious passions of* three proud noblemen. Aniou was f^ALt' '}' ?"'^'i "^^/««"^ ^^d °<^«"P'«d his ilace ?n JoLS of national conftision. The expenses of the royal household were qumtupled ; the middle and lower clasL groaned; exorcised enormities retui-ned npon the king- dom, so lately m some degrees improved, Hke the sevin unclean spmts of" the parable, as to a h^use swept anS ceected, a. d. 1404, whose title was John, the treacherous t3]Tn°^^'' '°"^P'*'*°'" ^J-^^^"^'' ^•^- 1407. cSe r drnZ-rSr '1 T""""' ^"^ ^° ^h« Orleanists, under the nfsTwifwi! °^^7«^"acs, retaliated upon their antago- nsa ^fttyri SoT °'*'^ ^^"^^^^'^ -^ °*^- -o- A revolution meanwhile amongst their insular neigh- bours had dethroned the misgtiidfd representative of^he Black Prince, and substituted the Duie of Lancaster as l^^hU^/'\iT- 1 ^'^^*^«^ ^^'«h«^'d received hi death-blow from the battle-axe of Exton or not may be dis- puted; but the usurper lived, reigned, and was fSved bv his son, Henry v., a.d. 1413. This warlike monarch i2^ membered the injunctions of his father, never to et ueh in peace, lest the irowardness of their prosperity might tempt OH. XII.] MODERN HI8T0HV. 255 them to handle somewhat irreverently the ark of the con- stitution or his dubious claims upon "their allegiance. In France, the civil contest between the Burj^undiLs and Ai- magnacs had somewhat subsided througli the treaties of Arras and Auxerre, ad. 1412-14. The dauphin and one of ?n ft? Jl-''^°T ^"f T*'"" '•'^*^«" "^«»t''s ofench other: so that this high rank devolved on the yoimgest son of the insane kin^, afterwards so distinguished as Charles VII. ^Z.Z^ '^ IV., not long prior to his decease, had su- tZ fhl KT 'T^''''^^ «"d matrimonial negotiations wfSfl'A "^' ""^ Bm-gundy, for the sake of a J alliance Hnil !f v";''-^°Tv'' «;:"lP»ehending four members of the House of Valois the Dukes of Berry, Bourbon, Orleans, and AlenQon, who undertook to assist him at their own charges in the recovery of Guienne and Poitou, if he would S ^^"V r/T • *^°"f «°<1 archers. His son oscillated a E ^^f\^^ ultimate^, in a.d. 1415, he invaded Nor- vT^I' ft ?f ^'"V."'^ ^'°" *^'« ^a"'« of Agincourt on his march to Calais. The recollections of Crecy and Poic- tiers could alone have sustained the English on that me- S Tr""'^"""' '° tremendous were the odds against them Thev f rew up ^^,,.^^ ^^^^^^ ^ r which guarded either flank. It was in October, after much ram had fallen, and softened the clayey soil; so that when the French cavalry rushed forward, their horses stuck fSt ^hnJUhV 5 T'^T^'-* r'\*° *^^° ^"tish bowmen, who, with fixed palisades m then- front, poured from behind these an an-owy shov .^hich nothing could retard or re- sist. It was a fatal aay for the nobility and gentry of France. The Orleanists suffered most ; tie Builundln. scarcely at all: a secret treaty having previoush^ecured Iheir duke, however, seems to have beentjought over by the comt party, A.D. 1419, to his own destn.ction, as it soon appeared; for the murder of the Duke of Orleans twelve years before was now avenged upon himself, to the surprise of the whole world, at Monte.eau, on the ioth of the e.)..-ig September. The treaty of Troves, a.d. 1430 theu ^c^med to secure to the triumphant victor a renlisa-' tion of his most flattering dreams. Henr-v was acknow- jsaadiSiL ^'i: I! SfiO MODEKN HISTORY. [a.D. 1420-29. ledged regent of the whole realm ; the Princess Catharine was to he his hride ; and after the demise of Charles his immediate succession w" f*- *'<>llow, not only to the exclu- sion of the Danp' , ;>/Ui, aa ilie myal il.mily. For two years he g-ovemed the north of France in the name of his father-in-law Charles : his consort hore him a mnle-heir, dentined in the minds of vain corn-tiers to fill the thrones of both France and England as one united power; when death dissolved the vision, bv removing first Henry V., and then Charles VT., in the months of August and Oc- tober, A.D. 1422. The infant Henry VI. was i»roclaimed at Paris, under the gniardianshin of his imcle, the Duke of Bedford, and Charles VII., at Poictiers, — the central pro- vinces, with Languedoc, Poitou, and Dauphin^ remaining loyal to his cause. The war went on, season after season, without any decisive -onsequences ; or at least po long as Burgundy continued to sway the balance in iTn i-ur of the Plantagenets. Philip the Good was the new vassal of that colossal fief, on the assassination of John, his father, at Monteroau. Yet, all important as his position could not but prove to the combatants for the most enviable rrown in Europe, it was reserved to an .obscure ftsmale to re-establish the lawful sovereigns of Fn. ce. In a.d. 1429, tlie grand focus of the conflict had becom concentrated at Orleans, so 'situated as '■' was between t^ '■ temtorifs of Henry and Charles, that posbcssion oflured an easy entrance to eitlier. The talents of Bedford, Wamick, Salisbtiry, and Talbot, had illustrated the banners of St. George, then waving before he tr.^oi. s of the tow>\ to achievi: their ultimate triumph by its full. So vigoro!; ly was the siege dressed by the English, and so fruitlesslv had the citizen,'? exprtad them- selves to the utmost, tl ^' ' "" > • place for lost, tress, Agnes So) utter >espair by off at last his di quf rf air rracefuj Charles VII. had ^ : ven up the 1, Mary of Anjou, nmi uis niis- lid to have aw kened him from •essant remoust. mces. Shakino' , lethargy, he I'-'olved upon a glorious death racher than submitting tu ,u ignominious surrender. It was exactly at this juncture that unexpected reUef arrive . Near the small village of Greaux, in Cham- ^"- -^"J MODERN HI8T0RV. 057 had hem hvmo-htnnZZ i"'""' "^°"* ^•»- 1^^2. She modest, un I K r^i^l^ r^ "' n ^'^^'«', P'""''«"*' '"^^4 churitv she had vvSlXn" f'"' P'^"^'^ ^op'^'ver unj lender vc't re^'-cX n f'* "!"'''' ""'^ ^"^•' «3'^s Hxod i? *or slie went with lier fLre an •' "" " "'' /^"[^ m.affected; employments, pastured t 1 '^ ' ' ''"' ' ' " ^'^'"'^J'^" when such vvas ho otr L? ^m '''^^^ '" *'^^'»' ««1^^>- birds would comr^.f he ' a?r li'lf rt"' *^'^^ '^' hands: orifshfl^MvJ ;« *i ' ^ ^^* ^^'-^''^^ 0"^ of her and u^o^/or the u4 tS.>'""T1' '''\^P"" ^^e hemp from herhome ^oTa 4:;^^^^^^^^^^^ Not fa? quity and hig-hly venerated' Tf^If'!'' "^ f'®'^* ^"*i- cated formerly to faS itt )li Tl ^" ^'"^' ^'^'^» ^"^i- the month ofVa^^ Tan I hi ch Idf T';^?'^^'' ^'' '^ •-'n it her floral trarknd7nlV <^5^^^«ofJ» had suspended -nrito in.l'T/ l^H^^^^^^ carry thitLr her f^er bubblecf up beneatlH {«! ? ^ ^''","*"'" «^ ^'^ar relatioi.s of saluLious f Tnft"' ^^""'"'^^ '"•*'' ^'""«»« pohtic. of her distS be "°„* ZhtZ^f'- '''^' the inhabitants of her haml J 2-!l^ • "*^'''''* ^'■'' ^"'"^ ; for Charles, and her own hl'V /" \'l"f . ' '""'^P'^on, were At thirteen voars of aTsh.t I ^^"* ^"S^h amn sv, tbem. St. Catharine and S Marolf^ ^T' ^■'' ?''' '''^'' ^''■™ ther with those from S? ShLri"''"" ^^"Pf^"^^^ ■'-^- under the fairy tree"^althjS "r^ H l"" '" !'" *^'" ^'^'^'^^^^ What they sai^. The a Xnie .1 /? '^T, ""^^^'^tand her, so soon as shecoZX^idy^ adding that God woulZst tr fo'^f '^' ' ^'^'^^ ^^'•^' succour of the Kin- of France aV \ " T'^ ^'^ ^" *^« to have been in a kind of TpS • "'^' '^'^ '''0"^^ seem account o.iv J of tTb/n'r'T/' '°^' ^nd the entire servant deader tith t^fe ^^STl "'"" ^"^^"""^ «" '^^^ enthusiasm, excf^emcnt Jtf ■''' '''''''* ^'^^ one of ^•■n^, uveiTUiea, .,„i directed "bv Pr.JA":lZ'''' ""'"• directed \vPr„v4n«S.;i7i B A ^' 568 MODERIV HWTORT. [A.D. 1420-31 j)articuliii' oljjVct. In an tM-a of civil uiir and contention, It was noi improbable or iinbecoiiiinjr tluit she luul otliei- females of her own i-ank in life should be exj)ert in many military exercises, such ns mounting: a horse, using- a lance, and lacing all sorts of danger. At length a conviction be- came rooted in her soul, that she was to rescue the kingdom from its deplorable condition. There was an old pro- phecy then cunent, that France would be delivered by a virgin from the borders of Lorraine. After various futile attempts to gain attention, some of the authorities in her neighbourhood ag-reed that she should be sent to court, ana she reached Chinon in February, a.u. 1429. Her age at this period was about eiditee'n. In stature she had attained a middle size, and looked well in armour. Her limbs were strong and of beautiful proportions ; her black hair flowed down round a lovely neck, but not lower than her shoulders; her countenance was pleasing; and she had a sweet voice, with an insinuating expression. She rode and can-ied a lance with as much giace and address as the best knight or esquire; nor did her conversation fail in ease, fluency, or discretion. When addressed by the prelates of Charles, she answered that she must speak to their sovereign herself. She came from the King of Heaven, she averred, to raise the siege of Orleans, and conduct the rightful heir of France to Rheims, that he might be crowned there with the customary solemnities. The result is well known, and must always be considered among the most curious phenomena of history. Introduced to the royal pereonages of the court, and having abundantly satished Charles, the offer of her ser- vices was accepted : she described the suit of mail which she wished to wear, buried as it then was in the earth be- hind an altar of St. Cathaiine ; whilst, with regard to the standard that was to be carried before her, several divine voices, as she affirmed, directed that on a white ground strewn with fleur-de-lis should be figured the Saviour of mankind, seated on His tribunal in the clouds, holding the world in His hands, and with two angels kneeling in adora- tion before Him. Charles retrieved his affairs: Joan of Arc fulfilled her pretensions to the minutest particular; ^"- '"'•] MODERN HTSTOnr. Qqq flie city of Orlenns wns irl.VvcI |,v !.<.,. ..If • tion. Slfe now nrtinne "''enns f<.,. |„s comnn- 'i"v« been .. Imve 1 « e ,n """ '^"''" ^■""'<' ■'''"' '"'t ibi-med n.nnv ex r.lint V rvirr"'''''/!'''''*-''' '""' I'^'- t.nd of OrJe^.ns, Cl ?.;:.. i'?'' '"'^ ^"'""■^*'' ^''« J'»«- -o^t' bitter .;S.^ iw' :;:rir' ^"'•^"'•^•' ^''- conf,eni,.Iate tl.e ncconntT o f I .. ' '*''. ^"Pl'o^f, cnn n.m- Kouen ufiere the donjon of tl f 1 t t !• '''"' ^'""- 'f *" on a cliaro-e of witchc/ al't. Ile^f^et an, "''"';."' ''"'"' to a strong- rhn'm, yvhichtJvaLlfl %^ ^^t'le fetteied -as fastened toni:^'';^^^^^:^ f'V'''\ ""'' Another chain was xm^^orvZ o^/^ood five feet Ion"-. «'nd spare boVr^o ' t Sr si ! "^'^ "^'^''^'^ «^' '^«>' t^''" place/ FivebiitaU-eeLoVth^^ '"°'^ *'?"' ^^'^' day and ni-ht, three ini de nnV "'^ ??'' '^"^died lier ^vhich was Intended to nil *''° °"*^'"'*^ ^'«'' ^'^"'"K 30th of Mav, Td 431 Z It f "l^' °^"'°"- ^n the in the open^^arket- ritV't il t^^^^^^ ^^'^^ with axes, swords, and ance^ wZ ' '"'''' """"^ lamentations melted the swr/n, "^i^""0'^ent tears and the stake, she askcl I'T nt ' i' l^''^ ^''""^^ J^"' to immediately made br he • S„t J^'. ''^"' ' "•" ^"S-lishmnn took it o^-iefullv, k^sed it u,-H i T^ °^ " «*'«^- She I'astily aV ia^r lir 'VS?>' "f)! ^^^ ^"•^. j* ft loud voice as tli . f..,. ,. «^esus; she cried w tli fl«.ne. H,;;: ?rio ly' r j:'i5,,f'' ^'- '* "'e J»er, beiiiff, as she t'L^ohl' • i ^ '^" "^<^"8' attended !«., -Ae,nfy.^::i^-^:^,^'^!'s^i^ & &. „.d If "ntil d,e wns dead Even /i"'' ° "'"""^ '»''°''' tl-e pilo in pity, that ,"soi: L'''::S™;'°""- '-'"-l -ngs, i,„t „ the ..oke ^^"i^^Z^ ,^; -* ' 2^ MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1481-1509 cnlled for holy water, implored the divine assistance, in- voking- tlie blessed saints, now and then sln-ieking- or groaning-, yet always praying-. At length lier jioor head was seen to fall on one side, and the name of om- Saviour, pronounced in a loud voice, was tlie last word she uttered. "So perished," says a modei-n historian, " after the incarce- ration of a year, and by this inhuman death, the heroic Maid of Orleans. No deliverer of a coimtry has ever appeared who has merited a more liberal fame, or achieved the great enterprise amid difficulties more arduous, or with purer disinterestedness." France herself lias thouglit so, and with reason. The g-enius of Joan seems to have elec- triiied every province. Bedford died in a.d. 1435; and Philip, Duke of Bm-g-imdy, about the same period seceded from his Eng-lisli alliance. Paris, as well as most of the other cities, then hastened to throw otF an odious yoke ; Norr.mdy and Guienne, with the entire inhei-itance of Henry II. and Eleanor,— all the conquests of the Edwards and Henry V. were irrecoverably wrested from the grasp of Eng-land, with the exception of Calais and its adjacent districts, or the idle trophies of hei-aldry, Tlie filteenth century, wiiich Jjad opened with so much promise for Eng-land, developed Httle else than tlie most melanclioly reverses, from the death of the hero of Ag-in- C(5urt to the reig-n of the first Tudor ; it seemed as thoug-h France were avenging- upon her rival the various miseries she had herself suffered. The House of Lancaster had been founded by Henry of Boling-broke, g-randson of Edward III., by his tljird son John of Gaunt. In order to evade the superior rig-lit of Mortimer, Earl of March, he attempted to deduce a title tlu-oug-li his mother, descended from Edmund, juetended by certain partisans to have been an elder child of Henry III., but who was unjustly postponed to Edward I., thoug-h with his own consent, on the g-round of personal deformity. The orig-in of these claims of the line of Lancaster is now known to have been baseless. In the third generation, under Henry VI., a feeble but pious prince, v/ith a heroine for liis queen in 31alg-aret of Anion, Edward IV., son of Richard, duke of York, set aside his sovavai'd^k and oscni^^^^ )>>° ^-u.^^^ k_ en. xii.J MODERN HISTORY. 261 force of arms. The Hni.«o ^f v ^ ^ flerivation to Lionel tC! J""'^' ^^o^'evev, trnced its tliatitleo-allvsZlin ''''«"^«0" of Edwnrd III., so earls oF Mavc th^'fj T^ "'^"^^^ connected it with tJie I.ence arose he^vU^ it?:?' Z?'''' -!(^^-^hndge;^ two emblems of I e Ti npl?')^^"*'.""^^«f'Kose°, the flrenry interval of storm S'!. f'?''- , Tln'otigliout a of Warwick possessennrf '^"t«"t'«»> the famo°.s Earl flown one kinV^nTup.H "? ""'?'^ *''' ^''''^' "^"pnttin^ Albans, BaS W kf Jd'T* iTf '^'^'^ ^^•''*^^^^ «*" 8^° Fess the flnctn t o^s J^^fSlv^f -^^^^^^^^ Cross, ex- deposition of Henry VI Tr\ir\' *^™!""t«d in the Towron, Hedo-elv 3Ioo, ' R , l-^^l; whilst those of Y, Burnet, &^j^t::::i^^^^^^. ^'-'""s- of a trao-edy involving- the & ruin of LI ''"^' ''•'"'' as also the murder of til-, d from an i eo-iti^ ' T^'^f' ^"^'''^ ^^^^ >h numerous as his own wearied and ^veakenea wli 1 '^'^ ^"^T '"*/^'^"" ''''y ^^^«"&^'' ^« that the kmg is .md 10 nave lost only 200 lives against 8000 of his adversari.-3. Ha d^ed without issue, in the twenty-eighth J^fhl n V^''/n V^P"^' ^;°- ^^^^' ^"^ ^-^^ succeeded hv the Duke of Orleans, under the title of Louis XII. laf poutical rever -^ - ' ' ... gaming or ^i.ittuv:.Li\,':3 ^^ MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1408-1616 queror, intent upon repairino- t ip InJ^tni' i • 5 ^°"* in the south of Italy Smlnfrnnoir ' P^'^.'^f ^^^o' dinand of Spain for ImZ^LZZe 7^^^ nand of Naife, who flpd tn T^ P ^^" ^ ^^^ .'^st I' erdi- ChnHes, had' died,td tt L^ ^^, tleXde^' nek Louis and his Spanish allr l^n^led h^m i;I partition of his domiBlon betw^ ^e "e^' SlowJ? Inm to withdraw to Fi-OBre, whae i^m^e'D„K Anjou, with u splendid ly^mon, a^ ^ mm^n a\ °^ the division or their pluider Go^Iv^.T^^ "^ ^H?"l the Great Ca^^ain sL ^ttl^ S^'^n'^thalJ'of ^^^ Castihan master, by .aaniv stnmfr^+l^ *;, ^",°* "'S more of all their NeaVS nofseSo^ T" IsS^LH from that time fomam remimied uni^" tth ^nt' ^'/^ the gTandsireofthe Emp«J cLrief- .nd f^ of his postentT. AlexandeT^^r exnim: in th. J^^ ^'"' the tiara passing in conclave to E f^Vh^^^S sig-nahsed his reign ov restorm;*- thp fnrrl i / ■ PO"*'^ th^'e Holy See, as also bfth^^lns ^7^1^ dominions of to the rlagnie of Canibi;^, torn X h l^ttZt '"P'°* mg- prowess of Venice be-an MtiL fn J J ""^^^^^ main object and just policy wa^Ce/nplnlf ''''"^- ^^ the Swiss, and the Venetians, droye in b.ekttoT^ own country thp «:nn ,^|• fi.^ • i- i ^^ ''^to his was installeJ'as the Duk o'^it'and':''"'^'' '''^"^ coyered her independence ad Ig]"' 't?/""° ^!?°^ '^- m, however, was removed b; death in nn T'^'''"l P"'^" but at the very crisis of his gS ^ P^/^^"'"'^ «^^' ^ ui ma gienius. His successor was % SRt OH. xir;j MODERN HISTORY. 267 S ^ f i«i« "",^^^- terminated his reign somewhat tuM>, of fK/ J '*'' °"°'= ™»''e reversed the for- S^ri that's;:,'' ««»"f''^ S™™-! of his predL Ngs; |fa!%t trts cre&.i Chi'tlT"' ''"' ""J™ ""•"* »")' attentive reader that Sr„t^fllT4t7a„^ 5?";"='/'"-'~^^^ «^^>„/^ *• f^". 'o"''.y ^oa. JVational corruDtions n-mA ntual combustibles had been i fSZ „°es id o^ ^'^ hons accumulating, to which LuTh., nnTl ■ *^^°''"'- merely applied thS'matches ' No It i''Lrt t'' derclap came. The affair of Indul^rces L»DeneH^„^r itsVil^pr'No'Sj cS^ """"s-" ™''- .^nation of the^e^nvta^f fot^^'^^lSU" -tf .&ciora°nraSS*''Tff™^^^^^^^^^ -. ^ __ ,,, ,,„^^ ^.j,j, j^jjj ^ occasional diversion of ' S68 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1612-18 Q„ ^''Jtiembuig-, an mdulg-ence had been nreacheH in Leo enlnroJ^ ,t /i ?u Poland, which his successor, LIjoJ . l^ ■ ''" "'"* '»» assistants must have nro. ce«led w,t , no mconsidei-aMe carelessness anrl temX ^we may judge from the declamations of f h" ir Su S' a" A "uS'TAT >"'■ '^"r^- Martin L..E was' vulgar yet forcible eloquence T„X\ema?,r,Zl.! once msures the attention of the middle S „™ cla e ' the theolog-j of Protestantism than just to i-ec3 n T^ of Its unmistakeable elements and featurp. TKn u worth any things, must be from heaven, is redu^d to h CM. xri.J •MODERN HISTORY. 269 subjective matter of opinion, instead of beinir recognised as TJ?ftl '"? oblig-atory rule of faith, bifdirarTnon the Stalls {^r nnrUStf "K„r'"r,^ "'-■«' S'iSu Jrl;„T» s.j^e.'ii'"^ tet 'r i^ ,i" Z, ,V,„ T ? ^^® ^"^ followers turnins- upon himself or to what It IS, m the present state of things, and as t^ what existed has a rig-ht to arrange himself with Luther Z Germany is ready enough to "acknowledge nor ca^tha Antmommn or Anabaptist, revelling in t^e m^ie of^„5« fhpTn.i r«''^"'"''' ^^^'^ audacity which imnui X^TlfJ'^^T-'''.f' «"^ ^^'^"^' whilst ^on^he and inteit^t .• ^'^'""E Voice which settles, sanctions, ana mteijrets it, are written in a thousand battles w}mV) bave desolated the face of the earth,-inhe conv"^^^^ Sleelt i^'^ :'^ ^^^^^T^ ^^-^^^^ of manM rk i-iVSl- iilj tfxi,— ana m liie ^7^ MODERN HISTORY. [a.D, 1516-90 tf Ti ^l* ^ ^'? ''°^^^'^' °^ T'^^^''*.^ ^ ^hont knowledge, under ti.e hoof of oppression, .,s well as without .-eliaion !h '^r '" "^^' °' illuminate its pr ^pects for '"HAPTER XIII. A.D. 1616-1648. OKNERAL SKETCHES OF EUROPKAN n:8T0RY FROM T,. AOB 0» CHARLES THE FlPril TO THE PEACE OF M r^STPHAIaA. FEnmNAND the Catholic, havin- survived his queen Isabella and h.s son-in-law Phihp of Austria dTa? length xn a.d. 1510, alter the acquisition of Up,t-Na va,-ve from the family of Johr d'Albret, who cS only rrt m he lower districts a;Kl Beai-n ; so that the k n . U U sf.s i'oitugal. Chniles, the son of Philin wus in th^ ^«nch year of his age at the death of I^^^ndSw JImmm, his mother, rendered incapable of reio-ni^o thvou?h insanity, could not avoid being set aside- anu S. n S or four years more, MaximiliaSbeingdeadXsu^^^^^^^^ the imperia dignity; besides having come into posses on ?ni' ^°""5' of Burgundy, the Netherlands, the Ainer 2S Indies, as they were termed, together with the S-ownsTf Naples and Sicly tlie island of Sardinia, and som?fo?: S on the no. tj^ern coasts of Africa. Cardinal Senes had consolidated for him his Ibeiian throne: s. thaTtL fortunate prmce had but just reached the period of manhood when he found himUlf the most powe?fo mon. arch in Europe, and at the same time a ^co^tempomr; with othe^r sovereigns of no ordinary energy or abrtv StTntinorl Tr'T""^) '^°^"''"'"" *'^« Magnificent a v^onsiantinople. Leo X., however, no less renownpH fni. ns pohtica wie-.m than his munificent patronaTe of the h^lTATT'' '^^"'^ "'"°« ^" *h« attention wifh wh ch he watched the approaching rivalry between the French HH. XIIl.J MODERN HISTOnv. 271 He Lad advised tl.e German pW 1 i'®^" prevented, their own numb, or ,2^*0 w. i" ^.' T"" °"« °^ which miglr have Lroneihr I J ^' '^'"!^'^'"J ^ «^«P digahty of this pontiff nccelm , tl • -^"'/H^ P''°- from another quarter and bo/l t» ' '"f/' .°^ ^""g"e' pope and the u orld Lss of tl! ^'^^ vacdlation of the pei-iod of their reactive 1^1. • ''"^'T''', "' *» subsequent must b. n,en/ion JaHrroSr/'n^" ^'"^'"? ^'^^^^ ^"ther, of t),e time.. mL imZd^atf n 7"^? *^^« "^isfoitunes iay in the mind o^lW wL^ ^on. * " ''''"J"^" "^^^^''^ mortifying- pref.M-ence wh d. r° '""''^^ I'^V^ ^"''^et the •electing- Charle. Send nf)^''"?r^' ^'"^ displayed in lian. 4 also felVbrnd^• ^t::";s^:rr.^^^^^^^^^ Bv l^^fore his so ponderous at home XthpiL-P'!'??"*'^« ^«d grown not fail to be eq3?y i^^ S/' l'"^ \'' influencetould entire tone beca,2e aim W^^^^^^^^ ""'^ ^^"*^^ ^^^ to have effected any 3 ^ on^t f?"'' T^'^^-^ ^^^n, "•= ' i«o A., wiio aaa jomed with IMAGiE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 LI ^M2& Hi 140 IL25 i 1.4 2.0 1.6 ^>. ^ V Photpgraphic .Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STRKT WEBSTER, N.Y. USSO (716) 872-4503 972 MODERN H18TORT. [a.D. IfiSO-O the emperor and Ena-land against Franct-, as the least of two great evils, just lived to witness the rapid progress of Chai'les in Italy, where the French were nearlv expelled from the Milanese, although their own country was in- vaded without much effect by the English. But u conspi- racy of the Constable Bourbon appeared pregnant with far more important consequences, particulai'ly when the in- jm-ed fiigitive had entered the imperial service. His countrymen were defeated in the battle of Biagi-assa, me- morable for the death of the Chevalier Bayai-d, and the rebuke administered by him to all traitors, before he was removed in his glory from the field. Yet the followino- year was still more disastrous to Francis; for in the action near Pavia, 24th of February, a.d. 1525, he lost a noble army, the last relics of whatever remained to him beyond the Alps, his personal liberty, and in fact every thing ex- cept the honour of his crown. The subsequent treaty of Madrid obtained his freedom indeed, on conditions so hard, that Europe, roused rather late to some sense of danger' formed a leag-ue, with Clement VII. at the head of it, to set reasonable limits to the overweening aggrandisement of th? emperor. But the imperialists under Bourbon, become rabid for prey or plunder, and consisting to a great extent of German Lutherans in th fresh fervours of their heresy, marched at once to Rome in May, a.d. 1527 ; where* though the Constable died beneath the walls, which his banditti had mounted, such scenes were enacted as threw into comparative shadow the barbarism of Alaiic or (ifen- seric. Robertson, a Protestant historian, has declared that it is impossible to describe or even imagine them. Churches, palaces, and private houses underwent pillao-e without mercy. No age, or character, or sex, was exempt from injury. Whatever might be respectable in modesty, or sacred in religion, seemed only the more to provoke the rage of the soldiery. Virgins suflered violation in the arms of their mothers, and on those altars to which they had fled for safety. Cardinals, nobles, priests, after the endur- ance of every indignity and torture, were thjtown into dun- geons, and menaced with the terrors of the most cruel dfiatht^ to extort from them thair hidda& treasures. The CH. XIII.] MODERN HISTORY. 073 the stoiin was over Thf'p ''''' ''nJ '^'' ^'^^ ^'^'7 ^^ name of Chm-Ies aTd doo. ^iV. ^"^ ""^^ T'^^**^^ '» ^J'e yet not the less surelv spmrpH tJ,« a,*, " "". s«cietiy, Spanish interest., S "^ , ^'^ culmination of upon the . „, ^.^ uruiuer, rercunand; but tlm Tn -l-" fn tl.3 M ^T*«^«r««y of tKe Pi-otestant r.rinces tliieatened to take the sliape it soon after assumed at Sm'dcidd? and the fanaticism of the Anabaptists seemed mSl a nH-on!^ on:feimany. With no real consistency couJd anv nntl,^ nty, »v, ,l,a, „f ,,)„ C.tl,„Iic CW1,.-\„°;L " W Jl^ ^* MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1626-41. ritual vagwies. They were the evaporations of private judg-ment bi-oodmg over Divine Revelation, upon Yunda- mentally erroneous principles; and comipting, aa a matter ot course, into the unconstrained indulgence of sensual )ftssion. That such results should not always follow in lereticnl countries arises from certain elements ofCatho- icity still retained in society. Muncer, the eariiest pro- phet of tins sect, who had as much light to his notions, upon the grounds of Protestantism, as Luther or Calvin had to tlieu-s, perished on a scaffold at Mulhausen, as earlr as a.d. 152G. They were neither more nor less than the Mormomtes of their day and generation; nor could John Matthias, the baker of Haarlem, nor John Bocold, the tailor of Leyden, so long as they abstainmi from overt violence, be justly celled to account by those pei-sons who seized upn ecclesiastical property, or conceded a couple of consorts to the evangelical Landgrave of Hesse. At Mun- ster, m Westphalia, the two Johns of Holland attempted to found their republic, which was to subdue the whole world to the sceptre of the King of saints. After atrocities not to be told, the bishop of the citv and diocese had to suppress them by military force, a.d.' 163P at the verv period when the emperor was undertakir.. expedition against the Mahometan polygamists on the co?st of Bar- bary. Hayraddm of the Red Beard, one of the most des- Derate pirates that ever sailed the seas, had succeeded his brother Aruk or Horuc, in the sovereig-nty of AljiiGx-s, winch he had lormeily assisted him to usurp from the Abuhafides. Attracted by the fame of Solyman, as also to ol.tam a patron the grandeu- of whose name might pro- tect his npval depredations, hn placed his dominions under the supremacy of the Ottoman Poi-te; a mark of submis- sion so flattering to the sultan, that he nominated him admiral of the entire 7'urkish fleet. Proud of such power and distinction, and professing himself a tributaiy to the padisha nt Constantinople, he acquired Tunis, of which the expelled chieftain, Muley Hassam, applied to diaries V for h- phes, which furnished him with an opportunity for suL verting- their free and ancient constitution ; the citizens of Ghent, his birth-place, had withdi-awn their alleffiance and offered it to his rival which brought down upon them'ven- geance rather than chastisement; while the revolutions in Hungary so strengthened the sceptre of Solvman and strait- ened that of Ferdinand, that had it not been for the libendity of the Protestant princes, purchased indeed bv scandalous compromises, and for another alliance with Endnnd, the hhes of J' ranee would have g-ained a lasting- ascentfancy over ' 070 MODERN HISTORY. [a.d. 1544-52. the House of Austria. As it was, they baffled the united cn.>rgyot Henry and Cliarles; tliey won a terrific vie torvat Cerisoles over tlie iinperiahsts ; and with I'ar less edifynig- temerity, they slione amongst the standards and penants ol Barbarossa, when, in alliance with the Ottoman adventurer, they devastated tlie sea-board of Italy It was Francis, beyond all doubt, who, by his alliances with Mahometanism, first admitted the Crescent to a reco^- nised position in the confederacy of European powers. He died m the same year with Henry VIIL, a d 1547 after the peace of Crespi with the emperor, in a'.d! 1544! had enabled him to recruit his finances, and impart the blessing ot some brief repose to his almost exhausted kino-- dom. ° Charles had now leisure to turn his attention steadily upon Germany ; where if any portion of his own authority, or respect for the only true relig-ion, was to be preserved, lie had no time to lose. Luther was just g-one to his final account; all the Protestant princes seemed aware that an appeal must sooner or later be made to arms ; Paul III. liad neo-otiated an arrangement with his imperial ally for the extirpation of heresy and the conservation of Chi-isten- dom; and at length the decisive victory of Mulhausen prostrated the league of Smalcalde a.d. 1547. Its leadera, the elector of Saxony and the Landgrave, were taken pri- soners ; the supremacy of their conqueror extended over the empire with absolute sway ; while the latter, intoxi- cated with his success, inflicted heavy fines upon all tho«e cities which had fail-d to espouse the Catholic cause, and torgot, which was far worse, that distinct line of demarca- tion prohibiting any temporal interference wit^ spiritual affairs. Not content with a protest against the translation ot tlie Council of Trent to Boloo-na, he attempted himself to compose the agitations of religious controversy. Imi- tating the Byzantine soyereigns, he ventured to publish an Interim, as it was termed ; in other words, a temporary system of doctrine and worship. Destined as it was for the fate which every such assumption so well des^erves It met with general condemnation; for the idea of a lay pontiff could not but be considered as a self-evident on. xiii.J MODERN HI8T0RV. 277 absurdity; nnd when the chamnion of tha CU,. i i , wished for. Charles conferred uoon h.^ T i^ ^^ dignity, which continued ever aCari? in i '^'•''''i"^^ bmnch of the Saxon family as alSX I. ^,J"°'°^ m « lito, „mid/,l,e tormSSti.e .^f ' rw Ju liS-ht of torclies, over Alpine passes at raiSn io U ., - , 278 MODERN HISTORY. [a.d. 1662-03. ample remnnei-ation for the pnit lie hnrl tnken In tlies? tniasnctions by liis occu|)ntion iind leteiition of M.-tz, l oiil, iind Verdun, wliich ultiniatelv enabled tlie wixloni of Cnrdinid Fleury, nt n later period, to secure Lorniine for J^i-ance. The chm-acter nnd prestige oiCliarles suffered im- mense damage through these various reverses. His fnilure before Metz, from the gallantry of the Duke of Guise; the ^fusnl of Fei-dinand to resign the titular crown of the Romuns, that Philip, the heir of Charles, might succeed his father in the empire ; his declining- health, thus aggravated by solicitude and humiliation ; his having at length per- naanently appropriated Milan on the removal of tlie last of the Sforzas ; to say nothing of his honest wish to employ hid latter days in preparation for eternity,— all induced him to withdraw from the jniblic gaze, to a charmino- monastic retreat in Estremadura. He fain would have lirs^t pacified Europe, agitated as it had been by his remorseless ambition. At the time of his resignation, he is described by a cai-eful observer, as of middle size, handsomely grown, and possessing a dignified appeai-ance. With a In-oad forehead, his eyes were blue, expressing much intellect; his nose was aquiline, and his skin fair ; the under jaw of his face seemed lonp- and broad, on account of which it did not shut well ; and in speaking, the latter words of his sentences sounded the least intelligible. His front teeth were few and jagged ; his beard was short and gi-ey. His temperament was phlegmatic, with melancholy' at the bottom of it. The gout had tenibly disabled h'im in the hands, feet, and shouldei-s. His finances had never been equal to his occasions; so that economy, from habitual necessity, towards the close of his adniinistration, often manifested penurious tendencies. He loved good cheer from the centre of his soul, frequently eating and drink- ing beyond what an enfeebled digestion could bear. His vices never broke out in any indecent degree of violence • and, veiled as they had always been in the robes of de- oonim, he edified both the world and the Church in his retirement, by looking back upon them in their tnie li-'ht, by humbly confessing and bitterly repenting of them^all, OR. XIII.) MODERN HISTORY. 079 and exhibiting very unostentatiously the sincerity of hi, contntion m the practices of devotion and mW as the pntormance of severe expiatory penoncef ' His resipation of the empire, tog-et ler with some ofhoy tion was dated he 22d o^Ma/fniM^^^^^ opened in the cathedi.l of tt^ci'/fiJ^1vU"nce Vr nves Its name on the 18th of LceZm Tv yt' Matters were discussed, savs Alban n,,Mp, n \- , congreo^ations, and then SSnt^ iS e se« i^onr^lw some cfebates, t was agreed that subjects of iU,t?f and u' Xr^:lV;W'^'"7'T^' ""^ the condemn' „■ S/]p "^T'^'j" "°r'"* "«^' ^"* tl^e same wliidi t e Apostles delivered, and which the Church in all ae-es Z lieved and taught. The decrees for the i"f«iLS of manners and ecclesiastical discipline fc^Ltt^tZet and cwions in the several sessions. Under Paul 11?^ H^ trfa?hlTo%'f'""'\""^Pi^^'"-^ were ™ied r"' '"^'"' 'K' ''-^''^'' ">"^''' «"^l ^^^^ Turned butllint in P'"''°"' /r.^r^ ^-e"^""^* then oc te A n' {'"^''"^'f,"^- 'eassombled the preh.tes at Trent tW'te fth a ntf' '^'' '''''''''' ^"'"^ ^^>« eleventh ?o ine sixteenth, another suspension ensued throu"-h the Ger- man wars; but not until ihe sacraments of t 1 hoi v Zt'f' ^T'^' «"d ^^t'-^'^^ unction had tlnfl tmir"^ the Protestants invited, under a sn e-Zd.fct cX il "nd S'iTh ^"'" '''' ^•^■>- ''' M- Pi„« TV J , • ^^'® suspension continued: but fnifr ^^.^" t^'« seventeenth session proceeded, md was folWed m due course by those dowA to the twentv-filtl and last, mvovmg the question of commim ^n " f fo kmds, the sacrifice of the ilass, the latter s™ "n p^ w .,, o-, "flv mvocatiuu of saihrs, and indulgences; ' I MODERN Hisiony. [a.d. 1557-9. after which, on the 14th of Decemher a.d. 1508, the Coui.nl concl.ulod witli the usual acclamations and 8ub- Bcnnt.ons. lh«y cmpnse.l those of four le^nito., two canlumls, tJiree patriarchs, twenty-five archbishops, 168 bishops present, and tlie deputies of tliirtv-nine wL were and loO theolof^mus, .elected, to8:ether with the canonists tvom the most learned and pious divines in the world flnnfn T". '"^TT."^''' "' ^'''' ^''^""^•''' 1^"^', France, Hungary, Illyrm, Croatia, Momviu, Flanders, England and Ireland. Ihe ambassadors of the various sovereiinis signed as witnesses in a sepai-ate schedule, and the con- *T i?«.° ^ Holiness was given on the 20th of JanuaiT t^' }V^*.,f"«e'»"f !"« justly compared the JVicene assembly of his own day to a wreath of the most beautifiil flowera- and surely the similitude may be repeated as aophcable to the Tridentine fathers. They inclucfed witWn theu- conclave whatever was foremost and illustrious in the acumen the ei-udition, and the saintliness of their ajfe; whi:e 80 cpmp lete and luminous are their decisions, ancTso won- derful the umversal consent with which they have been received, that :t mav be doubted whetlier another Ecume- meal Council could be necessary under almost any conceiv- SwTt rf'-l "Tp"^"'''^ ^"'^ ^"« to the piiyei. and «nS fi fl 1 ^'"'■^®' of Borromeo, will never be known S L 1 • .^°°«"mmation. The son of the emperor en- nl K f7'*^ ^^"'"* P'"'^°°« a"d tJ^e principality of Ona; but the genuine treasures of this eminent ornament ot the Church were summed up in his personal piety and poverty of spint, and the fervent zeal with irhich he wrapped up his heart and soul in the reception of the Tri- ^^" them "^''' *^^ ""^^"^ ''"'^ catecliism accompauy- The rig-ht aiTO of Philip II. in a secular sense was his gi-eat general Emanuel Philibert. He g^vined the mt,nd victory of St. Quentm over the French on the festival of »t. Lawi'ence, m honour of whom the Escnrial was founded to commemorate the event, a.d. 1557. iVo years altej- wards, the peace of ChAteau Cambresis restored Emam,»J CM. XIII.] MODERN HI8TORT. yg- to his hereditary principalities of Savoy and Piedmont. w,th the country of Brcsso, of which the^ Dukes of sTvoy had been deprived, nearly n q.mrter of a centt.ry hefore, i^ Henry VIII. had passed to his son, Edward VI. ; ftom him PhiHn TTA'^'"]^^ '■"^•^T"^ Mary, who h^cl married Ktr H ^'* Calais; anc from her to (he, notorious Elizabeth the ,mde of Anglican Protestantism, and the scourge of the Church of §od. The sovereign of Spain rable, though less fortunate sister. Although the Queen of England declined his <,vertures, she dreaL his power Its p,.e.emmence, indeed, at that time no European poten-' tate could venture to dispute. His nephew, Sehistian king of Port„j.al, was a ciild. In France, the ace dent at a tournament, which destroyed Henry II. made wav for F,nn JfT^'l^r? ''''^' ""^^'^ ^^'^^ "'• ^'«ked children, Jrancis II Charles fx., and Henry III. Denmark tm-bu ence. In Poland, the extinction of the Jagellons 7l^]llT^-^'!^''^'^'^^' commotions j and the suItaL of lurkey buned themselves in their seraglio. Amone^t the republics, Genoa maintained an attachment to his in- terests; Venice imperfectly concealed her apprehensions cSlr^'"'-'''' ^- ^'f"^^^^P' ^"'l ^" SwLrland ?he Ca holies w«.e m sr .< : alliance witJi him against the Cal- Zolf 3"?.^.'""& l»" ^i«t»«ts. The Popes, even when per- of ti f^^'"f ""'•' --^^^g^'s^d his power as the p Uar of the pontificate m ,ts political aspects. His revenues in peace were from 9,000,(JoO to 10,oSo,000 of ducTanni" ally, and could be raised without diificultv for any war- expenditm'e to 12,000,000 or 13,000,000. -ile wasTh rtv- one years of age at the decease of liis father, a.d. 155^ Badoer, the Venetian envoy, thus draws his portrait • " The sta ure of his majesty is small, but witli fine limbs; unde? a high and fair forehead, his azure eyes are tolerubl ' lai-e' the eyebrows are strong, and not much parted ; lie has a nicely shaped nose, an enorn.ous mouth, an uo-h' , nde.L and a white beard; his de,K)rtment is i i the e^tJrior ffi """"""' HHTORT. (*.o. Uit-rS. court consists of 15l)d nttonihnM H« T / '"'' '"' the face when oonve.Ctrnns,^^™:.^?;'"^..;" wevds ™"?'^^ "-™~ ".-g^phy ;lr dMe^nt a,Ewe« r wSAhfrr °°'^'' /""'*» ttae. The conU^eat Kf, ™,l SS "L' '? Tt of Lorraine and Thpnrfn.o T»n.„ ''""""ciea by the tardmal thp latte.. pXi'dtr s^Sed'S '=-1i;^ r'n rehgious worship. Cut the foct was tW S 'l i * °' in wJiici, tlie genuine interests of oui- Holv mJT,T' Chuchd.sappea.^1 altogether. Th."r.s^°le'st3alli: M to which, the massacre itself; deplorable as it wa., ims less Indeous m the distance of time than the mendadot Bnd unchr.st.on spi.it in which it has been exa™?ed and dwelt upon by anti- catholic writei-s. In A S^ 1507 Cond^, Co hg^iy, and other P..)testant leade.-s, had foS a desicn, of su.p. sing the King of Frc.noo wi h he Q een Had r^l-'''" ''""8^ in security at Monceau in Uife! Had not this conspu-acy been discovered, and a bodv of Swiss escorted the royal family to i>a.is triibeS, *t fS i"""' °^*''f '"S-ent and ^er son must have remni. od at the mercy of then; most bitter enemies. Then en ' ed the bloody battle of St. Denis, whe.e Montmorency de- feated the i^bds, although slain himself in tl e nctiol Reinforced by German and Luthe,-an enlistments Condi traye..sed great pa.t of the kingdom at tl rhend of ifif errs 7ui^i ''r *° '''r''' ""^^ ^^^ ^^ couitin A.D 1508, to ao^ree to an accomi^odation It ehcited abundance of ba5 faith on both sideT when th« v^r broke out again with greater fu.T than ever "l e the next year at Jarnac involved the death of Cond7 nnd the subst.tut.on of Admiral Coligny in his ..lace as ch eibin of the .nsu,.rect.onists. These we?e iow joined bvtl.eounS tZV^A N«7«»-e; Anjou had to retreat, and l^oiSioVs "f 7!!^'.ir^^h-'^''-^^^^^ «kill and «: c. _..._,. ^^^« „- „yjgg^ ^^^ ^ ^^ deliveiei- of Metz ^^ MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1670-7. and the captor of Calais. Anjou and Tavannes again over- threw the :buguenots at Moncontour, a sangiiinaiT encoun- IwcrtKtM" 1^^'^^«,T°5 notwSstTnTnl wincn tne admn-al, altliough wounded, contrived to coIIpp^ m:^rS'' T^ r ' 'T '"^^8- herW andtena^e":^ metropolis,, ihe general misery, coupled with financial embamssment, at length extorted a Lce,-that of sf Germain^ en-Laye, a.d. 1570. Hard terms, folCL unon scenes of bloodshed, effected little towards a WaTSca^ tion The passions of a nation were fermentinriito mS revenge, and animosity, in a corrupt age, an! undeT^ hoi owest professions of hypocrisy.' Clfarles IX was t rected by fas mother to o¥er the Princess Ma J;iirhe; daugW m maiTiage to the youthful King offfirre' and It was to celebrate their nuptials that the mSal personages of the Catholic and Protestant partfesCnT gated m Aug-ust at Paris. The admiral sremed to be acquinng an influence over the mind of Charles, through his irresistibly insinuating address, which excited the S ousy of Catherine; so that she became wilful yptVto If she did not actually originate, a base plot fo/E/s assassination. He accordingly received a shot from f ome places Ihe Hug-uenots crowded to his hotel, exasperated to madness at the treachery, and breathing the d ?esf i^- XTnicioif 3 '"^ ""^"*"^ "^°^^^°«« The demons 01 suspicion and massacre once more assumed the as- cendency. The Protestants were resolving to wreak fearfd retahation upon the Catholics and the Guises: the Snl suddenhr made up her mind to anticipate them. Ee arose the catastrophe, which had never^been contemSated before, but which grew, like a hideous Scylla, ou^'the r. tl ff .f ^ P"'-'^'"^ Charybdis. At the sound of a beU on the fatal morning, the hotel was forced by royal order- the admiral and his colleagiaes perished; thepopuIaceS n the work of butchery; every suspected Ktestant was sacrificed who could not either resist or conceal himself; The orrible contagion spread to other cities and districts; and ^is supposed that within the limits of Paris alone, 1600 Huguenots paid the penalty of their former reb-Uio- be CH. XIII.] MODERN HISTORY. 286 foie any thing like order could be restored. Philip mean- while had trampled under foot every vestige of dTor At r^'t"^ '? *^« ®P^"'«h kingdoml as ako L Franche Comt6 and the is'etherlands.^ The sanSar? Duke of Alva was already there; and Counts eS an J t^iSuelT ^' Kt '^' P^r ^*«d stru^-glfdesS i?,n- w-.J® establishment and renown of a Dutch re- oubhc. With so many difficulties upon his admini tmtion he nevertheless strengthened himself by sea and knd At to ?Wi ^^°.' "^^^ "P*«^ ^y *he wines of Cyprus Sand rZ: T" > *^' ^T*'^"«' «« ^^«*«^ o/?S whTch tlZT^l '^' ''"P^''^^' ?" ^^^«- ^ ^°We defence, wnicn through the prayers and pradent policy of St rjphilio^t* fT V?^"«. ^«*'^«- wSff Venice; Sarles The?nt " of Austria the illegitimate son of i^naries, the late emperor, by Barbara Blombere- bpino. appointed commander-in-chief of the combined fl ft. S he O^r''^' r/ "'^^'•'^^^ ^^*^ *h« "^-^1 victory over «ie Ottonians at Lepanto, on the first Sunday in oJtoW Bfe;sed kZf nf^pP-f °-°'^f ^^/ intercession of the xjiessea Mother of God, implored with extraordinor^ fervour in the devotion of the^osary Don rhn S ?Sd1 Ch ?^; ^""" and Biserta, /here he woulS haTe hThalf b,vSS /'" pnncipaJity, could but the jealousy of ms nalt-bi-other have allowed it. Left, therefore witRmiJ adequate supplies, the Turks returned upofthe' I^^^^^^^^^ the next season, recaptured whatever territories tKad recently lost on the coast of Barbary, anHetenld to consider tliem, too:ether with the acqui ition of C™ as panto'^Thf "'. • ^If^'/^'-^trievaSle humiliatio^/K panto Ihe victor in this last engagement was transferrSl from the Mediterranean to the low CouSs after^ prfifaS*of"sLrr. t. --^-trcaufd ^^ ^SuHr^ff • ^°*' '^'"''^ ^»d ^or its object the ex- firof Sf sf T' '?? the restomtion o^the ancient iioerties ot the States. His efforts, however nrnduPpH nothing beyond dissatisfaction in each pX 'sCe ?ed «5_^a ..J „i„ „„&jco-ta, cuagrin, ii not poison, terminated - 286 MODERN HISTOBY. [a.D. 1677-9. It^ST ^* ^'""^ ^'^ ?}'^^'*'^ o^ o°e occasion, that he slio . d become a suitor for the hand of Mai-y Queen of Scot and, incarcerated as that princess was by hi mSe^s iSm Jl.nf n f ' sovereign his implacable enemy; and tiom that point, Iier interference in the Netlierlands some jv^mt deepened in its efficiency and intensl^ Don John had indeed de eated tlie forces of the PaciHcation ne7r assisted Ins successor, Alexander Farnese, prihce of Parma to -ive a new turn to tlie interests of Spain. Theie Imd cs and Protestants, no shdit tendencies to a sepmti^ o then- respective svmpatfiies and associations. 'Ke TJiat state, Ho land, Zealand, Friesland, Gronin"?L Over- yssel, niidGuelderland; in eacli of Avh ch evanScallsm predonmnted. The Prince of Orang-e »ltinmteh"gov^^^^^^^ heir affairs as stadtholder. On the opposite sillef the oi^ tho.l(.x party also drew into closer cinfederacy amon- themselves, as apart from the others, selectino ^L Sukf of Anjou OS their protector. Farnese managed mat ei^ be er than his predecessor ; and to his sagacimis clemency It uas owing that the crown of Spain retained, after a ti2^ came so ' °' "' ^'^'* ^" ^^'^ ^^^ °»^« "ff^^ '^e- .^no!l[i;"!/''"''^''!!? ^'^''^^ '"■« I^«tnvian states, some sngndai changes m Morocco and Portug-al brou-ht about the addition of the latter kingdom to°his already vast hough scattered empi.^. The" Merinides had Seeded he Mownheddms in the possession of those fertiirS-icts betm>en Mount Atlas and the Mediteri^neanrA gie f Jnd the Athmtic Ocean, just us the Abuhafides hmroccunied n 1 the rest of the coast of Barbarv; the latter were Xr- tlamn, ns we have seen, by Turkish comii^ t^ foZ- ^vei-e supplanted by the Slieriffs, or descendants of fit ;-;m,t p.x.phet ofthe An.bs. Professing trSestol IH. genuine saints of Islam, these last pretended t. at the^ hoti received a commission from God to deliver Ma-mb cJ KM. 1677-9. don, that he y Queen of ler merciless sufficient to memyj and lands some- Don John cation near ndvantag-es, e of Parma, Tliere liad the Catho- sepai'ation IS. Hence ng-, besides ig'en, Over- tigelicalism Y g'overaed de, tlie or- cy among- the Duke id mattei-s i clemency ifter a ti-e- hich were again be- tes, some ght about iady vast succeeded e districts g'iei's and occupied ere over- le foiTne* ts of the ves to ba that they agmh, or CH. XIII.J MODERN HISTORY. &87 the western coiratry, fi-om the Christian infidels, meaning tlie Portuguese. The emir of the Merinides was mur- lir ^^ ^"* "P°" '"^ throne, by two of the Sheriffs; and Morocco swore alleg-iance upon tlie Koran to Hamed, or Mohamed, the founder of the existing dynasty ; he conquei-ed Fez, and reduced every adjacent chieftain to an absolute obedience. Henry VlII. of England con- cluded a commercial treaty with him, relating to his sugar-plantations at Tarudant, and provided him with ammunition and arms. His son, Abdallah Muley Moloch, must have governed with energy and ability, if we may judo-e fi-om the state of his realm, and the attachn^put of Ins peonle. He had banished, however, a brother, Muley Ahihamed, who took refuge at Lisbon in the reio^i ot Don Sebastian, a young monarch very ambitious, and already ocoui)ied with the idea of going to Goa, and assuming the diadem of the East Indies. He was tlie gieat-uTandson of the illustrious Emanuel, by John Pnnce of Brazil, and Joanna, second daughter of Charles \. ; the father died before the birth of his heir, leavino- Ins broken-hearted widow preg-nant in her t^ventieth year^ lience all the hopes of the nation were centered in this jwstliumous infant. Prayei-s and iirocessions were offered m every church from the Minho to Cape St. Vincent; notwithstanding which, the most alarming poi-tents pre- ceded the royal accouchement; a shadowy woman, clad in black, vas seen to stand by the side of Joanna, snappino- hei; fmgei-s and blowing into the air, as if predicting thS Jitihty of all that the public might be expecting; and Moorish figin-es, with torches in their hands, i-ushed by the palace-windows on the wintry blast, in full view of the princess and her ladies, uttering doleful cries as they descended into the sea. In the night of the 15th Januaiy A.D. loo4, a shout of exultation announced the entrance mtp tbe worid of Don Sebastian, whose romantic fate has rendered his name famous in song and story. Contrary to tlie advice of P]iili|), of his gi^ndmother, and of every sincere friend at court, his imag-ination, x-oused by the romance o*„5je enterprise, induced him to embark with ^ fW 9^ W»)^ m^ '"f -'^fnea. The Sheriff, neai-ly 288 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1670-88. eighty years of age, and dvine- frnm « i n aiTanged in person the ordr?f WM. T "^^''l before the victory was lined hi L • ' ^^^ ^''P"*^'* his hps, as a si^d thK^'^wt ^^""^t^^' ^«^'' «» orders^^ere s?ilS^^^^ \^ concealed, of his litter until tCpnJfT, J^ °* *^® ^^^^^^ cnrtains throne from dishonoi.r °^Jff 'flection, to rescue hia native their coUonToiTfeel forW*' °' ^H ter havm? becomeMoSJ rt ^ Emanuel, her eFder sis- her^d..t™u, „a, oCpL^T; a Sf^e ^f^SS^^ «« »ad along the sho^^I sZtTfCZ't^i "" K-gn at the same time persecuC hefSolin i? ?' as the imperious Jezabel of her ao«%S„ • j j l"T°'^> and Elizabeth assisted ttS'SK™''"H^r"''' "■mamene. Its !„„ p«,vedl™paif ^1 "-..^TS'™.?" ». 1670-88. Qg illness, d expii'ed fing-er on concealed, id curtains uted, and befell him '>70. His nonastery vould yet preserved Qis native ade their d Henry, wn, and., •hilip II., Emanuel all other victories, belong-ed iffhter of Jlder sis- )reigner, to the intained genera- ingper- ong the is sove- ubjects, freland, ehgious n both d, A.D. English ts, and heart, ous an CH. XIIl.J MODERN HISTORY, &89 victory of Don John at Lepanto was to Turkey, Hence- forward her political, as well as her naval supremacy, gra- dually declined. Whatever sums her despotic government could spare from the exhausting contest in the Netherlands, were expended in strengthening the Catliolic league in Fi-ance, still struggling with convulsive throes against the heresy of the Hugtienots. On the death of Charles IX. his brother Henry III. abandoned the throne of Poland, to which he had been elected, to disgrace that of France, which he now ascended as the lawfiil heir, a.d. 1574. The Guises, however, with their ambition, energies, and aspirations, altogethfir eclipsed a monarch whose love of pleasure seemed ill adapted for the critical position in which he was placed. The Protestants, under tiieir King of Navarre, had beaten the royal army in the action at Coutras, a.d. 1587, and yet found the League too strong foi' them. Its leader rested his popularity upon the true religion, to which he professed to be devoted, upon being the idol of the Parisians, and upon the secret power of Spain. Henry III. came to be first despised, and then hated ; rumours were even circulated that the Sorbonne would sanction his being removed from the helm, and the Duke of Guise holding it in his stead, whose sister, the Duchess of Montpensier, showing a pair of golden scissors, which she wore at her girdle, ventiu-ed to say, that the best use she could make of them was, to clip thehair of a prince unworthy to sit upon the throne of France, in order to qualify him for a cloister, so that one more deserving to mgn might mount it, and repair the losses which religion and the state had suffered tnrough the weakness of his predecessor. In reply to such a taunt, the king inwardly resolved upon an extra-judicial murder. His too powerful subject was assassinated by royal order a.d. 1588. The cardinal, his brother, shared a similar fate. The metro- Sohs, as well as the League, flev/ to arms ; the Duke of layenne, another brother, was chosen Lieutenant-general of the State. Heniy was abandoned by his orthodox and former adherents, and therefore, in revenge and despah-, he threw himself into an alliance with the Protestants. This fal! OlOA 0T/%V\ /\#t/knc«i/\v« M\/ fsvoi. 131VIXC« Ilia I ttlU i lO. V I tor auvancing' wil. 800 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1689-161? satisfied Henry IV of LTS ) • T' ''"^ '""^^ ''»ve gi-nsn and sway L scept^" o? Frf "^^J '"''''^^"''' ^^«* t° the blmch of God X newln"' '.^'T'* ^'^ «"*«'• and besief.-ed RouLrn both I J. if J* ^-"^ '"^^'*«<^ ^«"s, by the DJike omr^ tS^foTpffi" not been for the fortunate imnvol f) ? "' ' ""^ ''«^ i* must liave convinced liim tLf » 1,! . ? "".'""' s*"'" piety.of intention nor p„,l o^i? For thf' l^' "'* SX^nf:f''gt™d^-^:^'M^^ amount of balance TtirSury HH i °f"°°jt.'* «uence bevond the Pvrenee, ft^tt.I,- 1^ (ound ius in- !.nd Wen 1-ost, l,nt re C"lV S t of S, i,""^' in Pome deeree tlie tiir]nil*.r,nn „+-*i rr ^^^^'^s satisfied 50,000,000 diSs and the n^^^^^ ^ ^^'^ ^'^'^^^^ «^- . 1689-1617. R*er of James u must have essor, that to St first enter "uidinff ano- , nppJied to i^ested Paris, ?i-e ti-avcrsed ; nnd had it oital illness, ranee might appendag-e 1 the realm, ^8 it turned )niposed for fttive sense family had Jither with i infamous little pal- other basis >led to de- "m a debt ted it to It over his te of tran- i financial nsiderable »tl his in- A miens i satisfied a i-etum d favour- ?hsh and mated at It leng th and wd itition of diadem. CH. XIII.] MODERN HISTORY, ;S91 Ferdinand I. and Maximilian II. were pi-udent and judicious emperors, chiefly anxious for the peace and welfare of their people, but with little sympathy for the schemes of their more potent kinsman, the sovereign of Spain. Rudolf II. was a student. The partition of the Russian territories, the jealousies of the two divisions in the house of Saxony, and the selfish feebleness of Brandenberg, all contributed to the prevention of much open disturbance. Augustus, the successor of Maurice, improved his electorate, as far as religious dissensions would allow ; for the rights of private judgment were now working out their natural conseciuences. Brunswick and Hesse, Bavaria and the Palatinate, in fact almost eveiy principality in the empire, great or small, avenged itself ibr being obliged to abstain from external aggi^ession, by revelling in the confusions of intei-nal and doctrinal controvei-sy. It was the delight of Lutherans to exhibit the number of particulars in which Calvinism agreed with tLe Koran, m hilst the creed of Geneva retaliated by an avowal, that when fire and water should unite, then would a union with the confession of Augsburg seem not altogether impossible. The Archduke Matthias, aprince of some ambition and energy, compelled his brother Rudolf to resig-n the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary, and, in A.D. 1012, he also succeeded him in the empire. So soon as a treaty with Turkey allowed him some leisure, he began seriously to see the importance of a far more decided reli- fious policy than his dynasty hnd hitherto pursued. Neither e nor Rodolf had any male issue ; it became necessary, thereibre, that his next relative, Ferdinand of Gratz, de- scended from the first empei-or of that name, should ba secured as his siiccessor, which was done accordingly. At tlie same time, still further to strengthen his position, a family com,. '. was an-anged between Spain and Austi-ia, that those domestic misunderstandin"^ and coolnesses which had subsisted for sixty years should be buried for ever : A.D. 1617. Ferdinand had been educated at Madrid, — a circumstance of itself sufficiently startling to the German, Boliemian, and Hungarian Protestants, who began to look upon him as a thorough representative of Chai-les V. Henry Iv. had been assassinated in Fitmce a.d. 1610: the Hu- 0J)0 MODEHV HISTORY. [a.d. 101O.]8 rr r ro1:^&S?H - ^f ^-ifUl even, ^'e early years of tiV°^ iSty'TLol^ ft?;. ^""^ more spread terror far and wide^ thp^r ^ ^"^- *^ey once Lutlierans and Calvinists rt-n?^' r u n°''''^'^°^®ncewith and from Switzcu-land n n. ^ochelle to^nsylvania n>i-^cln-ef throu7hotth?,S.Tt'r^^^ ''"*''^^^^' suspicion a^d' was reduced to a science and PpT'"'" '""S"'""'' '^^'^^on Thirty Years' War The ItaL^ n """^ -8'''''" ^"'P^ ^^' t^e sepamted fi-om the heredftorv i^°'''''T? ^^^P"*" ^«re the Valtelline, a fei-tile and 7 ^'^'"'Of of tJie emperor, by if it could be\'bS'"e^^^^^^^^^^^^ tem-ories. The inluillnts " ^in^ '' '''"'''^ ^'^^'^^^ «h.e% Catholics, imp e."^^^^^^^^^^ vaUey were neighWns and masters theP.nfl'f * ^^''^ ^'"^'^ "^ t^'oir vetic republic. /ntS^ues we .t"1- '""*""' °^*'^« ^el- the purpose. The pr;^ito *'j"'efore set on foot for flumped ?he cnpmyZu^I T'''''''' ^^-^''li^r^ ^Iso n included the 5uch^ 'of XfT-"^ It the states of Ber»- nnf' Rnvlfi ''^ "^-^ °^ ^^ark, with industry, exactl ^i^tuied arth«"^ ' .'" ^"" 2^^«^^*J^ «nd «nds, so as to add ^mense no]it;."„ ''"''5*'^" ^««>«- m which they should hapDertnt.r^^^ t *^« '^^^^e rei^ ^^aving -died insaranrl Af '°'^"' Their sove- claimants, the .wo nrSn!]! ^^Sl^'"' amonc^t many buyh, aCathoinZTlSW^ of n2 and itsvicereffal comiof b , ^" *^'® interests of Spain >, who haTiSuced Svlr"'^.'^^*^ to attach the Prince of Omni^^^^ '''^?r^^'' electomte, of Holland, and the German^ I^wl^!''!" United Provinces of them to Ins narticula\ruse '*'"*'' °^' '' ^«^«* '^^^ Jaw t"Ctl'te„r atdt^^^^^ -- the catechism of HeideC'^ fanatically attached to %ians. Matthias eS ^/J"« ^^^^i^e theo- To his vacant piu'ple,^ he had W '^' ""^ ^'^'"'^ ^•»- 1619. n. was elected not^hstandLp. f ), '"''"3^ Ferdinand tine and the Bohemian sS^n*^^ opposition of the pala- John Ilnss and the CoS offc '?^. ^^^« 4^ of t'H. XIII.J MODERN HISTORY. 293 SL's'lo^''fer\'*!i'','i"^^'"'^^ '' '''^^^'' 0° the slightest "^ -^ ' ".'^.'"^^lyj defenestration In other words a sAf nf whi.rff?- .*i"''' '*^'"" ^"d headloig, out of aSvindow receded fVnmS • ^ '''^- ^^e insurgents now openly Ss anHpnn "■ ^TT '^^''''> "P°^ Protestant prin^ commenced a S?.; ?-^ ^^^^''^'^ ^^^^P*^^ ^^ ^ and thus title oTl'^hSJf^^^^^^^^^^ Teltr "if; *'^ sin l£^-*^?-'^'^1 themselves on hisT,ehalf His cou- CnfJJ T-^' ^"^« °^ ^^^aria, firmly attaihed to ?he S"to th;m^ *^A°^J««*« «^*^« «-P--, in op! position to the mterests of his own family. An eno-ao-i, ment fought on the White Hill, in November ad ffi?n" Setn frtl" *"• /^« ^7^ preSerwVpui unS his Idno-I ' 'T'"' ^'P"^«^ °^1^^« electorate, as weU as inHH ? • 1J' ^""^ ''? *^« end so utterly amiihi lated as ?o P eces the TjJ''^ f «e»'tained. Ferdinand shattered in a vast numWofT^'^'r^^V"*^?" °^ ^^^emia, beheaded coStioZn f^ ^ nobihtv broke his captives of interior Dmnertv f n .^ ^ ''^''^' '¥"^ ^^'^^0 families, confiscated Jected^on fe7^"°t of 54,000,000 of rix-dollars, and Ktarv tl,t ^'S, °^, "^^^'^"^^ ^"^° "« absolute and S.f ^ i^"^""®- ^he learned and pious Others of the Wy of Jesus were restored, however, to theh clinches ajd colleges; messengers of mercy, as they proved whei a]4;«TLMovT .' ""^P^^^^ ^'^^ his fidelity to religion: —non^h R^loyvd, as it sometimes seemed, by"his excessive ^* MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1020-30 able generals Wallenstein Til I „L o • T '"^"S'''-' His magnfficent armitTnd J^^^^^^^^^^^ '^«'"'f-ded opposition. Pliilip III. of Snain^Tn U?! '"'"^'^ "'?^ by Philip IV • nni fliA n..?^ !?T • ^^r^'^^^ ^^icceeded no Wn discovert, would Imve SrSmt in„V; '' onei-gies. Enfflonrt was tl » ,, ;, ,i "^ !• '^™*<"> »' W amuL „d -S.i fi™ Lt^ te'f,X ":X' '*,''?•"*' hy the hopes held out tn Inm „♦• ^ Jjeiping- tJ e j)alatine (diaries. Denmark, ulcfel'^^"^^^^^^^ iT, ^"^ ^^" too late for any other ciii noC ?£ ' '"'''^ *''^ «^'«°a jag^city pirceived tha^t he Lst ,^^" fo^'S; ?'J the emperor hod donp fm. r^«,Jl* , ■'^i^nce what neg-otinted a mama™ between HenriLIn '?p '°- "? fe Prince of Wale,;„nd o,:Z^'^Tsll!:,^l%T^ «.. Great: the Hug^^r^ts ,lj''l^'^"i^ ^^^^ on. xifi.] MODERN HISTORY. 809 towns, A. D 1028-9, so tJmt from this era the kinQ-dom, no long-er divided n|,rainst itself, had a career of afftnandise- ment before it unimpeded by domestic obstacles. And now It was tliat the cardinal embarked upon the other enter- pnse, which hod been all alon^ the object of his contem- )lation, and without which the circle of his policy would nave been incom[)lete. Therefore, hiiving neutralised those ingredients of per- petual insurrection at home, which, under relia-ious pre- tences, could throw the realm into confusion at any t:rne he resolved to hur ble the House of Austria abroad; resus' citatmg, m fact, the conceptions and intentions of Henry IV. lerdinand had issued an edict for the restitution, by the Protestants, of all the benefices and church-lands, which they had retained since the Peace of Passau: and in Jtaly he had revived the ancient clairaa of the empire by sequestrating- tlie dukedoms of Mantua and Montferrat vacant through the death of the last prince in the direct hne of the house of Gonzaga. A collateml representative otthe founder of that family happened to be a French sub- ject, Charles Duke of Nevei-s and Rethel, whom Richelieu determined to establish in his rights; thereby locating a convenient ally and instrument on the other side the Alps, tor thwarting the views of Spain with i-eg-oi-d to the Valtil- line, l-ei-dinand stormed in vain at a check so entirely unlooked-for. The intrepid cardinal directed his sovereign to nass the mountains at Susa, until he could follow him- self at the head of 20,000 men. With these he defeated the Imperialists and dictated the Treaty of Cherasco, a.d. lOai, whereby Charles de Nevers became Duke of Man- tua, with part of Montferrat ; the remainder of the latter district being added to the territories of Victor Ama- deus I., Duke of Savoy. France now began once more to feel her gi-ound as a first-class power. Her government had been divided between a royal prerogative and the pretensions of provincial goveraora; her parliaments were m a position of formidable resistance to the court; her foreign connections were neglected; her treasury was empty; the military depai-tment was in the utmost dis- I: Ml (If ifl fiOfl MODERN IIHTORV. (^.d. IggO-l. knstem; ronang into wrath the elccto? of f™Znl»rl. x-omerania and Hesse; and making the princes of Wir+om ™.i pui aown, Dot, as an eitemal element of eonfflhrinm he had no ob|eclion U, support it to a ce,tein S tK Russia had just sun^ndered to him par, !^ f Uonia- £ mark had renounced the pretensions of the ofdenbou?; family to reigm over the Swedes ng-ainst thefr wHl & rZ^"^."l^°'^°^'^^° had ofce iled at Sto^^^^^ ••>". i^ie German empire to avenge his wrongs and expc- CM. XIII.] MODERN IIIflTORY. m tations l>Bneath the same banner; in one word, Protefltant- Swrof war ' ''^'"'"P'°°' ^""^ Riclielieu gave the itat^rl' fj?^'? T1 'f *^*^ TP^*^'* '^•"^- Though of huge ttoture, the Swedish hero shared in all the bodily fatiiruS of his fiohliers H.g tactics were cssentiallv his own, founded upon the experience and maxims of antiquity, vet modified according to modern weapons, manners and cir- cumstances. He relieved the inconveniences of heavv in- tantry, hy an ammgement of smaller divisions mixeii in platoons among cavalry; whereby more reliance mifrht be placed upon the execution of rapid manceuvres, than the tiln? 7'"^ *^'? '"''f^.'"' ^'^^'''^V «f """vellouslv in fluencing and animatmg other minds, so as to play upon the natural prejudices and associations of his ™^onle as a gi-eat master manages av ,11-toned insti-ument.' Of coui-so when he appealed to what he called their religion, he an' paled to the grossest eiTor; but the efficacy of the spell was not the ess m a human and natural sense, being ana- logons to the enthusiasm with which the Mahometans rafly round the standard of their Prophet. Tl ou-h Jhe ment it often may, and does produce, wonderful conse- quences Such was the mighSy aren't summoned upon the pohtical scene by th. astute car&nal. Gustavus aIoI fcc ir^V^' '^'^^^"^^ '^ ^'^ enterprises, as?onX the wf.-ld. He was m temper mild, beneficent, suscep- Snc ^P^"P•r^^°^^' ^n^-nt,' popular, andfiZf mZvlZ ^r'^T'-- *'^« Vr-iricipal traits of his cha- ractei were, m truth, magnanimity and ffentlene<=s- noi had his great ecclesiastical coadjutor displLd any mino degree of masterly talent in managing t"mt treaty which hound them together for the occasion. R 07^7 ad fnTi p"' *" '" observance of the stnctest Sj Sy towards Ba^ am and the members of the Catholic T^unS on the simple condition that they should not uu^e wTth the emperor against the Swedes; as also to preserve the eShshed %wr ^'""'' "^^.'-^r ^- «C7ni i estaoiiRhefl. Uy these intrenious stinnlfltinn- ♦i-a rr^»- j - i4 298 MOBBRN HISTORY. [a.d. 1631-6. princes were not only delivArorl a.« i J-elioion, but had a valid DrP^pt "? ?^".™ °" ^^« ^^^^''^ P^ holrTing. assistance fLmSn* J* r^T ^''T ^''''^'^'' pose them to the vene^ancp of f> ' ' f '' "^^"'^ *'^"« «^- latter i-apidly advS from pir*'''''",^"^^^^^. T^^e the Odei- to Kn and T.- -^^'''^ ^"*^ Frankfort on camped, Sent a n Irtqi r ''^"''' '^^'^''e Tilly Jay en- SweL:Z^•mperLS b^rtd%"? the oLet Jf ^e evangelical union affP.. ♦>,?=• ""^ ^^"^^ ^^^'^d by the the fvhole ofLo^^:^GlvlyT''' 1''''^' ^^« °^™ Rhine to the Danube In th/VnM^'"- *'^' ^^^« '^"^ the tor of Saxony entered BohP^f! T° '?'''"" the Elec- Count Tilly was sla n in dr« ?' ^""^ '^P*"'-^^ Piague. Passag-e of the Lech v?f pv^ ".^" «S:ainst Gustavus'the tad taken AUO-S& ^^^ king- of Sweden nich, he reme^beild hi pni *^" """""^'^ amund Mu- as iustlv reS M f f."8-«8-ements, and nobly, as well the\o,iorrsi*^ef SILT? *'^ B---» c:;:! i-iod of the war. Waflenlfn ^ '^T^ ""^ " P''«^'«"« pe- men, even in that n4 of * &„ ' °- *^^' 'P^^'^ ''e.nai-ka&e 8^-ace, until the n o^4s o^SZ ^''"'*-' ^"^^ ^««" '» « *°'-t^'- won, and even diecked tTp .n *°' '" ?' '''^"^^'^ '^^ had h"r.-. Then ensS the hoflv^"?"" f^^^« ^' ^"'-em- fatal plains of Lutl iSnTll^st"-^^ '■'^ ^^« a far mfer or force Gn^tovnc • ^*^^^' ^'^en, w th stein. During- dTyli^rr ..?"'" encountered Wallen- About two hois affetcornSr^^ 't^'"8-&le lasted. Richelieu had fallen nfhpT'^^™®''^' ^^'^ ^^Jal a"j of P^nchased for Si own party ^^t ?^ "^J^*'''-^; '^ ^e^rly He Swedes foughtS rCjd ifonl f P^^ "^ ^"^ ^«««^- king: and the ifme of tS i -' fe '°''^^ even when the Saxons baH ^« °u^J .^^^y ^^ere firm, Wood; nor coulcf tHnfyal ^^t^ ^" .*'?«' ^^^' of -.ore;yetaltl.u,l!^^S'3-^-:-ln^ A.D. 1631-5. I the score pf em for witli- uld thus ex- vader. TJie ''rankfoi-t on Wy Jay en. onset of the ided by the , he overran je and the g- the Elec- ed Prague, istavus the of Sweden round Mu- ihf as weil iiin capital evious pe- •einai-kabJe een in dis- le emperor e Achilles Jst on his he fortli- els he had t Niu-em- le in the hen, with ! Wallen- e lasted, al ally of o dearly is death. 3 of their !ro firm- field of sinibrce- !e aifect himself Its, tJmt OH. XIIl.J MODERN HISTORY. his personal discomfiture had crowned the e-lorv of his enemies still, presuming- on the death of Gustuvus L last words were those of exultation, that the empire' was n8:am safe, and the Catholic relig on p.-eserve7 There ZTnd Sn^" "^^ •^^^^ ''r^'' ^'- Protestant coS! racv and French alliance were kept tog-etlier by the talents HeLorT" °^0-^^«''"«^f-- WulLstein,^WtCt fi man 'rl "7 *^° 8™»d^ subject to Ferdinand. Gei- many t seemed, could not bear them both. Tlie hauo-htv could barely brook whilst Gustavus Adolphus lived was XT ?,V--r-We designs, and assassinated S own vomZ. I l'""'^ ^^.'^-y' "J^t'^^-''^^ ^ dark and gloomy romance throughout his history, of which the chamcteris- tics were more spectral than humnn. -"amcteiis- .„pii? 1 T^" ''^ ^:^"8'«'T' ^on and heir to the emperor, s. cceeded h.m m his command, supported bv 20,006 Ita- bans and Spaniards under the Duke of Feria. The Jo- BW. „l!' ^'^'-;•l-f^^-ith the dukes of LoiW Ind ami a k^ n- "-^"^^ their complements of fresh troops; and^at IVordlmgen the Swedish leaders experienced a se- vero de eat, Gtli September, a.b. 1034. Jn Lnsec^eiice of lii tp'nprl fr'"° '•'J^ .""'""' ^".^ '^^*« of unaffected alarm, and Fl^nr/'^'r'p*''' " pacification between tliemselves and Ferdinand at Prague, a.d. 1G3.5; he whole weio-ht stiein and Richelieu. The hosts of France, instiul of yield- mf.lt ?ir''' .^^•^'""s^^n'^es, only seemed the moro to m it ,)Iy from their pressure. They now attacked the tions between Milan and Vienna; in Flanders Lorrnine ^e^^'f"" ^'''^^ "^'^'^ '^'^'^y tlieSpni^rrd lehe^e the Swedes; m Germany and Jtalv, that repose or An immense naval foroewas created in an incrediblv short space of time; and a Spanish fleet was within aW veai^' entirely burnt or destroyed by a French squadron "The finances were rendered flourishing throuoli economy and management rather than anv im^rt^.t^^ 'ir-^^^u^ 300 ,■ ,. >"«>EI,» „,9TOW. rA.D. 1635-40 "^ tlie end thej would VaveZ^ .'°f *° P^^-^^'^^ tJ^at hxm. the Bou/ons than £ h^e of H-sh '' '' r^"'^' 1636 Jiunier, an oificer formed in tL T^i^'f ^° ^-O- ^•efreshed the spirits of h s c^untivm^n f 'T^ o?Gustavus, penalists at Wiilock. S.na„d^n ?r^^ ^'^^?^ *^« ^''n- iis successor, of the same nS J[" ^^v ",°* '^"g- a^er: «»«e i» the administrS of 'nu£"^i-'*'^' "^ °' ^'ft«^- work of slaug-hter slackenpd Zi^. ^^^"*'- The mere J^uke of Saxe- Weimar Tfl Tl .^ '®"«^ ^^^ rag-e. The arms of the e^p^H^B S ^7 TV^'^'^^ "° ^'' nem Rhinfeldt- after wLhiS ^?'"i*'^^ ^« ^n action Banier ran a superb caTeer of LT^ T'^'' ^^^'e also, the next yeVr, in Saxo„v n^^SPu ''^. ^^^^emnia, as mar, however, Hied'iX co^Tof^h'^/'"'"- ^^^^'^ei- mense loss as a Dartisnn T itr *f^^ summer; an im- acknowledged hLC Se beef t^ ^^^^^^^ «^-«"« science; '^"t the decisiorand wisSom ofT* '' ^° "^^^'^y secured hsarmv and ,>„" T °* ^^^^ g'^ea* cardinal the Duke of SJn.Cvilfe wfth T' '''"^T^"' ""d« Swedes. Could tfese coifeder^tS >!f '°^ ^' ^^^'^^^ tog-ether, they mig-ht ^vithoZZ ^""^ ^^^^^ *« act rat.dthe termVatiln o? ostSH^^^^^ ^^««^- their energies, and when they attarW J'" -'^ neutralised at Saltzbourjr. a d Ifiln p^ attacked the imperial camo djsg^-ace, ancf 'compdldYr^^^^ fW them wl °'ons. Yet the success fell JmtL^i^ *^' "^"^^^^n domi- waning- fortunes, for Tthe nre/nl ff'^J ?^«^"^ "Pon bon Ardinand 'was as tar^; taken JS ^' ^'^^ '' ^^'''- by Bamer with a Swedish Son wET'J "' '^^'^ ^'« to retreat in its turn, pursueTbv S^ ^^-"^ •°'^^"*'^«Jess forests of Bohemia, fhe Lcan/n^ .t'^T"^' ^'^^''^^ the the Catholic g-eneral appeLd iftl L*'/'°*''*^°<= ^om but the brave fugitive??ne4d;nl 'a *^^" «^h'aculous; CH. XIII.J MODERN HISTORY. mi anceofTorstenson, another of those matchless chiefs whom the late Kmg- of Sweden had educated. Meanwhile the aJhes under Guebriant overthrew the Archduke Leopold and Piccolommi near Wolfenbuttel, thus opening an almost unobstructed road into Westphalia. At Ordinjen the im- penahsts were not more successful; but alleyes were turned upon Torstenson, whom the cardinal was urginff with all his energies, that the house of Hapsburff mio-ht yet drmk deeper draughts from the chalice of adversity! Ihe fewedish commander soon demonstrated that his deeds would be upon a par with his fame. He defeated the Duke of Saxe-Lauenberg at Schwenta in Silesia. He then passed the Elbe, and cut his antagonists in pieces in the plams of Breitenfeldt. It was nearly the identical spot on which Gustavus Adolphus, a few years before, had gamed his great victory of Leipsic. The Austrians here "^Zn ^""^^ "^T. ""°'^" ^°'^" wi*'^o"* niercy. They lost 5000 brave soldiers, 300 officers, 3000 prisoners, 46 large cannons, 116 pair of colours, and 600 waggons. The feaxon capital suirendered at discretion; nor in other parts ot Eiuw)e was the star of the Hapsburg family culminat- ing. Ga^Ioma had revolted in Spain; Portugal had thrown off her yoke and enthroned the Duke of Braganza as John IV.; a French division had entered Rousillon and taken Perpignan; and the conspiracy of Cinque Mars had been discovered, a.d. 1642, which threatened the life and power of Richeheu, had it been suffered to proceed; but which, through the promptitude of tliat remarkable minister, not only strengthened his hold upon the royal mmd, but obtained the principality of Sedan for the crown ot fmnce, to save the wortliless head of the Duke de Bouillon. Thus triumphant over all his enemies, the proud cardinal entered Paris through a breach made in the walls to admit his gorgeous litter; and that, too, with a sliroud waiting for his reception. His dissolution oc- curred m the wmtei^ not long before that of his feeble sovereig-n Louis XIII Their successoi-s, and particularly Cardinal Ma^arm, allowed no material alteration to be made m the line of policy, which the kingdom had been liauuuutea w) aeem a prosperous one under the auspices . MODKRN HiSTonr. [a.d. 1048-8. them routed tlie Spanish infant^v n? rI' • ^^ ^"'"?^'' '^^ nor could tlie proL>iong S/nf ,? '"' '"-^r^- ^^^^'^J nintch tlie tactics o^Cnne n tllfln^Pp '''''*' r''- stensnn liad marchod frZ i • ''^ ^°''^^^- Tor- Jutland, teiilZ nShinrnpf'^Y '"1° ^'^'"''^^ ""^ -an,e;nent of^rio^^^fet'dS E?r/,r%*''"* from the interests of the emuirr T ! • !^ '^'"''^^'ei-n '""•g", in the same season, Z^rincr^XPl f ^'''''■ from every advanced po seS he Ind hri"^^ %^' tamed; whilst in TTimo-o,.,, J li ""Z''^" lutherto mam- .nvincibk lo,,de,^ now" 4™^ ttd, Tl^f' ,^,^r ** Saxony, ( rvino- Ferdinnnrl ^Ja t-u T , . ^^ '"*° Lower as he'ag-ain enteied Rn)i-? ^rchdnke before him, menacedViennr?lrSnL^^^ ^'T^^'^ «"d liis adversaries at Cfnt Th J '"""r^H ^nd scattei-ed such terrible vio-L that le^^^^^^ Ffm^ forward with their metropolis to seek nn o i^ """^ ^T^^ abandoned Gratz in Stn a TuvLT ^ -""" .^^ ^^^^^''«"' «nd at drendful bffied ^arSSend^^^^^^^^^^ ^''^'^ junction with Conde, leadTn! to h! f ? /'* ^"^^^qnent at Nordlino-en with tl ^Tlnl • ^ ^?'^"' engog-ement Ti,;„ "'t'o""* wixn tne JJavarians, in Aiio-nof ArxinA- This agam, was a field where the defeat,?- l^i ^J"' m a former campaio-n hid i-P^rloJ.^ oereat ot t..e Swedes, hut now, both ComU nnrJ^Sn ^'''^ ''''^ «" Aceldama conquerors; and the laZr nT""' '^•"■' «°"«'de''ed the conimtulatoSfol-Ma a n\vnfH'''Tl"^ f ^'"'-'^ *»'« fnnl to reinstate tirET tVo^^^^^^^^^^ V that car- dommions. Bv the npvf !.„^ • , "'^ ecclesiastica painful disorder comnelled ToT'^'"' *^ *°™«"t^ «f a of honour and peril Thi^hr^n^^^^^^ *° V^^'^" his post his hands, mainta nin^ wL nnl ^'^"^'^ ''^^^'^^^ ff-om renown which the val^r of ^'*'^^ *'^« bi^-h MODERN ttlSTORlr. 803 en. jtiti.J Condfi himself had been nominated Viceroy of Catalonia, llie vacillation, moreover, of Bavaria, confused the opera- twns of the combatants on the side of Germany; since, ta the position of that country, it was easily able to altect eitlier the views of Mazarin, or the objects of Perdmand. Wrangel had already been obliged to abandon a series of successes ; until, in August a.d. 1048, the more decisive afFair ot Zummerhausen baffled Montecuculi, and hun-ied the shattered battalions of the emperor toward. Aug-sbur^. Piccolomini, on airiving: from the Netherlands, failed to bring victory back to the imperialists ; for Condo lurenne, and the S^v;edes, soon completed their transit of he Lech, which laid Bavaria in its full extent under contri- ition; whilst Charles Gustavfis of Deux Fonts undertook ^le sieo-e ot Old Prague with fresh levies forward.,] from Finland and Stockholm. There was thus a clear necesiitv for each of the belligerents to cease from further efforts " ihe famous peace of Westphalia concluded a most im- portant struggle, which had now crimsoned the face of Eurone for no less than thirty yeai-s. It was signed at Osnaburg-h and Munster m October a.d. 1048, and is some- times gty ed the Peace of Religion; indeed it mtiv be said to form the foundation of our whole system of modern politics. !< ranee was [)ermitted to retain Metz, Toul Ver- dun, P™o1, Biisac with its dependencies, the Suntgau, the lando^raviates of Dpper and Lower Alsace, and t'.e right of keeping a garrison at Philipsburg ; all these ai- mn^eraents much facilitating the subsequent conquests of Louis XIV Sweden acquired Pomeranin, with Stettin and Wismar the territories of Bremen and Verden, the nrivi- leges belonging to a state of the empire, and an indem- nity of hve millions of rix-dollars towards her exi.en^e^ Frederick William, elector of Bi-andenlnirg, in lieu of hi: Pomemnian pretensions, was allowed Magdeburg, Halber"- stadt Minden, and Camin. The independence of^the S^Ss and Dutch republics was formally recognised; the latter receivmg from Spam Maestricht, fjois-Ietduc, Breda, Br" gen-op-Zoom, Gravelines, and some other important t()^v' Ihe poor unhappy palatine had died of a broken heait ". receiving the novs that Gustavus Adolphus had fallen r.t ^^ MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1648. Lutsen. His mnk in the college of electors, with the I^pper Palatinate and Amberg, ,?as assijo Bavaria m return or heavy pecuniary demands which the dike had upon the emperor and tlie districts of Upper Austria oAt'Bor"^ '"" ''''\' 1"^« P^^^'^-' whoKcctptnce tiie lest ot t] e palatmate, witli an eighth place, created ill the :!Zf Yf' '"""» the ele^tors^of Germat,' hi ui!v , V ^^''^ '''"P"""' ^'^'^^' ^^^ ^"^'ered through- r o-ir f? '*'''"' "^"'.'f '''*°'"«^ ^« f^^ ^« possible to their right, and former privileges. Bohemia was to be hence- foi-ward an heredmuy kingdom in the house of Hapsburg n«.,-f ? "ripartial arbitration. As to religion, the pacihcation ot Pussau was confirmed to its full eltent it was further agreed that the Calvinists should be on a level with the Lutherans; that the imperial chamber shoiUd consist of twenty-six Catholic and twenty-four ProtesC i^embers ; that six of the latter should be received into t^e aidic council; that an equal number of Catholic and R-o! testant deputies should be chosen for the Diet, except when convoked for regulating concerns connected ;ith oKne of the two religions; in which case, if the point unde? dT w"reT bT^:^*° *!-,C^'-^ «" the%resentatiVes Zll *^^« C^tjiolic ; if to either of the sects, then they tTr oS ff ^'ff^^^'- 0" the whole, the stipulations o^f this celcbmted treaty seemed advantageous, Vather th^ otherwise, to the mterests of the time faith; judging S the marvellous manner in which the subseqient work S conversion proceeded, amidst the utter deglneracv of the £r,fr '°^ ^t^'^^l^ ^^"^^^^^^'^^ fr°^ ^^^ tJ worse both m doctrine and morals. The princioalities, or duchies Saxony Wirtemberg, Hesse-Cassel, Lden, 'with some others, underwent certain modifications; but otherwise hZr^'f'^. her conflict veiy much as' she began™ wL >,. r*""""^ ''""'V ^^' ^" ^" °t^^r respects, 'she Sfhfl 1 5''^ '^^"^Pai'fd to a body that had once been haalthful and vigorous, but which was now covered with flideous wounds, and bleeduig at almost every pore [a.d. 1648. ors, with the i to Bavaria, ich the duke pper Austria, se acceptance reinstated in ilace, created of Germany, ered tl)roug-Ji sible to their to be hence- )f" Hapsburg. le w ^ to be religion, the II extent : it 36 on a level nber should r Protestant ved into the lie and Pro- jxcept when ith only one t under dis- resentatives , then they )ulations of lather than dging from nt work of racy of the d to worse or duchies with some otherwise, egan it, at spects, she once been i^ered with ore. CH. XIV.) MODERN HISTORT. 80A CHAPTER XIV. GROWTH or BRITISH POWER, FROSI TUK J^CCESSION OP THE TDOOH8 TO THE REVOLUTION. When Henry VII., after the battle of Bosworth and his marriage with Elizabeth of York, had fairly extingoiished the wars of the Roses, he employed his chief attention in augmenting the prerogatives of the crown and amassing money. Some of his projects were prosecuted by his son, Henry VIII., who became heir to the kingdom on the decease of his elder brother, Prince Arthur, a.d. 1502. It is not too mucli to state that the boasted constitution of England was very little realised. The sovereign, when- ever possessino- any abilities at all, could easily overawe or manage the Houses of Parliament ; so that for 140 yeai-s, A.D. 1600-1640, under the sonorous name of constitutional monarchy, tlie Tudors and Stuarts ruled the i-oast, and lived pretty much as they listed. But it was the eccle- siastical revolt of the sixteentli century which most espe- cially blighted for a long period the development of cxvil liberty in these islands; since the division into two dis- tinct parties enabled the occupant of the throne to act as an intermediate and preponderating power, by balancing the Catholics against the Protestants, and the Protestants against the Catholics, as the case might be. Both were so guided by mere worldly principles, that, with individual exceptions, thev seemed perpetually bidding, one against the other, for the royal favour ; nor could either secular or religious freedom hope for any chance of fair play, through- out the two longest of the Tudor reigns, after might had overcome right, and the interests of heresv were identical with those of robbery and despotism, f here had been some unhappy circumstances predisposing these realms to forsake the great centre of unity ; such as the virus of Lollardism from the age of Edward III. ; the greediness of the nation generally as to various pecuniary claims of the Church ; a prevalence of the idea that the popes sided with France rather than England : the ambition orWnlsey SOf\ WODERN HI8T0RT. [a.1>. 1609-47. Stl Peter in tl^co^X am ^o;^n?^.5^'^'"^T^°^• °f and selfishness of HeniT intent »n V'^ J'^-'itlessness pleasure and his own self-wS tC '' ^"J^y'"^'^* of inherited from liis fatl.pM ir u V'^ enormous treasure pensive intermeddl n^with l^e^'^nr"^ *^^^ ^'' «-■ chamcterofhisvZnt,mn«r,l ^ affairs, and the costly expendit,4 and trCo S'nf n'"1'"?'^ *° ^°"°^^^«^ pfle withSaxes/roweve °fo^r soT^;;^ H° ^^""^ *"^ of supply fflittered wiH.in \.l! r i ^ *^^ °*'^^'* sources first in til lesser Zd?h '^'' '/' ""'* " ^^^^'^^o^s io«k Then foUowed the demlds "f °° '' ^''''''■' "^^"'^^t^""^. shaps and fbrras cSl/ 7^^ concupiscence in other of iS the nrettTknnp R ^^ Aragon was to he got rid well knoU XtZri t^^J ""^-'^^^ consequences are influence^^upon reTuinrof r h" r ^-'^ '""> '^'^^'^'> ^«d appetites' of^^ln" master wlm^'"'^' ^^^^*'^« "°^«^f»l tie principles of w£ Ve called iVpr"'^.'^ '? ^'^"^*'^° as it did the fillini^ 1 • ^ ^. ?efoi"mation, involvina-. supremacv and thp o^ f i Wopmtion to himsel "of her Throrjiio\tp*t ri'Satfdt- "'^'^"^^^ •^^-^^ vows of ordination nnni' ! ?fu ^'^ °^'" sacramental be translater^ a rule o?'Sf *^^'' ^'7 ^'''^•^>*"''«^ *« authority he'C cut the on?v ^"^ ™°™> from whose mittingihem tobrrleiveS LS ^T^^*''°"' V per- cordin? to the dictatef nf A,i ?^' i""^ interpreted, ao- else mtht resiV W t\f/ P»yate judg-ment. Whatever their paVmol^* t r^^^^^^J^^^^^^^^ the poor lost nobles their ina^pendence the DPonT«%l''' ^'T'^^' *^« parhaments theiV weS ancftfl 7 P'?^'Wes, the Momls must have SnLt^Hfi^o nation ,ts reli^on. count for so terrible afatSnh* V^^^ ^'^'^ *° ««- CH.XIV.] MODERN HISTOnr. JO? he several times afterwards altered his creed «n fnr „c „ Dertr-nfinn r fr'v" T'"*"'""^ **'« ascendant, not only in K L^e rii i^T ''"*''^'"'^'^^''« precedents for some pun sCnt nfl '"^ u^ an avenging Providence for the punishment of Inmself and his companions The wonV nf ecc^siastical pillage also still went CZi, as a lahour of o e on the part of the Protector Somerset and lis prose fe matP^Sf f^ P^^^'' '"^ f'' ^*'""d ^«« built out of an a^eS dlrr/r ^^ "«^ ^« '* !««« than of WestSl AH ^* ^,' ^d projected the demolition hnt i,f«f T I ^^^^' '^J'^'h the dean and chapter could but just save by the sacrifice of a handsome shoe of tC e tates Mary succeeded her brother Edward, and t vain ea47to null T''V^' '''''''''' ««-^'=«- ItTad be n easiei to pull down than it was to replace. Her nietv Ar^hl^Llo o^r/rr ^^^'^'^^^ P^^^' the lastCaS d^dtti^orh^ard ^r^^^^^^^ ,,t eTc^rrLad'^ ^f^' had -Zed^^^^^^^^^ tt execution of Lady Jane Grey and her youthful husband gtamted of high treason for having usurped her crS^' fZHT^T':^'^'' ^^'^ ^hili^ 8oon%owed , rd tit-cs E^^st' kri err '^ the spftffnIH iv«„, ♦i^^Tu ^^" ^°^" theu- lives on tThrve revel Jt 1 '* v^'^ ^''^'" '"^ P°^«^' I^""°«r s«ems and on S nl« ^fj^mg vengeance upon his enemies; ana on His name, whether fairly or otherwise rests thl Md ri'Zll;fc°^'*.£r"^ »."» fi-'es of &nith. . ...^x=«j«i ui uib arcn-feioriaer, with Ridle/ *» HODEnN HISTOHT. [a.d. 1583-60. condemned tlie ni^eSon In I ''^T ^'^ ^"'"•*' ""^ It shonM never rCS^ \lSll'T '^"'"'','? "'"""«''• opposition to blood )x fno sT^d n. *'"''",«" P'"-J'"'^^«ntnj.y tiered, on uie,-e ?.to ndf S .I'l;?' ""'"''.T' P""'^''"*«nt in- bei-g-e.int Plowden ns their leader S'„ I ^ T ^'".'''•^'^ the senls nncler Queen fLv 17 ' ^^ '/" '^^ "■^^•«>'«Js reii.sed I'is flrincr«. o.„i JW «tmng-nlations, must I.,/ 0.1,1.1 tll^EttSsCs of hnes conhscntions, nnd imprisonments. Of the e tL amount cnn never be reckonefl uj), to say nothinTof in t.-nnsf.rence of episcopal sees, cathedrals, m^e"l chan SrSrP "^^'^' Jands,' tithes, and beneS, S their rigrhful owners nnd occupants to the hands of olnZ n^amy and duno-eons of torture; in fact, the least Zd- sive or oppressive, when fever or the sweatino-sicknesa kept their fatal ward as the porteresses or inmates nf thill Srand iTl"' ^,° ^'''"P'"""^ nssocia^i-r -r b m .' talse nnd delusive than those too commonly entertainpH bv tUTf ''^^7Y^- SJ^e used frequey; o Tw a^ *ii r/"""' '""'/'!« adjuration an inappropriate one ^he mherited most of the cruel features o/ lis chamcter' only in combination with much greater prudence He; fame rests mcr nsicallv upon the deftructionVE Ai-n^ada and the growth of that material prosperity out of wS the muldTe classes of Eng-land weri forlned.^ M de I S heriS.?r'"1 " ^r^ ^'•''^ *^"'°"8'h *'•« island under h.-s S- ?^r * '' ^""°"^ ^'^^t'^"^ of society struck his attention at that time. "The nobility," he observes "are deeply involved in debt, principally tVrou 'h extmor' vant^. He mig-ht have easily added, that the nueen Srtt by r S'lT ^^,'" ^^^™P'^' -^ sometinXt But hp fhL *\*«d prog-resses, or rural visitations. Hut he then proceeds to tell us, that "merchants often purchased the lands of the nobles; that youno- ladle of mnk married pei-sons of inferior condition ; an"d that the lower c asses of the people are comparatively Hch, beh^^^- tW V T T^T" ^"^^^^' y'^ economically; nor are they burdened with oppressive taxes." The intell ow render wi 1 here perceive, at a g-Iance, the g-erms of that aristocmtic pride, that respectable prudence Imt nrefrf iSS ':::^^::'}^±J^^ .*'-«« division^ of the body r ^..„„5«6 uuwuwarus n'om oui' lesser gentiy to the 810 MODERN HISTORY. . ., , , , - [a.d. 1068-1600. wlio exacted imj.lSit oSenco^^h ""'^' "! *'^« ^"««"> tl»e prelates, to JtC S tl 1 S"!'"'"^"*' '"«' subju^atel «stin^ of- a singer SSi^^^^^^ ool '"ut fSrty bai-ons° This ,n st w!? '''''1-' ^P ^i«^o"nt8, pvovements in tilhijre and tl,« J?. • ''^/"'"^nons, im- as a better system ?f'comm^l'''r^ '^ • '''^"^' ^ ^«" Advances took ,)Le in t^ nnce '? r?^'"'"'"^ ^'^•^^«- )vnf5-es of hibou. Men and w?n '"'^' T"^'' ""^^ *he »>« tter lodo-ed, and bettei fS aT ^r,^''""'' ^'«*^«d, |>Iete an(l?mpeifecVwe,i nnH« ,^"'*'"1'*«' ^'"vvever incom- '^ask in the beam oft^af Sm'* tV'"'^"""^ ^^^'» *° ordinary and extraordimn-i ■^^'''" '"^^'enues, both yeai., were someXr "2ut hal? TSP °' ^f ^^'^^^ annum, and the circuIati^r'neS; ,?' ^-" per he taken at about 4 000 onh; t n v ""^"* ^^'^ "laj '^ably, France ul'STee /," JS^^^^ ^-Pects, prol under Henry IV. and Sull hnf fu^ *''""' "' ^«" off the purchasing, power on thTs 'sIWp V '? """r^ ^^"^ ^^^'^^e "i>on the oth^./ and the Wd t^^^^^^^ ^'^"^^ ^^ ^ad ^vas six and a half at Parfs^ 1 „?l ''^ '""^'^^^ i-espectively The militia incl ded STO^o'n? '"^ P'^' '^'"^' ^'^ London. tl.eir exercises one LKtl!l^'?P^ ^" T^^ P'^«t'«i«ff 1^,000 strongs of Xm 3 00(). *7''r*H" ^^^^'^'^ ^as n,000 troops'';e4 en j^o^'d ^^ Xf ,'' ^/^"^^ ^''''^' «°d 'n.tlie field; the marclSfc^. L'e /"^fe"^^"*^' '^'^'^ jwised th rty-three shins nfti.ni-t • , manne com- poition of othe vesels T f. '^ ^''^'^'^ ^ ^"^*^'>^« ?«>- fncted due attentaon Sir SanciXat/^l r^"'/"^*" woild. Vi,g-inia was occuniPfl n?o . ^'^'^f"^ '"''""^ the on. XIV.] MODERN HISTORY. m\ Fh"', Z '"'®'! ?"/^^'.' ^"*' °" *'»e whole, the policy of f r ' '.r""j^ ''^''f «^ *° »''••"?? within the o-msp oThep vei-saiiy made a move m the riirht dimpfinn T».„ ~ gencv. Ihe Ang-hcan clei-g-y were very unnonular- sin^. the few amongst them who wen- in the lei^XJee' sZ nor to the other chvsses in intellect or attaTnments felt E tliem . When you argue," said she to her bishops " with J-mitans. Now, there existed a hi-h-church class of dmnes, who wished to be neither the^one nor he^ier for they abhorred both eoually. Thev kT,««r fL* 1? ' Catholics could always oon'vict^them 7heZ,tl tt rrotestantihm. Elizabeth used occasionally to amuse her- self with their perplexities. That she despised "hem L her innermost soul was plain enough. ^ ^ ♦.,>,? ^'*^^''"''' ""i*^* "" '*^ barbarism, she found fewer at- tempts among: theologians to weave ropes out of sand Ang-hcanism failed there altogether, having- no naturfi aftnities with poverty or the poor. Is whde^income naW into the excheouer sefdom exceeded GOOOL a^yea? ; to wfi'ch for fir"' • . '"'^"y r'™'"^' ^'«*J *« addXo,o6o? more for the maintenance of a miserable battalion, just sufficient pZT%rn,t°"' '''''T ^^"'^"^o Bti^Lgth r su" Co • °''^'J!«»T incidents in the reign of the laS Tudor ai-e umversally known: her hypocrisy in re D.ion. her desnotism in politics; her adminiSatiye^abil tts^anj personal vamty; her wicked interference in Scotland and -^wroio, U.CI- uruui persecutious aa 819 MODERN HISTORY. f'*-^- 1608-28. glorious triumph overtt FnriSbieKr t,"" *■" ''■''' as a pious dauHter of XFli^^^^^^ "^^"^ '''^^'^ ^^en, and terrestrial crown ^ sp^endoui-s of a transitory unco^trXn^^^^^^^^^^^^^ from Henry VII throi^A?:' 1 ^^^', ^^^^ing- his title eldest daughter of XflS'"^S^^ ^^^'8-«'-«t> kingdoms of Ene^nndSp^iT^- /J'"f ^^^« the three sceftre of oL sovSn S^^ '"1 ^''^^\"^ ""^^^d i° the foofinexiste^e T^r,;^,. JP^^ ^^^ "^°«* beamed which his m^e iy sotSeri'^"^ ^'i?"*^ the manner in attachments iU^SlessTvnnSf ^^'»^«^^<^0"temptible, by i^gB of most merarto t^ ' 5T°'.^^ obligingly cros^eJthe Tweed 7h f^""^' ^^^^^ ^^^^ «° Tidence in London Afte,f hi f *i|' ^i?e?erent of Pro- Henry, the ffrand noin/nn • "^f-*' °* '"^ «^<^'««t son, Snaniih infanWr ff R-J e TwT ^'f ''^ P'-°^"^*« ^ af eady seen, had to be safSfi!/ ^'i'' '''^''' ^' ^'« ^^a^« princess. In the affair! nf I 'tk 'I^ Henrietta, a French little pai-t or nteilst inln^ J ."t ^^''''' ^"^ ^'^ ^^ok Protestantism espiSeVb^b! detestation of that phase of palatine, runnin^Sh thJvtv btn?"'/' ''"■'"■*^^' '^' in vain, however fb«f 1.1 ^ °°'^ '", ^'^ ^«^°s. It was emanation T&^^XSZlt^ tt"" "^? *^« lemics durine- his rpio-n o«^ „ rose horn the sea of po- over the whfle Xf' PhliF?,?^J'.^" ^ "^''^y «'^«s°'a the mischief and clmfed withtdi" Y^'^^'^^^ ^°^«^««" copacy^it.;., tr^-ifrss^ -".s^p^^^^^^^^^ D. 1608-26. Ife of Henry md far more ier grievous nty in spite licester and iracterj the • the course ty, and her • a retribu- ster, when, ' too happy ■ transitory arts, in the ig" his title Marg-aret, the three ited in the ist learned manner in ptible, by iderstand- ch had so It of Pro- Idest son, procure a i we have a French p he took phase of -law, the It was rage the a of po- miasma foreseen 'henever me lean tps epis- cross in en. XIV.] MODERN HISTORY. ai8 baptism, the reverence of bowing- at the Holy Name, the cut of a coat, or th^ shape of a trencher, as the impiu-e abominations of a certain. Scarlet Lady described in the Apocalypse! The egg-s of rebellion were not sufficiently hatched at that era; and so when the sovereign swore, or stamped her feet, or threatened Burleigh, or incarcerated their canting pastors, Puritanism slipt away for the mo- ment, and trembled. But it always came back again, in some form or other, as the ghost of a guilty conscience, to arraign that Establishment which had enriched itself with the propei-ty and prerogatives of the Catholic Church, and test the title upon which it had dared to do so. When James had come into possession of the regal seat, from a kingdom rich in presbyterianism and nothing else, expecta- tions grew strong that every trace of Popery would forth- with disappear; and disappointment groaned audibly in proportion. Finding no favour at court, the fortunes of Puritanism tried pariiament, and there succeeded better. The Commons particularly were beginning again to hold up their heads. They had asserted their right, a.d. 1G04, of aiTangino- finally with regard to their own elections and returns, and had attempted the abolition of wardship and purveyance. In this assembly, to the perfect horror of the king, his court, and his hierarchy, the voice of Puritanism waxed louder and louder. It was a strange repulsive sys- tem, not without a touch of the solemn picturesque in the acerbity of its visage, the bitterness of its temper, «ie length of its prayers, and the liberty of its prophesying. Its doc- trines were a curious compound of sjjiritual pepper and mustard, of which the pungency was poison to the soul, but vitality and vigour to the life and limbs of the outward man, so long as it lasted. True religion having been driven out of the realm, its counterfeits remained without chance of detection ; and the established clergy being little better than dry bonts, rattling at every movement which might shake them fi-om their position or possessions, whenever any mind felt in earnest at all about a judgment to come, it turned naturally to those oracles which made such a tremendous noise about the matter. Hence there ensued — „jj ,^g,...g5,t.i^,j, ^^ uituagiitim cuoryj, turn viimi 814 MODERN HISTORT. fx.D. 1625-40. classes, who could many of them rS th! w ] q"""^ ^*''^'' tnd which all imagineLherc™uIdlp?l^°^if JJ''"^^^^ iron came to bp st irrori *i:^ i ®^Pi!"°' -^.s the caul- boiled over- some w^l'*^^ "^""^'^ effervesced, till they cold hearts and haS U f S fl '^'^^T ^"^'"«^' *''«^^ ttk alTntS^dtLTfL^t . P-r *«d ecst.S::^'a?d themselves oIofE^amekpte T'""'^' '' ^''¥ of the world, the S Z fhp H *-n'^%f -^'""^^ "^°^««^ tinued from the advpnf nf .? «^^'''^ " ^^"' P^'^^ess con- the Civ^Wars in nn 1 ^^^^^'J^to the outbreak of Charles I.Tn AD 1^25 Tti.^''"''?'^ '^^i*'^' ^'^'^^^^^^^ °f meim fo'tKslT^^ ™^"*^' ^ ^^^^^ ^P^*- -dX: at all events placing- their victims nf fil torture, and juries and venfS minrsters Tb!.^ ^^ "'^''''y °^ *™>^ of quartering- TolS on nrkJ PP^'^/! ^^ ^^P^essment and of the sanctity of hearths a^ndhoSe" 1^, ?t .p?^"*'°^ >. 1625-40. and centre i and lower Scriptures, 3 the caul- 1, till they T scalded ; rnied their y went to lonest, ex- ;.asies, and d, to help 5t morsels acess con- itbreak of cession of ronag-e of V Prayer- and mo- laboured was the vy coun- mlimited corporal all sorts w. The possible, 1 of the istituted lost tri- by the lire, and jf timid ent and e sove- iflicting^ iolation 'e were hrough ual her CH. XIV.] MODERN HISTORY. di« navy, especially during the earlier years of her rei^n. To these must be added the feudal privileges of wardsfin whereby the entii-e profits of minors fell to the king dur- mg theu- nonage ; wMe the hands and fortunes of females were altogether at the royal disposal. Besides all which, there were the uresponsible embargoes on merchandise ; monopolies of every kind and description ; prohibitions preventmg parliament from interfering with particulai- pomts relative to the Church or State; the dispensing wwers, through which the prerog-ative set at nought the law; proclamations usurping the force of acts of parlia- ment; prohibitions of noble marriages, of persons quitting the country, and of sundiy exports or imports; particulw- warrants for delaying justice ; ai-bitrary imprisonments and pm-suivants, as well as forcing public employments upon parties hostile to the court; and the extension of the laws ot libel and constructive treason. Religious liberty was of course unknown, and by Protestantism undeserved; since each of the multifarious sects rejected all ideas of toleration for antagonists, uniting in no single object but that of defaming and conjointly persecuting the CathoUc faith. Such were some of the bi-anches of that upas-tree of despotism, which it required the Civil Wars of the seven- teenth century to cut down. Had Charles I. been able to remain at peace, after his quarrels with his eariier par- haments, the inteival a.d. 1629-40, during which he go- verned without those assemblies, might have been indefi- nitely prolonged. His revenue in a.d. 1633 was 800,000/ • and aft«rwai-ds averaged 900,000/. for four successive years. By careful economy he had not only neutralised the thoughtless profusion of his father, and paid off the debts contracted during the French and Spanish wai-s, but had amassed a reserve of 200,000/. for any sudden emergency secured a considerable fleet, and maintained in magnifi- cence his foiir-and-twenty palaces. His picture-galleries, libraries, and collections of medals, not to mention the public museums, conferred honour upon his administration. The former sold for 50,000/.;- a large sum, when it is remembered that the Cartoons were only appraised at 800/. ! His subjects were gxowing rich, li he could but ^^^ MODERN HI8T0RT. [a.D. ia40.». have let them aJone; and kept the knives, whins and CZVZole'~ ,t'''^ dancTdrunreCs' fnrT>y ^ , ^PT^ ^"d worldly amusements, and preferred forthemselyes thm potations and hot suppers %he'at« of interest lor money had fallen from ten to eieit per Ven^ Exports, imports, and customs were iiourislS ^ m«„; was about forty shilling-s a quarter, and matl^rple a wCi\ ^^«l\»Mhe Venetian ambassador, says ofEdon |« nanas of a Frotestant goverament, tlie im- m en. Xiv.] MODERN HISTORY. trusK^n""^ *^' "fhappy destiny of being believed or tousted bv no one. It seemed to be thought that false- crTf? Sf^ 'f'lf^' "'' ^^ ^* ^^^^ sometime! styled, W. craft, formed the normal habitude of his mind- and it really appeared so The contest began with tr W Paa-- wXaUVv'^- ^^Z^-. ^^'J''''^ S*«^ffor^ fellTtofelher E fit?^?'n ^P I'if' ^?A ^Y''' '^^^^"^Plioes, Almost in resort d to bv\'n,^^ pohtica earthquake. Arms were resorted to by both parties within two years: Scotland 00 W on with her solemn leagnze and co/enan , as a vul- W it^T 'a ^"^^ ' ^°^ ^'■^^^"d ^'H thrown into It of Ed^eMfT^r f "'"^- V«"«"«^attles, from that ot lidgebill to Naseby m a.d. 1645. severely fi-fpH f>.2 mettle both of the Roundheads and C^vXifwh 1st ft on either side could refuse a tear at the fate of uch patr otT Lt^'ofTttirv^^^'^^S'^ • ^\' ^^"^^' ^^^' V^^sXl t>est ot xt, until Vane called m the canny Scots ; sacfiv dis- appointed as these last were when the geniu's of K Cromwell erected upon the ruins of Presbyterian sm the more specious imnosture of Indepndency. "^ Charles m Jfi4Q '^ "I \^' ^'^''^ ¥''' wEtehal^in January a i of 11' S' ''' ^'^fderfoUy extenuated the colossaf vice A r ''^'T''^^':; fn^ niade him a nominal martyr in the Ang lean Establishment. The monarchy was now caSed a sXd?no.";''^T'""^f ^' thetwohoLs ofpTrifamen? volcnnK *T*^''7'*> T7 ''^^'^ institutions, into that InZ jTt ' ''"* °^ '''^''^' ^ short-lived Protectorate arose. In some respects, it must be admitted that Crom- bSn.''ml%^"?f^'°" "^'^"f «8-e -nd countiy, albwic^s being made for the essential difference of the r resoective pru,ds and cu^umstances. He contnved o 3 Eng! ?me sS !2;*^ '' ^r' '""^ ^^-^d; but at the Se Ft was hfnZf/^ '"^^^^^^^ and a wicked faction, ar inebes m Egypt. His conquest of Ireland disnlaved the utmost savagery of fanaticism; that of Scot3 ^^ imfathomable depth of his dis«,riniof«r nu-l7 Vf :l!»J||f: '^^ HODBRN HISTOKT. [a.D. 1650-85. escaped to the continent, after having been crowned at Scone, and defeated at Worcester. The victor may be said to have reigTied over the three kingdom, for five veare, a.u. 1663-8 j succeeded by his son Richard for the briefest mterval, and canyingp to the gi-ave with himself eveiy vestige of the greatness of his family. Mankind cannot wear a mask for ever; and rarely has any event been hailed w,th heartier gratulation than the Restoration of the Stnai-ts m ad. 1660. But they had learned nothinir m adversity, unless it were to be ashamed of virtue ; and tremendous was the reaction from the heresy of the West- minster Catechism to tlie profligacy of the Merrv Monarch and his mistresses. Clarendon preserved some external decency to his exile in a.d. 1667. Although contrary to compact, the Act of Uniformity wrenclied about 2000 clergymen out of their comfortable livings, and plagued the JJissenters to death during the remainder of the life of ni-^ J a'^,^®^^^"^'^^ ministers then came into office, ChftoM Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale termed the Caba , from the initial letters of their names tor six years; followed by the administration of the Earl 1 f^te. ''^^''® "'^^^J ^J^en, in a.d. 1678, the infernal wot ot litus Oatos, unparalleled for its atrocity in British history, stained the scaffolds with Catholic blood, and left a blot upon our national humanity beyond the power of posterity to erase. Lord StaflPbrd was the last innocent victim; yet nothing seemed able to diminish either the violence of the House of Commons or the bigotry of tb« excited populace. James Duke of York had married Anne Hyde, daughter of the Earl of Clarendon, by whom he had two daughters; one married to the Prince of Urange, the other to Prince George of Denmark. Their father, from honest conviction, became a convert to the true faith; and now the grand object was to bar his suc- cession to the throne, as his brother Charles had no lejri- timate issue, by a Bill of Exclusion. The project failed, although Protestantism exerted itself to the uttermost, de- scending to the vilest calumnies, the most worldly policy and some of tlie blackest atrocities for the purpose. Edin- bui-gh caught the infection, whence it spread ivam the CH. XIV.] MODBRN HISTORY. 819 capital throi ^hout many of the counties; yet as prelacy beyond the 1 weed was deemed quite as bad as Popery, the rage of the Scotch Covenanters rather took the direc- tion ot assaihng- those who were in possession of ecclesias tical wealth and authority, in other words, the Andican t-piscopahans. Archbishop Sharpe was barbarously mur- dered by them ; for the spirit of John Knox had intiised a genuine dash of demoniacal fury into Caledonian Came- ronmmsm. Meanwhile the king- subsided into a tributary i.-l^u^' ^®<^®^^^"& annual subsidies from Louis XIV., which that monarch was too willing to pay towards the promotion of those ambitious schemes that England alone could have traversed, and which Charles was too willing to accept, that he might avoid encountering another pailia- ment. The Habeas Corpus Act had happily passed, just as the nicknames of Whig and Tory began to be as cm'- rent as some of their predecessors during the scarcely for- gotten civil wars. Lord Russell, an immensely over-rated partisan, together with Algei-non Sydney, un^ement de- capitation, through the Rye-House plot, and a gross i)erver- sion of equity. Chief-Justice Scroggs, and other wretches ot similar character, polluted the ermine at that time: just as Jeftreys dis^aced the seals somewhat later. Chm-les had dexterously availed himself of the reaction in his favour produced m the popular mind by the outrageous excesses of the exclusionists ; so that the doctrines of un- limited passive obedience to the regal power came to be openly; patronised at Oxford, and taught as a kind of Christianity from several thousand episcopalian pulpits. Anglicans could swallow a slavish despotism with regard to 1 secular sovereign, ready to enthral the liberties ilihe kingdom; but their pride rejected the spiritual obedience to that sole centre of unity whose authority, derived from Ood,can alone secure for man the enjoyment of an exalted 5*. u°l' ^9^a^es IL was received, on his death-bed, into that holy Church which, like her Divine Founder, yearns to the very last moment for the salvation even of the vilest sinners; and James was quietly proclaimed when his bro- ther had expired, 6th February, a.d. 1685- This prince, though by no means clear from immor^UtY, . III lit. ;j20 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 1685-6. had always maintained a far more respectable private cha- racter tlian his predecessor. He had contnbuted m no Bliffht degree to the development of our naval power both peLnally and officially. Km the era of tbe S|nunsh irmada, indeed, it had never ceased to culminate. Neither The follies nor favouritism of his grandfather checked ite advancement, during the civil wars Blake had vendeied it illustrious, more rjarticularly when, soon aftei-wards, a.d. 1652, he achieved his smendid triumph off Portland, over the Dutch fleet vader Van Tromp and De Ruyter. The struggles for maritiwo simremacy between England and HolFand were analogous to those between Genoa and Ve- Sce at an earlier period. Sir Hain-y Vane meanwhile had performfed wonders at the Admiralty. Before the domina- Son of Oliver Cromwell, so complete an abolition of abuses had been effected, that although the profits of certain departments had been cut down from 30,000Z. per annmn to the modest salary of 1000/. a-y ear, m the spnng of A.D. 1653, there were 100 vessels of war in our dockyards ^ind harbours, preparing to sail under Monk and Dean. These gallant leadei-s defeated the equally numerous fleet of Holland on the 2d of June, after a severe engagement, which raged during that and the subsequent day; when, although Dean diet in the action, the Dutch were obliged to retire, and Blake coming up with seasonable re-inforce- ments, the English blockaded the entire coasts of rtieu- rivals. The latter, however, resolved upon another eftort. Repairing and re-manning then- squadrons within eight weeks, Ym Ti-omp sailed forth with a new armament, and encountered Monk for three successive davs, when at last the Nelson of Holland, on the p^t of July, in the act of animating his brave sailors, was shot through the heart with a musket-ball. The British victory was complete; twenty- flve large ships were captured, and the sovereigiity ot the ocean was conceded by solemn treaty. Cromwell then de- clared war against Spain. Penn and Venables attempted Hispaniola, and conquered Jamaica. Two -alleons of the Plate fleet rewarded the audacity of the assailants off tadiz, besides a couple of others driven on shore, and there con- 1 1 ^ /• . ^ i«Kfl Tn +l>o samA vflnr. Blake COU- Bunea oy uro, a.u. iwwi *« — " j-—r 1665-6. fate cha- fcd in no wer both 1 Spanish Neither lecked its rendered ards, A.B. land, over ter. The ^•land and 1 and Ve- while had e domina- of abuses of certain )er annum spring of dockyards Old Dean, erous fleet ^agement, ay; when, ire obliged re-inforce- bs of their hher effort, thin eight iment, and iien at last the act of heart with e; twenty- pity of the jU then de- attempted eons oithe s oif Cadiz; there con- Blake con- CH. xrv.] MODERN HISTORY. 821 a vtt o ?Lh/P' "^^'' ^r ^"'° *^^ Mediteiranean, paid Tslll % •^^"'°' "^^'"^ ^"^ ^^^''ted full reparation Vrom Tu cany for mjunes perpetrated against British commeic? whdst at the same time he chastised Algiers and 'FunSfnr their piracies and blew the castles of So Forino and Goletta into tlie air with his artillMv and mines. A TenS heanng that sixteen Spanish sail iiad taken shelfer nlJe Canaries he pursued them thither, and found themstrondv protected m the bay of Santa Cruz. After a fierce conW the entire squadron, with all the treasuTe-shi^s we?e 1 stroyed or burnt. Trade, commerce, and coloS exmndpH as might well be exnected beneath the wints S^XmS tune fame. Even tTie East-India Company felt' ts empo Sof r'''-^"'''r*"'"y "*■ '' ^re-^ter result, which 3d ultimatehr arrive, alter multifarious changes and fl,7ctua- tions. ^Ve years from the Restoration ha§ haX e£ed before tlie seizure of New York in North America -alho apprehensions which Holland entertained for a sLdthold r who was nephew to the khig of Eno-land led to anntlfii hfe-and-death conflict for tlfe honours oJ'theVc^arDe Witt the grand pensionary, abhorred the House of Oran-e^ Chit' 7"' 'i'^fC l^^f-^ '''' '' ^'''' decidedly popX' Charles himself liked ships, and had a general taste fl; naval architectm^e. His brother James had tS very soul of a royal sailor, and was now high-admiral of Sand with a fleet of 100 sail. The fm-ious battle of June illus trated the spirit of both nations. The duke at W £ up the Dutch admii-al Opdam, captured Sy^Lep^^^^ and drove his adversary into the Texel. It was S; supposed, that but from some unfortunate mistaCn oTdeif the entire forces of Holland might have fallen a sacrifice' Be tins as it may, seventy-eight noble vessels, uX Albf: marie and Prince Rupert, ought te have fought ?he memo- rable engagement of June A.D. 1666, against "e RuX and the son of the late Van Tromp, whoS ninety sYios reinforced dunng the fight with sSteen morerS ffi pert unhappily, some days before the action, had been sint away with twenty of the British line against the French I'rZ ^±'lhl^3^r'^^}^ Chanel with f JStii — ^^^'^ "^ --'''»•"""• me real stmggie, therefore, " 823 MODBICW RISTORY. [a.D. 1603-87. i occurred between Albemarle alone witli only fifty-eight ships on one side, against the champions of Holland with forces almost double on the other. Night and morning succeeded each other three times ere the sanguinary battle closed, as it was imagined, to the advantage of the Dutch ; yet, singular to relate, notwithstanding the inequality of the combatants, this was not to be so. A fresh fleet was descried in the offing, which proved to be that of Prince Rupert. On the fourth day, until sunset, the horrors of camnge were renewed, without victory deckiring for either the flags of England or Holland, excepting that the foi-mer escaped from the jaws of destniction not more injured than the other, notwithstanding such fearful -"dds as were against Albemarle, until Rupert prrived. In the following July, one more final attempt was made to settle the superiority, with about equal vessels, men, and guns, on both sides, and with the same commanders. The British Jack obtained a complete triumph, and inflicted heavy injuries upon their antagonists, not so much in tho battle, as afterwards in ravaging their coasts. Amidst the subsequent negotiations at Breda, De Witt was able to retaliate by burning sonie of our ships in the Medway ; and having made several fruit- less attacks upon Portsmouth and Plymouth, hh hero De Ruyter i-ode up and down the intermediate seas with a broom at his mast-head. But the fact was, that the king had most scandalously misappropriated the pariiamentary grants for the navy, so that the affair at Chatham, dis- creditable as it proved to all parties, only showed that an armed warrior may attack his antagonist out of his clothes, if he has the fortune to find him so, with comparative im- punity. The marine of Holland, from that hour, sun-endered every pretension to an actual rivalry with England. With the latter has ever since remained the trident of the seas ; and no inconsiderable share of the honour may bo set down as due to the valour and exertions of James II. Had he not been a Catholic, this would have been readily i-ecognised; and if his subsequent war;o of wisdom or moral honesty may not be defended, it cannot but be explained by the inherent villany of the age in which he lived, ^id tlie way in Tvhich "^ ■ ■ ■• • • unu J CH. XIV.] MODEHN nisTonv. 323 dis- liim. He lind known from pei-sonnl experience whnt manner ot men his contempornry assailants were; even the hest of then- divmes, wlio had sometliing- like a i)ious character to lose, such as Buniet for example. The rebellion of Mon- mouth seems to have clouded over his entire character ior humanity, but perhaps unfairly ; since an intelligent wit- ness, hkely to he veil informed, assures us that he never torgave Jeifreys for having executed so many in the west, conti-ary to his express injunctions. His second consort must have been a prime blessing- to him; and when she bore him a son, considered to be an imposture by his op- ponents, without a shadow of pretext for so vile an accu- sation, her loveliness and blamelessness could not fail to rend M- the calumny all the nioi-e piercingly poig-nant. Yet he had pledged his royal word to protect the establish- ment ; antl it is notorious that the head of the Church, Innocent XI., heartily disai)proved of his tergivei-sation. Had James not been blinded by his own obstinacy, he would have listened to the parental intimations of his Ho- liness, who declined gi-anting- a dispensation for Father Petre from the rules of his order, that he might be made tu-st a bishop and then a cardinal. The moderate Catholics were for supporting a good Fi-anciscan friar, Mansuete, from Loii-ame, whose influence and prudence were, how- ever, forthwith overruled by the brilliant but urgent policv of the Jesuits. Every thing- went fonvard too fast. Dispiites with Cambridge and Oxford compromised his majesty at every turn. His iiroclamation of liberty of conscience, honourable as it was in itself, cnme out at the wron"- mo- ment and under dubious ai^^pices. The state of Scotland nnd Ireland ; the augmented coolness between James and Louis, from whom the fonner had received large pensions, but whom the latter now rvished to em (noil with his nephew nnd son-in-law; the pelting- hail-storm of slandei-s and in- sinuations, maintained without intermission from all the Protestant jnilijits in the tlii-ee realms ; these, and a thou- sand other tokens, betrayed the quaking- g-round. The trial and sicmiittal of the seven bishops sealed his approach- uig- ruin. The opinions and «ood wishes, if not tiie nftpp. tjoiis, of nearly two-thirds of his subjects,' inclined rapidlv ' i 824 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. WST-P. towards the Prince ofOranp^o. Tins uspiririfr politician Iiad already intrig-ued witli n party in England for the succes- sion to the crown ; had favoured the exclusion-act proposed during- the last reig-n ; had winked hard at the expedition of Monmouth ; had invited Burnet to his court and coun- sels at the Haeue ; and had recently set himself out before the world as the delivorer of Protestantism of all coloure froni bondage and opnression. In truth, the ambition of Louis XIV. had bo alarmed the greater part of Europe, that the most powerful of the other Catholic princes, with the Pontiff" himself at their head, had entered into bonds of the strictest amity with William III. He was at length formally invited over by the memorial of Lords Shrews- bury, Devonshire, Damley, Lumley, Sydney, aftei-wards Lord Rodney, Admiral Russell, and the Bishop of London. The States were drawn into the design ; for WiUiam was now their stadtholder. James remained in a state of judi- cial blindness, until it was too late to avoid his own down- fall. The invader settled mattei-s between his wife and mistress; his republic furnished him with money, men, and armed vessels; one of those solemn fasts was pro- claimed, which must be beyond me-sure salubrious to Dutch digestions. Burnet prayed a series of prayera, which involved his comfortable Io Cfnf t'\e Commons, and trampled upon the privi- leges ot the people, A. D. 1690-1830. ^ CHAPTER XV etJRVKT OF RELIOION-PAVORAMA OF THE F0LITIC8 OF EDROFB PROM THE PEArr ,, ,,, ^p„^,^ ^^ „,^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ aJBSA* When Luther and his assistants fii-st beheld the astonish- mg- pi-ogress which Protestantism, in some shape or other seemed to he making, throughout Europe, their conviction was that the Catholic Churcli had received it. death-blow lliere is a profane hexameter yet extant, anributed to the Uerman arch-heretic implying this very idea; and it may iMnteTestrng, therefore, to give a glance at the genuini r!» V . f, f r ^""^^^ ^* '^ ^^'^"^ whatevPf rSint we maj, It will be found sufliciently painful. The full flow of error appears to have gone on down to the pontificate of Oixtus gumtus, when careful observation wif' show that thp ebb began to set in. The consequences of the gi-eat Council of Trent, the noble exertions of the S- ciety of Jesus, the bitter experience of what the ecclesiastical revolt had really produced, at last told. Nor had such popes as f\r"^- . i^ '" """'"' "°^ s"^h other saints as those ot the sixteenth century, whose names will readily occur to the reader; yet surely the scene was an awful one: Denmark, Nomay, Sweden, England, and Scotland were -««x«j iOsLi v^erraany aimoht go. ijohemia and Poland ,M 326 MODBKN HISTORY. [a.D. 1520^1700. were infected to a very great degree, as was also the low country of Flanders. France lay in profound confusion. The Venetian territories, Italy, 'Spain, Poi-tu^al, with a few islands, almost alone remained faithful. Pmssia took the lead in an extensive secularisation of Church property. In Polish Prussia the great cities had Lutheranism esta- blished by express chartei-s. In Poland itself, by far the major part of the nobility had embraced Protestantism ; and so many of the episcopal sees wen in heresy as to give a most decided preponderance in the whole senate against Catholicity. In Hungary, Ferdinand could obtain nothing from the Diet hostile in the least de'p-ee towards the new opinions, although Turkey was at tha door. In A.D. 1554, F Lutheran was chosen palatine of tliat kingdom : a repre- sentative of the successor of St. Stephen! Transylvania severed herself altogether from Rome ; the crown seized an enormous proportion of the tithes, and the States con- fiscated the remainder. In the north-west of Europe mat- ters were no better. Wurtzburg and Bamburg- beheld nearly all their magnates, magistrates, burghers, and rural populations, fall away fi'om the ti-ue faith ; and throughout JBavaria it was precisely the same. In Austria, not more than the thirtieth part of the inhabitants remained adhe- i*ents to the Creed of the Apostles ; nor at Vienna for twenty years was there one student of its university who entered the priesthood. In Saltzburg, and the three eccle- siastical electorates of Cologne, Treves, and Mayence ; in Westphalia and Cleves ; in the hilly or momtainous dis- tricts, as well as the larger towns or villages of the open country, the vast mass of the inhabitants had seceded from the centre of unity ; and this to the extent of nine out of ten, taking an average of the German tenitor es all through. The archbishoprics and bishoprics of Magde )urg, Bremen, Halberstadt, Lubeck, Vcrden, Minden, and the Abbey of Quedlenburg, were in the possession of tliose who had apostatised, or of their descendants. In France, from the Pyrenees to the Rhine, every province, in a spiritual sense, was rent to pieces : the hierarchy and the clei'gy were not free from the infection ; and even few cloisters continued totally undisturbed. With tha exceptions of ]^fi-lgsd ^d MODERN RISTOBT. 88? in OB. XT.J Scandinavia, however, the imperial and royal families were Uithohc, as also more than one of the ducal houses not to mention many districts amon^ the Walloons in Flandei-s, some counties in Ireland, the whole of the Tyrol, and pai'ts ot Switzerland. But tlie Popedom, after the Tiiirty xears War, could count up many a re-conquest, as we now are fevdured to perceive. Throughout the augmented races ot Germany more than a moiety are witliin the fold. m trance the preponderance of the orthodox soon hecame seventeen to one. Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, Transvl- vama, Bavaria, Belgium, and Poland, have more or less i-eturaed to their spiritual home ; three-foiuths of Ireland are once agam Catholic, a thud ofSwitzeriand, and almost •I ^°"""^- ^n Centi-al and South America, the Spa- nm and PortugTiese missions won another worid for the t/hurch of Almighty God; whilst Canada and Maryland, Louisiana and the Floridas, Newfoundland, Cuha, His' panioia, and some other of the West Inches, extended the limits of Christendom. Hindoostan, Japan, and Ciiina. Oevion, and the Manillas, rapidly augmented the muster- roll oi foreign stations; and if some of them have ceased to be productive, fresh prospects, on a far nobler scale, are opening amidst the British colonies of Austmlia, and the revival f religion throughout the United States, for the best interests of Catholicity. As an approximate conjee ture, there were probably about the middle of the sixteenth century qmte as many R-oter+ants as Cathohcs : there m-e now thrice as many of the latter as of tlie former, literally spread over the face of the habitable globe; so that the ^n never sets upon those sacred altars, upon which the Blood of the Lamb IS offered, as aii early, daily, and ador- able sacrifice, for the sins of all mankind. Louis XIV. was in his minority when the ti-eaty of Westphalia pacified the largest portion of Em-ope. ' So contagious are the elements of insurrection, that the appa- rent success ot the Great Rebellion in England generated imnieuse sympathy with its geneitd principles in France. Cardmal De Hetz, the rival of Mazaiin, took advauta"-e M this circumstance, and found a convenient instrument 828 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1648-08. supported this body against the court and the queen mo- ther, Anne of Austria. Tumults and civil dissensions soon embroiled tlie enth-e kingdom. Conde called in the Spaniards; yet in the end Mazarin triumphed; chiefly through the gallantry of Turenne, who maintained him afterwards in ofHce, by a series of military successes, such as have seldom failed to dazzle the French nation. The Peace of the Pyrenees, a.d. 1659, at length composed the differences between the two powers on either side of them. The policy of Mazarin had always been to procure for the House of Bourbon an eventual succession to the Spanish monarchy ; it was now arranged that his young sovereign should marry the infanta ; that every pretension to Alsace should be renounced by her family; that the Catalans should be pai'doned by Philip, and Cond6 by Louis ; and that the long-disputed heirship of Juliers should be decided in favour of the Duke of Neuburgh. In little more than a year afterwards the great Cardinal minister died, leaving the reins of government for the royal hands to guide, just as they were be^nning to get very impatient for their pos- session. Louis aI v., in fact, now commenced his career; a splendid one as to mere externals; but in reality pre- paring for his people and their posterity the terrible retri- bution of a later day. In the German empire, Leopold received the diadem on the death of his father, Ferdinand III., A.D. 1667. His earliest measure was the comple- tion of an alliance with Poland and Denmark, as against Sweden. Chi-istina, only child of the great Gustavus Adolphus, having embraced Catholicism, had resigned her sceptre to Charles X., her cousin : her residence in France, however, was rendered impossible, through her assassina- tion of Monaldeschi, a favourite chamberlain, in the galleiT of the Stags at Fontambleau, a.d. 1657; and the subse- ouent treaty of Oliva, after the decease of Charles, left the Scandinavian kingdoms pretty much as they were at the Peace of Westphalia. Sweden still looked towards Paris as the pole-star to direct the course of her own policy, until the invasion of the Spanish Netheriands brought about the famous Triple Alliance, a.d. 1668, achieved by Sir Wil- liam Temple between England, Holland, and the Regency OH. XV.l MODIRX HISTORT. such !,„ r There existed peculiar customs of inheritan™ . >ag some provinces oftlie Netherlands, which affS Colbert had the char J of Ms fiLcerZ) ^f- P'^^' them into a high state of eLw 'A?tt,Z^™»'°«f mene of his adiSinist^tion, the "^'nditare haTSrf |m™ allowinUenty-seven niurt&Z.^ acute olserver remarks, were the astonishinff powS^ of ,h^ 1 He more immediate object of attractinn «,,». t ■- d:)0 MODKHN HISTORY. [a.D. 1679-1688. Archdeacon Coxe, none was so complicated or embaiTossed rm **^ op«'"a*'ons as that of the Seven United Provinces fhey did not so much fomi one republic, as a confedera- taonot several; nor was each a distinct commonwealth in Itself, but rather a municipal alliance of such orders, cities, and towns as enjoyed the right of sending deputies to a particular assembly of the provincial states. Nor were these last aught else than the mere representatives of a sovereign power, conjointly nominating a certain number ot delegates, who were the States General, dignified with the title of High Mightinesses; but who could neither enact laws, declai'e war, make peace, impose taxes, form leagues, nor mise fleets or armies, without the consent of the respective provinces, to whom all matters of importance weie contmually referred. The greffier or secretary was the principal minister, and the grand pensionary of Hol- land the most influential oflScer, having to watch over the laws and libei-ties of the republic, and representing that particular pi-ovince which paid more than half the public imposts that were levied. The defects of this many-headed monster of a government, comprising as many masters as there were minds, could alone be remedied by the stadt- holder, or captain-general and lord high-admiral of the Dutch forces by sea or land. His prerogatives were exten- sive and formidable, constituting him the real executive of the whole people; and the office was uniformly conferred, whenever permitted to exist at all, on the princes of the house of Orange, from the date of the revolution. Five °^j ?f ^^® s^'^en provinces elected William I. ; Friesland and Groningen preferring his cousin John Count of Nassau Dihenburgh. The stadtholdership of the former was con- tanued m the descendants of William; namely, Mam-ice, Henry Frederick, and William II.; on whose demise, in A.D. 1650, the office was abolished by the Republican fac- tion; but was restored, on the invasion of Louis XIV., to the son of the last prince, William III., afterwai-ds king of England, and declared hereditary in his line. The man- ners of the people had been till then decidedly simple and republican; formed somewhat upon the Swiss model. John de Witt, who really managed the commonwealth, and ab- CH. XV.] MODERN HISTORY. 831 Wd the house of Orange, lived like a private citizen. The great admiral De Ruyter was never seen in a car- nBge; but was observed, on his return home from a naval .victory to cairy Ins own portmanteau from the flao^hin to bs modest residence. The military spirit nevertheSs Ld picvalence of the commercial one. Immense riches soon engendered a pride of their own, founded, too, upon a ^loroughly vile basis. There grew up an oh>rcVof tamihes, whose names were not always linked with tha glorious struggles for liberty in bygone davsrbrtwhose influence rested upon the hoards oTgolden "gi dei" Tr the mgots gathered from the Brazils aSd the Spice isLds The colonies and commerce of Portugal, when that kinff- dom got annexed to Spain, had passed into the hands of Holland ; so that Amsterdam or tie Hague could vie with tIi'' '5 f^^.'-^"^"""* ^^'onm^^ that floated bet Jeen the Texel and India, or the Orientaf opulence and luxury which ?^of% n^^^'^P*'^ -^"^ "^'^^ «"d merchants^ The i^rince ot Orange enjoyed a private fortune of 50,000/ sterling a-year, besides his ofiicial emoluments, and Te handsome cml hst, into which he came, as the island ^Zf ' • *5''5 J^«§t"^\during the find and mo t im- poftant period of his life. He considered himself bora to counteract the ambition of Louis XIV.; andT annate ilatontt '''" '''^'^'^^'' "^^ ™^^ ^*« ^We'? T.n£P®^^ of thunder from a cloudless sky, said Sir William lemple, could scarcely have occasioned greater terror than the u'niption of the i'rench armies into the UnS Pi^ tSAv- 1^72. S^'^den had been detached from the JZ i rwV- ^^^^^H«."- of England had been bough? over, after shutting up his own exchequer, the Cabal c^- rymg all before tliem, and failing in\n atrocious Xt to entrap the Duteh fleet retuii^ig from Smyrna wSi property valued at two millions sterling. AffeSly friS- enea as our own countrymen then appeared to be at the growing preponderance of France, they were not inwardly sorry at the humaiation of their commercial and 3 competitor. The BishoD of Munster unA .vl mlJ!^^^r 83d MODBftN HISTOHT. [a.D. 1672-7. I Cologne joined in the attack; whilst Louis, at the head of tourscoro thousand men, within four weeks had conquered above foity strong cities, including Gueldres, Overyssel, and Utrecht; nor was he now far from Amsterdam. The sea-hght in May, near Southwold, at least illustrated the personal valour of the Duke of York, and helped at the same time to weaken Holland. By land, Louis and Tu- renne crossed the Rhine, took Arnheim, and before mid- siimmer had thrown the United Provinces into confusion, iheir various populaxies attributed their disaster to the Ue Witts, for the grand pensionary had a brother: both Mere literally torn in pieces by the self-styled lovers of liberty. William was regularly installed in his high but most perilous office : the sluices were every where opened so as to lay entire districts under water ; it was resolved that, sooner than submit tt the invader, the gallant rep^ib- licans should abandon their native sar i-banks, and embark tor some of their eastern possessions; and although thty lost nearly every battle, despair only heightened their cou -age. Un the waves their admii-als still engaged with wondjiliil steadiness and intrepidity against the British squadrons, immediate triumph seemed the lot of neither party ex- cept that when peace enrned, England culminated' and Holland, from her exhaustio.., waned. Not that her rulers then acknowledged it; for their prmce had retaken Naer- den, and joined the imperialists, under Montecuculi, before ^onne; but in the separate pacification concluded with Charles, a.d. 1674, the honour of tho flag was relinquished tor ever by the Dutch; new regulations of trade were ?ri!?nnnJ T *¥^ ^^^^'^ ^ P^^ *° ^'^ "^'yesty above ^WOOOl. towards the expenses of the war. Notwith- standing this defection of an ally, France renewed the vigour of her exertions. Three armies were in the field on the fi-ontiers of Germany, Flanders, and RousiUon,— for . Spam had now espoused the republicans ; whilst with a fourth Louis eagerly entered Franche Comt6, and subdued the whole province. Besangon held out three weeks, and then capitu ated. William had during the campaiai en- countered the great Condm ajmpsert, guilty m they equaUy w^ 1 334 MODEKN HISTORY. [a.d. 1678-83. witli tlieir own mnster, whom tliey professed to denounce, m receivino- foreign money tlirouoh tlje Parisian ambas- mlov, joined in the cowardly cry against ponery ; and t int, too, without affordino; any effectual assistance in checking- the ambition of France. Louis XIV. managed either to outwit or oveniwe eacli of his opponents at Ni- meg;nen A.D. 1G78; where he was allowed by treaty to retain I-nmche Comte, as well as the barrier towns of tJimdei-s. His vast realms wanted repose, and they pro- cured It. But he had extended his frontiei-s on all sides • g-iven law to Spain, Holland, and the German empire! nmlhad placed himself in a good position for realising whenever opportunity miglit offer, his views for a vet more expansive agg-i-ant sement. The next ten years sutHciently manifested these inten- tions. He supported an enormous army, upon a scale and m a state of efficiency far beyond the renuirementu of a pwce-estahlishment. He set up chambers of re-union at Metz find Brisac, the operation of which would enlarge his nifiuHnce m Lori-aine. Strasburg- was seized; Casal, the ca- ])ital of Montferrat, was occupied ; the fortress of Huninffen near Basle, was erected as a curb upon the Swiss caitons- J.uxemburg- was bombarded, as if there existed an avowed wai-: at, sea, he insisted upon Sjiain always salutiii!? the Tiagof !• ranee; he maintained afloat one hundred sail of the line, with sixty thousand sailors and marines; Toulon and Mrest were made the arsenals of their respecti^re wa- tei-s ; Dunkirk and Havre-de-Grace were filled with vessels. ml Kochefort was converted into a convenient harbour m spite of nature. He cleared, however, the Meclitenn- nean fi-om the coi-sairs of Barbary; severely yet justly chastised Algiei-s twice, and broug-ht both Tunis and Tn- l)oh to very humiliating; tems. Sti-ang-e to say, Genoa was served m the same way, on a heavy charg-e of havinff f^old ammunition to the Algeiines, and' built ^ome galleys for the Si|aninrds. But just as Kehl and Luxomburff came into his jiossession, throuo-h negotiations conseouent upon his violent procedures, the great financier Colbeit « led, whose genius and sag-acity had fui-nisherl him with the smews ol strength. The Edict of Nantes, eousidsi-sd OH. XV.] MODERN HISTORY. 835 II}'a ^''°*«'*r* '""^J^"*' '^ *J>ei'" MagTia Charta, was re- couit ot Home, to wliom Lou s had tlisnlaved his vnni^^ •nd appetite for dominion in any ?h Kt a favoum 2 of St pt:" t'*"?.' ^^' °^ P^^^i^"' iMled the hal S t^otV:^-^tf Self k?r ?Ai-*^^^^r '^ ^ mode^tion had^one iTlS heX^'Zi of Urbino had escheatedl'he ptacT^l^^^^^ weie added by conquest, a.-d. 1G30-9. Odeschalc?ii or Innocent XL, governed with great abihty. He sSdlv disentan^ed the exchequer of the Cliurci from its S c,al disordei-s; and althougli so many sources of revemie had dned up, from the prevalence oflieresv ]ie not m, W imid off enormous debts,^ut left at hisd c L„o?e'sttj ^0 mdhons of scudi in the apostolic treasurv. This was the father of he faith ftd whom Louis XIV. tfiouffh LZ to msult and bully ; although it is remarkable tlmt hisT! tunes declmed ever nfteiwards. In spiritual cSLerns a contest about that phantom of folly eallS the Span Liberties, was pushecTas far as it posk^! mild L wS plunging the entire kingdom into the abyss of S • ?n tempomi matters, some absurd privileges of asylum, which botli the emperor and Spain 'had cWfull/ waved to assist his Hofmess in maintaining the civil oiXof hi^ tTe ZfS J;r '^7^ '' ^^? an%bstinate pertinacity on the pait ot Fi-ance, for no other palpable purpose th-^.n an assertion of vain-glory. It was tk ^nal as aSlt upo^ the Leopold, until the present year, had bepn fnn mi,«i, eng^gei with the Turk's to tuiJ his S aSenJbn west ward Their perpetual interference with Hunffarv had Ted him into an alliance with the celebrated Join ^Sobieski king of Po and; who nobly rushed to his assistLce whS his terntones were invaded by an Ottr^rr... of:!: !' J i^" capital abandoned, a.d. 1683: The sieg;* of Weii^"wi' 8W VODBBN HIOTOHT. [a.D. 1«8«.90 raised with immense lo8s*>s on the side of the invaders; vet thesti-uc-glestill went on; until the Hun rmian throne hnymg been declared hereditary, Buda beinjr recovered after an obstinate . < -.stance, md a victory gained over the Crescent at Mohatz the eniperor happily resolved to ioin tlie confederacy of Augsburg-, a.d. 1088, formed between Germany, Spam, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, and Savoy. Its simple ob,ect was to clip the wings of Louis XlV. We had done his atmost to secure the electorate of Cologne for the Cai-dmal Filrstenberg, an ecclesiastic devoted to the house of Bourbon. The Duchess of Orleans also had advanced her pretensions to the Palat-nate, as sole sister to Charles, the gi-andson of the titular king- of Bohemia, and the last of that d ivct line; and in her name, as the Princess Charlotte Elizabeth of Simmem, ..cond consorS to his brother Philip Duke of Orleans, Louis, although her claims were expressly renounced in her maiTiage arti- cles, once more ravaged the Palatinate with fire and sword There i-emmned, therefore, nothing else to be done, but to accept the Papal benediction on their leaa-ue ao^inst a common enemy, and obtain the concurrence of England. IJm Revolution, which enthroned the Prince of Oiie as Wilham in., happened about two months after hostQities Had commenced m earnest on the banks of the Rhine ,•« ^^"^/''""t^T at this momentous period was gi-owintr ^.o^ T as shown in a previous chapter. JnteraS ar ri-rj rTi'?''' pi-osperity had made"^ rapid strides. iLiTA £'"^^ demonstrates that, on the alldication of iHon/ Vo 'i^ ""'''' ""^'^ '"dividuals on Change wo.th 10,000/. than there were forty years before worth 1000/. Her shipping had move than doubled in twenty-eight years sirttfri"""""^?'*"'*''^''''? introduced in iron, brass silk hats, glass, and paper. A brewer brought fi4m the Netherlands the art of dyeing woollen cloth? ; Bucking! ham had introduced from Venice the mode of prepm-Sfg m iTors and cmtals; Prince Rupert had rendereS eSI foshonable. The mcrease of the coinage subsequent toth? bS n^T T *^°."^'^«^ ""'^ * 9"S't"- ^teiing. The Board of Trade ongmated in a.d. ifco, with Sandwich for lU president. It wag calculated, however, that eZi To^ I CH. IT.] MODBRN iUarOBY. 837 go fufthOT under Oliver Cromwell than four times that TlF T'^t *'''■ 8^f"tlewomon then, were de^pise/by clmmbermaida ajterwaids: although in a statement of tli kmd there must he much aUowance made for tlae purita- n.c«l gravity and p ainnens of tlie Protectorate. Thi com- panson, mdeed, ot the two enis is almost that of owls with peacocks ; hut that every sort of property, hixm-y, and rehnement had immensely increased il clkr.^' The /eopfe, therefore, Mmdod by bigotry, and aroused to a real senso ot danger, warmly support.'d their newly-elected sove- reign m joming the Leag-ue of Augsburg, and declarinir war against France James ha.l been received thlTZl open arms; and the desolations of the Protestant Palatinate, taken in uniair connection with the former circumstance seemed to fu.n.sh William with the most popula groirnds he could wish for, m appealing to the two'rfouses.*^ Scot- ^nd and Ireland were the tender points with which Parlia- S ?l "i- ^'"""t *° ^r,l- ^^ ^'^ of Toleration mani- fested the disi>osition of William to treat all Protestants «nb.;°Tf;' •"'?/ ^'f ^ ^^« ^"•i *hev intended to m^ «pon the Cathohc Church; yet, notwitLtandin- the Ima- ged liberty ot private judgment, the sects were so far irom ao-ivemg among themselves to dwell peaceably toge- ther, that even m England Episcopacy looked dowi upon Dissent, and hevond the Tweed felt r'eady to join thelja" cohites rather than quietly acquiesce in the estabhshment .of Pi esbyt«riamsm. Across the Irish Channel the pi-ospect was still more overclouded. There the majority held fast by the ancient faith, imder the Earl of iVrconnel, their M-heutenant, wliose firmness enabled the royal exile to make a gjdlant sti-oke for his crown; although, as the re- sult showed, It was lost to thd Stuarts for ever The Pro testants threw themselves into Londonden-y, and other sti'ong places, before James landed in Ireland, to secure, if Ec ' T? ^"^«Pf "^'«"P«i sunpoited by Fi^nch reinforce- finally cnished every project of the kind; and, after fi-uit^ less bloodshed at Cork, Kinsale, Athlone/and Ao-hrim. th« sreaxy or L.imeriek riveted the bitter chain of *ubjii4mtioo 1! MODBRN HISTORY. [A.D. 1690-1703. S ^«J^ i^"°^'' ^'"^ '"» ^'"^^^ Highlanders. They gained, indeed, a nominal and glorious victory at S cranky ; but the death of their leader on the fiefd, and tt surrender of the castle of Edinhurgh, effected tlei, u S! mate d,.spe,^.on ; whilst the barbarous massacre of oiencSo shocked every civdised state in Europe, standing- out, aa »t did, m the horroi-s of dark and i^ep relief^ in the same category with the atrocities whicii Louis XIV. had inflicted upon He.delburg, Si.ires, Frankenthal, Worms, Wn! rV'^-'"^f"^ ''^T'- ^h« J'^"^'' 'monarch alreaT; began to taste tlie cup of merited humiliation. His trooos we, defeated at Wnllccurt by the Prince of Wal S- meats by the Imperialists, under the Prince of hlden. 1 ie Uuke of Luxemburg, indeed, beat the Dutch at nnT^wix ulTT ^'"'Ti' '^'"^ e^°""^ '^ Hungary: and off Beachy Head, a.d. 1690, he vanquished at sea the combined fleets of Holland and EnglancI: but the gmnd engagement at La Hogue, in whicH Admiral Russe?! i^^ ♦b« w ' f/*"' ^"P'^emacy, May a.d. 1092, annihilated the hopes of James, and scattered to the winds the expec- tations of his patron The capture of Namur, andX numph of the French at Steinkirk, seemed but as flashes n2 • T""^^"^; ^°i "''*^'*''" ^^'« success of Luxemburg at Neeminder m Flanders nor that of Catinat at Marsallia m Piedmont nor the losses inflicted ujKjn the Smyrna convoy of the allies in the Mediterranean, afforded an equivalent for tlie miseries of a famine which scoxu-ged every provmce of Fmnce, and rendered less easy to liar her military reverses on the Sombre and Maese, a.d. 1696. i:! 1 V tf exh.austion and miseries of so many nations brought about the congi-ess and pacification ofRyswick J^ ^^f V^- '.' "' i'^'cf ^"'^^ °^ V^"^°"^«> '^y taking S celona, had mduced Spain to receive almost any fair pro- Cif?;' TJli^'iTr* r^^ ^'^' «"^^'tious neighboL. The court of Madrid thereby recovered nearly evely thin^ It had lost William III. was acknowledged the^laS sovereign of his three kingdoms; the emperor was satisfied with Freybourg, Bnsac, and Philipsbom-g; the duchies of CH. xr.\ MODERN HI8T0RT. 339 Lorraine and Bar were restored to his relative, their native pnnce; Louis yielded Luxemburg, Chiney, Charlerois, Mons, Aeth, and Conti-ay: but Charles JL of Spain was rapidly declining; and although the renunciation of all claim to that spj- ujd accession had been ono main ob- ject ot the war, f lere mu, low no mention made of it in the articles of p kc ! Tli, was the principal point with the Grand Mona. iv.. ; rmd \ aving obtained that omission, his worldly wisdoi - ! insatiable acquisitiveness weri willing to wait unt; the prize should ^rop. In another quarter of Europe, the subsequent bnule of Wa,in which prince Lugeno destroyed a numerous Ottoman ho«t, under the Sultan Mustapha IL, accelemted the decline of the Crescent; so that tranquillity was established through the Ireaty of Carlo witz, January a.d. 1699; whereby Hun- gary to the district of Temeswar, with Transylvania and Sclavonia, were ceded to the house of Austria; and the Venetian Republic left in full possession of the Morea, the Island of Lgma near Athens, and several places on the coast, which Francesco Morosini hnd conquered. William 111. negotiated these important affairs, having now risen to almost the highest secular position in Europe. James, the abdicated or deposed king of England, died in exile at St. Gei-mains, 5th September a.d. 1701: the teehle ooanish monarch a few days more than ten months pre>nouslv ; and William in the following spring, a.d. liefore, however, these historical pereonages were removed from the scoiie, all the necessary combustibles for a turious conflagration had been carefully drawn together. 1 lie competitois for the Spanish succession were Louis, Leo- pold, and the Llector of Bavaria. The two first were tn-and- sons of the g;i «nd by ^ MODBHN BISTORT. [a.D. 1703-9. The hostilities which ensued exceeded those that any of the commanders or statesmen of Christendom ClS.^ smce the Thirty Years' War. In Holland ttdea^ ham made no dTifFerence as to the line of policy espoused nor m Eng:land. Queen Anne, for the fii'st yeaiJ otTer re'i^ ^1T'*P^*^,^^•"°^^ of a Whiff ministry, amonrwhS S /.^"^''^P^'!? '"^r^^^ *h« finances, and Marli^^^^^ wielded the sword. This hei-o had once been a humble hanger-on to the household of the prince and pSncesT of m evei y period of his life, how possible it is for a ffolden heafi to be set ever a breast and arms of silver, a body and SS of brass, egs of iron, with feet partly of that stnTna- Si and partWof clay, like the imag-e seen in thVyrsirof Nabuchocronosor. The lower weiscend in exploX h^ character the baser its materials appear. His maleriv asSTdVelrenf ^'^^ -^nde "muTw astonished the French, so accustomed as they had hitherto been to a series of victories. By sea, the allies fS a? Cadiz, but capt^ured some galleons, and destroved a squad- 13th nf A^°- 7^' ^'fS^ f ^^^^^^^'"^ ^'^s Wl't on the 13th of Aug-ust A.D. J 704, in which thirty thousand of tl^''^Tr'''V^^'\^''''''^ufchatpl «r,/i v^i r"'^^^^^ v ;,--vv-ith Omne-e and ChnlZl \- a ^^ ^^leng-in, m exchang-e for and all other frontier cities wl,ich she had lost ThTw,' mmmt dunliVafT-nn J- vT' patnotism, and treasure ; invo Vne- a several fortressesteh nd llf feP"^' ^•'""'^ ^^"d^"' ^^ith ium at CJti^eht, and to accept in exchange the Upper S- 8M MODERN HISTORT. [a B. VUM. ^^±^^ ^'^ ^*^«" ^™*^^ - favour of finate. ^,^^ tli3 Duke of llano ver. elector succee^^ the W.'S' b^o^T, "^"S^ mencifl^r thirteen iiiontJis attenvarke xnuch difficulty .^ alluring ^iiS -usi, ... to sauot.on, at least indi^ectlv, the sLmes oPtht ^o.M.. for restoring the Stuarts ^to thch iXrilce i^-'ue her decease Boling-broke had n e 20th of Octoi r a.d. 1740. cm, XVI, j MODSHN mSTORY. 851 DP' or CHAPTER XVL xioiToM^^^r '' """'""''' '0WKKs-0K.«x.r. ..vote. «NOL18H m INUIA-THEIH AMERICAN 8ETT1.EMENT8. c^Svl^^P'''""* opportunity for a glance at the l„«^c 1. X V ^^^^'^y- -l^at colonies are ol vai-ionsi tu^ fo^ThV^' B^ffieiently obvious: sonie Imvini aS as Newfoundland; some the establishment of fSriero. pSlv2^^^'''^ '^^■^^'^ involved if we sJl these objects are blended together. Foremost amongst the SC.T r""'"' f ^"^°P« ''■'' Spam J frwhose ^netit, had she known how to use it aright. Christooher Jumbus openec a pathway aci«oss the mi Jky S to ^e novelties of the Western World. PasS om the flrn discoveries of St. Salvador, Hispaniola, an? the other .lands, our imag-inations rest upon fci^o and Peni altei wf-Z,? 1^! '® F^^'^"^ ^^^ Atlantic Ocean? . d. I' 13 2rS ''^^^ '^ir ^". ^"^ i^^'«'«^^/v., that ) ; ; li table-land and valley of Mexico wei liginallv t led curJedTb^u^'^ ^°^ '' «^ ^'- '^'ftecTo^' L^LIlfr J *'°'® ot Mahomet; that their monarchy cZ?ft ? ^''^ /'^ ^'^^■'''^ *^« date of our No mS the S'J '"' '^^' an.^nt^rval, they were succeeded b^ the Chechiraecas, a.d. 1170, and the Six Tril-es of tht si ;"n i^iinY* ' f^' r^ *^^? ^^^ '^-«"« «* « 't"l -»^ TlJniJ; n,' ^^ \^^'^^°'» the Chechimecas coalesced. Nahuatlf.cs, who buiit Tenochtitlan, or Mexico, a.d. 1326 ^^ MODKKN HI»TORr. [a.D. 1619.4ft. Its capture by Cortez, a.d. 1619-21, wu.^ followed by the subd.ml ot tlu! Incns, commenced in a.d. 1525, and ftccom- phshed under Pizarro, a.d. 1529-35, including Chili and yuito ; the 8ubt*OTanean wealth of Zacotecos havintr been first ascertained in a.d. 1532, and of Potosi in a.d. 1546. Ihese bouth- American possessions constituted of them- selves a splendid empire, comprising the provinces of New Bpam, Peru, Terra Firma, and Now (Grenada. Their go- vernment was mainly modelled upon that of the sovereira country, by the constitutions of Charles V. It acknow- ledged a supreme authority in the Council of the Indies at Madrid ; but commercial matters were regulated by a aort of Hoard ot Contml at Seville. Viceroys reigned to repre- sent the Spanish monarch in those grand cities, which are now the capitals of independent republics. The adminis- tration ot justice was limited to certain local tribunals, of which the members also served as counsellors of state to the executive. The towns enjoyed the liberty, as in Spain, of electmg their own municipal officers. The harbours and sea-ports were naturally the first to take any shape of re- gulantyand consequence; while settlements in the interior sprang up mor« gi-adually and slowly. A church was the earliest solid erection, after essential necessities had been provided m the form of a few rude habitations, with or without a small garrison, sun-ounded by a ditch and stockade. Upon the coasts, Vera Cruz, Porto Bello, Car- thagena, Valencia, and the CaiTaccas, with Curaana and Barcelona, looked out upon the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea ; whilst Acapulco and Panama were havens on the Pacific for those treasure-ships whose cargoes ef- fected a revolution in the prices of Europe. Lima, Con- ception, and Monte Video were also founded in due course : and considerable populations collected wherever mines or plantations seemed to promise profitable returns. Civili- sation, with many drawbacks, was thus transplanted to a bountifiil soil, where, although philanthropy had much to bewail, she might well rejoice upon the whole, inasmuch as tne ft-esh colonists and conquerors introduced the use of mn tools, instead of wietched ones imperfectly fashioned from 8tonM,wood, or fish-bones; and theLlama, a miserable OH. XVI.] MOOKRN HISTORT. 8oa with boast of burden, wni superseded by tho horse and the ox, — to say nothing of the lesser domestic and most common animals. With regard to tho question of religion, there could be no companson, when an ovorrtiling Providence mercifully made up to the Church her losses, through tho ecclesiastical revolt at homfi in the diffusion of Chris- tianity abroad. The sanguinary and repulsive idolatry which met tho eyes of nominally Catholic mvaders rapidly disappeared before tho benign influences of her more ge- nuine children, who preached tho doctrines, and practised the precepts of a gospel of love, tolerating neither impurity of hfe nor human sacrifices. Innumerable missions spread presently and tranquilly from valley to valley, and from tlie banks of one river to another, where converted Indians were gathered into villages under the superintendence of devoted priests, who instnicted their pem)Ie to cultivate theu- heai'ts for the Redeemer and His Blessed Mother, and their boundless plains or pampait for the benefit of mankind at large. Before the termination of the sixteenth century, a noble hierarchy embraced almost the whole of South America. The lower cler'^y were divided into Curas omong the well-organised settlements; into Doctrineraa amongst the Indian hamlets ; and Missioneras among the savages. The mendicant orders then followed with their pious labours; and the Society of Jesus at a later period. Nor will the student of hagiology fail to remember, that the sweet St. Rose of Lima had already blossomed for im- mortality on the slopes of the snowy Andes. Connected with Acapulco were the Manillas or Philip- pine Islands, taken possession of by Spain, a.d. 1564, for the especial purpose of founding missions ; but between which the gi-eat galleons of the South Sea annually sailed. Her subsequent acquisition of Portugal only impaired the colonial dependencies of that crown, without benefiting her own. The Lusitanlaii monarchs had gained enormous opu- lence and prospeiity t^'i-ough their labours for geogrophy and commerce. The system they adopted differed widely from that of their more powemd neighbour and riv-al. Instead of embarking in mines or schemes of mere territo- rial agp^ndisement, they fixed themselves firmly in the •64 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1600-1778. most eigible Stations, around which, by the subjugation of «L«trol nn- !^ Their dominion in India had Goa for its central point, governed by a regency, extending over Mo- zambique, Sofala, and Mehnda, on the coas?^of AfiSa Muscat and Or muz in the Pei-sian Gulf; Diu and DCaTm in the Deccan; Cochin, with other districts, on the sC 1^^ 1 ^ m' i^^^^Pa^T ""d Meliapour on those of Co Jo- Spice Islands. Heeren observes, that the Portuguese butthat It was not tlie less, althouglf indirectly, a souiJe of rm^aJ power and revenue. It professed to he open ?o obiiSTti^^^^'" !? '^'' -^^8"^^"^^' ^"^' merchants wee obhged to obtam and pay for a license from the govera- ment ; w ucli reserved moreover to itself several of the mmiPtry at Lisbon, had the arrangement as well as the protection ui navigation. Fleets, sailing between the Tacnxl and India, brought home pepper, nutmeg-s, cottons, sifks & uf*f' ^'^)'r '^'■ticles of native manufactu/e fo^ T™ in w' """'^'^ '^T *^ ^^^'^^^^^^ ^"d ^a^™d them away m their own vessels ; thus undermining the natural spint for an enlarged carrying traffic, whicff might have Tef tJ^' Y'"'' and riem^h republics of thf middle *ff- Their colonies on the western coast of Africa became ir^lT' "°*" '^' ^'''^' '^^d ''^^'^'^ them .a uaSo wC>?R- '. ^'r^-^ slave-trade. Those vast regions, of Irint » .*t ^^T'l ^5^ Pernambuco were the most m- portant settlements, had already imported the sugar-cane from Madeira. For its successliil cultivation negro Tabmir was essential; and came to be introduced and tolerated from mistaken motives of humanity; just as occuS among the Spaniards, with regard to^hel mines andTn fnnn^" o if . ^^Z^''®'' "^^ "'^:^' ^"'"an avarice will be alfi IT'f'^^ *°/''^ 7 °° '^'^"^^^' an-angements, being a vice which can alone be changed into a virtue bv th? operation of supernatural gH,ce. feongo and Gu nea ti e! fore throve or declined, as Maranhem, Portoseguro, and M. Salvador prospered or suffered reverses, on the op- MODERN HISTORY. 365 CH. XVI.] posite side of the Atlantic. In India, tlie Portuo-uese merchants enlarged their establishments on the coa"ts of Ley Ion, so as to secure the cinnamon gardens : while in another oriental direction, tiiey pushed lorwards to Suma- tra, Java, the Celebes, and Borneo. Their lucrative con- nections with China and Japan were entirely due to the heroic and apostohc exertions of St. Francis Xavier and his glorious order. Magellan had already sailed round the world, and imposed his name on those dangerous straits, winch opened another passage towards Hindoostan; and could the successors of Albuouerque and Almeida have always mhented their civil and military genius; or could the growth ot immorality and sensualism, so favoured by the_ acquisition of almost incredible wealth and the enei^- vating natui^ of the climate, have been checked, as it ought J or if in the Brazilian regions of South America the diamond and the topaz could have always slept in darkness,— there would have been at least a less accelera- tion ot corruption ; and the cultivation of Peruvian bark or other salubrious tropical productions, might have main- tamed such an advantageous interchange of commodities, as would have really enriched the mother-country, and in- duced even Spain herself to withstand the British cruisers, or dety the Lutch and the buccaneers. The Society of Jesus meanwliile was winning its way along the margins ot the Maranon and the Paraguay, into the Very centre of the continent; where blessings were scattered, religious in- structions diffused, and functions performed, of which the amount and extent will never be known until the dawn of tiie Last Day shall lift up the veil, from what may be de- scribed as a Paradise of Catholic missions, without parallel on the tace of the earth. Jealousies between states and statesmen in Europe, together with the blighting policy of the too-celebrated Marquis of Pombal, at lengi^/broua-ht a cloud over the entire scene. By the erection of privi- leged commercial comj)anies, trade was to be regulated or at all events taken from the Jesuits. He divided the Brazils into nine grand provinces,— six on the coast, and three m the mterior; these latter ones abounding- in eold jc=. iuuasures were m iacfc adopted for M ^a wivtis ^^^ MOTJERN HISTORY. [A.D. 1594-1664. chiuiging- wlmt had been only a colony into a vast empire, such as It 15 hkely to become under our own observation. Ihe exact settlement of boundaries between Spain and l^ortugal was not arrang-ed beibre a.d. 1777, when the mterests of i-ehgion seemed to be ignored by both crowns, as a matter which mig-ht be safely abandoned to the winds and waves, or left to the tender mercies of the maxims of philosophy. From the moment, however, that Philip II. laid his Ji-asp upon the Lusitanian king-dom, the colonial prepon- derance of the Peninsula began to decline. Holland, with fier water-bogg-ars, as the Dutch vessels of war were scom- luJly termed, was now scouring- the seas. In their conflict, lor liberty, they had obtained an immense share of the commerce of the world. Several of their fisheries, and in particular that of hening-s, proved sources of opulence, such as neither \ enice nor Genoa had ever known. The Seven totates had tested the inherent weakness of their adversary upon that element, whose trident in the hand which holds It 18 a wand for the transmutation of vile into valuable material. \V hen the Tagus was closed against them in A.D. J0U4, they found themselves forced upon the alterna- tive, either to lose their carrying trade in oriental produce, or import for themselves fiom India. Their merchants soon lormed a famous company, which, with all its evils, re- • mained a i)o]itical as well as a mercantile body; in the latter respect wholly independent, and in the fomer little more than nominally subordinate to the States-General; altogether exhibiting a phenomenon which could no where exist except amongst a people who could at once accumu- late riches, and avoid for a considerable period their de- generative tendencies. Its virtues were of the homeliest and most practical kind; connecting success with enerov. promotion with good behaviour, and obligations cautiously incurred vvith punctual and accurate fulfilment. Force of arms quickly wrested for the advantage of the Dutch several of the best establishments of their oppressors ; such as tiie Moluccas and Sunda islands, with Batavia in Java, winch they built and made the seat of their sovereignty A.D. 1610. Amboyna, Banda, and Temato, had been seized CH. XVT.] MODERN HISTORT. 367 tTm toX7n?^? ^'^'''- ^^'\' ^"^"^^^ P"«i*^o°« enabled them to escape the various revolutions constantly occurrino. Tolia'. Zr""' '^ H-^loostan, at a time when^he mI" g-ohaa supremacy was too potent to be trifled with At pei'^r"^^^^^ '^ manufaotures^^^om tte Ajatei-s, and preserved by that continuous struo-o-le nf in. fFStTon w"r •^ ^'""^*'^^' '-^"^ eng-endeifafpiHt theirs ?; ,S- """'' "' ". ^''P''^'""- h'^'"' ^'^^•ted Gillf T^ ;. ° macnnerv, exactly as steam fias operated in Crieat Britam and Ireland; the discovery of whi'>h two centuries ago would have helped them b.ft H til, h roS an tTiiv wi i"".^'- ^' i' ''^'' «" °pe« atmosohere was al they wanted to assist human handicralt in the rhpnn fabmation of woollen stuffs, hemp, linen p per and sh7 building. Throughout the Enst they exteX theh Ss fJkni'^lncr r '^^'^^"' ^r'"^"^^'' Ceylon, aUX tnZtU ,'""°'^';lf "8- e^e^ where on the Spanish and Por- tug«e.e, even in their peculiar traffic with Caiton and Jedsoe The r surest bulwark was the Cape of Good Hope, intended ^ion of "^'T^*"'''^ r^'""^'' ^^' subsequently v.sed as a oXoVnn^^^;^^^'' ^"" '}' "''^^^'"^ of Amsterdam, on their n JioiTi 'T^^-f ^ '^^y^S^'- Jl^e Brazilian Company, ^•i-e" wl A ' "'''^ '",^ '''?'' of attacks ;,g^inst tl e en' tie Sou h American seaboard; succeeding- sometime, but She Wi 't "/ ' "';'"'S-'^ *^" ^^''^' ''^^ retained "eve. poition of the Baltic commerce. The plantations aKo of 'on " F'ranri"';' 'if ^"^-^^ ^'^^^-^^ in'heii- jt^e ! sion. fiance before the administration of Colbert had done veiy httle as to colonisation. From the commeit- ment^of he seventeenth century, her settlements in Canada Orfeh.r rrr'^'l ^^^^^S'' ^'^^^^^'y ^^y ^^e fbundatl of tt n o/ri • ' 1 '"'■' "^,*^' ^°'^ '''''^''' the real objec than a tiaffic ,n peltry, and the cod-fisheries on the b-inks of INewfoundlancf. tnder Richelieu, her eCts Imd no answered ,n attracting towards her subject, any sati hctoiT participation in oriental enterprise; ani cei^ain fhctSiJ -^ J _„„,., ..., ,^_ giut,~o, succ as zDose m QL CJiiris- ''I if HI the *« MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1664-1784. topher, Guadaloupe, Martinique, Cayenne, and Senecral, Y?v \f'^' Fi.vate than pullic property. With Louis Al V there set in quite another state of things. He aimed at estabhshmg- colonies of three kinds,--commercial, affri- cultural, and plantations. Governmental interference over- laid the first J the national impatience of lonj^-continued quiet exertion sr)oiled the second ; but the third prospered, where the planter alone constitutes the overseer, and labou^ IS rapidly rewarded by ample gain. Colbert committed tliem to chartered companies, until it was clearly ascer- tamed that commerce never will Hourish unless when left to itselt Immense exertions were now made : but, strange to say, their acquisition of a part of St. Domingo proved of tar gi-eater consequence *han all the rest. It amse, as has been truly observed by a German histo- rian, out of the tyranny of the Spaniards, who, by treating al strangers as enemies, organised a perpetual war in the West Indies, and thus obliged foreig-n settlers to become corsairs and warriors. The expulsion of the French and i;nghsh fi-om St. Christopher led to the establishment of a piratical colony on Tortuga, and afterwards on the coasts ot Hispaniola; where subsequently to a.d. 1064 they were recog-nised and assisted from Paris, on the part of the Grand Monarch. Sixteen years had scarcely elapsed, before La Sade having jailed up tlie river Mississippi, fruitless at- tempts to found fact^ji-ies in Louisiana demonstrated that ropes were not to be woven out of sand. Similar follies Had been perpetrated in Madagascar and India; until symptoms of common sense at length appeared at Surat and Pondicheriy A.D. 1675-9. At a later date, posterior to the Peace of Ltrecht, an improved system with regard to her foreign possessions was adopted by France altoge- tlier. The importation of her products came to be fV-ea of duty, and the customs were very much reduced on colo- nuil articles re-exported from French harbours. Permis- sion and encouragement were afforded e-enerally to what- ever might promote the welfare of Martmioue, into which island tlie colfee-tree was introduced from Surinam ; msktM as Its cultivation was by a vile traffic in slaves with Bpauisb America, as also by the habits of the planters themselves, CH. XVI.] MODERN HISTORV. 359 who devoted all their energies to business, in order that .hey might return the sooner enriched to their native land, in the ±.ast, two stations, deserted by the Dutch, were occupied, the Isles of France and Bourbon: and under the administration of Labordonnais, a.d. 1736, both prospered. Ifae flourishing period, however, of French prowess in In- dia was from a.d. 1751; when, by the aid of Dupleix, it domineered over the four Circars, the island Sherigaun commanding the river Canvery, Masulipatam, and an ex- tensive distnct near Carical and Pondicherry. The peace ot l^aris, indeed, reversed nine-tenths of this; broke up also the ingenious scheme in North America, of uniting Louisiana and the St. Lawrence by a chain of military posts, and transfeiTed Canada, as well as Nova Scotia, to that rival, who crossed the devices of Versailles at every turn. Yet bt. Domingo alone appeared to make up to ** o'!^nn ^'■■''°""*f^ ^° equivalent for her losses elsewhere, xts 2000 estates, beneath the fair influences of their genial fl'^ynh&^ ^'v*""" ""^^'" ^•^"'^ -^^I- to the amount or uu,OOU,000 of hvres per annum, or about 7,000,000;. gerhng. Such were some of the results of the colonial H-uropean system in the two Indies; while still greater ones y,eve and are to follow. Two of the Scandinavian iangaoms had already imitated their southern and more powerful contemporaries. Denmark had occupied St. Tho- mas smce A.D. 1071 ; St Jahn was brought under culture by her subjects about half a century later; and St. Croix was purchased from the French in a.d. 1733. The Danish Company was started at the commencement of the Thirty Years JVav, for trading to Tmnquebai-, and soon obtained that country from the Kajah of Tanjoie. Sweden emWked in similar schemes after the death of Charles XII.; and at the termination of the American contest received St. Uarthoi ,r.itv from France, in exchange for commercial conces ious, a.d. 1784. But we must now go back to tlie pnmary measures and movements of Great Britain, which enabled hur to eclipse every other competitor in the race, and tou^a that glorious agglomeration of foreign territories extended on a larger or smaller scale, over the habitable \ikm *•> MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1700-40. Her circnmstances, after the peace of Utreclit, were those of contniuous prof^ress rmd proiperitv. With n mmZ ^W '*^''-'r°'' *^'^" ^'^^^'^00 in the three kingC she had earned on a contest of twelve vears in dnrotion at Z°'lir i'"'-?''^ •''"'^ '"'^^**'''"y forces"of about 0,000,000;.' witwi^ '''ff ^''' ''V^ ^"^' ^'^"^^^^'^ expenditure. ' Notl withstanding- the growth of the natioBal debt, Lord Godo - fe.ndT' ^ ■'-''' ^J^^' '^''' ^^'« ^••«^'* of England and genera 1>^ to four, or at the most, dve per cent. SirRobeit W pole lu-onrht ao^^T, tlie 53.000.000/., of which the entSe pul iic funds ronsmed when h« ente-d office, to 46.000,OOOA. and the yeanr dividend? fi-om a rharg-e of 3,300,000/ to ^ne of onh 2.200.000/. His an.y w'as less 'thr30,6oO men and Im sailors onl^ a third of tfcit nnm],er. The total expense, for the T«ir a.d. ITW wei-e 5.655,402/ • and this pre^. ,, fhi, arerar.'e (rfhi. ^aministratioi, las't-' Ihe land-tax producef .bout a iii>ffio.and a b5f sterling-, million; the remainder Iwaitr made wr fi-om coals, ixcise customs, and miscellanies. The civil ^ice, including Sfe mvn revemie, came to about 4,000J>n0A,'or rathe? un! of lonno''T"*' "" ^"""^"^ "^ ^^'^ land-forces consisted JJrJ f ^essians, costing- 240,000/. per anmim; the charge of sailoi-s was about four pounds a month; the half- pay to officers and marines, was 04,000/. u-vear : and tlie pension to widows oniv 1500/. ! Domestic ^nanufactures meanwhile ex iibited marvellous multiplication : and even ;v-ntch-work, jeweh-y, cutlery, and tll^ finer 'to"" , were got up with e.xrpnsite elegance and neatness. T'heve was age>. lorv, when we bear in mind the nmge of prices for the more common necessaries of life. Political economy indeed, seemed slightly understood ; but the culture of & China; the skins of beavers, with various sorts of fur. wei-e procured from the company trading to Hudson's Bav- and our Imen and woollen fabrics purchased for the ai-isto- cracy ttnd gentry the wines. bmndiAs. i«isin« "U"- „^^ ■ •~-Si JiUli CH. Xfl.] MODERN HISTORY. 361 Other fruits of France to say nothing: of her carpets, stuffs, tapestry, velvets, and laces. Great Britain ank her rival beg-an to find their account in enlarg-in- the number and boundaries of their colonies, as in part we have already seen. Atiose ot the former extended from the bay of Fundv to the frontiers of Florida in North America. New Eno4nd fiiraished masts, yards, and timber for the royal navy New York and New Jersey, with Pennsylvania, afforded ? fw "J ?T ""^ 'n?u° T *™^"^ ^'°'" ^^'« «"tish ports in the West Indies. The tobacco of Virg-inia and Maryland ^vas a staple commodity m high request, and a profitable Wif P^ 'r'™f ' \"^ *'f '''^ P^'^^'i'^^^s of North and bouth Carolina, by the culture of rice and indigo, as well a^ the manufacture of tar, pitch, and turpentine, pos- sessed no inconsiderable value. Jamaica, wlfich had been wrenched from Spain by Oliver Cromwell, afforded laro-e returns of wealth to its planters as soon as the buccanee% had been once suppressed Even before that event, the exploits and profligacy of those freebooters had em-iched individuals who preyed upon the plunderers themselves, and turned their vices and prodigality to good private nc' count; but when the seas f^ad b'ecome sal, thrcommer- cial fortunes of the island were immensely developed througb the share v.hich England had acquired by the treaty of Utrecht in the Assiento, and ti^e clandestine fc? jrr^VVP r* *^^ '*• l^'''*'^'^ factories came to be establ^hed at Caithagena, and in the other Spanish co- lonies Beyond a particular point the trafKc was illicit but clever agencies easily eluded the letter of the law • TJ-f It ^"""^'^^ .'''f "'' substituted by the coiu-t at Madrid m the places of the ancient g-alleons, at all exter- minate the smugglers, favom^ed, or at least connived at, as the latter were, by the merchants of both nations. Cargoes were proportioned and assorted with such aptitude and smtabihty to the demands of the market, thit a system ot contmband intercourse expanded into a lucrative ajid secure commerce, denounced by ministers, winked at bv 7n i7An' t' ^"^ "^*i'°«*fly heading to a war with Spain, t^,:^:lt A J'i?''* absurd contest immense treasures and OS,,.... -.iwuciicu r.oru wastea; out the genius of Anson and i' li ■iffii;'! oaty - MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1280-1022. some of his coUeag-ues assisted in maintaining our naval and ti^ -^^^^'^^fi" England under the House of Brunswick howevTr^ tha't ^hT^°" !S"^t"^ ^'''' '' -«^ in Tndt ocS whfch f/f^u^ culmmation of Great Britain Sspect^f w^^^ ^•" ^^""•^ ^ brief m^t S"-"^' «-P-d on his road to Chi^A-n' ffhis'^the^lt ^°^^ Cublai Khan, descended from Zin- mp l\n J ?™°" ""^''1^'' of himself and probably of Ta- merlane, had conquered the Chinese rec-ions An 19«n and mtroduced Buddhism or Fo-ism, o7wSh tl^ Delhi Llama of Thibet is the spiritual head.' TJie northern pro- vmces came to be called Cathay; the southern ManC a corruption of Mantzee. The 'dynasty of Y^en ?hus founded by the Mongols, was overthrown and eTpelled by the native Ming^, a.d. 1360 : and the capital of the em Pire three y^rs after the death of Tame&ane, was IranT feijed from Nankin to Pekin. In the thirteentHen Z the Km or Eastern Tartars, on beine- driven out bv t7fi Mongols or Western Tartars had relred rM^gSL o Manchow ; and when, in the subsequent age, the J S o^ native Chinese had ti-iumphed, t?ie poster ty of cfblai tSei? int? "^' '"''°§" '^'' ^t"' '^''' °lS oppo/enS From Prwi« ^*"'"^l' ■^'°'' *^« ^°&*ioi Khans, or Manchow Sd r!4n •"' "'^ ^'^"^ 'f'^ ^" *° ^"PPre^s insurrection and rebellion commenced the present reigning, race of TxST' '^'Vr^?:u^^^^> and'theirfront^rslomtally H^I , .T' "" ^^"^"*' ^"d' ^itJ^ the exception of In- dependent Tartary, to the very limits of Persia. T^iour St-°Joft ?"'•' 7^''" ^'^ ^^^ ^■^*"™ed into the latter country after his victory over Baja^^et, earned with him a multitude of Caramanian and Anatohan captives, wCe A tZn ' ^'""'T' ^\ '''' '''^^y cSntemplat ng! About twenty-five miles to the east of Tabriz, theri dwelt tl„^f ;r?" Santon or saint, named Safi ol- Sophi, the ittofri^''''T.^"^^'T'^^*' *^^« son-in-law of the Pro! pnet ot Islam. 1 imour frequently ©unversed with this de- A.D, OH. XVI.J MODERN HISTORY. 808 votee, and so fell under his influence that he offered to grant him any favour he mig-ht ask. His philanthropic request was, that the conqueror should spare the lives of all his prisonei-s, which was not only at once conceded, hut the poor creatures were consigned to the will of their bene- factor, that he might do with them whatever he pleased. His affluence was as great as his benevolence, perhaps through the offerings of his admirers ; but be that as it may, he fed and clothed those whom he hadj)reserved, and dismissed them in safety to their homes. His fame natu- rally spread thoughout'lran, where there also lurked vast numbers of sectaries, attached indeed to the Koran, but abhorring the Sonna, or Mahometan traditions. Ishmael, of the sixth generation from the friend of Timour, founded the throne of the Sophies in Pei-sia, partly through the hereditary influence derived from his religious ancestor; but chiefly from a series of fortunate circumstances which happened to promote the ascendency of the Shiites, looked upon as heretics by other Mussulmen. Shah Abbas proved himself the greatest of their monarchs, diverting as he did the forces of the Ottomans from Europe ; talking Bagdad by storm, a.d. 1G13 ; and reg-aining the isle and kingdom of Ormuz from the Portuguese, through '.he as- sistance of the English, in a.d. 1622. He made Ispahan his capital, where a policy was set in motion which annihi- lated an oligarchy of about twenty powerful families, who for some interval had overawed the government without relieving the people. In Hindoostan the iir^.t and second Gaurian or Affghan families had i-uled from the close of the twelfth century, nor had the invasion of Timour done much more than ravage the mere lim) of march along which his armies moved; but his grandson Mohammed was the gi-eat-grandfather of the Sultan Baber, who es- tablished the Mongolian empire throughout India, a.d. 1625. On the decease of his successor Akbar, one hun- dred and twenty years after^vards, we find his vast domi- nions subdivided into fifteen Subahs or Vice-royalties, namely, those of Allahabad, Agra, Oude, Agimere, Guza- rat, Bahar, Bengal, Delhi, Cabul, Lahore, Moultan, Ma] Hz An /'o»*rfJ/ m. ■L.-^-u. — ©b^ XUC ili.vUVS' J ilij "« MODERN HMTOHr. Fa.d. 1644-1739 ern boundarv Ti..?^ i i '^^'^^^uddali was the vnnlt Timour anH Ro>.L f fi !?' • *^® representat ves of the^; S-elhf t; fletiL S^ S'S p'T* Ballaee, which put all Cpnt^l Tn!?-„ J^- .. ® Peishwa plues at Ispahan, than .ubjecl. to thei^fS t Lt It was the commencement of the eiohteenHi c«„ f,.^ !'? Hnw,: , nearly the last of them, lay SiveH ^7' ^'""' tuons sentimentalist in his se™^li:( .nr'^^^iLVS; CH. XVI.] MODERN HISTORY. Bm a could happen to the wearer of a crown which fflittored on his brow,-a rich pyramid of pearls and -ems and c^old. At tl.ut very moment his ruin gleamed ommouslv through the lattices irom t ue snears and h . of an A*%han fe- xvl'T' Zl''^'' V *'"^^^t' ««^ asidf .vnastv, and made K M^' ^'''"«^«J"e'^ts of Nad .aai. lUir Weis and Ins son Mahmoud, the successful il airgents, enioved their usurpation but for a brief interval. Asraf/ne^E to the 01 del, A T, 1730, who, mounting u])on the ambition of his tm-ee predec* sors, attained those altitudes of saneaiinarv nmniahty winrh are mrely reached by the ordinary op- ^/ressora ot mankind. "^ ^ The primary names of this personage were Nadir Kouh. Jle was born near Kallat, a strong fortress in Khorassan, where he was bred up as a shepherd, being a Turkman of the tribe of Afshar. On the death ofTiis tathnr when he was only thirteen, his entire patrimony consisted ot an ass and a -^amel, on which he carried ftiel to market, and sold it for the subsistence of his mother Ills Iter avocations were alternately those of a robber and a corsair, with some of those incidents of abduction and murder almost inseparable from the kind of life he led Ihe d racted ooiii-t of Ispahan at length engaged his service^, which were employed against'the ifzbek and other Tartars, as also against the Ottomans and the op- ponents ot the only remaining representatives of the Sophies. In the employment of the last he supplanted the new Aftghan dynasty; and then, on the strene-th of his reputation, exterminated the final remnant of the Shahs ot Persia, ascending their throne himself, and becoming a teiTOr even to the Moguls, a.d. 1736. He conquered the ancient Tefflis, and obtained from the Russians the ports of the Caspian, and the passes of Derbend in the Caucasus. Jhesuccessorsof Aurungzebe had offended orneglected the ' & tl' ?'\Nl^«"^ «f ?e Deccan, upon which\e invited Nadir Shah to mvade the East Indies. At the head of an ^'?'^''iifa^'''^fu^^ ffi'eedy of plunder, he sacked Delhi m A.D. 1739, and ultimately wrested from the Great Mogul ~ -vTii:^^^^^ „c=L VI uiG inaus. iiis expedition cost IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) i^ Z ^ 1.0 I.I 2.0 I L2liiu 116 nu_x. riiuiogi'dpiuu Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREiT WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-AS03 S. s^ l\ ^ <> ''^ ' <• I^> 5r /.. If 11 ®^ MODERN H18T0RT. [a.D. 1600-1757. 200,000 lives. The treasure he carried back with him into I'ema was estimated at seventy millions of pounds sterling, f,±?H „?^° by the most horrid tortures from innocent individual suspected of having concealed it. A dervise on one occasion ventured to remonstrate with him in per- son: "Invincible Shah!" said he, "if thou art a i?od,\ie. salvation; ,f a kin^, put us not to death, but reig-n over us, and render us happy." To which Nadir replfed : « I TSa,1 ^l' *''''* ^ '''?Vl^ ^■o''8:'ve; nor a propLt, that I should teach; nor your kmg that I should i^ig^ over you; but I am he whom God sends in His wrath tl punish the nations of the earth." And such he was in deed and in truth: he was the Attila and Genseiic of his as-e melted into a smgle monster. His talents combined fhe art of mflictin- torments without the relief of death. In his Sr.o J'°T''!1 '''r'""^ ?* ^'"»^'* Imppily assnssinated by his guards at midnight, who recognised his b«d by the ni-o- SrCn'Tr' '*°T '''^P'^ "J^"" ^*' «»d which refleJted the lamp of Ins murderers as they drew their weapons: ii, f.^^' A-^- 1747. His nephew Adil, a licentious y.uth w^ set upon his musnud, or royal seat of judgment.^ One of his genera s seized unon Candahar, CatuI, Lahore, and Moultan, within a couple of years aftenvards. The Mon- gohan ministers now called in the Mahrattas against the Affghans and the predatory Jauts of Agm. fhe feeble emperor felt even unequal to protect hiLelf again fhs own vizier; and after his capital had been twice cantm^H and pil aged. Shah Allum fl. was compelled Sh's safetv from the clemency and prudence of the British In tlie meantime, as the Mongolian dominion went to pieces, the grand officials of tSe empire had converted their provincial governments into independent sovereian- ties, still retaining their subordinate titles,-such as the nS "%^t^'r "^'> ^r^"' *'^« V'^'«r of Oude the IVabobsoftheCamatic or Bengal. M.o/V''^ ^®^"J*" ^H^^^ r^"' °^ ^^^ sixteenth century that an association of English merchants obtained from Queen Elizabeth a charter, for a limited term, for trading with Hmdoostan. After various cha^s, w4 the acquisi. CH. XVT.J MODERN HISTORY. 867 iro ^ "'^^^.h'' P^"'"^"' "• «« ^^« °"Pt'al portion of his good consort CfatLenne of Poilujf al, it was in a.d. 1689 that the directora of the Company first fairly avowed their intentions to become a nation in India. The earliest pre- sidency was that of Surat, upon a somewhat modemte scu.e J and the descendant of Timour probably cast a super- cdious glance, eight years after Calcutta had obtained tTat rank, m a.d. 170?.15, upon two plain yet intelligent fac- tors who brought from thence, as the humble offerings of Its merchants; 100 gold mohui-s, a table-clock adorned with diamonds, the horn of an unicorn or rhinoceros, a laree iump of ambergris, a gilded escritoire, an immense map of the world, with a very respectful letter fi-oai the honour- able governor to the emperor. How have times changed in the oriental horoscope ! Half a century barely elatled before the victories and policy of Lord Clfve obtained out Ttnli^'p^'^ "^ tlie Mongolian argosy the Dewanny of Bengal, Bahar, and Onssa, by which the sovereig-nty of the English was extended over more than a hundred tfiousand square miles of territory, including the rich cities of Fatna and Benares, and the Deltas of the Bi-ahma- pootra and the Ganges. The Per^-unnahs and the Buiti- wan were already theirs, with Midnapore and Chittagong, S!t tS^I?^"" fe"^ tosun-ender to them Masulipatam A i'^f^.^erthem Circars. The Nabob of Arcot hacf con- ceded the Jaghire of Madras ; and from the Mahrattas was won the important isle of Salsette for the settlements at ?nT-f ^; ;V^eyiz,er of Oude and the Rajah of lanjore also contributed to the British establishments. Such were amon^ the results of the battle at Plassey, a.d. 1757, whei-e Clivl with his small army overthrew Soumj-ud-DowIah, brine- ing against him more than 50,000 infantry, 18,000 cavaliT besides 50 pieces of cannon directed by French officere! ^rom that grand crisis the colonial system of every other ±.uropean state gave way before the bannei-s of Great Britain. The protracted administration of WairenHastinjrs ! i?y*rT^-*^,''*^'^ *^'' ^"«^^"8r domination abroad, bit enabled the legislature at home to subjugate the Company, with all us possessions, to the control of parliament and the crown. Then followfld tha ^i 868 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1799-1864. the Marquises Coniwallis and Wellesley, the feai-ful collision between the ascendency of Versailles and that of London in the Mysorean wai-s, the fall of Seringapatara and Tippoo Sahib, tlie early exploits cr Wellington, the siege of Bhurt- pore, and the irresistible supremacy of the English from tne Himmalayas to Cape Comorin. At subsequent periods the Mahrattas and the Pindarees have been thorouglily subdued ; but for many yeai-s after the great Mogul had remained as a pensioned prisoner at Delhi, his name was adopted in the acts of government, and his coin was the circulating medium of the country/ Lord Hastings, how- ever, terminated this illusion inA.D. 1818, unveiling before the world the wonderful phenomenon of an Anglo-oriental empire, reaching two thousand miles from the Sutlej to the Southern Cape, and as far from the Indus to Armcan. About three-fourths of the geographical surface ai-e the military command over the remaining quarter. The jwpu- lation may be stated at about one hundred and forty millions, of whom from thirty to forty millions rn-e undor the nommal sway of titular princes, maint<^>ned in mock pageantry, whose extinction can be at n at distance, bemg neither more nor less than parallels ,. ach kings as Eumenes, Attalus, Herod, and Agrinpa in the ancient Ro- man history. The revenues of Indfa are about twenty- five millions steriing per annum ; and the armies comprise about four hundred thousand men in round numbers. The Punjaub, Scinde, with one province after another of Bur- mob, ai'e being: gi'adually absorbed j to say nothing of the archipelago oi stations and islands stretching like a chain of jewels toward the insular continent of Australia, and ready to act as talismans upon Siam, China, and Japan. The soil, of twelve hundred thousand square miles in ex- tent, for the most part is rich and fertile, and suited to every kind of tropical produce. Expoi-ts and imports, al- i-pady enoi-mous, are but on the point or in the very pre- liniinaiy m-ocess of development. Steam navigation is bringing Bombay withm a voyage from the sovereign country of aa many weeks as ii foi-merly required monUii CIt. XVI. i MODERN HI8T0RT. 869 ScaTeZ^f ;.«.!'* '' '""'"* ^' ••^"^^'"bered that this ma- dommion the fabric never seems finished. tC^'s alwa« a war to be^in or conclude; some robbery to aven^S erhapg perpetrate; some province of diamonds ooium or in.l.go to set in order or conquer. In tirannals T tl Adnan surrendered the ac,?nsitions of ns pedece^r but tl.e Brmsh heroes of Hindoostan have Jyet S au' their settlement of the Cape of Good ftope' Cha es H also gave his enterprising- merchants his m^a^rimonial Ue of Bombay mA.D 1668, which g-radually snCsede/S A B 168? I'ilfp ' P-idency tog-ethez^witrM^i^^^^ BencJolen in Su nh?f ^T' ' *'''"'^' ''^' established at joencooien, m buuiatra, for the pepj)er trade. The district of Calcutta was not purchased, Aor Fort William builfh? fore ouite the close of the century; and immenre had been poiy, as 01 lental cottons came mto a most imiversal use When hostilities had commenced between the Slat Mo Ai and his nominal subordinate, the Nabob of BenS n the reigrn of our James II., the early outlines of tha? pohcv au- peured which ijndered the English what they aCvaSs f! T ^" P^ndoostan. A mocferate g-i-ant oflnd wa^b spiang- up, and these had to be surrounded by a wall a ditch or a stockade. Presently a couple of gi5 In , m" t^cted the entmnces; the ramparts were observed to w den mto more capacious and scientifio iX,««». !!!:" Jm, ^'^ B B ^ If. 870 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1687-1763. frowned over their battlements, or protruded menacingly tlieir muzzles through the embrasures; small bodies of troops were seen in uniform, their numbers annually in- creasmg as the standard of the United Kingdom unfurled with peater boldness in the eai-ly sea-breezes. Clerks grrew into secretaries or writers ; counting-houses expanded into boards of revenue, factories into fort&ications, agencies mto governments, merchants into princes, the company into an empii-e. Aurungzebe was once provoked into giving orders for the expulsion of the British from Lis dominions : but It was too late. The imperial Court, the rebellious Soubahdar, or the dreaded Mahratta, each and all in their turn made the sojourn of the strangei-s desirable or neces- sary, each availed themselves of the fatal alliance; whilst, as compared with the covetousness of the Hollandei-s, the unreadiness of the Frenchman, the enervation of the Por- tug-uese, and the absence of ambition in the Dane,— the commercial enterprise, the political cleverness, the undaunted perseverance, the invincible genius of England, bore down every obstacle to her supremacy. It was favoured, moi-e- over, by a series of minute, yet fortunate circumstances; Buch as the presence of a surgeon at Delhi on one occasion, A.D. 1716-17, who had medical influence over the despot just at that momentous juncture, when leave was applied tor and conceded for consolidating the presidency of Cal- cutta. It is in the occun'ence of these minor feficities of coincidence, so to speak, that we may discern the purposes of an almighty and oveiTuling Providence, quite as much as in the convulsions of nature, the shock of battle, the col- hsions of nations, or the subversion of dynasties. The African companies of England, of which there have been several, produced consequences of small notoriety, ex- cept as they affected slavery and the slave-trade. Forts were founded on the Gambia and SieiTa Leone ; but it was across the Atlantic ocean that the attention of the world was in due couree of time to be turaed. There she ac- quired, under the auspices of her celebrated statesman, atterwai-ds Lord Chatham, and his predecessors, the whole line of coast from Canada to Georgia. The American co- loues were formed into distinct provinces, as we have al* MODERN HISTORY. 371 the dH. xvi.J ready seen ; but their number was augmented by the new acquisitions, and the subdivisions, in some instances, of the Old ones, besides the important privileges and imi)roved constitutions obtained for Connecticut and Rhode Island, flfm "^"^P''''""^ ^vi^s separated from Massachusetts in a.d. lOUl : the two Carolinas had been taken from Virginia in A.D. 10G3; wliilst emigi-ation from the parent land imi-ed into them many daring spirits and able adventui-ei-s. The culture ot rice had been long introduced into South Cai-o- lina troin Madagascar; colonial productions genemlly met With a sale m Eui-ope which exceeded all expectation: the motlier states woiikl not relinqiiish their claims to an ex- clusive traffic, but smuggling met with newly univei-sal connivance. Georgia was the youngest of the thii-teen ori- ginal settlements ; and in the north. Nova Scotia and New- foundland, ceded by the treaty of Utrecht, were stdl little better than wildernesses. But the pfH-ticipntion in the cod hsheries, secured by the possession of those countries, told ^vourably upon tlie commerce and navigation of England. Her navy enabled h-^r, during any war, not merely to main- tain a constant communication with and between her most distant colonies, but at tiie same time to prevent her ene- mies from doing the same, so that their trade went to ruin M a matter pf course. Before hostilities broke out with France m a.d. 1750, irritating disjmtes had been raging for a considerable interval as to Canadian questions and IVovn Scotian boundaries, for New Br'.mswick had been considered as included within the latter. The forts at- tempted to be built along the Ohio, so as to connect New Orleans and tlie Mississippi with the lakes, the St. Law- rence, and Quebec, the English provincials had destroyed: for othenvise tliey would have been entirely cut off fi-om the peltry trade of Hudson's Bay and the Back Settle- ment-. The Peace of Paris, through the results of tliat glorious campaign in which General Wolfe scaled the iieights of Abraham, ami defeated the Marquis of Mont- ciilm, ap))eaied to have fixed the royaxl authority of the House of Hanover upon the firmest foundations from the Arctic regions to Florida; yet events pi-oved it to be the .0.0.00. iuuac wiiu ttc oil iooKea utfiow tiM surface of ■,v i MODERN HISTORY. [a.B. 1768-83. thinnrs miffht have felt sure that a desire for indenenflpn/.* cannot f ml to be nnt.ual to flourishing. IrfcS^ Tanv linnTV J''^W«s* ^nd'«n islands liad been only so many beautiful g^ardens, in which the European powers had The seeds of democracy had there been scattered broadcast' from the summits of the Alle^hanies to the sea-shore A eZtrovi;' ''^ lenven iLoduced itselflnto" "mo^ eveiy nrovmce, ev^ry city and town, every village and ham- ^s;„m;i.v'"'"'''*'^' of Toryism also mav be s°aid to have n^n«S ^1 T^T^"^ "^- *° '"« W'ser g-mndfather. Some considerable check was no doubt neederi for the culmirt! mg grandeur of Great Britain. This occurred i^ ZcX' nb '"^'''^ '^"^^^ fr"'" ^'' establishment n North Amenca a temporary humiliation to her own obst nacy and haughtiness and a permanent advantage to manS^n f^ntfif ♦ ^^^P'^oped, if not trusted, thit the miffhtv fa^nsatlantic republic will hold fast by the AngSo S?xon S'?if f}'' Pf^^'^^^ ^'''''^^> «"rt teach thlweS th«nii '**V^'"''.°^P°"*'««^fr««^«"^ is never mrretafe CHAPTER XVII. A.D. 1740-83. WttlSSIA AND FREDERICK THE ORKAT-MARIA THERESA AND HER DO «,..OK8-DEVK.OP„ENTOP REVO.UT.O.VARV rn^.C^.lZovZ come. . promm«>t object if .tten&r Ite «i^" ^ MODERN HISTOKY. 378 CH. XVII.] olir o??!"!^''.''' r °"f • °^/''' ^r' P"^'^'^' ^«««n««"v arose out ot the ecclesiastical revolt ofGemanv, at th^ com- mencement of tlie sixteenth century. Tirey mnv be T- anism^ "lW^;''S"l ""' -ligicu/realisutiL o/lifthe : anism 1 heir foundations were laid in perjury, nnostasv a^d plunder, fi-oni the time that Albeit^f^BmndeS' grand master of the Teutonic knight., sacrificed the dlS farnHv^rriro""^!?'"'^^'" V *^^« '"'^^'^ advantages of his family, A.D. 1625. He declared himself a convert to the new persuasion ; violated his most solemn vows ; seized upon the largest amount of consecmted spoils that were ever nental countiy ; manned the fair daughter of^ Frederick the Prusst TTf i-""^^TPi'^^ the hereditary dukedom of Prussia as a fief from Poland. The royal house is derived from the ancient Swabian family of^Hohenzollein the earliest-known ancestor of which was Thassilo Count of flfj w'- "" ^'^^ ''^°"* ^•^- ^^^' His descendants, at the beginning of the thirteenth century, became Burg-raves ofNurnberg. The eighth of these princely officials" ifaS knt considemble sums of money, 'and re^ndered o iS m? poitant services to the Emperor Sigismund, was by h^ ,W T'"v1? y;'''"°^ °* Brandenburg, and subsequen ly Zh ft; 7*? the sovereig-nty of that country, to^^ther with the electoral dig-mty and the high rank of arch- n- bei;mn of the empire. One of his Hescendants, Frederlc- W ham, commonfy called thereat elector, succeeded Ws father George- William, A.i>.lGiO-, and strengthened hs position m Northern Germany at the peace of wSalS Resides securing ultimately the feuL independen e oj tiji n^^i T' V'' f r ■'''''' ^'''^' «^e iiilitary pres- l^n ta^rt'"' \ ■'^'^'"'^'je- lier troops at Havdferg, A.D 167o; bequeathing to his son, thirteen years after- lo onA f ^^^"-"'P"'«ed and flourishing stat'e of about 42,000 square miles m extent. The Emperor Leopold con- ferred upon the latter the reg-al title a.d 170], Ach was recognised at the treaty of tftrecht; whereby'PieX ic / also obtained the inheritance of the town and territories of Gueldres, as an heir to the family of Cleves. and the settled sovei-eignty of Neufchatel. Juters and C^ feU aiW ■1; ^* MODERN HISTORY. [a.U. 1713-41. ^•nw!s to the slini'e of Pn.ssin. As gmndson, moiwver. to l-mlenc-Heniy Prince ofOrnngp, lie ncnniml the coun- ties of Lmg-en nn.l Mems, the loidshin onieiisth.il, nml mnny other estntes in Westphnha nnd Ilolhrnd. Uefoi-c, however, the hnnl nri-nngements conld lj«, nmde, liis new crown had passed to his successor Frederic- William I. S4th Feb. A.D. 1713. Economy Iind become necessary nt the same time, to i-escue the realm fi-om financial em- ImiTassment; for the exiiensive novelties of royalty couhl not fad to have somewhat dei-anged the simplicity of nn electoral court. . It was practised accordinglv, and'.with immense success. The Prussian potentate diW the bulk of his revenifes from national domains ; hence the mniiii«>e- ment of these constituted an important feature in the flo- mestic administration. Hereditary leases wei-e abolished nnd subjected with the city lands to a general directory' Jn consequence of such re"idations, thei-e arose an annual fixed income, which enabled the minister of finance to keen the expenditui-e within lensonable limits, and, in the end accumulate from the sur])lus very large treasures. Sucli was the g:eo8:iiii)hicaI situation of the country, that it inio-ht be doubted whether it belonged to the east or west • Sut an army of 100,000 veterans, including the famous Tall Kegiment, attracted universal notice, more iinrticularly as the talents and ambition of the crown luince be«-an to tie- velop themselves. On ascending the paternal throne, ho found himself absolute master of a kingdom contninin«- 1 i nn"li , wf /,T' " (l"'.'?^" o*','"''»ljitants, a revenue of 14,000,000 dollai-s, besides a balance in band of about three-hfths of that amount. In the following October. A.D. 1740 Charles VL expired suddenly, af^er eating heartily of a dish of mushrooms; which "dish of mush- rooms, observes Voltaire, "was to chnnge the destinies of .Europe. Ihe Pragmatic Sanction indeed bound the Fiiissian monarch, by the strictest obligations, to leave Maria Iheresa unmolested in her inheritance ; but wliat were political j)led"es when compared with selfish aspira- tions { His miml had been moulded in the philosophy of deism under the purest Lutheran ausjiices. The ba^^is of mm-al i-esponsibility, for intentions and actions to Almighty on. XVII.J MODRHN HWTOBY. 875 intelligent, and not overbuidened with tkxM Ti «. tr^^S ' '^•°^?"" »fP°l»"d demanded tlieSeJs terms, %be V^fklT d Lotve TSrhT!""'^ "P"," '''^'"■"^'- a 876 MODERN HISTORT. [a.D. 1741*7. in dufl course, to tho exclusion, for the time, of Francis, under the title of Chiu-les VJI. Pruguo hnd fallen; Austna WB8 shaken ; tho valunbles begnn to be removed from Vienna; nnd the enemy dared to uddress tho indomitable lioness of Germany as a mere Archduchess of Tuscany ; when, with her infant son Joseph in her arms, the ao- scendnnt of so many emperoi-s, slie resolved to apjwnl per- sonally to the Ilun^nrian Diet. " Abandoned," said she, " l)y my friends, })ei'S(!CUted by my foes, attacked Ijy my nearest relatives, I have no resource left, but in your iidelity and valour. On you alone I depend for I'elief ; and into your care I commit witli confidence the son of your so- vereign nnd my just cause." So flattering an addi-ess to their loyalty, flowing from the lips of their beautiiul and heroic queen, in the deepest distress, awakened the souls of the Palatines ; who drew their sabres, and protested, in tones of enthusiasm, that they would live and die for their King Maria Theresa ! Teai-s were shed on all sides. They flew to arms ; Great Britain affbrded some considerable subsidies ; Spain and Saxony indeed joined the confederacy against tlie fulfilment of the Pragmatic Sanction ; but the tnumph of Frederice at Cnazlau, in May a.d. 1742, led to the pacification of Breslau, and gave the imperialists breathing-time in that quarter. Bohemia was now recovered, and Bavaria conquered in its tura. A victory at Dettingen compelled the Fi-ench to i-ecross the Rhine. Saxony was won back again to its old coloura. The bribes of England bought Sai-dinia to follow in her wake ; and even Holland agreed to raise auxilinries for Austria. The united fleets of France and Spain were beaten off Toulon by the British in a.d. 1744 : when, to save Charles VII. from utter niin, and secure as well as extend his Silesian seizures, the King of Prussia once more allied himself with the spoliatore, just before the decease of the unfortunate emperor removed at least one element of irri- tation from the general confusion. The German diadem was at length obtained for Francis I., to the inexpressible delight of his consort the empress-queen. Frederick had gained a series of ti'iumphs over the Austrians and Saxons under Charles of Loimne at Hohenfriedburg* ; also over the r:H xvir.] MOnRBN HldTORY. •177 wtnies of the forn.m. at Son-; und over those of the latter at Kesse sdoif. Ilicso produced the prnce of Dresden, which settled inHfters for a few years betue.m Prussia a.ul the Lmmre. Iluf, on the other hand. Fmnce foniriit with IVefherlands. Marshal Saxe g-athercd his laurels at Fon- tenov m the pres.-nce of Louis XV. ; whilst the diversion, successtul for a season, made on behalf of Charles Edward he vounK Chevalier in Enj^land, drew hon.e those t^allant ba tahons, whioh under the Duke of Cuuiberlaud wid Sir John Ligonier had been the admiration of their antoponists. iiie l-rench were apm victorious at Uaucoux and Lafiield: but beyond the Alps, where a (luarrel had occun-ed be- tween themselves and the Spaniards relative to negotiations with Sai-dmia, both were rep.dsed with great I < in at- tempting- to force the Austrian camp at St. Lazaro. Genoa played a consmcuous part in the stnig-gle. Nai)le8 liad been conii,elled to be neutral through the steadiness of the JUritisl, fleet. Piovence was invaded in vain ; Philip V. had died, and been succeeded by Ferdinand VI., without any material change in the purposes of the cr)urt at Madrid, in India, La Bourdonnais had taken Madi-as j but in North Ameiica, D Anville miscarried in an enterprise of majr- hiln t ^^^Je recovery of Cape Breton. Yet the tv?a branches of the House of Bourbon prepared for a final trial Of sf^-eng-th. France particularly expected, that through her superionty m the Netherlands slie should effect a se- pamtion of her enemies bv a violent attack upon Holland. Ihis happily for the republic, led to the restoration of her heieditary stadtholderate in the person of William Henry then rightfid representative, A.n. 1747. Russia was now brought ui)on the scene; and her armies, as auxiliaries to Austria poured down the valley of the Rhine. The French Mo?r? u7^-'i^' "'''J '^/'^"^'^^ Bergen-op-Zoom. In Italy, Mai-shal Belleisle took Nice and Villa Franca ; relieved tHe (Genoese from an investment of impeiial and Piedmontese troops under Count Scuylenberg; while his brother en- countered the death of a soldier in the Pass of Exilles. At sea, ttie Jcine'Iisn pninvoW thaiv «««. «..«*_, MODERN HI810RY. [a.D. 1748-30. riority, under Admirals Hawke, Warren and At,o«t, vr gresa at Aix-la-Cliapelle, a.d. 1748 • wheiAhv th^ ^Ji tw^w '^''i*'^, professed to arrange for the present that France and Eng-land should restore their mut^ualac: quisitions made daring the war; nothing beiL condided ffi'°!>armaT"^^' '°"°/?."^^ of gaSada^TK Don PhiHnT' '^'""f^' and Guastella, were settled on iZ« T'c*^'^ '^'°"'* '^" of Elizabeth Farnese, oueen dowager of Spam, and his male posterity, with the St tion of a revei-sion. No one else really gained anv S Frederick himself had scarcely impro/elZn the te m^s had sacnhced myriads of men, and many milhons ofW 80 000 000/ 2" •'" ^^,f"?™f"t^d her national 3ebt to «UUOO,000/ stermo-! Maria Theresa had lost Silesia ^th the Italian ducliies just mentioned, and a part of ?£ Milanese to Sai-dinia: but then, as the reward of £ courZ and constarcy, she had secured the impeS c^wn TS consort ana family; besides bein^ permitted to reiji with »W valuable por«„„ ofL'fa. dl'^i^JK This noble princess had certainly justified the nredilar.. tiona and expectations of her father/ V Snd wressen- Sf ^° T™^ °°"5 but then it combined the ?act and hiSrofthrsT"'^^'^ *\^ ^^'^^h '-"^ goye^mentd cnaracter of the sterner sex. Austria became more flou ^sh mg and powerfxil, under her administration, than it 4^ ever before been under the house of Hamburo- Her gemus as Von MuUer has shown, sent 3 vXur fnZ eyery department of the state. The peacefouSit^^ ^ IWnsylyama by Charles VI., through The death o^ Michae Anafy, its last native prince, accfrding to the nrf nsions laicf down at Carlowit^, had 'secm^hfr 1,200 OW CH. XVII.J MODERN HISTORY. 379 warlike subjects, and tlie position of a strone- and beautiful counry upon that side of her dominions mL exposed to ca"Jt rX; ^'''yy'''fve^<:^ repaid her Maternal ThffoTfv «, ^ '"7'"'® °* population and prosperity. dii/o\ """"T ^^ ""''"^'^'^ «* ^^^'^ '■eign Presentid, in- wer«'fotT'''^ 'Tf^ " *^« «"«^y«^^ °f ^J'^t took pace Znl^ Pfse«"ted much below the surface, for^her ?uet? JT T^'^'^y ^^"/^«d *«8-«ther. Absolutism is- sued the word of command at Vienna, which was obeyed i> L'«nT ?*'"' ^T ^^i^^" **^ Hermanstadt : yet, Sst It established external -ler, and promoted the arts and sciences, there was no :, .on of the various races into Tm mighty nation. In the subsequent Seven Years' Wa^^^^^ ever she was ab^ to defy thi utmost forces of FreS: and the moml character of her peio"nd was recovered Dresden was besieged, though fruitlessly. S leX and S^ony were maintained after the affaii/of Le S Sd the oTand victory of Torgau, 3d Novembei a n 1 7m StrT"' r t''''''^' Fwer^fevty hS quarter. Even the Russians withdrew from befbre Co S Lr f f- 2* ,-^"'*"8' *o»»' successive seasons in the held, one of his flanks was always covered bv f ll r.,„ f 1 C f^^Tl> »»<>«■ Contade. and B,wt Lj d' " t" prna„, deaiiunaency, superinduced by tliu h 2^2 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1768-63. misinanngement of his predecessors. The war, under his Rtispices was waged by sea and land, not merely in GeJ! rS'El'lndr"'^^ -^'^ T''' ''''''' continent, a^d in the ±,abt Indes. Admn-al Boscawen burned the shins of his enemy m the hai-bour of Louisbom-g, and mX the town surrender. Ticonderag-o was taken ly AmheiS • and no sooner was the Lake of Champlain Verthan Saunders ^cended the St. Lawrence, ancf appeared before &;! ^trv "'P^^'f ^''' ^^^^^'^' an^thi-eatened Montreal. The French, thus attacked on every side were unable to withstand the power and enthusiasm of theiiaT versanes. The lower capital of Canada then witnessed the achievements and fall of General Wolfe,-a younrhero of extraordinary acuteness and bravery, whose soill was equally superior to pride and suspicion; and who!hi1h^ mag-nanimity, as well as in the circumstances of his death may be said to have resembled Epaminondas. SaundS was i.turnin8- with the hfeless bod}, when on approaching his native shores, he just arrived to witness the naval dis- comfiture of^Conflans by Admiml Hawke, in the Bay of Qmberon. Throughout the East Indies, equal gallantiT displaved Itself, dive and Watson sm'ote the totterS Si \t/"™" ^f '^^"° i"^ ^^^*^^^-« SoubahdaTaf I'lassey— that scene of triumph which proved to Gi.p«f Britam and Shah Allum Gheer'what Ai Ja a„d I su^^^^^^^ to Alexander and Darius. Calcutta had been stormed 3 token vv-ith astounding rapidity. Chandei-nagore, with^S Its boasted ar illery, changed masters within three hoi^ from the signal of assault. I^engal, Bahar, Orissa, Guze^^ Arcot, Cai^cal and Pondicherry bowed before a s^niScy which, in the laj.se of another generation, was to be S Anther extended. When SnaiS at length joined in the h^y, It was only to lose the Manillas in Ihe Ltrand the Sw"''' 'fi^'Tf ^}'''''' ^'^'^ «J^'««^ly wound up the •esolution of England, prior to the acquisition of the iStter laurels, to support the Prussian monarch to the last Tsp • wilff ""'"'^ g>»^,'^«'-«^. veiy iustly the gi^nd patrofaJd pmtector of Protestantism, 'fhe death of Geoige IL had indeed cooled the zeal of the court; but it wis meX though Toryism fancying that the gi^pes, so long thSugS CH. XVII.J MODERN HISTORY. 383 sour when Whiggeiy promised to be immortal, were now beginning: to seem sweeter, wlien office miffht be within reach from the stolidity of George III. Frederick mean- While tought on from one ghastly scene of carnage and courage to another. His exhaustion, however, had begun to be apparent towards the termination of a.d. 1761 ; alter bchweidnitz was surprised by the Austrians, in October ot that year, and Colberg, in Pomerania, had fallen before Komanzow and the Russians, rather more than two months Ik K.u r V^. ^^'^^'^^^ of their Empress Elizabeth, on tbe &th ot the following January, just saved him. Her nephew and successor, Peter III., Duke of Ilolstein, im- mediatelv abandoned the coalition; almost adoring, as he professed to do, the heroism of the modem Hanniiral: and bem^ partly influenced by a secret expectation of obtaining the duchy of Sleswick from Denmark, to which he con- ceived himself entitle.1. That he was also under personal obligations to Fredei-ick must not be forgotten: but his i-eig-n was as transient as an autumnal shower. Having been brought up a Lutheran, he despised the Greek com- munion; smiled at the long beards of its clergy; laughed at their images or sacred pictures, and ventured to live with his mistress rather than his consort>-the too cele- brated Catharine. It was imagined moreover that he meditated the confinement of this princess in a convent, with the substitution in her stead of the guilty Countess Woronzoff. If such were his real designs, the- masculine mind of his wife anticijiated them. A speedy revolution dethroned, arrested, and destroyed her weaker husband; trom wliose impure grasp the empress snatched the im- perial reins, and govemed the Russian dominions throuah a memorable and protracted peiiod. Without entertaininjr towards the Pmssian sovereign any sentiments of extrava- gance, she confirmed the late pacification which had been made with him; and simply recalled the 20,000 aux- Uiaries her late partner had sent to his assistance. The victones of Reichenbach, Schweidnitz, and Freiberg, once more brought Frederick to his feet, in the deadly wa-sde with Austria. Pitt had indignantly withdi-awn from power before the tnumohs of hir — ^- — ^-^ ^ " " ilmv iiily MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1763-75. FvZIVn ?]-'^'^ ^'T^'^ ^^ culminating eveiT where eXS Pnii f *^' ^^'.^a^e J^t'-ict. although much cent, lobago, Domenica; and n Africa Spnpcml P.,J^1 »nted m •o.e »en«i it, material persoiataT L S an absolute government over the rights of indWduak » had nsen out of a chaos ofrobbervand c^rcaron Hi" cardmg upon settled resolution evWy demeM of S ^ H icnm tne limits of a few countries or a sina-le confinpnf The convulsions of the moral earthquair^Teff and arP f. S^r^-»l^^enrA-ht£S Visibly or otherwise, are difiused. Prom the 'Cty of OH. XVII.] MODERN HISTOBV. 385 ^Z^'t^XtXTu h^" "™°. '°™'^ ™» p- compromisoTpL™. f„ .i, " "'»""8^'l « « matter of action of supematm-aleraces Ono « ^ ^^^ counter- is thnf *.,rir. JT eraces. Une consequence therefore OC MA •»" KODBRN HISTORY. [a.D. 1766-79. «TmT« '^ZT O^r"'™ ".?''.'> »« ■'•a- »°" om,«,„g to make relfg,™ the 1 mata"bLL fcS?," mL?"/J~;f «';.-»' perfect develops JTS himself tIo ? •'^ P °*' ®''^' ^"^ °o* unseldom upon Pnnn V ?"^^* '"'schievous mnovations: which broua-ht th« OH. XVII.] MODERN HISTORY. 887 a m- less war with Turkey, the partition of Poland, and tlie avidity manifested with regard to the Bavaiian succession. The elder electoral house of Wittelsbach, after an exist- ence of nearly five hundred yeai-s, came to an end, in the person of Maximilian Joseph, who died on the last day but one of the year a.d. 1777. Charles Theodore Von Sulz- bach, Elector-Palatine of the Rhine, head of the next branch, succeeded according to compact; but the em- peror not only forthwith occupied the lower coimtries, but claimed an enormous portion of Upper Bavaria held as a fief of Bohemia. Frederick, however, interfered, and ar- ranged, after a bloodless campaign, the treaty of Teschen, under French and Russian mediation, in May a.d. 1779 ; whereby Joseph and Maria Theresa had to rest satisfied with a territory of about forty square miles between the Danube, the Inn, and the Salsa. His fame was now at its zenith; nor can it be denied that, with regard to the ex- teraal welfare of his kingdom, the conquei-or of Silesia had not laboured in vain. Amidst the wastes of Bi'an- denbur^, he erected above six hundred new villages, and settled in them 42,C0O foreign families, exclusive of similar estabhshments, founded at his own expense, in other quar- ters. With praiseworthy care he had improved the breeds of cattle; introduced mulbeny-trees, silk worms, dyeing- herbs, tobacco, various fruits, the culture of vegetables, and particularly the potato; stimulated every species of trade and manufacture; and augmented the national re- venues, without imposing fi-esh taxes or including the lu- cent acquisitions. Population more than doubled throu"h- out Prussia. Immense sums were expended in quicken?ng dormant energies by pecuniary premiums ; in facilitating mtemal traffic and general intercourse by the foi-mation of roads and canals, connecting or deejiening lai-ge rivei-s, and founding the port of Swinemunde on the Baltic, as also in the improvement of administrative regidations. The use of torture was every where abolished ; banks wei-e established in all the gi-eat cities, with ramifications ex- tending to provincial towns, so as to create and support a sound system of credit. His army, the gieat pillar of his powei", comprised 200.000 uickfid I ''* im-s 1)A ^^ MODERN HISTORY. ' [a.V. 1767-74 pe" il;1hrLtVv''l?tr ^f'-^ ^' Solium the capital and prolS IZ — ^1' ^^^ Hourished, a. with I which mSariStv fI^h''^ r^ r^'^'^ ' true spirit of ProtestanrdSsm P?? "^^^ K'^' was impartial toleration ihreCZad.nf''^^^' ^\''^ exterior rites were resx^P.S] P , °^«P""onj their fanatical Calvinism to K r^;. ^'^ '^'""'^ «*" *^'« «»ost Catholicity; even the Jes,n>r^'* ""'^T '^^^^^^^ies of hadtheinstnicti-on nffl!f i,'''"^'"^^ unmolested, and Church S,mmi eS ?o th'r Yer^ *'" r''^'^'^" ^' ''^' affair depended upon the wTii J, ' ^^ ^eahty, the entire in.being^he MColl^lf'^ZS:'' ^^° ^'''''^ might, at any moment, reverse * the scTn^' "I'^Tl °''^,^'* fion possessed no niace whof!,. • T* ^" ^'^^t, reli- hat 'which descenfXm taven'\s\r"''^ "^'■"^• to man, was i/rnored rather t W ' • .^''^atest gift when not openfy insulted «n-/'*'T'',''^ ' Patronised or rejected. ^ ^ ^^'*^ ' ^''^ '"*«"»^"y despised, hated, TheterfXSr^i^^^^^ at the root of her connectioTw ifWi ^"^ ,P^*"*«^ « ^orm siastical unity from the datrnf.f^'"'^'""*''^ ^^^'^^Je- of Bourges, under Charles VH °V^p^i''^"'"''%®'^'^«««» centuiyf its rehgious wLn tl,/ ^^^Ivinism of the next ordinary policy of c3af SUlr ° •'''?'?'' ^^« ^^t'^' Gustavis^Adoiphus S ]1, if?^^'^" '° '"« ^"Pport of XIV. tow^s the III s^"^^^3^ assumptions oY Louis fortunes and a gen^^com'mtio?!^'^ ^f P"!'"^ '"•^- sapped the faith Sf that nobrCtrv ^CP ' V^^^'" be considered a^ the heait of the c^ntfnCt ' t^^^^^^^ hjs mistresses, the ministeis np^r.!: j ,. ^"^ ^'"^" »^"d dered on fronJ W a erSaSslTt ^^^ ^''""- disorganisation, from the naci wT. V a ^'T'"'^' '"*«™al the attempt of Damien T fel H' ,^^^ *° 1767. Jansenism had been snrlRHi ? 'T''^'S^' ^•"• tions a^ong the more thoughXTofS ttv'T ^'"''^■ even the hierarchy of the ?ealm mI 1 ^? ^^^''^^^ ^"'^ vn. xvn.J MODBRV niSTORY. 389 S^eatesfannZn/f *^'' f^^t'^V^^ty, and sometimes the greatest apparent fervour. The bull Unio-enitus nhnuU ♦• - which enforce implicit obedience to the Cla r of St Pp?«r ouo-hf in To ich; tlie crown domineered when it .te extent and taie character, after the watcwS „ fXa- Si'tl^^H^'''?"^'^""' Independence, should hZ t^ ,1, -J^? *? ■"• I«»«saeau and the EncvclonKdista En*t:taett'ofiT'''r'*/ T- «"""« «««^™d W r^-Tt* ,^^? Jesuits were not to be endured bv an a^n which had winked at Gallicanism, Jansen sm MohVsS the supremacy of courtesans, and 'every form^fwSlh' ness or latituamaz'/anism, so long as tlfey rdemred in Sorir^r tT;.*'^ r'y *-« system 0™^^^^^^^^^ Sy-^- 1^^ Y^' therefore, to encounter the most pohshed ndicule and sarcasm from oU the literary daises! MO MODBRN HISTOHY. [a.D. 1760-68. w addition to the hatred of liceutious nobles and potb- mruB and the i)er8ecution of philosophere and mmistem in high places. Calumny also awoke with her thousand •harKes and ter, thousand insinuations; the foiling or ex- travajrances o* individuals camo to be accumulated up«« the whole body, nor may the position be deemed a W one for any institution to be placed in, when it cannot take a single false step without its being- at once fatal. What- ever the order did, or omitted to do, furnished matter for •ocusation. Pombal m Portugal was their bitterest enemy; for not only did he abhor them as the Corinthian column of Catholicity, but he imagined that they had iuteifered with a monopoly of port wine, which he had introduced for his own pmate benefit. His administmticn in seculw- matters had thrown a gleam of transient prosprity aero" 8 fion^nn'; ^''^^"^ ^^'T'' ^"^■'"ented tbe revenues to 8,600,000/. per annum, cleared off every cruzado of debt rebuilt Lisbon, of wl.ch two-thirds hadiei destroyed in ^JLhT'^'i?""!, '^^^\"'*^^' '^"'^^'^ *'•« «'my and navy, rawed the kingdom to her natural rank amount EuropeYn powers, reformed the entire administration of her coloSi^ encouraged interaa traffic and foreign commerce, planstice, and chastity, and a .judgment to' come" (Acte «iv 25); which declamations might be resented as attacks on tbe sacred person of the king-, since T>.n Josenh had peculiarly exposed himself to sucFi reproucn T .e zed. ous but mconvenieiu preachers were Vm'Mi.,.n fenced Then followed the conspii-acv of Avierc, .,;.:. an attemn* at assassination A.D. 1769, ij firing a couple of ^Tll the carriage of h,s majesty, returning home at night from one of his infamous intrigues. The enthusiasm, or ratS f^tfvT/i ^^'^"^'''^"'.^^ ""^^^ *° involve, most Z ptly, tlmt glorious ass6ciation of saints and heroes which W ' .wished heresy, shed the light of Christianity upon ' ^ Chma, and Japan, and developed the religious pam- OH. Xru.] MODBRN HI8TORY. ^l merda IS^^ ^f a«trou8 connections with Bu/diy com- cStv ZZ / "^T^ ""'^«'' circumstances of rovoltinff under the n,™ 1 ru'- 'T'* «°d PaHiament of Pmnce, school were ?tl« n, "'" '. ''•"^f '^'^ P'^*''"" «*' »^« "«^ in Tw Jo! r • 1 "m".'' ^'^"^'« »° t'^e"' conduct than those wZ I- °T T^."™ '^'^d excellence. ^Their co -a^ SoIvTr^' '^' ^""^ °*'""*«'^ '^'th their geu.^u 12 Sed w trLST'"^^ confiscated; their meLber^ V " Spr J „ f ^'^'^ '''' ^"'•'nented tliem was lild to hu « rendered good service to God and mankind. of MalZadT"! "'"'^^ ^/'^;/" Vin. The council, nand Vr Svf ^'"".,i°"J< V"der French infl.ience. Ferdi- nand VI dymg without issue in Auirust a d 175fi wa. HL ^ J"!?*' ?''®"*' ^o'^ Philip of Parma oukt to ha^ ascended the throne of the TwS SioilirwS hiTtelr? XTa'chaJr^^ ^rr*' --rdix; to th'Tt^y at Aix-la-Chapellej instead of which, astHe eldest son If CWles was insane, his second was to' follow him nswa^: ffi NeaSn^ T^''^ and Fenlmand, his third, ^sum^ wiei'Neapohtan crown. Philip himself and the court 7f Vienna were induced to acquiesce in the altered ^JZ ment through the potent mediation of Franc^, iS^at «iat time upon realising the famous family comnact of th« Bourbons. Charles III therefore adoS theTe^erSl m were seized, their persons arrested and banished their^n tiftil dominion in South America was crushed iust as tU he^r^essness of boyhocKl destroys the mo'^ei StoVul' Ri«/' A «?^ri"8> Aranda, Campomanes, and Florida Blanca deemed themselves little less ibm illUikiTatPd s^es when they tlms contributed to accelerate theTva^ X! ' tu^^.m .jnd revolution Clement XIII. in v^rremot •trated. | housands of tha djit^f^ »».,-^«» *l MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1768-73. the bounty and protection of the Holy See in a «f «t^ «f ^ *.• tution and infirmity, exactly as 3 VW L^ I *'^*^®^**" tion naturally ensued a d T^fift i * ^H,?l<'o™™"n'ca- uni1.d chorus for' theX&ilfth^orJer ofTl^^.' °' Avignon and Beneyento were seLed rl^f^ P Ig?iatius. and>er«ira claimed. ThrronXrekfef witwr^^'-"-! of an insnired confessor, « I ryedoTe m^ dl ?'f Sow tZw'^^^.r'i^' "^«^°« ^«5 '^"t were tIeV less T A-wtrfa WM deaf to thise touching and Si™ IlT and when, in another year, the ereatM Sir TO™! danced Wj «„ti„J, ev^SS at Ro'm^Cw his loss. His successor, Ganknelli Clempnf YTV J voured to avoid his destiny C:dS alone tI'tH«^ sion or the obnoxious fathers TTi'o TTr.i,-r,«c„ e o^pfies- lation. De«m and Protestantism shonted [Tj7j '^^ CH. XVII.J MODERN HISTORY. 393 derick gladly received and welcomed the exiles from t>,« mere prudential recollection that thercoSd not M t^ I™ thus ^^wZ'' ^^V«g:a^d!essness of all reiiou IT^^i exhibited, as he conceived, the naturafand lana stroked her self-complacency also, only in annthflr Ser wS Sde^of ^X'r^' ^ ^°^^ of^tSs, perfo^'ed continent Ti?f ^"^ ^'' associates had done for the fi «i S Throughout the eighteenth century, and in fact tZ *^'« Ht''^^ °^*^»« Stuarts, the right^^f private judgment had home their blossoms and frSts bSS theoirvTn7 ^^'VT ?"f '^ '^'^ «--T deparfme^^^^^ tneology and morals by Locke and Cudworth until tl,« otrllii: tS^^^ ^"^*^« HanrrtiS S if nL J • 17 ^^'*^8-es that might otherwise re- EnSm^S '"^ PI^^'^^'a'^' r"^*« ^^'' Erastianism and iurirs i^fhT-'"" *^«/"8■^<^^n establishment j the Non- ir iSiitiTr'" ^''^"'^'^''^' withered into obscurity; tneunivers ties became renowned for harlotry and hard bon tl' *^« *^»''*y:T« ^^^«^«« ^«re .subserved as oTb- M«t3 ' "^f ' ^ ''^^ °" ^ ^'"ile;" and the trumpet of Methodisni only once more prepared the way for the va ganes of Puritans and Evan^ehcals. Maferfal prosperity iTon td"« llf''''' *!j4«^^ ""' ^°"^ pacKdnS wation, had laid up goods for many years ;» nor had thfl Pelhams perpetrated^any real mischie/in tampering wJh the springs of national industry. The interlude of 4Ses ,?& '" attempting to recoVer the throne of his famSy mformed mankind, that when the choice lay between S upon ^ndXn nf".^ *'^- '''^''' ™^^ prefer the Se^ Sevpn T ' w^*^'"" "'-^''^^^g: transubstantiation. The beven \ears War augmented the debt to 146,000 000? Norfh fnstPnd f l' ^9'^'^S^^^'Gvemme, Grafton, and rvoitJi instead of looking across the Atlantic with the eves S id frr"'i!"^"^^''\"°*^''"^ ^"^ ^i«J^«« like those" of S ' fc*7^^^«^«^- *% thfre touched might turn into gold, liiey moreover served a master who^ Pars meta- 394 MODBRN HI8T0RV. [a.D. 1765-80. ^Zlt^hSlhJ:''^ r *^°««°f ttefabulous monarch of StaiJflkwaTjhlC^^^^^ colossal p«judice. The duties on t a xyLZv S\ZT ^°T f "P ^'*^"^ *^o Jears by tion assumed sffife°^T^°^- ^n^ericanopposil and seemed ready to withdrnw f 1,1 iT ^^t i • ' '^* ^^^^f the colonists only^e cSledkln JL^^*'*^ '•'"r*'' '^^"^^ their circumstances tlSjnn t -J^ ^^^^^^s^on that, under not um-i^htfSTpriSe sT, 1°"^ f Presentation was must becomrob^s of ahhnrr^^^^ abstmctions, however, have got hi^Iy exci^d • ?r°'^ "^^^l *^^ "^'°d« o^ ««» defini&st Lt^^^Jj^,^^^^^^^ their very in- monstrosity. Half m°ea^urS ^ LdopteVuntZhr^ '^^ of msurrection was fairly invokpd ff V ? *if 8^«??"» passed in March Tn 177? . ^^^^"^ P'^i't BiU he concilS^p^osf^^^^^^^^^ ^ the tug of war. «e.t year, afte^ffi'lrix: SS^^^^^^^ ton, m April a.d. 1775 P ^ -Lexing- the m\?' hit °f ?pS*'''^ ™ °^^'^^* ^«" h^-e dissipated AmeS A f fr ''^8^°^ents would suffice to commv XftktoS's S^^*r,^8-^^«* Canada, r?h his country wS^„.!S'°^ Washmgjon, the Fabius of victories b^u'tZSret'r^^^^^^ of his untarnisSTtriotisr M^^^ ^^'"°^'° perseverance e-flnpi-nfori a !:t i:r"°'^'sm. Mutual ammos ty had lono- GH. xrri.] MODERN HISTORY. 895 Bouthern provinces from tumult for three successive seasons Howe spread terror even, where ; nobly re STndeS by «ie republican commander-in-chief, whose resources eacS week were dimmished after the sanguinary dis^tera at W Island, Brandy wine, and Germantown. ^PhSlohia with the country to the mouth of the Delaware fellTde; the superiority of the British in a ti 1777 ' pensatL for L liveMl^t:" t" llbou'r^wK C ma|nificent troops had wasted. The revers srSeover »t Saratoga, had diminished the prestige of their armslml sustained the spirits of the insurgents! The suSr „} Burgoyne to Gates also secured °an alUancew^h France the colomal contest developed into hostilities between two Of he greatest nations in Europe; the whole civS baTin.r'f •w?. ^^'' Fofoundest interest upon thTcom. 17ZIa t-^f \«4 l^e'^elf, hastened to reahse their visioM of freedom in Jlghtmg for the rights of man. The coTt S Madrid soon followetr in the same wake ; aU and ea^h dikf regardless of the consequences involved n these momentous transactions. To prevent Holland from gettinrthe steS ma similar direction, Great Britain declS w^ar a^g her in addition to the others; who, under the influelTof Russia, and m connection with Sweden, Denmark^Sm: sia, were forming the maritime confederacy of ad 1780 vessl tiht to mT f' "^'^^T^ principle, tltirneS vessels ought to make free goods, with the exceotion nf articles used in carrying on w'arfar'e. To these SSied the court of George III. ; whatever he might be dSed to forfeit, m the way of territory in the WZ Zi^ the nromontories of Penobscot .S Feu^oI%h::Z conHagration raged with deplorable iury and merSdis aster. Engagement ensued upon engagement -defeat and triumph, patriotbm an'^ ♦-"^ P..° "'^J aeieat and r f -!,isj 1^ v.««^«, vuuiiige ana cowardice, !!!>, . «0^««^ HISTORY. [A.D. 17803. ^rfSe'a't^™^^^^ Efforts country, when the^had brom^L?^' V^'' '^''^''■ mgton upheld the ener^T^J^ t^^y *°° ^^'e. Wash- republic/an^idst bi^^^^^^^^ as he alone could have broniK^ ^1"^ despondency sucfi good fortune now and thin ?^* ''' ^^'^V^^* C^^eams of and an honesHud^loS aiid cT-T^ cause never forsook S A f 7 ^^5^ confidence in his blow, includinrZ feifol l^lfk tZ ^^"^ «P°» pew gradually clearer ^^; W °^*^« White Plains, it Uirshe m^u^ruS^wT^^^^^^^^^ The provinces of New Yort plrZT ■ *^® conflict. jeys, were slippin^^^pi^^l,^^^^^^^^^ -^ the Jer- beau had joinS the\atriots V r! "^"^ ™^ The city and h'arbour of Sew yM™ °^ ^°^^ ^^^^^^J peace was arranged at VeSles 1 1 1 7«V'°V^^"^^ "«*« W retired fronf office. Grea Li;l^K. -^"'^ ^"^"^^ sea, particularly in the o^nH a«? ^»/ *''^"mphed by against De Grasse and ilT, .*''''' ?^ ^^^'^ Rodney but she lost nSia and w- iF'^'^f'^^'^" ^^ (Gibraltar ; been before. EvShefiJofR^^'^^'^^'^^^^ ^^^ "eve^ navaJglory for himself and sQuadrnn Ti, -^^'^^ ^^^T with interludes of the RockSm and'^^^^^ tions, William Pitt, the sSd son of thf S^ f^'^'T'^' commenced from this era hk rml! ? ^^^^ of Chatham, kingdoms had addeTorhundrerz^lr^^^^ ^^« *^^"«« national debt- «?n +l,o/T+ nuiiions sterhng to their croHohing at their feet • Z J^lfA''^ ^?^'.™ "'"""ly 1780-3. CH. XVIII.J MODERN HISTORY. 397 £ frZ 2t • "* "!f ?^^^ mortification prevented them at thilX„rrr W^"' ^"'*' ""^^'^ «^«V ^I^«re besides Slation ^tj^^'^T']' Tl ^"^^'^ «l^°^fc« of exulting CHAPTER XVm. A.D. 1398-1792. DKNMAHK AND NOEWAV^sWKOEN-PO.AND-RtSSU-PAMmON. TBEAKES AND THEIR RESULTS. HE Scandinavian kingdoms had been nominaUy held to- J?^^^\'T'^. 8-«»erations by the Union of cXar JlS "' *° ^''''' ^«f°^« t^« first quaXr of the^£ teenth centurv terminated. The only woX was thatlj SoT?hrif H ^°°^- ""/r^^^ "^ tPeaS tern' house %7sf±'ni5' f^ ^""^ '^''^^ i*« ^S^ from the wards each other the most mtense hatred j particularly the S the aSh; J«f T^* ^r^^^ ^^*^« Stures adminis- rerea tneattairs of Sweden ; claiming to do so bv a kind ima pioiteied her rather perilous ass stance towards tba subjugation of patriotism at Stockholm, where th?^ axe nf aSTndT. T "^' *°"^^*^ of blooML^trti^e capita and country rose up against the Danish tyrant But the source of his unpopulSity lay stUl deeper As S ^l^^V'V "(^r^' *^« ™°^«d'^to successorof Mar ma sha Chf.T'^P ^'? ^"'"^l*^^' ^"^ «^°««° theirlrand- SRnni . t'?^'' ''°"' descended from the royd race o Bonde, to be first their regent and finally their recT pit ZlnT:-- ^^^f H-*i- andCrurnI: p__w „u.en ....c auauea tne party for national independ- MODERN niSTORV. [a.D. 1447-1560. veare Thrnnln . 2^'i^"l^"''{?^'«rs for more than seventy If^^' /™^no"t the contest, the Church, in the nei-son froL^ttSPa°nW' "''' ^'T^^"^ tu^.theS" irom tne wealth and influence attached to that see and the pregnant abilities of its occupants. Trolirthe n;eS then wearing the primatial mitre, had opposed he 70^!^ Steeu Sture, and was persecuted for doing- so bv the rifpt S^'" The'tnT f "V^ ^^^«d withfhrinlrJe'cttn: ^Iai ? "*"^^ pestilence of Lutheranism was then rapidly spreading over the north : and the archbirh?n ZT mg appealed to I>ope Leo X. forVedress hrHoKs eT SXeTiftVcLr"*^' r'* ^°T^^^^ the exeTutSi LXrChariefv^T'T?^ brother-in-law to the M^IaiJ ■ ■ ' ., Danish monarch, nothing loth Thf i;t nn-"?''''°^ ^\*-^ .*^^^^« promptitude and cKv The new opinions m religion therefore became more accent * aWe than might otherwise have been the casTto eSd and Ignorant multitudes, assured by their mfty La£ that ijesistance against oppression would be 3red 8^ a W J V'T^l °^^^^^y- There appeared, Ireov"; ahero at hand, ready to prove what was asserted bvS ojrn irresistible sword! Gustavus Vasa was thf^eat-ne tohew of Canuteson, and therefore nearly relatef to thp late administrator,, for the second Steen 4ire had a read ' SX wr'nTsfethT^.P^^^^^ ""^ T *^^' -est oTth{ ^puiar wave. His father had been murdered on the scaf- Da1icariia''Tt'^fiir'V' '^' "^^°«« ^^^ mountains of ijaiecarlia. At first working as a common labourer with ^nk'To7rhp?r?TT^\" ^^^^"^"3^ disclSed iis the agency for effecting its purposL- led thp^fLS ll against the governor of the ffnctwhom wS/S^^^^^ baZedirbr' "^*^-'--y ^ - tTatrhavinl tS w^ fi J -n ^T '° Srore, retreat from cheir entlrprise ?f X n-^ f' ir^ !f ^"^ ^^f «^«^y ^^^'^ to conquror "f; .-^^FOit foUowed on exploit; Gustavus fonnr>.^,^ OH. XTIII.] MODERN HISTORY. ^ waTdlC^lfpi^^^^^ ^' '\'''^- '' Stockholm re- was the reXtSn £t f. '' achievements. So general 1. *«voiuwon, that it crossed immp<1iofi»i« ♦^ 7i was the revolutinn tCf ;* ~"'>=; cinema, iso general i.„^„« " revolution, that It crossed immediately to bopen- deposed from the thrones of both his UHrIa. t\ia n„T, J? TT_i , . -. — ™« *cYuiuuon, tnai SarS'N^?' aeposed from the thro'nes of toth and^XsW b2riLV-"\'^ '^^^"^« of Holstein But fnn S J ^ ^^^^^ ^ ^^ Stead, as Frederick I KSS.OIB fen into the co&r, of tCiSkto^ S'^'"'; whole, so recffess wtrtf *''"■ T"*'^' •"■* "P°" 'he the pliader thit r,TJ^- PT™*"""' ""<■ ™ Waced dab'^Zy b'wwhh™; '■""'"'f ^n-o-strnted at the scan- *00 MODERN HISTORY. fx.D. 1663-1689. of the now resistless aristocracy; those who loved their rehg^on emigrated to the Netherl^ds or expired Zrison^ LTn'°7"^TT Je ^° '°' °" «"^^«"^« a/heretioal co": 8eHn"*„JJTi, f^ oppression cease until reaction had set m; and thi-ough another revolution the crown of Den- Ch^tf r m ^r.^°"^ °{*^« "'^^^ absolute r Enrols Christiern III. had been obliged to renounce the riZ of elevating citizens to the rank of nobles. The lattef thus united in number, fancied that their monopoly wovSd keep them more securely at the helm of affairs; in which their nl^tT ^^«";«,*«J«d itself. Even the diets went out ^ use from A.D. 1536 to a.d. 1660. The Norwegian pi-o- vjnces were umted with the Danish sceptre in a.d 16§2^ by fo&\*rt; "*"^ ^^*'^-^^" ^- ^^ -*-dS oir..?y'^^^J^^i^^^^ ?^^^®d "»*o a »"°»^er of petty prin- cipalities mitd the ninth century, when their geiHrS- pmation occurred ; although little is known of its hiS te/J^^ *^' ^^°" °^^^^> ^•'>- 13977exceTtha1 ^e feudal tenures never appear to have struck root uDon so peculiar a soil. Frederick II., son of Christiern if I Sff'J'l*^?.^^"^' inhabitants if Dithmarsen, a^denti? oweaen, a.d. 1563-70, acqmred Jempteland, Schonen HarjedaJen, HaUand Blecke'ngen, and (Gothland, fn reS for a resignation of aU pretensions on the pk of his SU%i;^'* the representatives of GusLus W tiem W l^r^A^-^^^' ""^'^ ^' «"«««««°r' Chris: tiem IV., developed mto a source of no inconsiderable CC*^^ Tf u' ^^*°™^ °^ *^« Swedish genTrSs versed the whole scene. Denmark Had dared to provoke her ancient nval, for which the penalty paid wSboth prompt and pemanent. All that had^een glhed at r^T" Ti^H^.^y *^.' ^«^*y of Bromsebrae, aTi645 confirmed Vv the subsequent pacification of Westphalia' wrth the a/ditions of Bremen^and Verden: irwasfrom dtUr r^ •*?'* ^"'^''^ culminated and DenmS declmed. Christiem, however, laid the blame on his fac- tious and overbearmg nobility, a charge so universally ac- CM. Tcvrii.] MODERN HISTORY. 401 knowledtfed, that his son Frederick III., with the full con- sent of his subjects, changed his elective and precarious authority into an absolute prerogative, to be thencefor- ward for ever hereditary in his tamily, a.d. 1660. The realm mig-ht then have recovered its ascendency in the Baltic, had it not been for the dispute between the royal and ducal Imes of Holstein-Gottorp. The founder of the last was Adolphus, the younger son of Frederick I., who received from his elder brother, a.d. 1544, half of Sleswick and Holstein, holding the one as a fief of Denmark, and the other as belonging to the German empire. It was attemoted, at the arrangement of Roschild, to abrogate the allegiance of Sleswick; but without any advantageous results, smce for thirty years, a.d. 1659-89, neither the peace of Copenhagen, nor the contract of Rendsburg, nor the treaties of Fontainebleau and Altona, could terminate the paltry contention. It was natural, under the circum- stances, that the dukes of Holstein should act with Swe- den, through their jealousy and abhorrence of Danish supremacy. One of them married Hedwiga Sophia, elder sister of Charles XII. ; their son, Chai'les Frederick, be- ^me the husband of Anne Petrowna, eldest daughter to Peter the Great ; and the issue of this imperial alliance, Charles Peter Ulric, as the adopted nephew of the Em- press Elizabeth, succeeded her on the Russian throne, under the title of Peter III., consort to Catharine II. At length the ancient claims of Holstein-Gottoip were ad- justed by the exchange of Oldenbourg and Delmenhorst, of which the former was conferred as a duchy on the younger branch of the family resident at Eutin, and ad- mmistering the secularised bishopric of Lubeck. Including Holstem in its integrity, as at present arranged, the popu- lation of Denmark may be taken as about equal to that of Scotland ; its i-evenues of 1,500,000/. steriing are encum- bered with a debt of less than 4,000,000/., with a territory of rather more than 20,000 square miles, exclusive of Nor- way. Hence, notwithstanding its colonies in the east and west,— its 40,000 troops and twenty ships of the line, con stitutmg its naval and militaiy forces, could never be kept m activity, even during: a few camoaifims- without sub- D 1/ 409 MODBBN HISTORY. - (A.D. 1644-1817. of importanos after Jwe and K7 ff"," ""^ °™" counternflvt nf t^^^ i- fP"''"»^ innovation was the very peopfe int^be^ornSeenarvlL^^^^^ mission of mS; .W h hk 1 I' ^T'^^ ?'*«'• *^^« '^°«- ble% apnlre^^^^^^ Z T,?^ their positions, were asseiS that the Confession nf /i\,Zl ^°"°"7 ^^ey had visited: delusion: thaUheL^^ a quicksand and a Apostolii beinf If 1.T ^"''^' was alone Catholic and pobwiic, Demg, as he now saw, confirmed by the Scrip- CH. XVni.J HODEltN HISTORY. 4O8 rS„ m' "!™'V*to°«s- Nevertheless, until s Z I, of A elders'rSf5 ''■' Kr "'■' ?"'' r™«d tte eleS land A „ IM?' F-^ "''' ? 'l'" '•'"J^eptro ofPo- -,.i„„y=„2tL:e\\''^?i*ttd^ thSiiTii tuid oSn^ ^'l^drT- ''7- fl?Zf ? f* P°f «»" »*■ "« ''i"eiyme Providence, upon the prudence, courage, or spirit which he might manifest. Nor had the world long to lait before these qualities were tested. Denmark, Poland, and Russia fell upon him immediately. The Danish sovereigns had not only introduced their autocratic constitution into iNoiway, but liad undertaken a vaiiety of arbiti-ai-y ajr- gressions against the subiects of HolRt«in.ni«**^,^ ^ tL 406 MODERN HISTORY. Fa D Iflfl? 1710 his youthfiil and poSy Wfi, ' ^^^"^Jy espoused by ' left the metropoirof his Wdo'^-^^^M ^^^^«« ^ff never to return to it. Untitft "! ^Y ^•^- ^^00, mantime states, he attacked ?L.j ^^^* T*^ *'^«t of the dictating, at TrWLdaW th« . ^ H^'' ^^'^^ a°d land- Jtored tie Duke of Ho l efn tT^J "^ ^^''^^ty^ ^l^'W hw rights as settled «r A ?. *^® P^^^*^* enjoyment of parched against Petefti^eP^'f ^•"•- ^^^^' »« ^^en Narva with^ight tCsand SvvXV''-"'°^.*?« ^^^to'T o? Russians. Never was a Jriurlh i^n^''"'' 'f^'^y *^^0"s«nd »te genuine lessons were leaS T ^rP^^tej although than the victors. Sad ofTii'"^*^'[-^^ *^^« vanquishfd regard to the Czar°he Dress?dT'°^ 5^' advantages w ?h on the banks of the DuC tS™^, *° %j^t tie Poles seemed to augment tJ^LcSdJX?'f^\ ^^'^""^ Jfoops of Augustus, afte^a severe i '''*'"? *^'S^^o» Courland as well as Livonia In? ''''°°' ^« overran Lithuania into Poland. E L^i^ ,PTt'"?*ed through mdependent vitality of ite own .-f ^«^ ^e^ther will nor veiled beneath their prefens^" "l'^^*"'"^ aristocracy exclusive selfishness. ^SS ent^. fw^*^''" ^^^ "^o^t Mg the election of ano£ mon.lr^ f^^^^ demand- sent one, Augustus ElectiyQ ^' '"'*^"^ o^" their pre- triumph of (Csow b^;;*^; on t^r^- ^^'« ««°^ina7y apd the enthronement of ItanisW ? /r'?''^,?^ ^'^^o^. " Posen, A.D. 1702-4. ThVv"c orv n^T'^'^^'.^^^^ode of the capture of l^mbergT She If '^"''*^* "*™« «^"ter onward, through Silesia in?n ^ ''''^^"erors rushed still electomte unde^ conSbut on P^J' T^ {^^ ^nti," confirming the election omanisllTlV'''^?' «"«»ed, army w nter-quarters, and S^"!^^*'?^- ti^« Swedish J«d malio^t i ^ ^^^ «nd grotitv^^^ basest revenge patriotic Patkul Ti,;? "»'"'e, by the surrender of tL Bftutioa; his ha»d M„ff"ir„ff • "iT J^i^™™ con. MODERN HISTORY. 407 CH. xrrii.] ?nnni^° f°d .Warsaw, he had c.cited Augustus to venture upon hostiht.es. From Poland he l.ad liSstened into Rus- ^rfrZ'^^ 'T"i- --''P^* non^iiiated him ambassador- extraordinary for the manag-ement of the Muscovite and »axon alhance. Aug-ustus now meanly handed him over !!„ -f ^"«i?y' cont/aiy to every rule of justice and hu- Z n/' ^fl t'^'' ^"'^^^ ^™ ^^'^^ °" t^'« ^^heel, after thepeaceof Altranstadt, A.D. 1706 The career of Chai'les XIT. was that of a meteor. His competitor Peter had a plan in his head for the present and future. He had already conquered Ingria, founded fri'nfo ^"'"'/f "P'^^J"^* of I^'vonia, and learned to improve upon defeats. Mazeppa, on the other hand, a ^.g7tive Hetman of the Cossack's, allured tlie rash hero of xvinl" 'T * ^?2'P''. ?*" *''^ Uki-aine; where the terrible winter of ad. 1709, with the subsequent battle of Pultowa in June of the same rear, dissolved the fabric of Swedish domination over the North, like the spectre of the Brocken. iL!*k ^' ''""^'^ "^^^'* ^T^ ^««" permanently sustained, since there were no internal resources upon a sufficient scale !L!^ /'^^'■""1,*=8^^'?'^''^'"^°*- Charles, at Bender, de- scended from the regions of reason towards those of ro- mance; nor had his abilities ever involved more than the Sf ° W^'P'r*'°"f £f « ^«ry impetuous and fortunate Sn«; J^ ^- ""=f ^"'^^y •"*« disastrous hostilities Sn^iJ^'f P""!iP''' ^".*«^«"'st- Stanislaus meanwhile withdrew from the position which he could no longer self at S m|s«nd, on his return from Turkey in Novem- ^^th : : ^V^.)«/<^ o* commiseration somewhat allied in .v^?;^™^^ Sweden had been shorn of her conquests Ind P^ L^H •'Z'"?"^^'^' moreover, to coin base money, wid enhst lads into her armies not sixteen veai-s of a/e When the Czar wanted to seize Mecklenbui^-, offering to nn.!^'^^;*' *^"^'' ^" ^^^°"'^ ""'i Courland, Germany once more f'^'^a moment cast her glanee upon Charles XII^ foi unfHn;. R "^"^ A^^^'T ««»<^eived a notable scheme ioi uniting Russia and Sweden, with the approval of the sZ"^ T!°'! Cfreat Britain, for the rest!)ration of the OtUartS : but if. vomcViar] iy,*^ „:- a j. r? 1 . 1 . „ . ' - — — -. ..tt-o air. AL i?reaencK5taii, m 4dd ^^ ^ MODERN HISTOHY. fx.D. 1718-71. from the Swedish, rathrtfin tL N^ ' apparently shot treaties of Stockholm anj l^Zldf E.'^'f^ ''^^' The A.D. 1719-21. Bremen flnHT!r ^°"o^«d in due course, as the price of hS electoi at^ o?w'" ""''« ^^^^'^ *° George I Stettin, Usedom, and wXn C f *^' ^^«°«' ^^^^ den Wismar, Stralsund, Ru°;n aTuf TT^'^ S^^" m return, consented to mrtnS f^'?^°c!^^ ^«* she, m,000 doUars down be^fJes il '• -^^^ ®°""d> ^^t^ Denmark to that share' oSL-TP'"'''^ *^« "g-hts of ^ tJie house of Got?o?p? iSuflT r^^ Y'^^^ *° kin^ of Poland; StaSislat Snini' ^r ^'^^^'^S^d receiving 1,000,000 dollars for i^I^ *he -regal title, and • rr^dfeg.ally^hatsheileadv'^T'*' ^-"^^^^ ««" force; namely, Livonia Esthn^ t ^ ?°* P^^'^^^^O'^ of by part ofWiboVrg, ar'all thrSJy t'"^^"^^^^^^ ^^h ajJtual boundaries of Com^ and th« . •^'^ *^«°ce to the also confen-ed upon W Sf; /^® *"V°^Pbant Czar had Great and Em X l^rica pf^f ^'*^°°^ °^ ^«t«^ th" Charles, with C consort Z v. J^^ ^- °^^^ '^'*«^ ^^ Cassel, succeeded toTeSwedisro,!'*''^ ?^^t ^^ Hesse ohgarchical constitution waTrevivSTk^"* ^^^ «°«^ent the Council of State A ;!!*• ^^^ '" *be ascendency of constituted the chTef ftat^X? WTJ" ^''"^^^ -^^' besides that the throne hS hLf^ "^'^^ Prerogative In A.D 1720 Frederic of HestcSlf'""" ^T '^'''^^'' from the queen of her rovX fn i!- \ J^''®'^®^ « transfer of the a;istocracyrpaSf^^^^^^^^ nephew Chai-les Meric fhe d,,v? /iSr'*f°''°°« °f ber, son of her elder sister Vdtw^^^^^^^ " the once potent i^ealm nf ti, ^ *3opiiia, dei jased. But Vasa, whfch had co^ende^fo^iir"*"^^^^^^^^ Sarmatian, and the SScovfte ~S' ^''^ ^^' ^^°«' ^^e England and HolWhad nu7r . f i! '" ?jy"«ction with LovAsXiV, in the trip e Se ofX W'l^ "^^^'^""^ ^^ u^l^tltrhtnri^^^^^^ under the leaders ^^^^1:^'^::!::^^?:^^ CH. XVUl.] MODERN HISTORY. ' 499 fantastic titles of the Hats and Capsj in principle the former bemgr for war, and the latte? for placer Vut de! generating, m reality, into nothing more than French and Russian factions, perfectly ready°to be pu^chS when, ever a sufficient price was forthcoming for then- seS IheHu^LT" "^"^ ^f^dmded intolhe Night-capTS some Thp^wT' T^"y,^«^°^ mercenary, Ind trouble- SX oTet o^?T,°'l7S'''^ r*^ obtained the ascendency Ss7Ppfl K ^-^f^' ^""^ "^^"^ ^ ^^'- ^^^^ the court Inwl • I^"'?' ^''^^? ^^^^ defenceless country stiU lower m the mire and Eeing themselves snatche7from destiniction only through the^ choice of an occupmit fS their shadowy throne, since it was clear that thlffisian monarch would leave no children. Elizabeth was Slowed to nominate Adolphus Frederic of Holstein-Eutin, of^he younger line of this family, and cousm to the price whom she had appointed her own successor. His coronation dS not take place until a.d. 1751 j yet Sweden, by this ar- knT°'>^..^' '^' P'^« of Ab^, A.D. 1743,'seTured fL S ^^^^ the exception of the small province of Kymen- S^' t w/^'i*^'' V^ ^y«^°*- Thi Seven Years'^War into which the kingdom was drawn by France merelv multiphed Its mortifcations. Adobhus Keric w^su? ceeded by his son Gustavus III., aId. 1771, X eSd" an important revolution at Stokholm in^^e foHowtg year, on an understanding with France ahke beneS iS ^afv^^^'' '"^j^^*^-. ^'^ quick-sightedSs caughl ?i!i T^^^^ opportunity for once raJre rendering the SitrnfT/^ ' '"^^'""''^ ^°^*«^ «f ^ phantom ^The CouncU of State was suppressed, while the old constitu- bm-ghers, and peasants. Gustavus, however, miiht rS ZC^^str T-"J"' "^*^"?'«^- Executive 'pSw'^re also invested m him, as sovereign, without restriction He could appomt to the various o%ces of each ffoveramental department dii-ectly ; yet, nevertheless, any un^Sus opt nion of his counsellors was to be oblgatory norwLX to declare war oflFensively without theirCnsent Swedish Ta^m^rd'h lf"ilr r^^^ '^^ ^ brief inter;airwlt^ at a masked baU, the king was assassinated by Ankar- 410 MODBRN HISTORY. [a.D. 1500-1674. a half aftenvm^d Vbut hTs Wstn^, f^T .^°"f ^'^'^ «"d French Revolution '*°'^ ^^^°^^ ^^^el^ with the German and partly Sclavon.^f ot twofo d descent, partly in their respective ffovJSfT 7^^^^ feudal system had ^^^'5^^,^ ^T^ *^" ^°™«'' the in the west of Eurone hufihfi '" *^/ ''''"^ manner as order, though the nobilitv InH f '^'°' ^°'^^^ ^ ^^P^rate pondemnce In tC^o 7 """"^ ''^^Ji^'y Possessed great pre- sia, on ?he contmr? thrnS'iV"^"? of Poland^and £. relations, XeHi; tol '*^^^'*^°"^ d^«*'°ct fenS inercial classes be foste?e7^sint f^'^'' ""^ ^°"^^ ^^«^- very larg^ towns or cities T^f ^""^ "^"T^ ^""^'^^^y any constitution, therefore ff'thpor ^P^""^"^ elements for a were totally' wanting' When T '"^^ ' .''' ^^'^ ""^^'^ ^^^ niir the Griat, had f ucceedTd ^f rT*^' ^^^ '°° °f Casi- Sarmatian forests were airtdvt » °'^'''' ^•^- ^^^6, the cultivated; so thaT^orn waTJ^.f''"" 'f '°* ^^^^'•ed and But a state of bondage DiLenS?!? ""'^/^l^ ^^P^^ed. progress in the artsTf STl^e !nd rtf -^^^ ^^^'°& sole consolation. Siffismuid InrJ.? ^'F°'' ^^^ *^eii- matters, as did his suSp.?r2- ^"^^'^^o^red to omeliomte of the V»- in aXcte^^^ *^« ^«^ formally incorooratpd w,VT. p i i , ' -^'thuania was ^.B. isfej fZwhichT^i vi?b.^ '' p'.^j^* °^^"WiS^ conquered'at an TaS Sl from 'A ^'^'^'^> ^^ %°^ dered appurtenances of ErussS 1^^^"!' ^f « '^°»si- reguJar form of a Poli.lh r.. • ' ""?? ""^^"^^d into the cu?se ofProtestantisSiJvStL^^"' ^"^^Jj the . tered the seeds of dis^oS irtwt . 1 ''^T' ^°d scat- cinianism, in fact ovP,™aV?i ,^°^^^ So- desa-Hed as an e&veVe;^;Ss1rinr^"^'^''^* ^« government at all It wfl« IfJ involved any real npon a phantom Lverinlov^ra'phlS'^ title conferred canic confiision. WiSiout^.^'^^^ ^^^d of vol- [ OH. xnii.] UODBRN HISTORY. 411 Tr^^^'yJlV ^? ^?J°" ^ Stanislaus Poniatowsky, A.D. 1673-1764, hardly three could be said to : eiffn by an unanunity of choice. The dissidents had five tliousand conventicles, untU the Society of Jesus re-erected the holy standard of faith and unity; nor was it certain at first that ozalranice, a nobleman steeped in heresy, would not be pitched upon to fill the chair of the orthodox Ja-ellons. In the room of Henry, when he absconded to his own countiy, on the decease of his brother, Charles IX. of /prance, the palatines chose Stephen Bathori, Vaivode of Iransylvama, who had espousea Anne Jagellon, sister to the late Sigismund Augustus. Zealous for the only tnie religion, she pei-suaded her consoi-t to adopt it; employing also aU her influence and energies in securing the succes- sion, as they had no family, for her nephew, Sigismund vasa, the crown-prince of Sweden, representing, tliroug-h lus mother, her own royal house. But the contest thence ansmg with regard to the Swedish inheritance; the tumults and disorders attendant upon the national diets, whei-e political power and office were almost openly exposed to sale; the mtrigues of ministers respectively bribed to pro- mote the objects entertained at Moscow, Stockholm, op Copenhagen,— shook to pieces every foundation of society, throughout the stormy reigns of the third Sigismund, the fourth Uladislaus, John Casimir Vasa, and Michael Vies- novitzky. The last but one ended his days in a convent at I'aris; and Michael, unable to resist the Cossacks or with- stand the Turks, felt ignominiously compelled to pi-omise those enemies of Christendom an annual subsidy o^ twenty- two thousand ducats! a.d. 1672. It was Protestantism that sapped the national marrow of Poland; destined, as It seemed, by so many circumstances to have otheiwise presented an impenetrable bai-iier and bulwark against Ottoman aggression. Even as it was. Jolin Sobieski de- feated the Moslem at Chozim. Elected to the throne on the death of Michael, a.d. 1674, he wiped away the scan- da ot the last peace, which had rendered his oountiT a tributary to the infidel. His noble attachment to CotL- Iicity drew down upon him the benediction of the Al- mighty. Hardened at an early age into a gallant soldier 412 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1674-1787 perLpsscaicelvbeexZVo^f if^ improvements could attention to a plr^^^^^^^^^^^^^ native kingdom particmaffin Wlorv\».^^'-^u^ ^« transitory, sprini^nff but from hl^ ^' *^® ""^^^^^^ ^^^e character. The refipf nf v- ^\ P^^'^onal talents and lustre upon hi name A n]Iirf>,^'\'^^ ^" ™«^ort^ see the WminatfoTof the^f^' *^r^^ ^^« ^'^ not live to rather than Poland, extracfce?^? ' from which Russia, On his decease!in aTimr a ""^'^ '"^^^ advantages Saxony, obtain^ a maioritv^f K"' "'' ^^''''^ ^^ governing, or attemDti!.i+n^ of suffrages m the diet: and extra^a^nce low^^ 1 5^' *^' l^'"^«°*« ^^ ^haos 1733, and aEng for thl ;nf! '^°'' °^^"' ^'*« ^^ ^•^. Stanislaus l^sci^slyrJ^^foTrii,'^^^^^ '^ J^ultowa the czars exertPd « VJl •' *^^®I *^« ^at^l^ of which no effbzrcoulTresisT^^^^^^^ f ^^^^d m a country where as Vn& I ^^^7 *^ ^^ made slaves, and t^e SessemlZ-'T'^'' tie people wei-e where there was no Sv.?''^*'' *° *^« f^^<^ bidder; where laws were wltWw^ *° '"?11°^ » '"egT^lar army nothing but Snslins .^n '"' T ^^^^^^^ Productive^of were a^hundt'trid^rnTrdlaTd^^ dual, as we mav adH « t.,,„ i. t, ^"•^^^>— each mdivi- The death o?AuS^^^ °° horseback, demonstrated the^xhausin nf a *^'^ ^^°f*^'^^*'^« ^hich peace of Vienna^ made a T 178^"'*??' ""^^ t««^ '" ^^e acquii^d the Sicilies, iLtiithersh^^^^^ thereby Spain: on which Pvpnf li •'^- "'" °^ exchanged for h£ third ZfeSnd^TT^ "' ^^/^'^ ^° ^-^ ^759, became an ichShTfor pti° 'T'? ¥°^- T»s«W Theresa, and rJ^^U ' j[^''^'^*^^^V«tand of Maria wards. The duchTof pff^ ^^ '°, *^®^^ ^»«ily after- Emperor Charles Vl C^ T' *^'? a^sig-ne/to X appendages, fel to Don PM,r^''^"'°^^^^ ^'*^ adjacent rfourbons. ' Ti^e poMcv of^^^^^^^ f younger bianch if the Loiraine being seOfor£"^^ u"7 ^^ ^'^al'sed in lans Leczinsk^, X if tf^old^>V^rHl« ''^■»*«'^^«- title. Augus^^IILoTt^in^ed'^^^-^^^^^^^^ / OH. XVIII.] MODERN HISTORY. 413 the horrible demoralisation proceeded from bad to worsa which hir father the late sovereign, whatever mShS been his political merits or demerits, had at Xevente sanctioned by the profligacy of his pei^onal example * X. ^T .^ themselves would fain have elected a skrnnH time the virtuous father-in-law of Louis X^onthe^^^^^ £;'„5'"?^r^^"Jf .*H^ feUow-countTman, as aKS ^eu- admnation of his character; but Hussia settled it t£ other way,~that mighty power at wliich all the worid now began to wonder. Ivan tfasilovitch the Great, who dijfe A.D. 1506, was succeeded by Basilei imtil a.d. 1683 when Ivan Basdovitch II. ascended the throne, and aftemards ZC?"^ wf '?-^"^*^*^%°^^^^^- His aspiration seTveVy strongly in the direction of the Baltic, as was shown bv £ invasion of Livonia and Esthonia, a.d! 1660. Sse coun! taes and particularly the former with some neighruT; terntoiies became m the north what Mila^ wis in^f They had been m the thirteenth century amonffsf the d« Wencies of the Teutonic order; but i^a bTsJ, tht Heermeister Walter von Plettenberg purchased his freedom and was ra sed to the rank of a pr&ce of Se GermS em^ pire. MaJcmg use of the Lutherii heresy to serve H^pS- poses, he subjugated the city and archbishopric of R?^, rendering himself absolute lord of his domiis, by t?e most approved methods of that day, amongst which the gmcipal one was ecclesiastical rapine. Hisfeprl^ntat be at the tmie of the Muscovite invasion was Gotthard Ket- h7^^ ''?°'"' ^^' *f '""*' «^^^°°^ h^ t,een shed, «^ arrangement ensued on the part of Poland, by which Coi^ fend and Semigallia were ceded to him 'as^m hered^Zr duchy under Polish protection; Livonia itself was nnS PoI,and and Esthonia, with Revel, to Sweden. It was in vain that Russia, then struggled for five-and-twenty yeai-s to obtain a harbour on the coast. The duchy of Courland ^7585 1737 ''t7r' ^^f - ^, l^o/«e of KetriJr, A.D. 1588-1737. But Ivan, although disappointed in tha west succeeded betterinthe east, fte conqSS the ?rS Tartanc regions of Casan and AstraMian,' blending Sem permanently with his already vast dommiJns. The noma- 4U MODKR^f HISTORY, [a.d. 1533.] 682. which secured ffls S« i P^'' ""^^ ^^'^''^^ ^>'him, meadows foTplZv^SAt^^''i^^^''''P^' «"d forests He enticed thHa^.V^s wit h^E^Y ^'J'"™' ^'^ *h« "^«" I^plaud; favoured tLRriJu^^^ penetmted into Sea, which llTlnii f "/''^ navigators in the White under Peter the Great 'exteldpT^^^^^^ Pj^"' ^^"^^' China and Jar n S^? "^ *^^ ^"'^"'° frontiers to and KSai Elands t?t^^,,™°''«°^«^ *^« ^^«"^'«"> ^ox, large insular tSS^ of KuikTndTr^ f ^''*^' '^^ America. Attemrrs wit S«5l I ^^ 7^?*^'"" "^'^''^s of was even tlie personal .'ItK- ^V""'''"^^ ^'° imperfect Christie™ III ?f Dpni^'t '^'i f ^,^^ ^°"''*' *h«*t when Ivan ref™ ed V i^ceTvT^ E'"^*^ ^'f ^"^'' ^''*'^ « <'^°^K enchantment va ToH Vr ^'^^ such a piece of iHlieved in one God and wn^ !f ? ^°''°\ sovereioT, who do with the nlaS' mZ f ^'^'^ *° ^^''^ "^t^^^ng to alle n^etroK f^urteenXin"^ ^T '"'° " «°"^'^"- ^'■ith three walk Sdb^^^^^^^ smrounded Kremlin reared itfniSr °^^'^''^°* ^^^^^'^^ The g^deurJnSiiffiJTts oi clnfT ' ^'''''T °^" ''«'-^«"c peri^ palace, wi h Z L« i of towers and spires an im- Sapte? of e^fe^tt' i^ ±^^^^^^ -d his adorned the city, with tC^v^nl! .•i'^'.'ty.five churches it shone upon tliXJv Sided HI? "'""^"^ '^^ ^""' «« pendous bius which stfirhS^^V^\T*'"°8^ '^^°s« stu- to hour, like the mu mui^ o?d sS^^^ S?™ ^'^^ heirs of the hou^e oT^nZ % a ^^ tkmder. The male of Ivan, in a d 1598?^ 1 "^ T ^?^ ^^^^'' ^he son teen yeai" PoinnH ' f ®?' T'*^"* ^^^ confiisions of fif. Plac Jr'the t "ron^^^^^^^^^^ ??P^*"^' ^"^ might Lve III., had not the Sed%Z ^°" of sFgismund rendered a reliea'o rmnni^^ to them. NoSsZnTZlf- °^*^^ *""' ^^'^'^ intolen,hi; sonate Demeti" "/tt r rTt':^ w?'t f^- A.i>. 1618. the great men and nobles of thlTm^ ^Sj CH. XVIII.] HODBRN niSTORT. 416 out tlirough the miseries that prevaUed, passed three days m fasting- and pmjer to decide upon the selection of B master. So rigorously was the orcftnance observed, that mothers refused their milk to sucking infants. Michael Federovitch Romanoff, a grandson on ?he mutenial sSe of mfnk w- ""j- ^«^^T *^« o,^.)«ct of their choice, whose ad- mrms ration of more than thirty years brought back some bnghter prospects of prosperity. His son Snd successor, Alexis, subdued the Cossacks, and was the father of PeS the Great. He was the first czar who had a poSi g^ette translated into the vernacular for his own use, ^d that of his mmistei^. A formal embassy was now sent fiom Moscow to Peking; and Tobolsk was estabSeH a stajJe market for Chinese silk, precious stones, and othS manufactures. H,s reig-n continued as long as that of hS prede'^essor, terminating a.d. 1676. ^ His measures appeared to be at least pledges for better aays. He mti-oduced a regular system of pSsts;eS so many manufactories that his czanna coul J clothe hersetf SZr/^^T' *^"^^] ^^ ?**« ^"^J««*« to «leep in beds mstead of on the pound ; and forbade the consumption^ veal, that more calves might grow up into dairy cows. The laws of the land, as weU as the services of the Greek Churoh were pnnted Some of the troops were initiated i^^ha tactics and discipline of civilised *^Europe. Feodore II Peter the Great was the issue of a later alliance with a lady, whose names were Natalia Naraschkin. After some- changes, on the death of his eldest brother in a.™ 1682 the future founder of St. Petei-sburg was proclaimed sove i-eign m conjunction with Ivan, who was blind and of defi- cient capacity, both princes being placed under the reffencv of their sister Sophia. She, perceiving the talentffffi youngest ward, resolved upon his destiSction, and «d Holds' ^' l'^''}^} ';«%« in the monastery of^e Hdy Trimty, undermined the authority of his a^Utious half-sister, hnally imprisoned her in a convent, and S the decease of Ivan descended for an interval fi-om his tW for the pm-poses of travel and general improvement HiJ real reign xnay therefore be dated from L ™t«™ wf *^^ MODBBN BISTORT. lA.tt. l700-26. A.D. 1700. Aroph bad been already captured ; the annual revenues were 2^,000,000 of livres, which he quadrupled in amount before his death. The emblem whicli he chose for mmselt— an unfinished statue growing out of a marble rock— seoms extremely appropriate. Every amelioration appeared to depend upon his own personal exertion^;. He was often present in his courts of justice, and attended the dehberations of the senato. Incessant tours of inspection made him famihar with his most distant provinces. The (ireek ecclesiastics being wrapt in barbarism, he ventui-ed to abolish the patriarchate, and combine in himself a spiri- tual as well as a temporal supremacy. He sang at the altar as an archjishop of bishops; transferring the govern- ment of the Church to a holy sync-" appointed by Kimself, and the mere instrument of his will. The guard o/strelitze^ was extinguished end a code of military regulations settled. Ibe rank of an officer conferred a title of nobihty, while a grandee, who had learned nothing, was deprived of his ^de. every individual serving in any office of the first «ght classes bemg considered upon an equality with the most ancient magnates. The c;,ar then took a census. TlTnnn'^'^i ""*^T*?* «o°t?in 571 cities, 44,000 towns, ard 716,000 villages Upwards of 5,000,000 paid the capitktion tax, exclusive of a quarter of a million engaged fo/ govem- m«it by land or water,-the civil and temporal officials, Md proprietors acraaUy possessing land in their own riffht! Buch Btatements, however, must be taken for what thev were really worth. There are only six cities at the pre- Wnt moment possessmga population over 50,000, even in- dudmg Warsaw, the capital of Poland, throughout the mhre Muscovite empn;e : towns must ie undei-stood as wasting on a very humble scale indeed; and villages may Jtand for -sn-etched hamlets of two or three mud or woodeh hovels, with a square hole cut out in each wall, as an apo- logy for door or window. Pigs in England are probably S.f?i D ?^ ^l "^T seven-eighths o? the obedient sub- jects of Peter the Great; and from there being no public opimon among so i-ude and ignorant a people, even their reiormation m its earlier stages, wore the semblance of an unproved oidture rather than any deeply-rooted civilisation. en. XVm.j MODERN HISTORY. 4^7 th^C7«^ Sweden bi-ouapht him at last to the mouths of the Neva a prize which aCove all thinirs he wished to oh and vitality to his fi'ozen wildernesses. In the course o^ twenty summers he had the satisfaction of seeW Kar bou,^ visited annually by 1200 vessels ; no wa L manne' ^ than forty ships o/the line, besides fingates and 200 sSv v^ nTnZ-n '^'' "" '"^^'^"^y of ordnance, although scarcely yet of artillerymen and j^ood sailors. ^ Mnifi )f t ^^''} "''^'^ of Russia he endeavoured to TJ,l^'' 7'^T "^"^"^'«' «« as to open a reSr water! SS"lT.'%r A " ''"P'^"' 4 ?"™ "*"« Whit" ti^L ! f^' .^ Armenians and Grusines were in. ^and^^of l^W l' "^''l*^«? ^^'^ persecuted t^%he thT^ln ■ ^f^^> cultivating on those alluvial soils L tbTd '"f 1"^ '^T' ^^""^ "^can^e sources of weaUh Lii ^y «^«'lks and grapes; not to mention theirhW breeds of^sheep and inexhaustible fisheries. His factories soon included nearly 200,000 artisans, insti-uXd in the principles of a division of labour. The who e aS iideeH E, n7'*- '!' develop ug into higher and more attm^fve etTwherSded'^^^ ?^^^ °?^""*« barbarism sim ETe Jenemtor S„ T "P''" observation; and when KUB regenerator ot an enormous ae-greo-ation of lfmo.H,.«,o "Fomar^f^SJtw"'^ ^^f- ^°*^T: u^'^* ^^« niotto was' tn l^r^^f^' .u -^y^V ^°^ ^^^'''i reason he annexed Lc^ssor Catt;i^^\*- "' ''' ^^^T ^^^^^^^ nominate the successor. Cathanne, his consort, had preserved hi^ lifa TnTth^L f.l -^'^- .^^' ^ay^ seem to havi been cut short throngbj,he immoderate use of strong Iiq„ors The male line of Romanoff became extinct withinThre; vear^ afterwards, on the decease of Peter IT «nn l^ tf ' i ^ Czarowi>/.li Ti,« ^"-ca^o VI xeier ii., son to the late MenCfiff W ^^^S^T'^ys had supplanted Prince — '*■ ''^^"""t:ii HOW came uiio power. E E r » *^8 MODBRir HISTORY. [a.d. 1730-74. Bometimos entitled the Eugene of the North, fi-om bis jtones over Poland and ?he Turks; but the 'red object of imperial prefei^nce was Jolm Ei-nest of Biren, wC Anna wantecTto make duke of Courland on the exnjy oS femdy of Kettier, in the pi^on of Ferdinand its Hit- sentative, even before h/s death in a.d. 1737. ShXd nn elder sister Catharine, married to the Duke of Mecklen- burg whose only daughter Anne she brought to court Ind Si ° '^"'•''? ^k^ of Brunswick-fevem or Wolt? enbutte.; nominating al.o their issue, the infant Ivan, to the Russian diadem. On the decease of the empress, liow" ever, a revolu ion set all this aside, conferring the crown upon Ehzabeth, dauo-hter to Peter'the Great," a.d? iVTo She admimsteied atfairs for one-and-twenty years; ^e ^^TaT'I ^'^\' T?' ^^""^ «*■ M"""ich also : a sui^eTn named Lestoq, had been the main a^ent in these chanS Ivan was consigned to a dungeon, Tiis mother to an eaWv aibena. Courland, to which the favourite of Anna had been at last elected, henceforward became to all intents and purposes a part of the Muscovite empire, absorbinTns £ kt^^'^i^'T''}' '^r''' ^"^^^^ provinces"°from SL frontiers of Fmland to the Dwinu. After Peter III had succeeded his aunt i: izabeth, and beeh Limself deposed by intriirnf °^^'« *«'-'^J« P«»-tner the second Catherine, al int. gtie of more than .mlmary atroaty and infamy gut rid ofthe innocent Ivan. He was murcle,4d at midnight, ^.d nnwl- ^^?^«""^ onginaly a rrincess of Anhalf /.^rbst now reign, a as the imperial crim.aal of the eighteentii cen- fr 'lir r *u^''^"*^"?P''''"''y^°^"^«^fri^»d and accomplice P^?T^I'- ?f ,.P'"f«« Frederick. Greek schism 'an^ Protestant infidelity thiw a pall of darkness over the Ca- KE R ■^■"^^'''iP'u^*!'*' "^^°«^ the partition of l^inW ' ?,'' ^^"/°««Ph had sufficiently imbiCed the phi- ^ophy of his fellow-conspimtors to turn a deaf ear to- wards every maternal remonstmnce, the czarina, meanwhile. Pi-oduced marvellous ettects upon the material condition of ler own subjects. Th. plans ofthe mighty emnerwC degenerate grandson had placed her inWforefuost ,^Tf CM. xvni.] KODKnN nisTonr. 419 Eiironean sovereigns, were all carried out : vaccination wns inti-mluced ; surgery and general science were extensively cultivated; chambere of commerce, the extension of naviga- tion, tlie nrosecution of geographical discovery, the promo- tion of colonisation, tmde, and agricultiu-e, engaged in tiieir turns her attention and zeal; hospitals, schools, and colleges were founded in judicious localities, and more than 200 cities erected in different regions of the empire. The Crimea was wrenched from Turkey ; the Cossack rebellion of Pu- gatscherd was quenched in blood; the peace of Kainardjee, A.D. 1774, gave Russia the ascendency in the Black ^ea ; so that within nine years the old Tauric Chersonnesus and the Cuban were formally occupied, as a prelude to the an- ticipations of Taganrog, Sebastopol, a triumphant navy in the Euxine, Constantinople, and the rovivol of a Greek em- pire. It was at this crisis that her son Paul, as hereditary Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, resigned that piincipality, with all his pretensions to Sieswick, in favour of the royaf family of Denmark; Olden) - and Delmenhorst, the cradle of those houses tir ^^ovoj iing from Holland to China, Leing foi-med into a .ex man duchy, and ceded to Frederick Au- gustus, of ! iie younger Gottorp line, one of whose princes had acquired the kingdom of Sweden. The rinal calamities of Poland may be said to have commenced with the election of Stanislaus Poniatowsky, on thy decease of Augustus III., a.d. 1763. Had Ca- tholicity been left undisturbed, as it ought to have been, the gnmd catastrophe might, in all probability, have been avoided. But the dissidents threw themselves at once into the hands of Russia; the Prussian monarch v.iitiug for his share of the fruit, when it should be ready to drop from the tree. The iirst partition was in a.d 1772. The czarina helped herself to the most valuable portions of Lithuania, and the vaivodeships of Minsk, Vitepsk, and Micelaff, or Miceslaf. Frederick seized upon the whole of Polish Pi-ussia, with the district of the Netz ; so as to render his territories continuous from Glatz to Memel, includino- the fertile districts of Culm, Elbing, and Marienbourg, with the cathedral of Wermeland, possessing an annual income of 300,000 dollars, and the onlv navig-able moutlis nf ths MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1772-98. 420 torted from TuXv shVin ^^^f"^' subsequently ex- duke with a:hr«itrpri'L?:fEs f T-'^i'I holder, Mnt the Itter a^yYo*!'™ 11^,'t' '*, were beate„ by tin, JZZ^Z £^^ S ^TT tjon, restored matters to then. fZierLSm 1,1 /^°" e.gned o. the b»k. „f th. K^Z,'^^^!^ OH. xvin.] MODEBN HISTORY. 421 1790. Poland was reserved for fresh Lamiliations and misenes; what still remained of her seemed only to in- vite further spoliations. The important blow had been given to those maxims and compacts upon which the Balance oi power among co-existent states had been {gra- dually and laboriously established. Not merely had their relation to each other altered, but the relation of rulers to their subjects was changed: people had begun to look upon those who professed to govern them as robbers of tbeir rights ; relymg upon mihtary force for treating their teliow-creatures just as so many flocks of sheep or hei-ds ot oxen, and their native countries as so many square miles of land, to be sold or exchanged like the divdions ot a private property. Sometimes they imagined that hvpocrisy was being manifested towards them, in the way ot ottering or imposing constitutions, as the ingenioug marks ot selfish designs ; insult being thereby heaped upon mjury. Few there were who perceived that Austria, Prussia, and Eussia established and sanctioned the very piinciples against which they were about to protest, m their interference with the French Revolution. These im- penal and royal powers repeated their poHtical enormity a second time, a.d. 1793; and, as is well known, a third partition treaty followed, amidst the groans of Eui-ope, and the execiations in particular of Great Britain; perpetrat- ing, as she did then, and has often done since, precisely the same atrocities, away from the observation of Chris- tendom, m her oriental hemisphere. The eloquence of Jidmund Burke and the patriotism of Kosciusko alike interested mankind. The last king of Poland received a pension for his submissiveness, which he expended fii-st at (xrodno, under sujpervision, but latterly at St. Petersburg, where he peacefully expired on the 12th of Februaiy, a.d. 1798. In the same city the Duke Peter de Biren, re- presentative of Ernest, the favourite of Anna, renounced his feudal sovereignty over Courland, conceding it in fee, tor a pecuniary equivalent, to the omnivorous Russia. Her shai-e of the Polish prize throughout was always more than that of her colleagues and accomplices. But none c-ouiu or can predicate what the uitimaie coxifequeiic§8 m MODERN HlStOHT. [a.U. 1789-90. are to prove of annihilating an intermediate kingdom, which kept apart those grand despotisms, perhaps destined by then- hiture union to affect the whole pohtical system of the world ; one of them forming the sti-ength of the trreek schism, and another combining every shade of Pro- testant latitudinarianism and profligacy, from the deistical dreamera at Berlin to the visionary Muckers of Kcenings- CHAPTER XIX. A.D. 1789-97. THE J-KBKCH BBVOLCTION: ITS CAUSES, CABBBB, JkVD CONSEQDEKCES. The various causes of the French Revolution may be ar- ranged under the four heads of Protestantism developed into mfadehty, the enormous profligacy in morals conse- quent upon the corruption or loss of faith, the maintenance ^mnumerable abuses, and the financial embarrassments ot goverament. It cannot be denied that the ecclesiastical revolt ot the sixteenth century derived its essence fi-om apnnciple of resistance to authority; the principle being" based upon an imagined right of private judgment as to what ought or ought not to be believed : in other words allegiance to that oi;ganisation of spiritual supremacy or- damed by Almighty God was scattered to the winds. Men were to be popes to themselves in matters of faith; and if 60, why not in politics and momls? The last, moreover, tound abundance of tempters and allies within and without- every human heart had only to enthrone its own pride listen to Its own passions, and revel in the material and intellectual sensualism of an over-refined civilisation ; hence all conceivable impurities and abominations effei-vesced into a tataliy attractive existence throughout the metropolis and tHe capitals of the provinces. The ministry was ruled by mistresses from the regency of the Duke of Orieans to the decease of Louis XV.; the noblesse and opulent merchants caught and spread the infection; the sanctity of man-iaee tteltea away irom the hAart.ba anA Vinmao r.f a^^iu^ -.i.n^ CH. XIX.] VODBltir HISTORY. 4^3 jftjTt^"'' places, literature, and the press teemed mth the fearfol contagion. Gaming, extravagance frivoHtv Sl;tl?o/Z? ^T ^'"" '''^' ^'*'^°"t promoting the interests of trade and commerce, or alleviating the miseries of the poor. The short harvests of an inclfment season also aggravated general discontent, without doubt- but deep^seeds of mjchief lay imbedded in the foundations and framework of society. The kingdom of Fi-ance hS f£^"T^r\?: ^^* °^^?^^°« °f abuses. L arist^ S' ^^^ ^*^ * P^°P'y °f privileges, without the prestige of ancient associations, crushed^down the lower ■ ^!1 ^plying in numbers, as these were, under their -^rS-^i p!!n^ r''- P««P°««n» reigned rampant -^.P all, the Bastile frowned at personal ireedom, with 3 i^^T' ""W^'^ ^?*° ™y^^*^« "^^'^ than 'there .eally were, through t&e combined influence of mysterious tyranny and popular misrepresentation. None but the nobles could hol^ high office in the armv, navy! 01 state! The dignified clergy ^ad grown careless, !ax, and woildlv- vnLl P mK'?°^*V®^^""'' ^^'^^^^^ universal animaa' wS n ^r^''^^ ^r""^^ ^^^ ««"»•*' permitting de- bauchery blasphemy, and false philosophy to insult the Church with impunity. Halls of justice no longer answered to their name; negligence, dishonesty, ani prodigality seemed predominant throughout the entire social economy. i?r!l'"'i "^^r^l*?/""''"^® an intolemble cui-se upon ?,\W' the children of toil and labour had to bear llfoo 1 !}'' ''''*^°"* ^Ty'^'S *^« protection for which those burdens were professedly to pay. Imposts upon salt tobacco and posts producecf three' bandied millions of irancs, farmed out to the rapacity of financiei-s, who thus diminish the scale of wages and raise the price of mer- t;J? f-' A"t.'*^^\"'?7 ^^ ^°'''»ed as to the criel inequality with which the 9»i^/r^ incided upon certain rural districts, When we find that some paid on a quintal of salt only trom eight to nine francs; others from sixteen to twenty- hve; and others, again, the atrocious dutv of ^iriv.td. iiVT«j: tha variatioM ppon cue of tho ne^essaiies "of "life 404 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1774-89. thus ranging from 100 to neai'ly 800 per cent ! Smuggling naturally convulsed every department of the excise, with all its attendant consequences of fraud, perjury, ferocioiis contests between the collectors and the peasants, and a state of feeling somewhat akin to a kind of civil war against government. The sei»Tiorial services exacted by propnetor? from their tenants, with the horrors of the game and forest laws, produced extensive calamity and depression of agri- cultm-e. Paris absorbed the wealth of the provinces, pay- ing at the same time an income into the royal treasury eighty millions more, as Neckar remarks, than the joint revenues of the Swedish, Danish, and Sardinian crowns. It plagued the shopkeeper, however, far more than the gentry, involving a series of abuses quite sufficient to have entangled of itself any urban commimity in confusion. Meanwhile, distress and deficiencies hovered ai-ound the national exchequer. The late Amexican war had cost France such an amount of mone^ that extrication appeared impossible : recourse was had either to loans, which aug- mented the necessities of the state through their increasing dividends; or to additional imposts, which, following the unequal distribution of those already in existence, only helped to render the disproportion ofpecimiary levies more and more intolerable : tne argosy of the state threatened to strand and go to pieces upon the shoals of her financial embarrassment. Every thing portended some mighfrjr change at hand : just as before an earthquake, or a hurricane, animate aad inanimate nature seem to sympathise with the impending catastrophe. Dreamers dreamt, and narrated their terrific visions; Cazot predicated, after, a banquet, the frightfiil destinies of those with whom he had but just dined. The old Egyptians, as is well known, introduced the head of a skeleton at their festivals ; and it was now as though the teeth chattered in the jaws of the symbol of death ! The general riot, however, of voluptuousness rolled and rattled on as usual. The harp and the viol sounded as gaily as ever in the drawing-rooms of refinement and the sti-eets of the city; admirers of Franklin, Washington, and La Fayette", polished aristocratic profligates, painted com*te- ' ^ I' CH. XIX.] MODEHN HISTORY. 425 sans and grave philosophers, revelled in their conceit and vamtv, m the humiliation of Great Britain, the profimditv and cleverness of Rousseau and Voltaire as the apostles of a golden a^e, and in thedeclineof Christianity— the super- stitious delusion of former times. The obscurity of evan- gelisation, as well as the darkness of monasticism, were giving way rapidly before the coruscations of wit, the aurora ot reason, and the wisdom of calculators and economists; no Church would shortly astonish the world, except a temj)le, Hke the Pantheon of Augustus, that would comprise beneath the ample firmament of its dome the statues of the reallv good and great,-those luminaries ot mankind who nad lauo-hed religion and morals out of countenance. Louis XVi: had ascended the throne of his rrandfather m a.d. 1774, animated with benevolent and lonest sentiments, amiable and virtuous in his private life, but with Lttle independence of judgment and no strength ot mind Witaout confidence in himself, he was incon- stant in that which he granted to others, which exposed him- to insinuations and cabals; so that he was better fitted to have been a successor of St. Louis, his holy ancestor, than to g-uide the chariot of a democracy when its wheels were • S?^' . mi- ^^ ^"®®" ^^^ ^arie Antoinette, a daughter ot Muna Theresa, -very lovely in her person, and unexcep- tionable m her character, yet without the mental discern- ment and firmness of her mother. The coitupt court was wrapt m too thick an atmosphere of iniquity to appreciate tairly, or derive any moral benefit from, the example of the royal pan-, whose want of intellectual force enabled wicked courtiei-s to practise upon the indulgence of their sove- reips. The absence of vice, therefore, on the part of the latter, came to be considered a weakness, instead of operat- ing as a tacit condemnation of the debauchery around them. Youthfiilness may perhaps be pleaded for the strong hkinp-s or dishkings in which her majesty indulged, when she pFaced herself in an attitude oftte bitterest po- htical antagonism to Turgot, the coUeague ofMaurepas, and who might have introduced something like order and hiigahty into the finances. Neckar succeeded him,— an arcinitont rfltlier than a statesman. VflrD«nnoB ho^ ™«_ 426 MODERK HISTORY. [a.D* 1781-9. moted the American war, but without in the least fore- seeing' what could not fail to be the almost immediate conse- quences to his own country. He had, however, the courage to oppo&e the Austrian party in the cabinet, to sustain also by ne[,otiations the Turks against Russia, and those of the Netherlands and Hollanders who were making efforts against the houses of Orange, Hohenzollem, and Haps- burg; but Poland was partitioned before his eyes without effective observation. Neckar found the support of Wash- ington so expensive, that the deficit increased daily. He demanded retrenchments : the courtiere, who were prin- cipally to suffer, through the abolition of their patent Iwaces, drove him from his bureau in a.d. 1781, when Ca- onne occupied his place, Anglomania and Republicanism coming forwaiti at the same time into most fearful fashion. The minister turned pa'°i on the verge of an abyss which yawned wider and wider. The gf . eniment had increased the debt 1,260,000,000 livres within ten years - the de- ficiency for the current twelvemonth was l25,06 1,000, — moi-e than equivalent, as money then was, to 5,0 10,000/. sterling. The assembly c''the Notables— a miniature diet of the kingdom— was recommended; and it met a.d. 1780, only to agitate the curtain before it finally rose upon the grandest tragedy that E ope had seen for many a genera- tion. Calonne was now replaced by Brienne, archbishop of Toulouse, an ecclesiastic by no means equal to working impossibilities. He could do nc more than echo the pro- g)sition of the notables for a convocation of the States- eneral ; quan-el with the nariiament of Paris ; rouse the opposition of the Duke of Orleans ; excite an insurrection in Bretagne and Dauphin6; give an articulate voice to the groans of an indignant people — conscious that all was wrong, vet with no ideas as to how it could be set right; and bring about the recal of Neckar, witli a promise for the demanded convocation. The States-General had never come together since a.d. 1614, and of course every thing would turn upon the foim and conditions under which they were to assemble now. Had Neckai* been a Richeheu, he would have compi*ehended this pregnant point; not being such, he swam with the current instead of resisting it CH. XIX.] MODERN HISTORY. 487 iTIlff '^f "\°^™<^T ^«s waxing: loud and violent, and mnu- we e fast anftm- nwaj, during: which it was at all pes' +1,A JI ""'f '"^ PT°"' l^'*«f'«d a-ainst a crisis, for the man9g:ement of which they are not comnetent thi minister consuhod the notables: they su'^Sd a^^^^^^^^^ tWunt'fir"^/'^^" ^^*^ '«^-«d prolixTty,St the thunderbolt was about to strike their i-ates! ^Necka? prehenrtL'l^r^-''''^-*""'' ^°"^^ "^* ^« ^^P^-'^d fo S prebend the religious interests at stake: besides whirh thA opportunity ibr doin.^ so had fled for evW T?e chatctr S .^ 'j"^®r *« ^e trampled out by a Comnfc iTti"' *^^^^^«^I ?f «^n obnoxious prelate uX the delusion oi laying the foundations of constitutional monarchy, an arti-Catholic minister, bowin? before „n n^senfnt*''°''T'.'*>^* '^^'' '' ^'*h the national re! aS ""''• ^^'^''i °^ ^"''h °*" tJ^e three estates beinl allowed an eoual number of deputies, the kin? convoked mmediately (a^doptinj^, as he said, the views of h?scomn roller of the finances,) the States-GeneS conStino of estate ^hTJtT' ^^l^'>^*h^.*° ^ '^'^^- r he thiid Sd dW!^ t°''*^;° \' ^'"'^^^ ^«tween the nobility of destSon.^"' "^ '^'' ^""^ ^^P *^^«" *-^^'^« t^e pil v«.;}?"** ^^^""^ could be now no retreat. The subsenuent yacillations produced nothing- but suspicions an 1 an Innr To'"!;?^"'*'"" °^.th« evif; which, thou^rir^nerrp" possible to imagine it suspended for a while hnS VS! W fh?"7 T'^^^t'' *^« comVenSnt!! tl tiom that instant unflinching firmness in combination with the wisest magnanimity. Louis XVI. sokmn'y onened May fB"i?8r1/' ^T" '^^ *^« -— ^fe 6t,h 'of i?!"^' •t:i 1 J ^* ?* ^^ '''«»'' ^0 intelKgent observers that the gilded despotism of Versailles, with its mailSc vet ,„ „„„,,,^^. jjyu jjg ^eaituy worldly clere^ hof}» nf which owed their p^-esent de^ene^ to tle^^^%^ I hi 428 MODERN HISTORY. [a.d. 1789-90. tyranny of the Bourbons, the crown, the coronet, and the crozier fronted a fierce and vindictive democracy, ready to devour them all. The r&striction of monarchy, a political regeneration of the kingdom, an instantaneous abolition of exclusive privileges, could not fail to be demanded : but for what other purpose ha^ the deputies of the commons been doubled? A question then of course arose, as to how decisions were to be arranged j whether votes were to be taken, as heretofore, by order, or by heads. If the former, the duplication of the popular representatives looked like a needless mockery ; if the latter, the prepondemnce of the commons seemea a settled affair — as in truth it was. After some negotiations, remonstrances, and coquetries, a portion of the lower clergy, 'ho had much to gam and little now to lose, went over to the third estate, upon the motion of the Abb6 Sieyes ; declaring themselves altogether one national assembly, on the 17th of June, a.d. 1789. The king now began to wave, if not to threaten, although without perhaps meaning to do either. He commanded that the votes should be taken bv order and not by heads, and that deliberations henceforth should be held in three different chambers ! Had his majesty forgotten the story of Canute addressing the waves? Mirabeau defied the royal declarations. The Duke of Orleans, with several of the nobility, then joined the National Assembly; and before the end of'a fortnight the remainder were desired to follow their example by no less an authority than that of Louis Lmself. His condescension, h( wever, had been too clearly the result of fear, rather than a spirit of conciUation, to pacify the people or assuage the storm. Whispers went about that force might be resorted to, were the sovereign unhandsomely pressed; troops assembled in the vicinity of the capital. On the other hand, particles of incipient insurrection ran into one mass, like globules of quicksilver. Neckar, with his colleague Montmorin, received a dismissal from office; their seals being transferred to an unpopular aristocrat, the Baron de Breuteuil, brought about the out- break of the 14th of July, in which the Bastile was stormed and taken. Songs of triumph accompanied the demolition of this remarkable fortress. The National Assembly pe- OR. XIX.] MODERN HISTORY. 429 titioned for, and the king conceded, a recal of the banished ministers: the soldiers we ? removed; revolution smiled as sweetly as it had recently frowned. The sovereiim and his professed subjects, the weak and the strong, the victim and his executioners, celebrated with multifarious em- braces the festival of their re-union. But the aristocracy, even during this act of the drama, discerned to what point the play was drifting, and began precipitately to quit the country, with princes of the blood at their head. Such a measure raised the spirits of the Orleanists, who beheld the floodgates of license and faction slowly opening before them. Provisions augmented in price j the awful influence ot justice relaxed eveiy hour; violence assumed her scales, without any bandage over its revengeful glaring eyes- P^^,fe. "multiplied daily. Whoever dared to impue-n the infallibility of the populace found the fatal cord and the elevation of a lamp-post for his gallows, the prompt reward ot loyal or religious courage. Paris and the provinces re- sounded with windy declamations upon the rights of man, end the glories of liberty, fraternity, and equality; dis- orders of every description corresponded to then- words. Under the new desig-nation of a Constituent Assembly, the representatives of France despatched their reforms as though they were to be so many flashes of lightning:* feudal privileges, as well as personal advantages before the law, were abolished for ever; together with tithes, seign- orial or patrimonial jurisdictions, and peculiar claims of private societies or corporations. Taxation was to be trans- ferred from the sinews of industry to the shoulders of pro- perty ; all classes were henceforward on the same level ; offices and dignities wei»e only to be occupied by the most worthy, without the slightest regard to birth, fortune, position, or any other unjust pretension. Upon parchment, eveiy wish of the wisest patriotism appeared to be realised; yet all this marvellous and sudden illumination was but the red reflection of that glowing fnrnace through which the nation was about to pass, as an ordeal of retributive ven- geance. ^ It was, in other words, a genuine anti-Catholic reforma- tion; a revolt from what Pi-oteisfcantlsm and iniideiity call 'i«0 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D, 1790ul. priostcmft and superstition. The few had surrendered the reins of government to the innny; from tlmt moment the genius ot an irreliii^ious demagogy displa^ od its lionas and its lioofs, as rin unveiled demon. Without disguise, the voice of the }>euple was declared to be the voice of God, with death to the doubters of the doctrine ! The new con- stitution was to consist but of one chamber, to be renewed every three years ; with a restricted veto on the part of the crown, *o continue in force only during the space of two sessions. After the horrora of an insurrection, which brotiglit Louis and his family from Vei-sailles to the capital in October, some re-action seemed to have set in on their behalf, which the aristocratic faction quickly man*ed. Funds were now wanted, which from the convulsed cir- cumstances of the kingdom could most easily be furnished bv wholesale robbery, and for which the annals of royal pmnder afforded plenty of precedents. All ecclesiastical possessions were therefore confiscated, to the extent of 3,000,000,000 livres in value, and declared national propei-ty. The domains of the crown natm-ally followed ; and to fa- cilitate an immediate sale of such enonnous seizures, a system of assignats, or issue of paper-money, ensued; bind- ing by the ties of private interest every purchaser of the stolen estates, or the minutest portion of them, to the re- volution which thus enriched him. The monastic oi-ders were then suppressed, as also the provincial parliaments ; ancient municipalities shared a similar fate, together with Icttirs d' cachet, titles, and couts of arms. T'he entire realm underwent a fresh subdivision of its temtories into its present departments, their ap[)ellntions being derived ' from natural boundaries and objects. The national repre- sentation was arranged so as to rest upon this novel classi- fication ; every citizen paying an annual impost of three livres being entitled to vote in those primary colleges in- tended to appoint the electors of the 747 deputies who were to constitute the Legislative Assembly. A civil list was settled on his majesty of 25,000,000 francs ; with an ap- pointment of 4,000,000 for the queen, as her dowry, should she survive the king. All this mirage of royalty, for it o-iui littlA aIra. rAAAivAfl ita Ofi-kwnimr fnUv in fVia facfivnl nf LB. 1790-1. 'endered the moment the s hoiiis and isg-uise, the (ice of God, he new con- be renewed tlie part of he space of ;iion, which » the capital in on their ly man-ed. uvulsed cir- >e furnished ftls of royal cclesiastioal I extent of al property, and to ia- seizui-es, a sued; bind- laser of the , to the re- istic oi'ders arlinments ; "•ether with The entire ritories into ing deiived ional repj*- lovel classi- est of three college in- puties who A civil list with an ap- m-y, should alty, for it > 'fastivfil nf CH. X«.] MODBRN IIISTORI. 431 nS. fir tL rJ'^ r, "''■'^'''^^ anti-Christian stete; not too soon, to take serious alarm: Marat ftflnfnn «°J Robespierre already were m..l ino- L /i V""*""^ ann names Slirabea « deS.pH l .^ T" *^''"' «^e^raWe tio-er that } ni Tn 1 '^f^^^'^ed I'y ^"s contemjioraries as the sS lectfd^ Popular^still, although „ „.o^ „^_. ; as »„a „ ^ jij^ ^j^jj^ person^. 4dQ MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1791-2, • proprip^^nry, and relig-ious claims which could he conceded to a conceited republic. Thus terminated the National or Constituent Assembly, on the 30th September, a.d. 1791. Its successor emerged into activity under sinister aus- pices, — in fact, with the mark of Cain ujwn its forehead. Faction and the clubs had biassed the elections, as might have been expected ; on its benches -nt many enthusiasts, no sages, a few well-meaners, and some colossal scoundrels. To make matters woi-se, the Emperor Leopold had issued in the spring of the year a circular from Padua, addressed to all crowned heaas, which happened to be the most empty ones at that time, throughout Christendom : hence sprang the Conferences at Pillnitz, mischievous to the last degree. Austria, Russia^ Prussia, Saxony, and Sweden fancied that they might coalesce with impunity against France, in the height of her political fever ; and Gustavus III. was to conduct this crusade on behalf of kings. In-itation rapidly rose into frenzy. Francis II. succeerled Leopold in a.d. 1792, adopting more moderate Inngniage, after it was too late. Louis XVI. and his assemljly soon ceased to work well together : the latter levelled resolu- tions against emigrant princes, against the nonjuring clergy, against all that was venerable or respectable in the land; to which his majesty would be no party. Royalism had to run into holes for safety ; Jacobinism came out of them, erecting its crest, like a cockatrice, in higli places. Once in office, the serpent lengthened his coils ; red caps were worn by its adherents arf a badge of their warfare against moderation and half-measures ; the guillotine also appeared, with more work for it in prospect tlian the human pride of patriotism could ever have imagined. Foreign policy, moreover, assumed a menacing aspect. France had declared Corsica and Avignon integral parts of the kingdom ; whilst in arranging the eighty-three new departments, the rights of certain German states had been compromised. Yet, of course, these were flimsy pretexts with the external powers for taking up arms against the principles of the revolution. The first coalition had to face three armies, under Luckner, Ilocnambeau, aud La Fayette, MODRRN HHTORT. 488 CH. XIX.J without credit on either side, or any decisive results Austm and Prussia in tlieir manifestoes plainly announced that they considered the king at Pnris under duress ; whilst the Duke of Bnmawick, with enoi-mous forces, penetrated Luxemburg, reduced the fortresses of Longwy and ^.'ordun, marchinp, as it 8«^ i,, ' directly upon the metropolis. The pu()h8hed langu .-.i of ;. g allies oven oxceeded the folly ot their actions stM,.endo '. as that must appear. It was responded to b/ t Mav. 1 of the Marseillese, which in- fused into every b -< thti* ^eard it almost infernal passrons tor battle. In th lilairs of Grand Pr6 and Valmy Du- mouriez and Kellermann sustained Mio fire of the teriil)le Pi-ussian artillery; and Dillon held the passes of Argonne agamst tlio Hessians. Every hope of victory vanished trom amongst the invaders; they had merely accelerated tlie fnghtftil triumphs of Sansterre and his sansculottes. J he revolts of the 20th of June and the 10th of August were only samples of the future; in the latter, the king fled from the Tuileries to the hall of the Legislative As- sembly. The palace was sacked and plundered ; the faith- ful Swiss were massacred, after selling their lives dearly Several thousands of the combatants had fallen. La Fay- ette escaped over the frontier into a captivity of five years —not altogether, perhaps, unmerited. A Convention of the Sovereign People to all intents and purposes superseded the Legislative Assembly; and the horrors -of ochlocracy, or mob-f^ovemment, now ovei-shadowed the [lolitical hea- vens. The sovereignty of Franca had became vested in the municipality of Pans. A tribunal of blood, with the guillotine as its emblem and instrument, was declared per- manent. Monarchy receded before avowed republicanism • Louis XVI., with his family, found their final refxige in the prison of the Temple. The September butcheries drenched the streets with gore; nobles, priests, and women were slaughtered like sheep in a shamble. Three Dukes of La Rochefoucault were forgotten amongst the murdered; when, on the top of a pole, the beautifiil fea- tures of the young Princess of Lamballe, innocent yet brutally decapitated, turned pale amidst those floating 484 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1792-3. tresses which the votaries of fashion, in their gildsd saloons, had compared to the locks of Berenice. Emissaries sallied forth in many directions, to repeat in the provinces those scenes which had filled the metro- polis with dismay. The Convention almost immediately split into the factions of the Girondists and Jacobins ; the foi-mer comprisicg a set of visionaries, like Brissot, Roland, and their colleagues, one and all under the hallucination that eai'thquakes and volcanoes are manageable affairs, — vast machines, of which the springs and pulbiys may be guided by a check-string. They styled themselves Con- stitutionalists, or Moderates; a name' which history trans- lates into Inca»ables. Their antagonists were equally wicked, less polished and brilliant, but infinitely more con- sistent and m earnest. The Brissotines seemed to have no idea that princmles are realities, or that they ai-e the souls of actions. It was their notion, that religion is a mere piece of philosophy ; that the solid walls of society might repose with perfect safety upon clouds; and that reason was much more than a sufficient substitute for re- velation. The Jacobins, on the other hand, were unveiled villains; there was no hypocrisy in their mouths, for thei-e, could be no mistake as to their meaning: from their elevated seats in the Convention, they were called the Mountain. The latter soon acquired supremacy from the mere force of circumstances ; they were the genuine cliil- dren of the French Revolution, just as the Anabaptists had been of the German Reformation. Every vestige of roy- alty was to be deleted from the face of the cation, nnd clamours grew loud for the accusation, trial, condemna- tion, and execution of the incarcerated monarch. Fronchet, Malesherbes and Desdze undertook his defence; if that term may be applied to any portion of an inquest as to which its all-powerful instigatoi-s had made up their minds beforehand. On the 21st of Januaiy, a.d. 1793, Louis XVI. died upon the scaffold; his unconditional sentence having been pronounced by no very large majority. The Gironde struggled in vain, as they said, against the ene- mies of law and order, forgetful that the roots of these had CH. XIX.J U0DEBI7 HISTORY. 436 been by its own membera ori^nally plucked up. Whoever would not go on with the criminals, as has been well ob- served, could only withdraw from the arena, or otherwise the revolution marched over his corpse. The labouring Jtfountam now brought forth a Revolutiona , r Tribunal, from wJiicli there was no appeal; while the property of whom- soever it punished became a forfeiture at once to the state. ..wv.».« „ciD tuo vjiruimisiP, 01 wnom twentv- two wei-e proscribed and executed, ou. of the thuty-four that were ordered to be arrested. Roland and his wife, I'etion, Condorcet, Biissot, were the most eloquent, clever. or interesting of them. But wai- now maddened the popu- lace from without, whilst famine, confusion, and exas- perated disapoomtment inflamed it fiom within, until the appioachmer Heig-n of Terror transformed the meti-opolis, as weM as other cities, into so many charnel-houses. The tear ot the guillotine, no less than tiie fervour of patriotism, tilled the ranks of the ai'my. The mouth of the cannon, with Its roai- and excitement, appeared to the reckless fa- naticism of France a more desirable destiny than the cold ed^e of an axe desceiiding upon the nape of the neck, amid the leei-s and hisses of an enraged multitude. Ge- neral Montesquieu fell upon Savoy J Anselme took Nice, with Its entire country; Custine invaded Germany; Du- mounez conquered Belgium. The victory of Jemappes opened the gates of Brussels; at Lidge the French were received as hberatoi>s and benefactors : in Holland some of the towns followed this example; but the Princes of Coburg and Bmnswick, acting for Austria and Prussia, after the various actions of Aldenhofen, Tirlemont, Neei-- winden, and Loewen, drove tlie assailants out of the Nether- lands, with nearly as much rapidity as they had manifested m tlie ao-giession. Dumouriez had become suspected; so that in the end he crossed the frontier, and saved himself; with the young Duke of Charties, from the tender mercies ol the Convention. 41 ^iv ^^ Brifciin, Holland, and Spain tlien foimdly joined mie auittuee agmmi France, who had insoieutiy piiiffered ^^ MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1793-4. fraternity and protection to all nations prepared to break the yoke from their shoulders of royalism, priestcraft, and aristocracy. Sardinia and Portugal added themselves to the h-ay, to say nothing- of Russia and Naples. The civil contentions also began : one in the north and west, where several departments fought for the Gironde against the Mountain; another in La Vendee, where religion and roy- alism attempted to maintain themselves in the Boccage. Toulon surrendered to an Anglo-Spanish fleet under Ad- mirals Hood and Langara, with immense magazines, five frigates, and seventeen ships of the line. Louis XVII. was prodaimed; and tbe names of La Roche Jacqueline* Charette, StofHet, Sapineau, are never to be forgotten; their followers were proscribed to a man. When the re- publican forces entered their precincts, old age, virtuous youth or loveliness, and even children in their cradles, were sacrihced in promiscuous massacre. Ruins and smoke sun-ovnded the path of the victors; districts or villages became so many aceldamas. . Meanwhile, another new con- stitution was still-bora ; for it never came into recognised operation, founded as it was upon absolute democracy, that democracy having at this very period inaugurated the Reie-n of Teri-or. Five hundred thousand soldiers were ordered to the fi-ontiers; the crater of political passion and fury, into which the entire kingdom had transformed itself, bi-istled all ai'oimd with bayonets; within and without tl-r- realm, It was ascertained that a million of deaths occiut li during i^«QT^r**^''®^y ^"®^ interval of eighteen moiiths, a.d. i7\f6-0, fi-om the sword of the enemy, the blow of the assassin, the axe of the executioner, and the pressure of de? tution. Marie Antoinette, the Piincess Elizabeth, J^hihp Egaht^, and the son of the late monarch, were suc- cessively murdered; leaders of renown, e^ges in wisdom, those who had won laurels in the field, or bays in the closet the cabinet, or the laboratory,— all trod the same CTave- ward path, a melancholy procession ! Vandalism directed Its vile weapons against whatever was gay, or beautiful, or attractive, or instinictive. Religion, as its bitterest foe, it had nbhon-ed from the beginning. A republican calendnr was substituted for t-he Christian almanar- -. nn fcsfivoi «f CH. XIX.] MODERN HISTOHY. 437 faafivol nf this peri°o3"o plrs o?c»re°;^''^c'"'^i " «., I.™ .eeLd tolurit"„STesS"aSr partmente. Lyons, the seat of manufactufe, M of »(«,!" ence and mag:nifice„ce, rued the hour in wS'she hJd ™ tared to resist the Jacobms. Six thousand t^onselprd m the executions and massacres of Collot d'HeZfe- S ™m,b7men and adve.arii"' Ti^'ll tetoJ^Z ri^SrV "V"" UPP" K""™ "«' AnstriarffpruZ S3 r"/»"==<' to retire. The campaim of To im gfcr«»SrS£feSS .,, ^ „„j.j ^^^,^^ jjp^g j.^ ^^^ ^^^ 438 MODERN HISTORY. [a.9. 1794>5. ice, and penetrate to the fortresses and gi'eat towns. The stadthokter resigned, and sought a Iiomc in Lunilun liuN land had now to follow in the wak(! of France, as an udojit-ed daugiiter ; in reality, as a siibordinuto and levolutiouised satellite. Her bank also relieved the exhausted treiisury of her conquei-ore, and a moiety of both her Heets and land forces were subject to tlieir ordei-s. In Italy ami Spain similai* successes awaited the tricolour. Madrid trendJed, and sued for peace. At Paris, the crowded prisons djiily gave out tumbril after tumbril of victims for the scaffold*; the meek virgin, the spotless matron, the venerable father, dutiful sons and daughters, broken-hearted i)arents, holy priests. It was not until the Terrorists tjuarrelled amongst themselves that a gleam of hope appeared ; but at hist, the revolution of the 9th Thermidor, as it was termed, effected the overthrow of the tyrant. Tallien led the vay by denouncing his ativcities in the Convention. The wreuh, on being arrested with much difficulty at the Hotel de Ville, discharged a pistol into his mouth, which only shat- tered his lower jaw, without destroying him. At the guillotine, his executioner tore away the bandaofe, which drew ft'om him a howl of ao'ony before the knife fell and severed his head into the basket. His brother, with twelve others, perished on the same scaffold ; eighty-thiTe more of the Terrorists were decapitated on the two following days, amidst savage shouts of vindictive jubilation. There was afterwards a lull in the storm. The expedition of the British against Quiberon, after the death of Louis XVII. in the Temple, only revived the Ven- d^ean war, and affoi-ded au opportunity for Genertd Hoclie to overv/helm the enemies of the republic. It requii-ed tlie greatest caution and moderation to substitute anotlier con- stitution in the place of that which the execrations of the people had but just put down. Between a strong and sud- den reaction in favoiu- of royalism and aii' locracy on the one hand, and those agents of evil r .nnected v, ith the Reign of Terror on the other, who were stiU ready for rallying once more rovmd the guillotine and the rcd can of liberty, the celebi-ated Directoiy was concocted as an mtermediate ftort of ^ovarmQea%^8aelalng to combine a suSiQient deve- I.B. 1794-5. OH. xrx.J MODERN HISTORY. 439 ^'^tfr^£Tf:!St''' ^^-^%-- °f a strong execu- a^d installSiof ^T^^^^ ZZ '''>"''^'' S'' ''' introduction this time in Pm-is who W V?-°^ °^'«^ of artillery at tiie trench sbS'Slninf^^T^'ll himself wiihin SOOo'deaths and the d^^^^^^^^^^ '^P^°^ ^^ some arrests and executiSsUf? ""^ ^^°"^ ''*-" ^°"^J pleted the arvanlS Th^rnnv"V '^*«"*' '^^' expiry, elected frtwtthi^f.^f r^''"'f''''^°"« ^° its to enter the Lefii'sktil r -i °* r' "^^mters who were and out of thSntl e Wn'''^ ' '• ^ -^ ^™^^ ^^'^^ ^^^eJ^ ofthe Ancients and f^^^^^^^^^^ five directors, Lepaux Silver Zhn 7 *^^'" J^o^^^^ated the hshed an act of amnest v ti.^ w I' and finally pub- •^lillied round thelnergLm^^.' whot^.w" '^'^^^^^ erted themselves diligen^trtHLl .l- « ^''' *^" as re-orgW the otL TnslS of socretr^^J"" affairs were in their favour • Tnc««!, «' society, fomgn seceded from the £1^ Vt'-''^^^' ,%'"' «°'l ^»"s2a commerce at home ^ 1° "Lv.^Ji IT ■ ^ of agi-icultm-e and sonahle supplieH't^lL^X tit^^^^^^ oankruptcv it-^elf thmiiD-J, ,>o , • "^"f."^); -ihe national its caJaLiti cha3sineVa^^^^^^^^ "i-r^'^" "^^ to make unusual eGSn?n. T/'^''^? T^'"® »^'^e roused ordinary private's Jo,m^^^^^ «^t™- l>y Willtam W hn/i^ «'^1"'^ °* '''«" JJ"'"'-. g>'Wed .«»—- — ^^ ™,.^ _5.j, J, g arijiitjij in 440 MOBEFK HISTORY. [AJV 3.7C'5-6. xaotion, and allayed for the momeat aristo ratic apprehen- sions and cl«iical agiiation. The three kingdoms were awakening oui of the t ] / of the cun'ent century, and craving the liljoiition of lii u y ahuses. Dowii f •> the dai'ker atrocities of the Eeign of 'terror- thov^inds and loiis c,f thousands watcheJ the proj^-ross ' f th^ Fr;;ixch Bevolufoon with , nost intense sympathy and mt<)eiit. 'The remhs cf the i-Aflerican war had satisfied thi niddlo (glasses that t'l'ir boasted con;ititution stood greatly in need of re- vif or; thaf kingcraft and statecraft, as then exercised, in valued mx enormous amount of oppression and imposture; sjt t;, in f'ffect, an oligarchy govern d the country very much for its own private purposes; tiiitthe religion of the ijighcaa Establishment lay m the sul.scription of articles not generally believed, and the taking • f tithes, as well as spending them, aft;er a very worldly fas 'ion; and that par- liamentary reform promised to be a panacea for several of these evils. Hence there sprang up clc nours of various kinds, which George III., with his peers and parsons, en- deavoured to jfrown and preach into silence by making out every Dissenter an infiael, and every liberal a Jacobin. English Catholics were too few to attract attention, nor had the cries for emancipation as yet pierced the gloom. The emigrants from France, indeed, were received with noble and generous hospitality ; prejudices against Popery being suspended in the fears tnat Atheism might prevail, and de- vour the fat pastures of episcopalian Protestantism. Pitt skilfully availed himself of this position of things: enlisting the baser passions of his countrymen under false banners, they were for years persuaded that the contest was one for the preservation of hearths and homes, which it afterwards became; but in reality its earlier period was a series of sa- crifices suggested and supported for the maintenance of close boroughs, and antiquated yet most profitable abuses. That there was a substratum of inflaTamable materials beneath the foundations of society in En '^ d, is not denied ; nor that the juncture was a perilous <. 7hen the torch oi revolution was being hiurried from •: aa to hand across tht . ^nnelj our own circumstm^^f ^S what they then ■"^re: AH that is contended fay m^ oitit the royal, aris- i.m ■i7r5-6. :c ftpprehen- g'doms were lentury, and -> the dai'ker and iCifiP. f f I "Revolution ae. I'stuUs ci' •Hasses that need of re- n exercised, i imposture ; ountry very ligion of the a of articles s, as well as nd that par- )r several of s of various parsons, en- making out I a Jacobin. ;tention, nor the gloom, id with noble 'opery being jvail, and de- atism. Pitt gs: enlisting alse banners, ; was one for it afterwards , series of sa- intenance of able abuses, ble materials 9 not denied ; en the torch I hand across lat they then J royal, aris- en. xix.J MODERN HISTORY. 441 StCn'^s'iff ''^^r''''' °*' *b« I^'-e^^J' Revolution resiea upon selfish considerations. An unrelbrmed Hon J not bv Z°i*T'^^'"^^ °^^°^« member "we'rominated the %^r Ctr^Z ^^y Prf«««ed to represent, but by nvL^^T . , °^ ^^« legislature or larle landed nm pnetors, listened to the illusive eloouenc3 Burke anrf Stack ThI rtr ^^°rr • T^« -i^«tfr3Cd days ^d Sliph^ *'^^ °f ^'^ earlier tvTannv It! ^^^^^^^^^^ mere rank, and privilege, and tyianny. He augmented the standing army in the most ^LT r 1 ™"Iions, excited mutiny on board our fleets va^ IT |j?,^rd,"t« rebellion. Corsica was caTured in vam, A.D. 1794,- the Cape of Good Hope surrendered thfl fo lowing year; besides which, the Dutch ToTrthei^Dos WeT^d tft '""^ t ?^^* ^'^^^-^ De^rara Tn^the" vvest, and the flower of their naval forces in the tre- tered the Cl-f]. "''"*' ''?^* ^°°*^^« ^^^^''^> ^^ad scat- ^lea tne Spanish marine, and conferred an earidom on Admiral Jervis : but notwithstanding so mucrglory abmad the lower orders gx-oaned at home; every dfpSmen? of WitjwH^^^^^^^ n^ "^"^*''y sukred^from^The pubhc Dieved n'nn^ "'^'^^ pnvateers infested the seas, and Sale of TnnZ T"^'"'' ^° '^^'^ quarter. The birth- pace ot Bonaparte was wrested from its cantors tL i^ce''''mC':L\'^' ^°^^''P°-*^^ rmanenTy with n«!vr' ^^^^r^\ *he temporary tranquiUity of Denmark una uiira partitions of Poland, nor the misfortuues of Aus tna enabled the Eari of Malmesbury to b Jg his negotia-' 796-7 • S'th*: TT''''' i««-«^tParis^o;£islef^B. commenced At fhT^^ 'fT °^ ^^P^^^''" ^^^ "«^ finmT}f« iS- "7 ^^^ ^^® °^ twenty-eight he had taken en^e o Ss "l^S'^'. '''^"§ 'i '^'^ ^^^ ^''^' political exfs" iSn':r^y,£Tir?79rr *^rVi ^^ ''^^ and Sardin«L\^„-^^^^ !!!!?„..!rP*. ^' -P-«d adversary from 1st JnT^^ ^..=.^y un mm witiiout rest, and achieving a chab'o^ *42 MODERN HlflTORT. [a.D. 1796-7. triumphs without intenniption. In fourteen days he ac- complished what the National Convention had fruitlessly striven for durififf tliree yeai-s. Savoy, Nice, and Tenda were yielded to France by Sai'dinia. His passage of the biidg-e atLodi gave himLombardy and Milan, with a con- tribution of twenty millions. Venice, as the sun of her glory was sinking out of sight, endeavoiu-ed by secret pay- ments to purchase security and forbearance. It was now plain to the emperor that upon Mantua would depend his i-e-conquest of Italy, before which city the French had opened their trenches in July. Meanwhile, his brother, the Archduke Charles, had gained two victories over Jour- dan ; at the time Moreau, setting out fi'om Strasbourg, was forcing the defiles of the Black Forest, and advancing through Swabia and Bavaria towards the head of the Adriatic, where he might have joined Napoleon. But the archduke saved Austria and Germany; escaping from Moreau at Ingoldstadt, to the left bank of the Danube, and beating Bernadotte and Jourdan in the successive battles of Teinning, Ambiu-g, and Wurtzburg. Moreau, therefore, was compelled to retreat through the famous Hell Pass, which he did in the most masterly manner. But Bonaparte retrieved these disasters by his rej)eated triumphs over four imperial armies at Arcole, llivoli, and other fields of fame; until General Wurmser sun-endered Mantua on the Festival of the Purification, a.d. 1797, with five hundred pieces of heavy artillery, immense magazines stored with the munitions of war, and a gairison of tAvelve thousand soldiei-s. Eighteen thousand had perished in the siege through sickness or the sword. The Pontifical States were then plundered of thirty millions in money, the choicest and rarest treasures of art, and the legations of Bologna, Ferrara, and Romagna ; besides having to cede Avig-non and the Venaissin. Such was the treaty of Tolentino. Two republics were now organised out of the Italian con- qtiests, the Cispadane and Transpadane. The coui-t of Vienna still refused to treat ; expecting, probably, real and effective assistance from Russia. But the Empress Catha- rine had died in the previous November, and her eccentric ion and successor Paul detached himself fitim Hm coalition. CH. XIX.] UODBRN HISTORY. 448 1 rancis II then summoned the Hungarians to defend as he 8a.d the throne, the Chm-ch, and the nobility eS! fiance. In her name, nevertheless, Napoleon lost not n moment m attacking t],e Archduke Charles ; and ied Srf.nr";""', 'T' «M«^«"««' >^'"ch brought ffm to ta^^? in f ' 7^'f' T'^ *^« ^°°* °^ *h« Brenner moun- tains m the lyrol. Austria could now only succumb: ^ fts not altog-etlier M'lthout its dangers. To save V enno ^.erefo.., the preliminaries of Leobe'n were arranged, end: y to the peace of Campo Formio, 17th Oct. a'd. 1797 • of 'lelwf "rTr""*! "» .*^'e Netherlands in favoL' vLl? r 'i^?P''^J'"' ol^taining as an indemnity the di Guarda, mcludm- Istria, Dalmatia, and the isles, to tie Bocca d. Cattaro; but Corfu, with ite six Greek sSteri forming, the Septin^ular Republic, and the possession^Trl Albama were to belong to Fmnce. The Cisalpine nZhhc, tZrl^i^^'^f^r'''^^'^' ^"^ to whiclf Mantua and Brescia were added, was recognised by the empewr. He also acqmesced by a secret article, in the cession of the TLf^'^'K'L'^^^^'' fiom Basle downward , to the confluence of the Nethe at Andernach, with the city satisfied with the Bnsgaw, and tlie other displaced Rhenish sovere^s were to find petty principalities in Germany The pilla.^ of the c .olitical sVstem thus lay prosS o^'S^n' 'p'*'' disappeared ^v1th Poland frL^J e m^^ of Europe : France ruled from the frontier of Rome tS the Rhine and Holland. The Geman empire was aban° fenfl" ;*'/"'"' 7i ?:"P°'«°" "°"«P^'t« had become heir to thefortunes of the French Revolution. The Batavi^ and Ligm-ian republics wei-e also included in the peace. Ihe Directory, withm about two years, imdement thp man' 1^'"* f '"^'"'"J ""?'''' ^^' ""^ °^' ^ai^ot, S man. J,ers ; transported the unsuccessful minority to ^"^' f flfJl^ ^'^u^^^ *^« ^^V "^^de in favour of priest^ .«.z5x«„«. iuis caange lor the worse, however, had « AAA MODERN HISTORT. [A.D. 1797-8. more in its bark than its bite ; people had got weary of suiip-uiiiaiy civil conflicts, besides having their attention fastened upon the ex: 'liri .., . ...,,ast Errypt. Yet the mr- manent consequences of all that had happened since the States-General affsembled under Louis XVI. began to be visible, if not apparent : statesmen could no longer avoid conviction, that all classes have their rights; that property, rank, office, position, and privileges, have each of them then pecdiar responsibilities. Religion had always taught this; vet so obtuse had the wealthy and powerinl of tTif- world become, that they stood in need of some tremendous lesson being practically learned ; just as the old Divine law had to be listened to from Mount Sinai, amidst whirlwind, dai'knqsa, and storm. Henceforward, therefore, the whole system of abuses has se med to crack from top to bottom; even where socia< abominations stood out like - .amids wrap^ in the prejudices and association of antiquity, even there have the fissures of decay and approaching abolition appeared. Added to this great fact has been the gradual groM-th and influence of public opim'on. The Czar of all the Russias could not now do what the half-insane Paul dai-ed to do— a precious potentate, w liom some still ilive can remember. It perhaps required such a shock as that of the French Revolution to set hee the imprisoned ele- ment? of thou,:^bt, and h ng the invisible mind of Europe so to be, ipon " .titutioi as that ^lad ones get exchanged forbetwr; or if not, are yet so modified in their operation, that results are very diff"erent to what they would otherwise Jiave ap-, r d. Almost identical v, ;h this has been an expansion of the general ir, ^ellect, as applied to art, science, law, and literature; to pri.jticai if not theotoucal govern- ment, to the comforts of l-'" uienns of intercommiuucation . taide, commerce, a/r-' 'ultm- , machinerv, and manufiu tures! The formation of He asses has been another conse- q^uence ] .rtly arisi: iro he general imp ovemen*-— par- ticularly where tht nure uf land has been .o altereu as to place tliis coveted ort of property withii neral reach or where the universal subdivision of wealth ^as been favoured, or ^he breaking down of monopolies and selfish systems may have thrown open opportunities for amft. CH. XlX.j MODERN HISTORY. 446 ^S^ then- Circumstances to those who were before ex- tK". ^^* ^'"^ ^""''^'i ^" ^"&''^"*1 for f?enemtionfl.-- that IS to say, an intermediate gradation between the peer and the peasant, the very opulent and the extremely indi- ?!5 :r7i? ^'^ ^P'*'^'' " "^^'^'^'^ «'"ss between the e-entiT thi ? ^^'' '' "^'^ ^''^°"^'"8" '"O''^ or !««« common it°''*/^'/'!r*'"^P*- ^f course, such observations must be understood w i considerable h»titude on all sides; JSv.ntJ'"" u r^'^'^ ^' "'f'^^ ^3^ ''""y intelligent me' wS^npt ;>, "^^2" 'l^'T *° *^"'«" sublunary scenes, and nmvpd i! ^"? ''''*"''^- .?* ^^«' "moreover, been now m oved, beyond any reasonable power of contradiction, that wtLr r^-^ the foundation of morals; that society without religious belief is an absurdity. However lovely may he for a time its external aspect, yet to conceive of It, as matenahsts and calculatoi-s and rationaliyts fancy it. in.ni'S^fr/Af'? °' " ^^'^0"' an unreality, an eiiHt- ence like that of Undine in the German romance, v. ho was to have no soul until she married. France had an or- • mg When the direct Imeage of Hugh Capet came to an c .1, the succeeding dynasties of Valois, Bourbon, and ?ulX.rrf ^T""'^ *" '^^"^^* ^'' «•" «"d her just KSu ?^ aI '^^.^l^g'/^tempted to put asunder what Almighty God has joined together. Fro- 1 Philin the Fair downwards the Finch mo^archs were alwaTiSy to parent, instead of a fovmg mother of churches, and fl^e 'V centre of unity. Adversity may have p. vJd her.,.if ti^ best msti-uctress, ,f the improved reaction shall but pro- ceed as it has lately promised. Feudalism is no more ; for hilf'p ^a^,!*"8^>y tbe National and Legislative Assem- hZ'^f) T '^T'^}''^ ^''^^' ''^^i^«^' a"d expired again, beneath the sword and sceptre of imperialism. ^Let Fmnce tl !7r^- r"!f"^^^^ ^'' ^"^^ ^' '«on^ as the seS bvfri ^''^ T" 'l""IT ^"' ^^^^^<^^* aspirations, and bringdown upon^h.r t|ie benedictions of all nations, fi-om puxc tu puie, una ttotu the rivers to the ends of the e^rth ! 446 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1798-1800. CHAITEK XX. A.D. 1798-1815. NAPOLEON TO TUX CONUUES8 OP TIKNKA. Amidst the various changes throug;h which Europe in general, and France in particular, were passing-, the atten- tion of the world concentrated itself upon a military hero. Napoleon had risen out of the revolutionary contusions, like t!ie vision of war, with its helmet on, which frowned over the cauldi-on of the witches in Macbeth before it sank into the gi'ound. He foresaw that his absence for an interval would more thoroughly than any thing else disclose the weakness of the Diiectorv, and plant his ladder for an ascent to supreme power, fie sailed from Toulon on the 26th May, a.d. 1798 ; captured Malta b^ the way within six days, thus acquiring 1200 pieces of artillery, besides several millions of money in gold and silver; landed at Alexandria, and took the city by assault ; then marched to Cairo, after beating the Mamelukes in the battle of the Pyramids ; and received in their capital the news of Nel- son's victory in August. That irresistible admiral thus rendered illustrious the Bay of Aboukir, and encouraged the formation of a second coalition against the French; who had ravaged Italy, abolished, as thev thought, the papal government, and revolutionised Switzerland. The Uongress of Rastadt unveiled the betrayal of Germany by Austria, who now coalesced with the Emperor Paul ; while Naples and Sardinia dared to commence hostilities ag-ainst the armies of the Republic in Italy. The horrible assassi- nation of their plenipotentiaries concluded the congi'ess at Rastadt. Suwarrow was advancing rapidly from Gal- licia ; the Archduke Charles repeatedly defeated Jourdan and his colleagues; when the Russians had joined him, Mantua was once more invested ; the Parthenopajan Re- public was formed and overthrown ; the Ionian islands be- came the pi-ize of a fleet of Muscovites and Turks from the Black Sea and Constantinople ; and the tricolour lost tJl its ucquLiltiOiia as euslij as ii&d g'uiiittd them. BuC r98-1800. CH. XX.) MODERN HISTOHV. 447 Europe in the atten- tniy lipi'o. ■ontiisions, li fiownetl before it nee for an se disclose tier for an !on on the ray within •V, besides landed at 1 marched ttle of the vs of Nel- iiiral thus ncouiiiged 2 French; )nffht, the and. The ;rinany by aul ; while ies against )le assassi- Dngress at Piom Gal- d Jourdan lined him, jpaean Re- ishinds he- iirks from colour lost lem. But rJLf /. i''"*^/'''"* ""'^^'"^ «"•«« "nfoitunately senn. rated, throuffh jealousy as to the laurels that were to^be pthered m Switzerland. This enabled Massena to ^et «n^''= ''T; r^cf""^ ^''^'' ^y -^«. Bonaparte now wrote a letter with his own hand to George ill suj- gestingpacihcation; luiit was not until hi eagles S soared m ti-mmph ovor tho plains of Marengo tha?Austna Tnl't'^'A r''^^^' n^oi/especially after Morm had ^ntlf^A ^'' Sr™"? "'™'^« '■" *f'^ *^»'iWe action of Hohenhnden. Three hundred thousand troops, flushed wuth victory, were on their road to Vienna, '/he treaties f.t^r?\F^'^^<^^', Eadahoz, and at last Amiens L »,.«.«„« «, tuosQ icaae witii iiussia, Turkey, and JBm- 'i^s^i£'!i^imiS^^isa.H 448 MODERN HISTORY. [a.d. MOO-4. baiy, afforded some temporary traces to Eiirope, a.d. 1800-2. England had re-conquered Malta and Egypt: her union with Ireland appeared to have strengthened her domestic energies ; but Pitt nobly resigned when his narrow-minded sovereign refused to emancipate the Ca- tholics. The niitional debt had risen to five hundred mil- lions sterling ; while the Baltic states were reviving the armed neutrality. Great Britam shook her trident with vengeance against such menacing measures ; Nelson bom- barded Copenhagen ; the sudden removal of the Emperor Paul alone prevented an attack upon the Swedish and Russian fleets. His successor Alexander ceased to persist in his pretensions, either with regard to the former mari- time league twenty years before, or as respected the grand- mastei-ship of Malta. The Knights of St. John therefore ought to have had their own again; but as matte.'s turned out. they did not obtain it. Tranquillity was as hollow and deceptive in its appearances as it proved brief in its duration. The realm of France was, however, at all hazards to be conciliated. Roads were laid out; canals dug; dikes, hai'bf/urs, and bridges constructed ; the spirit and genius of invention encouraged by honours and rewards; and the ar- rangements of adjacent countries rendered subservient to French interests. The magnanimity of the First Consul, as a regent, had its drawbacks : yet when he culminated, like a blazing star, it was felt that another Caesar reigned. His celebrated code was already projected ; the Legion of Honour was created. A Concordat was concluded with the Pope, imposing chains upon the Chwch of God, just as the world always does ; although at the precise moment when Omnipotence pleases, every manacle or fetter is seen miraculously to fall from the hands and feet of the suc- cessor of St. Peter. His Holiness gave an entirely new episcopate to the empire : ten archbishops and fifty bishops to be appointed by the executive, but installed from Rome; the curates were to ^e nominated by the prelates, subject to governmental ratification. No long interval elapsed before Bonaparte, after an appeal to the nation, came to be declared consul for life An hereditary imperial diadem CH. XX.J MODERN HISTORY. 449 mer man- was now evidently gleaming through the smoke and dust with which all classes endeavoured to conceal theriabouS m closing un the sepulchre of the repuUic. A reS.^ court assembled m the saloons of the Tdleries EnS the grandson of Cond^, was arrested in Baden biS t ' Vincennes, and cmelly shot in the ditches oTeSle The varioiis passions of a French public were all appea ed to: tear of a return to terrorism; the love of pomS and parade, equipages and fashion; the flattery of Son.l ambition in the homago paid to' rank, forS, anS t ties Moreau, the hero of Hohenlinden, the single lumfnary^ t^^^^^^ might possibly compete in glory with th^e ascSidS sun was falsely accused, implicated ii the misprision of tilason' and relegated to America. The consJvacY P -^ced Joseph on the national juSrafforStsT^^^^^^^ ^ J^ ^«P^-' *h' sentative constitution and In T-'°'^?? *° ^ ^'epre- Paris, the Pyren^r .oliSl'; , ^^ Z'ZrJ'T'' ^' native or flJ^-a ZlZ J'f ^^'''' ^^'''^''> whether that point, ,uid^ r 1 Si .in 1 ff commenced from battle' of B.vit: was fouSt Z'^^"^ ? *"^ ^^^^ ^lie intrusive m-n,aM;I; Sade S fi ,/"'^n*^'^ "^ ^^^'^'^ *h« capital. It r^, amoT thlft -^I'^' '^ ''"^^'^ '"^ the mont, l;th 16,Jw ren? lakl doln llf- " "'^^^ ""^' ^"- lit up a dam* nf .„,i!!l.!!'^i*?^'? *^^ea- arms ; it at least -''-^'"="^' **"icu was never quite to ej. 454 7I0DERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1808-9. pire afterwards. Palafox held Saragossa, with a myriad of lialf-trained but much-endiu'ing followers. About the same time, the French had appropriated the ancient kinff- dom of Etruria, as well as that of Portugal ; but from the latter the house of Braganza escaped to the Brazils; and Junot was defeated by Wellesley at Vimiera, 21st August, A.D. 1808. The congress at Erfurth, in the autumn of that year, involved secret aiTongements between Napoleon and Alexander similar in character to those which were sometimes ventureu upon by the aatocrats of ajitiquity, — Russia was ~.o conquer in the ncnrth and east, France in the west and soutL. The emperor of the latter, now no longer under any apprehensions ri&t the treaty of Tilsit womd be disregarded, threw the enevTv of his prowess into the Peninsula. Wita 200,_t30 sjjiiers he crossed the Pyienear. ranges, holding his va^ forces at fii-st in combination. like a dosed hand; thea opening it gradu- ally, he pusiieti the extremities of stnog columns farther and fartlier mto the outiTing regi^, until his gi-asp seemed to settle over every quarter of the country. The whole campaign was that ot a master in the science of wai'. General Moore cafoid be no mEsh for such an an- tagonist ; with a lew shivering- blow? ne rapidly broke in pieces all oostacles ; the reti-eat of Corunna barely saved the wi-eck of a iine British host. Januaiy a.d. 1809, Even Saragossa fell; and the conqueror withdrew to execute ano- ther scheme, leaving ms raai-skals, with their magnificent armies, to complete what he had begun — the military sub- jugation of Spain. Austria had been establishing a gene- ral militia for the last six or eight months, which Napoleon called upon Francis to disarm. But the court at Vienna felt, from the hour in which the Spanish Bourbons were cashiered, that in the general situation of Europe lay the causes for a fourth coalition. England responded to her sympathies ; and in the middle of April, having until then answered pacifically yet equivocally to the requisitions from Pai-is, her final manifesto appeared. An archduke, at the head of immense forces, marched upon Bavaria; a second on the Tyrol and Italy; and a third against Warsaw, — Charles, .TnVin onfi T?Qivljnnml \t\\. nnt.nekf onliimn Tnoi*/< Vin/l against CH. XX.J MODERN HISTORY. 455 NS^^feIltl^lu™!,^''"^P^^^^ ^^«* deplorable. moJf frn^?? *^® '^°'^^' ^^'^ept his own; so that in a ra4cavalrv3 ' f^'^^A^}' \* annihilated the French vantao-es Fwln^J 'i''' ^et yielded no substantial ad- rnrn^o Eleven thousand corpses floated down the Danube EirnearRnnh ^iS/^/^^"^^« J^^". defeated in a bloody Ce EuZp S',P J""e, was now in full retreat b^. tv^! !!vJ <5 ^"^^ ^°^ '^'^ *^^ ^*^ and 6th of July fouo-ht days^S a f'^"!,'^Tr* ^f Wagmm. These Saw^ days with a thu-d not long- afterwards atZnaym, humbled ga.e^atthe'disposal^?Xt^^^^^^^^ fomed by him mto another state under his imS ZS as S^-- ^r'''^'^' *^" ^"«^'^'^ ^'«*1 f«'I d aT^abhSe^ thewarwitS/"-'°'^'"V'^^^ *« harbour of Antwem! 1 u 7,*" ^"^^'^ ^'^ased of itse f. More than 3 'lOO nm Sudermama succeeded, under the title of CI arles Xirr Bemadotte. one of th* mo,^K„u ^c-n 1 '^naries Alii.; *^^ MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1810.18. clared Crown Prince at Stockholm. Bonaparte was not t^Ti ^° «"cV° ^PPr°* ^^^^pHinent beL paid by"S mdependent realm to his already elevated fortunes • he wZZl ^T'^^ amWgruously on"^ the whole sublet ye? would not endanger other more important projects by iay ttl\^! "°f asonable jealonsy. fcs grandeir wasS zenith after the Peace of Viemia. Josephine was divorced at the end of the year, with her own consent. NapoSon married Mane Louise the eldest dmi^hter of fE March/n. ?81L "^ ^"'^"' """' ^"™ °° *^' ^Oth of But the naeridian of his majesty was passed ! In the ™tonness of msatiable ambition, he ventured to attack the Church of Almighty God. By an imperial decree the temporal authority of the Pope was abolished, and his dommions mcorporated with the French kingdom of Italv • a royal revenue and residence, either at Rome or Paris' were insultingly offered to the representative of St. Peter' His Holmess responded with an anathema, as righteous in Its occasion and character as it proved awiuUy Resistible Vili %'^ ? vain were fresh acts of violence jperpetrated: Pius VII. endured his arrest on the Quirinal, his sub^ sequent Persecutions and long imprisonment, with a dignity which edified all Christendom. In vain was the GranJ Duchy of Frankfort formed, the crown of Westphalia enlarged, Bavaria and Wirtemberg enriched, the Tvrol arbiti-arily subdivided, Holland united to the empire of prance: her supremacy stretched to the shores of the ^altic; so that, including the mouths of the Elbe, the Weser, the Upper Ems, and the Lippe, there were now 160 departments In vain were the Alps crossed by an unparalleled road over the Simplon j in vain were the Py- renees pierced by mihtary lines in every direction. Joseph isno^'^M I' fT''i ^°*!:y,^*o Madrid in January a.d. 1809; Mai-shal Jourdan had the commandership-in-chief over the seven armies which remained in Spain after the departure of Napoleon. British assistance afone sustained the Bourbons; Sir Arthur Wellesley, made Lord Viscount Wennigton, gained the battle of Talavei-a, in New Castile, upon which he had advanced from Portugal. Soult now CH. XX.] MODERN HISTORY, w succeeded Jonrdan, and far surpassed him in activity and lZh"nf";y. ^i' ^'r^ ''''^^^'^'^ thenTseJve i^ tSe south of the Peninsula, with the exception of Cadb Srf .T "£^ ^''''^''^ ^^^« P^««««d b^ Massena who uivaded the Portuguese provinces, and wrecked his fame Vedms ;r« "^T' '^' ^^l^^'T'^^^ barrie,^ of the Tone Vedms tlie mtrusive monarcK at Madrid could only sup. sv{fP,^ 1?TJ ^^ *]'" suppression of monasticism, and a system of plunder and confiscation carried on with the iron hand. The achievements of Suchet assisted to maintain the preponderance of his master through a.d. 1811 rbit the gTierillas scourged the provinces, and the Marlborough of the mneteenth century Lrst forth from his LuSS entrenchments. The drtes, with a new otst tuS mindfbl nf"; ^T*^"'- .Alexander in the north, at lentil tZ ntfln.- ' *?" P°^''^ ^"^ reputation, was engagL the attention and resources of the master of contTnental SfeX ^^'-^^^""l^i ^Je«tia had not been finiitlessly defended in their fearful sieges; Ciudad Rodrigo anS Badjjoz fell m January and April a.d. 1812; the victory of Salamanca was gained in Jufy, which i-aised the ftiS Sinf oV''*^ '° ^''^'^- ^« f^'^^d' however before Burgos and once more reti-eated towards Portugal But M it was, had excited the interests of the nation; which through Its almost undisputed supremacv at sea, could bear its stupendous burdens without being ci-ushed under them Soult with 50,000 choice troops, was summoned for the march to Moscow. Jourdan L^in resumeTthe command, with an evil genius in the sha^.o of pSenS malediction hangmg over his head. Tile grand triumph at Vi toria on the 21st of June a.d 1813 terminated ihe wretched reigji of Joseph Bonaparte. Welhno ton Hill PamS'^''^ ^T.t '^'VT'^ ^d ««^t*«red enemie's p it Pampeluna, and through the valleys of Roncevaux. Sou] t retui-ned with three-fifths of his 'division to pro ect the Pyrenees; but it was too late. St. Sebastian^and Pa^! peluna we^-e both captured, after obstinate ra<=i>j MODEHN HtSTOHT. lA.D. 1812-ia November, he retired further^to IWe lu^SVS But ferther non.i the phenr.nena of wwfnre oODeo, I &Srt t^h Sp '- h^"-- A,ex„„d..,. L.p™ «e^ rr PeS:iit-'Se;i'''"K>fd th^ P.ir f C"',.'' ''''■"'' ''"e-I"nd hnnpily adgted bT -:«»S Lween the coLt^sUI,^!; „ tond T^^a sT "„ 'f ' u'fi '""^ Bonaparte was clearly revoivTn'o- 5^ hi' ht\s^a/atjrs,;^tSt;-~£ c ossed the Niemen. Alexander withdrew wiselv enou/h ^h!,'"'*-^ advanced, and the sn.mner woie mvav wi«Lz;StiSLSt So^t ^ffob =dZ«LTr:^;feS: HaS of Borodmo opened the road to Moscow, wliere in Sen tember the Kremlin received the conqueror amazed «ftT oTtrcitt-f ;r'^^^ p^^^' -dV^^'pSSi : or trie city it was, as an eloquent writer savs "thf. mJ^H ofhis expedition, and tlie tomi of his fiTeatSss » W„ suddenly bu,.t fcth in a brndred^plSfi th^v'a^t OH. XX.] MODRRN HISTORY. 459 TX''- °/ *^^ ^"^"^ resembled an ocean of fire » f„. tt Z '"^T"'"^'*'^ abundance, the ampaign hmi «S??i ?® P'^"^ oppressor to awnste of bl. WnecfruLv S ret and V'^ ^ ""' ^^^^ ^ '"« ^ destrS^^^rl HIS rear, and tuns answer tlif mu-. „i,.-«i i j ^ the fingers of h,s men after the Pope ad excommunica^ tim. wfth *^^>^yKutusoff amused his awe-stfuck vic- ?„i ^^';"^' negotiations late into the third week of ^ ^ober There were 700 miles to cross through a deso fliS stifrP'"*''^ ^r*'^' d°-" ca^e t^fsnowt Si Jl ♦? i . ^"'^"''^^ V ^^""'an beings or animals kdled thousands hour after hourj every moraine sTead befo,-e the wretched infantry and cLvalry a long a„^d cC- tess wmdmg-sheet, upon which a vast majoHtv of tKf^ Sed^in Tt^ '''''''' ^'''^P ^" death 3 %.f S shed around '«e survivors an accumulation of woe. ffis- tory rrfnses to delineate scenes which imag-ination rln scarce], conceive. The Cossacks hovered on S flanks to imp. . sti-agglers; whole columns sometirestr'nt -eJ witno t . attempt at res...tance; weapons were re- Fatedly tarown away with the frost-bitten^ flesh adheri^; to tne horrid iron. Napoleon attacked his pui-suei-s neaf Krasnm with enormous losses, while the w,^X If 1^ host pushed madly foi^ard to^he tnt oT 1 ' bloody Be,-esma. That river for two days and nights seemed S n^^^ly covered with corpses. Fiim thence to tlTcen ra tmvns of Lithuania it was absolute %lit: 1200 pSel of cannon had been driven over that stream in the summer of which not a single pn or carriage returned; wS the ?exr"3oToo^^^^^^^ *'n *>^^"™d or' burned tie :i"pe "witff" ^" -%' j^'"^e Cleon5!;LX'i^ escaped, with his companion Caulincourt, upon a miserS ^ed|-e to bring the tidings of calamity ol" 0^^^*^' Pai-is, durmg U absence, had known conspiraoy, wEich,' V IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 11.25 UilM 121 U Uii |2.2 2f KA ■"" us lU 140 2.0 m 1.4 mil 1.6 6" Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4S03 '^ ^ MODKtlN HISTORY. [a.D. 1813-14. t^^!t f*SP'««'»«d> "^ig-^t tave warned the mightiert despot that tlie sword of Damocles » suspended over im ^h^Iute government, han^ng- often but by a single hai? Em-ope awakemng from Its stupor; Russia aroWS Prua- oLf rT!" • ^ ^^«JJ«°bm.g, fiambu^h, and Stockholm^ ?n^ VK 7*^° came forward to the crisS with promptitude ^d hberality ; for the successes of WeUington in the jfpanish IZwt^'' "^°«.\°Pr*"'^e- Francefmeanwhile, stood Slf ^^%}^P^^^{thvone, and Germany was to be the held of conflict J withm the limits of continental civilisa- tion It IS not too much to assert that there were more than ^^nl?! T ••?®° '^^er arms. Napoleon defeated his op. K ILf ^"iT' ^^''^''' ^^ Wm'schen: which maie bm master of Lusatia, forced back the allies across the Elbe, brought the French from Dresden to Breslau brides securing them Hamburg and Lubeck freyes were turned on Austria; for with her it now rested to decide with better fortunes than at Austerlitz the contend tons of eraoerors. Supported by hopes and subsidies in Wow^ ''\^'^''ff>. «*»« avowed herself about August no longei the slave ot his son-in-law. An additional 300,000 3l ST' *^«Y°^^.at once ranged against him. Swe- th^ 5 ^'° Of nly. joined on the same Side, satisfied with ^vZZr i ^""^,*y ^ ^^^ compensation for the loss tl^f \ .^^"^^^ ^as already condemned to pay this tne Italian frontiers, her adversaries were only waiting for tellaS *''^°^® unnumbered injuries, and revel m re- The semicircle drew closer and closer round the modem ?! wnc r •' ^ ^}^ "'^''^ r *!7 «^'«d him. Whenever he was desirous for action, lis i'oes kept aloof; whenever he wished not to fight, they descended on hini with the hiry of a hailstorm. Bands of Cossacks dissolved the king- dom of Westphalia; nor could the French even remain at Dresden without danger of starvation. Berlin and Bohe- mia, towards which they would fain have penetrated, were ca. xx.j MODERN HISTORY. 461 wmply out oi the question; and on the plauis of Leiosic from the 14th to the 19th of October, w^ foug-ht thS mortal battle of nations, in which God gave the al ies tS Ch\^dIv"o7^00^^^^^^ rV^' "''^^^y masteirflT witn Hardly J00,000 men, he had to enfraffe half aa manv ^n : no talents could bear up againsf t^he ovemheffi^ ing difference supported too as it was by superior posiS enthi^iasm the defection of the Saxons aJd ^ZSlZ m the combat J the yoke over Germany was broken into %mente; the defeated armies reache/the rK S Z ^tLTi °^"''*'V°^y,^«^ *''»^ tho«« which had disorl gMUsed the retreat from Moscow. Bavaria also withdrew W JTP'^**' y«t ^ot before she could placIheS beyond the range of his vengeance. The treSty of Ted ^erT'i?'"''' """"V)? Pr^«^ °^*^« Confederation to the general alliance. Holland proclaimed the hou,?e of Orange as her national dynasty j Italy and Illyria followed tfe uresistible com-se of events. ^Ae new /eai- of ad 1814 dawned over the death of Napoleon's giry : even Mmlt SvAals'Tff'^ '^°^'".l4 "^^ f--d that\eS fS r^' "ff«^ nevertheless were made for the in- tegrity of France witliin its natural boundaries of the Pv- renees, the Alps, and the Rhine; and when England d^ wnted from such terms, the congress at Chatillon, as late as Februai'y, would still have awarded to the French em pemi'.the realm of Louis XVI., aUowin^ for the Tui^nd^ of SIX first-rate fortresses as pledges tSr good behaviour hrh?f 1 *T'^ from these fattc, proposes with di'dr; he had already sent back the saintly Pius VII. to the wprtal of C^istendom, with the restoration of some por- tion ot his dommions ; whilst Ferdinand VII. of Spain who untd this period had remained a prisoner of state re-' ceived not merely his hberi;y but his kiiigdom. The allies now poured into Fmnce, under SwartzenSurg and Blue W across the upper and middle Rhine, and from the Neth^ ands mider^ulow. At Chaumont, on the 1st of Marci the closest confederacy was formed between England, Rus- sia, Austria, and Prussia, for the reinstatement i the Bourbons, raising 600,000 men, and Great Britain finding 462 MODERN HISTORY. [a.D. 1814-15. 6,000,000/. sterling of subsidies. Napoleon, thus surrounded, never appeared gi-eater. Personally he had once more bound victory to his banners fi-om the commencement of the fatPl vear, at Brienne, Champ-Aubert, Montmirail, Joinville, Nangis, and Montereau, down to the 18th of February. At these places he cnished altei-natelv the multiaominal and heroic legions of his enemies, notwitli- standing their numerical supremacy, compelling them at last to retire, with enormous losses, out ot Champagne to the fi-ontiers. He fell indeed, and that deservedly, for he had degenerated into the imperial criminal and desolator of Europe; but like the tiger in his jungle, he continued to the fast hour the teiTor of his destroyers ; succumbing only to domestic desertion, venal treason, the con-binations of an enraged and combined continent, roused into ^uch United action, it is true, by his own unmitigated and gi- gantic guiltiness. In truth, his hour had an-ived ; embai-- rassments closed him in on everv side. The Austrians con- quered Burgundy and Lyons ; Wellington was advancing into the interior. Bayonne was invested, Bourdeaux taken : tlie victory at Tarbes was followed by that of Toulouse; Je Duke of Angoulfime had appeared m tlie British camp. Bonaparte took the be' ' solution of throwing the war into the countries betwo e Rhine and tLe Moselle; but the allies, instead of pursuing him thither, made the best of their way to Paris. After occupying the heights of Mont Martre, the capitulation of the 30th of March, a.d. 1814, it was vainly hoped, let the curtain Tall upon the final act of this mos!; marvellous drama. But it was not so. Beyond all doubt, however, Soult might have avoided the bloodshed wasted so heartlesslv on the banks of the Upper Gaionne. Napoleon moved rapidly towards the metropolis, when it was clear how affaire must terminate: the allies had published a declaration that they would treat neither with him nor any member of his family. He was deposed by the senate on the 1st of April ; and a re- stitution of the Bourbons was demanded the next day. At Fontainebleau he voluntarily abdicated, retaining the impe- rial title, with the island of Elba for himself, and a revenue of about 1C0,000Z. per annum. The empress was to reign OH. XX.] MODERlf HISTORY. 468 m ftiU Eorereignty over Parma, Placentia, and Guastella Her consort arrived at his insular exile the very day thai Louis XVIII entered Paris, after an absence ofthre^-Md* Wy years from the kingdom. Eui-ope now indSLdS immense jubilations. A visit of the Emperor Ai3hp? c'ouLvm/n^X^' i'^^^' *° Enlnd,^n"to^^^^^^^ countrymen, whose elderly monarch, George III., havinir osc the httle reason he hai ever enioved in a d 1810 w«? m retirement at Windsor; his eldeK,' the Sai^anaS of his age, reignmg sumptuously as ReUt. Then S the congress ot sovereign powers^ at VieSna n No' em W which sat till May a.d. 1816. There were presen?, tn^S rhnr.>. V^r ^r^«"*«*ives, the rulers of the' Rom^ Church, Austna, 0,;eat Britain, Russia, Pmssin, ScT Denmai-k, Bavarm, Wiitemberg, Hesse, Baden, SaxewS Z^.^T^^'^'^T' ^^°^' Spain PortS^l,HolS Sweden, Sai-dinia, Hanover, Saxony, and some ofw« Meanwhile the brainless Boiirbons wVpLXti^he Chai^r, and proving bv accumulated acts of Wthat .ivei-sity had taught tLm nothing. The retuni of Se ThSrl ?r'°:,fi^'" Elba once m^e drove thlfi^ tZSf.^ 'J^'^^'V ^""^^S at Camies with a mere tr^^lt "*%°^«?,^ ^« \^' l>o>^e back to Paris upon thl acclamations of millions. Louis escaped to Ghent await- rhe monarchs, still assembled in the capital of Austria, launched against their triumphant adversL the most teS nble proscnptions ; but what Vas of more i^oi^e ev^^^^^^ sin«w was strained to realise them. AH lur^^^^ aghast with expectations. The obligations eSdTnto^ dJiaumont were renewed; nor was tlfeir dreadeTobjoct l4 TZZ ^'^F«Pn«°"«- Pressing foi-wanl with 1?0,0^ men into Belgium, he crossed the Sambre, and defeated tho Prussians ma murderous affair near Ligi^y, on the 16th of S'the But Tb*^'^ Marshal NeySarded .n aln witn tne Uuke of Brunswick at Quatre Bras whPi-P f »,« «tter was slain pierced with a ball through hs'heart after having received several earlier wounds.^ BliicC- h'avto ' tirSfof wTT' ^^"'"^°° ^^" "^^ als: to3 the village of Waterloo, to preserve his communicatiQn «M MOOBBN HISTOBT. [A.D. 1816. with that oommander. On the 18th instant his army of 5ihout 66,000 men was arranted in six divisiMW, their left eaning in the direction of the Prussian lines. Besides a Tariety of desultory attacks, Napoleon made three prinwpal assaults to break the English centre before Blucher could ^ve. Welhngton threw his infantry into hollow squares, which effectiwlly resisted every charge in successioiu Aj'- tiUeiy alone pioduced any impression ; and certainly there did occur a crisis when the imperial gjwrd, for the third time endeavouring to carry then* point, imagined that the tode of conflict was turning in their favow. Bonaparte then ordered forward at once the bulk of his cavahy to complete his victory. The British maintained their ground with undaunted valour: both wings were slightly ad- vanced, the main line standing where it had all along stood through the entire struggle; so that it was into a sort of crescent that the double columns of the cuirassiers rushed down to inevitable destruction. Napoleon beheld them fron afar M they dashed gallantly on,- recoiled,— and then dashed on again. It was, however, of no avail; rank after rank melted away. Bulow now emerged from a wood with a couple of Prussian brigades; Blucher with ma brave battalions also at last appeared. The battle was clearly in the hands of the allies, their adversaries giving way every where: by nightfaU the Duke of Wellmgton oould announce a complete victory. His colleagues un- dertook the pursuit as the French fled from the field : not more than 40,000 out of their entii'e army were ever affain eroJbodied. ° So ended this memorable action, after which there was very little fighting. The loss in men and munitions was immense on the part of the vanquished; the victors had only to overtake, slaughter, or capture. Before June ex- pired Blucher was in sight of Paiis, when a capitulation was signed, by virtue of which the imperialists were to evacuate the capital and retii-e behind the Loire. Napo- leon abdicatiid finally in favour of his son; swrendermg Limself to the disposal of the Prince Regent, by whoM mmuters he was conveyed to St. Helena, which he reached OB the 16th of October a.». 1815 ; and whew he remained OM. XX.] MOOBRN HISTORY. 406 a pmoner of war until his death. Louis XVIII retuni«H to his metropolis, after an absence of one hind^S Z^ S^/^' ^,^"«^ conferences on the 20th of NoTembTr tha the northern and eastern frontiers of Fran^ with fifty Tloiy'"^' ^^r ^!^^ ^y °f °°« hundred '^d fttty tJiousand men, under the command of the Duke of Wellm^n; that seven hundred millionH of Ws should Saarlouis, and L^^i^^h^t^^^^^^^ ^ttL^ ""'}} f i"^^ *¥ '^'"«i°«d attached to F^ce but which really belonged to Savoy, should be ceded R.?; France was allowed to retain the vSssin aTd jl W other limits, with so little chane-e Hm? f o.w?- 5 nither gained than otheiliseti:' ^^^ Irnt'Sui:^! ficml surface, as compared with her actual extent pnTto ?,^v.T "/r-.J* '" ^'^^ ^""^'^ that Austria gS and vTn Btlnd *l' '':T^'^'^^^ of I^n^ine, flsaS, ^d i3;g;;^e^i^TS^r&iJr^ =£aiM aldtntToTF^' would have' in^fact weakeZTh^heS? fnli 7 • ^^.f °P^-, ^"™<^ »Jso fell With his brother! m-law, bein^ dethroned through the ambiffuitv of his m^ duct; and ^Wards shot asl rebel wheSyemnld?; SarkloW"^- r^l'^'y- ^^««*«^ her trSfroL iienmark to Sweden, but in vain : as having proved faitS z^^'?;^.^ 7r s *^pots.i4* tures and statues brought there during the period of tho fore Z rr 'T'f \'^'^ P^-«P«r plaC^me be! fore, and the rest after the conclusion of pence. TlL H H 4M MODBRN niSTORT. [a.D. 1812-16. Bourbons wpre brought back to their royal inheritance with an arduous task to perform ; intruded and supported by foreign bayonets, they had to heal the wounds imd soothe the vanity of a people who connected their very presence with national defeat and mortification. The Chai-ter mipht have worked woi-se than it afterwards did ; for with allita other defects, there were constructed two chambere : one of peers, hereditaiy or for life, to be nommated by the crown ; the other of deputies, elected by a constituency lefs than a hundred thousand in number, to represent thirty millions of population. There was to be a nominal aristoci-acy, without prestige or territorial basis, with iust enough democracy to keep the revolutionary spirit alive, and induce it to catch at the first opportunity for effectinir an explosion. The Toryism of Great Britain was then rampant; having of late experienced no single check, ex- cept in the distant disasters of an American war. Beyond the Atlantic, the United States had grown with rapid strides: Louisiana had been purchased from Bonaparte, who had acquii-ed it from Spain by the secret treaty of St. Ildefonso, in a.d. 1801. British orders in council, arising out of the absurd continental system insisted upon by Fi-ance, inflicted enormous mischief upon the commerce and rights of neutrals in general, and North American mer- chants in particular. Presidents remonstrated with gi-eat dipit;5r, hut little success. At length war was declared at Wnshmgton, a.d. 1812. At sea, England lost within six months more than two hundred trading vessels ; but the attacks upon Canada all failed, and hostile expeditions tound their way into the interior of the great republic. Still It must be admitted that, upon the whole, she gained tar more than she sufl^red, both in naval and land actions. Her victoiy at New Orleans over General Pakenham, in January a.d. 1816, has placed the name of Jackson high amongst militaiy heroes; and if there is a flag at which Great Britain looks with the profoundesfc respect and ad- miration, it is tliat of the United States of North America, liie peace of Ghent between the two countries, mother and daughter, was concluded on Chiistmas-day, a.d. 1814 CH. XX.] MODERN HI8T0RT. ^67 live. only a fortnight before the disastrous offiiir of New Or- leans; winch, of coui-se, would not have happened had the pacihcation been but known. The Congress of Vienna now completed its labours, cautiously pi-oceeding to reconstmct the federative policy , Euioi)e. It was a mighty and important work, of winch future generations may perhaps be able to form a more correct estimate tlian our own can hope to do; but much may be already said on the sides of failure and suc- cess. The influence of public opinion, although not what It ought to have been, was nevertheless strongly illus- trated, so as to prove that the French Revolution had not happened in vain. It was admitted, to use the ex- pressions of Professor Heeren, " that princes and nations do not exist to make war iijwn each other, unless forced by necessity ; that states, in toi-ming a free political system, must mutually respect the independence of each other j that constitutions must be regulated by fixed laws ; that a certain poition in legislation, especially as to taxation, must be conceded to the people through their representatives ; that slavery and bondage are evils which must be abolished: that a legitimate share of freedom should be allowed to in- tercommunication of ideas, by means of the pen and press; hnally, and above all, that there is -mnection between religion, policy, and morality, which ih o be strengthened to the utmost degree : all these were maxims either ex- plicitly declared or tacitly acknowledged." A restoration of the balance of power was repeatedly avowed as among the objects nearest the heart of the leadfing membei-s. Ger- many was to be a confederation united by a league, for the maintenance of the tmnquillity and political equilibrium of Europe. Its concerns were to be managed by a federative diet, with Austria for its president ; the sovereignties being gu-ty-nine in number, fiom that of the empeiw down to Hesse-Homburg, and including the four free cities of Lu- beck, Frankfort, Bremen, and Hamburg. The Austrian monarchy acquired the Lombard o- Venetian kingdoms ; the three secundo-genitures of Tuscany, Modena, and Pai-ma: the lllyrian provinces, Dalmatia, Ragusa, and its islands, to the (mlf of Cattarii; thA Tvml VniH>»iK»»« «„,i a«u-v ^^ MODBRM HI8T0RT. [^.d. 1815 M ToK sT'r ^ Malta and the Ionian Islwids, Trini- S ES^ ¥'^ vuSr»dt fe wonderful phenomenon oflJ] L7^u . ■ *^® '"°«' Holiness Pms VII fn f».! ,^ *^? restoration of His in7h«,-y. fr/ /• .° . ^®^"^*^ dominions of the Church of tfe 0;d«r of Sf T ^? "*f ''^^^ ^«d I'een the revival Itwdi b.«„emb««l «... a.. rZi^^'i^u^'t CH. XX.] MODERN HISTORY. ^f^ Bolemn nn net of justice and restitution as that of once more nresentmg tfie sacred Chair of St. Peter with ?he Pont.hcal States, were the Protestantism of Great n 'tain the Lat.tudmarmn.sm of Pmssia, and the Sclavonian Sol ? m ?i Z'f •A'"'^'' t^'e acclamations of the Catholic 00''^ few can fail to see the finger of Almighty God designatiS iip^r TT"/." '^ °^" '•«%'°" 5 «' wh««« feet every SI !f*'°'^ u° ^°^' '" ^"^""^ «^ involuntary sS mission; whose inherent vitality becomes every da/ more and more visible; and whose light, in its ultimate and ino8.std,le brilliancy, will brea£ through eveiT cloud B^^'tt' r4 »'f " be illuminateS wUhls S IfleMed be the Lard who hath exalted it: and nmv Jfe re,gn over tt for ever and ever/ Blessed areTluZ thJt hveth^e, andrpoice in thy peaeet Nations fr2 afar tid 'Ttt '^'', '^f ;?" *'^^^ 9\ft'>, aJ adore the L^d ^^J^eiand shall esteem thy land as holy. For - 4T0 MnnrRN niHToRT. fA.P. 1866. CHAPTER XXI. A. D. 1815—1856. nOM TOB OONORBM Or TIRXXA TO TUI PRB8BNT TIXI. PcACK once more establlshe*!, the f^overnments of Europe had time to turn their attention to domestic affairs. Louis XVIII, followinj? the coui-se of his Bourl)on predecessors, wns inclined to fifovern badly enough, but his rule was ren- dered more oppressive yet, by the ministers who were forced open him by the allies. France, tired of revolutions, and findini^ that all she gained was an increase of poverty and opprosaion, seemed quiet during his reign. He died in September, 1824, and wus succeeded by Charles X, a weak and tyrannical 80Vf>reign, whose oppressive measures excited the nation against him. The French Army under General Boarraont, entered Algiers on the fifth of July, 1830, The victory of his armies seems to have emboldened the king to oppress the nation still more heavily than he had hitherto done. The people rose in the streets, attacked the Tnileries, established a provisional government, and declared the Duke of Orleans Lieutenant-General of the kingdom. A few days afterwards, the Duke of Orleans was chosen king of the French, and took the oath on the 10th of August, as Louis Philippe. Daring this period an important measure was carried in England. Ever since the latter part of the last century, there had been much agitation on the question of Catholic Emancipation. Somewhat subdued during the war with the French, it was more excited than ever after the peace of 1816. The principal leader of the movement was Daniel O'Connell, a man of great talent and strong will, who devo- ted his life to the one great object of liberty of conscience A majority in favor of the abolition of the test-oath had been obtained in the House of Commons, but the Lords refused to accede. In 1826, O'Connell was elected to Par- liament, but refusing to take the oath, was rejected. Ireland was aroused, the public voice of all Europe and America OR. ZZI.J MOORRN HIBTORT. 411 WM ttffamst the mfnlstcra, ond the fear of the TOfemniont forced thein to yield. Th( Emancipation of Ciithohcs wuf proclaimed in April, 1829, and the next mouth O'Conuel. took his seat ni the House. Spain, torn into faction.s at home, lo.st nearlj all hci American possessions. jChili, Peru, and Bolivia ; Columbia Guatimala, and Mexico, after the example of the United StateH and Buenos Ayres, declared themselves independent of their European sovereign, and set up governments for themselves; but for the thirty years during v. ,,jh thty have been their own rulers, they have presented an uninter- rupted succes-sion of persecution, tyranny, rebellion, and civil war. In 1836 Texas declared herself iudcfwudeut of Mexico and in 1845, at about the same time with Florida and Iowa, It became a part of the Uni . States of America. Remonstrances on the part of Mexico, soon provoked a quarrel between the two countries. The American Army after the victories of Pulo Alto, Resacn de la Palma, Mont- erey, and Buena Vista, marched with little opposition into the enemy's capital, and took the city of Mexico on the 14th of September, 1 84T. This brought the war to an end. On the 2d of February, of the next year, peace was signed !)«. tween the two countries by which, the United States paid Mexico fifteen millions of dollars, and reciiyed in return the disputed terltory of Texas, together with New Mexico and California. While the United States were thus increasing their terri- tory and developing their immense resources, the govern- ments of Europe were on the verge of destruction. A gen- eral revolution broke out almost simulinneonsly in France Italy, Austria, Prussia, and Switzerland. ' Louis Philippe, frightened at its first appearance, fled from Pans and took refuge in England. A republican form of government was established, and Louis Napoleon was elected President for four years. His administration was strong and prudent ; order seemed re-established, the church prospered, and all was going on well till toward the end of his term, the socialists were plotting to overthrow the gov- ernment, and he was forced to adopt resolute measures to preserve order. He extended his term for ten years lontrer. 412 MODERN HISTORY. [a.d. 1856 onJf\"!? T-T ^/xT^' ^^^"^^^ Emperor Of the French, and took the title of Napoleon III ' The Holy Father, Pius X, was aiso driven from his states by the sociahsts, but the revolution being put down by the French troops under General Oudinot, the Pontiff was able to return m April 1850. The Hungarians under Governor Kossuth, were for a tmie victorious over the Austrians. The Emperor of Russia however having sent assistance to the Austrians, Kossuth resigned his authority to Gorgey, who, unable to withstand the force brought against him, surrendered to Francis Joseph Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, took this opportunity to invade the Lombardo-Venitian kingdom belonging to Austria. He was defeated by Marshal Radetski, and abdi- cating m favor of his son Victor, fled into Portugal. A few more attempts were made by the socialists to overthrow the different governments, but were quickly repressed. The new government of Napoleon HI, though nnsatisfactory to many of the best men of France waa apparently well established, and likely to become a p^rma- nent dynasty. Napoleon was now at leisure to turn bii attention to other countries, and being of t^e same opinion with ttie English government, that Russia was glowing too powerful,— they formed an alliance against her, and joined tte .Turks m a war which they had begun ajramst Russia. They sent large armies to the Crimea, des^oye^ the Russian fleet in the Black Sea, and after winning tl. hard-contested battles of Alma, Ballaklava, and Inkennan they laid siege to Sebastopol. Finding, however, that Russia yfBS more powerful than they had anticipated, they consented to treat of peace. A treaty was accordingly Bi^ed at Pans on the 30th of March, 1866, which puts an end to the war, but leaves all the matters in dispute lust a; they were before the war. The world is now at peace, but this peace may be only a mil of the tempest, after which, it will break forth with renewed force. The high pretensions of the "Haughty Island Queen," have been severely checked of late, than which nothing could afford a surer guarantee of the peace Of the world ; for seldom has there been a war which wan not either began or nrged on by Great Britain. INDEX. ''wnimt^ •? Moloch the Emir. A w.?^*" -chamad the Emlr.ZSr Abba. Abadallah al Oaflkh, 8S. AbbM»ide., the dynasty of the, founded, Abo, peace of (ir4S), 409, Abbot SuRer, 246. Abdurraliman, 61. Aberstadt, battle of (1806), 4SI. Abu Beker, the fint caliph, JI. Abuhaffide*. the, 14J. Abu Obeldah, S3. Acceptants and Recu»ants. the, S89. Acn^.'.ur "'^lllian. and Mary 32«. "X.^f """J^F"" Britain 'iter the congress of Vienna, 468. Acquisitions of Austria after the same. Act of Toleration, 337. Act, Habeas Corpus, 319. Aets^of Union and Security, Swedish, ActoftTniformity, 318. Address of Popes Oelaslus and Sym- maehus to the Emperor Amistasius, ,^^n of Bremen, IS!. 184 '''^' *'*' '''»P'«Pl»er of 8. Henry, A^mbert, Archbishop of Pisa, 124. Adhemar.the first Bishop of Puy, 123- Adil, nephew of Nadir Shah, 366. A^o'PhM Frederic. King of Sweden. AdomJ, of Genoa, the, 236. tfnl" ^y- f °Pf • san<:"on» ihe annexa- non of reland to England. 146. A.lrianople, battle of (a.d. 378), 5. Adrknople becomes the Turkish capital, Affghans. the, 364. Agincourt. battle of (1415), IM. Agnes of Gulenne, mother of Henty nr. . Emperor of Germany, 111. "*' "? Alx-la-Chapelle, peace of (1668), 867. ^Mos"le^":f2T"'""^''"*"'»'«'- Alani, the, 6. Alaric, King of the Goths, saeka and plunders Rome (a.b.404) S. Alaric, Kinir of the Visigoths, lue. b^aovi". y!" *'"" ^'^'' *'*'^ Alberonl. Cardinal. 847, 407. Albigenses, the. 176. Alboln, chief of the tombards. 83. Albert the Bear, 1 13. ' Albert, Bishop of Riga, 187. l^'L"- ^"'"' *•' Austria, Empenv of Germany, and King of Hunn? and Bohemia. 222-25, 286 ""»"^ AU»rt of Mecklenburg, King of Sweden, ^"iffJ 0' Brandenburg, Grand Mutw .."'the Teutonic Knights. 873. Albert, Elector of Brandenburg. 281 Alcahuans. the, 351. ^^ Aldenhofen, battle of, 435, Alemannl, the, 7, 8. Aleppo, its wealth, 23. Alexanderlir., Pcie, 117, 119. • AexanderVI., Pope, 111,242. 286*" ' ^""ew. Prince of Hmf, Alexander, King of Poland, 829. A'«M>der, Emperor of Russia, 448. Alexandria captured by Bonaparte, 446. A exandrian library de8troyer53. rl'j. *]'.*, ^*'*' *■*"»*' of Peter the oreftt, 45], »■ ''Eall%3?r2Sri27: ^'"'°' "^ *>» Alexius 11., emperor, 95. A exlus III., emperor. 98, 132. A ex us IV., emperor, 188. Alexius v., emperor, I3S, 138. AUahlm, or J>mi4 Caifn, , ^^^ 473 ttXDZX. AUUiMt iMtwetn Vtniea, th* SforiM &c., the quadruple. 241. "' n^^„'"'**B*.'' ^"Po"''. Emperor of Germany, Poland, and Denmark K'e.MK •"•'"= »>"«nc"S ^nl*""*' *''• lu^druple, 347. StotM 39V**" '""" '"* "" """** Alliance against France, 435. Alliance of KalUch, 460. A mania, battle of (1706), S4S. amVI'VJ' ]",".'!i*' '"«• 'uccestor of Abdai Abadallah, Caliph of Cordova, Alp Arilan, nephew of Togrnl Bcr, 121 i?T"'*"" Magnanimous, fou.'der mJu ^"W»n«e. Neapolitan, and Sicilian dynasty, 232. Alphon.o, King of Portugal, his glorioua reign, hi* singular dream, 164 A phonso III. King of Portugal, 231. A phonso y. KInK of Portugal. 232 Sro?"*° ^'*'"'' "" **!•">"•» Friar, Altranstadt, peace of, 407. Alva, Duke of, 285. Amadeus V. the Green Count of Savoy, Amal^ntha, daughter of Theodorlo, ^^.^■u'^*** "' Theodoric the Os- trogoib, 17. Amalu, lamily of, 5. Amarath I. Ottoman emperor, 204. 10" II- Ottoman emperor, 209- Amarath IV, Ottoman emperor, 219. Amauiy, son of Puike, Count of AnJou, Amburg, battle of (1796), 442. American CUoniet, the, 269, 370, America* Vespucius, 232, Amorian dynasty, 85. Amrou, general to Mahomet, 52. Anabapt&is, the, 273. Anastasia*, Emperor of the East, 22. 39. Anasusius J I. Emperor of the East 82. Andrew, sor, of Charobert, King of Hun- Sf "^k?!"! 2"!'"'' "^ '"'"•'•• ""«" 4"2f«'"''I^l"ng of Hungary, 168. Andrew Doria, revolt of, 273. Andronicus Con , onus I. Emperor of the East, 92, 93, 97, 133. *""" " IM "^" ^"P«''»' o' 'he East, Angles, the, 9. Anglicanism, cause of lu fUlure in Ire- land, 311. A^omania and RepubUcaniim In France, 4t6. Angora, battle of (1402). 20S. "" Comn''eTur95: '''"'^'"•' *" ^'«»" Anna, Quern of Henry L «f p„act, ^""••Empress of RuMia, daughter of the blind I van. 4 1 7. "-"•"•"i w Anne, Queen of EngUnd, <42-4«. Anne Boleyn, Queen, 306-8. Anne, Countess of Cambtldge. S61. Anson, Admiral, 361. ^ ' Anselme, General, 435, Anthemius, Emperor of the West II Antloch, its weJfth, 23. ' ' Antipope* at Avignon, 1 78. Antonina, wife of Belisarins si ApolllnaSs. his hewiS!""' Apsinar, the pretender, 81. ArabUn fanaticism, 101. Arcadius, Emperor of the East. 91 Archbishop LiJud,317. ' ^"'J'^"''* Charles, of Austria, 442-1. Archduke John, of Austriar464. Archduke Ferdinand, of Austria. 454 Arcides, race of the, 87. ^ Arcoli, battle of (1796), 442. A™?!' •">?"*••' daughter of Lm» tlw Great, emperor, 22. Arichis, Duke of Halemo, 67 Armada, the Spanish, 288. AM'orBXit.ir'^'''- ;^&rn"g'o'f iJu^n^STur ^"-^ Arrigti Dandolo, Doge of Venice. 1S4. Arschlte schUmaiic?, the, 192. ^ Arthur and his kulghis, 9 "^ Vllf: fo5°"' "«"•'"•' »"K HoniT aLIw'o' P"™*' "'Algiers, 274. Aruk Barbarossa, 219. Asealon, battle 01 (1099), 128. Aspem, battle of (isou), 455. Assassins, the, or fanatics, 137. Assassination of Gustuvus HI. Miam 01 Sweden, 409. ^^ Assembly of bishops at Lyon*. 7. Assembly of the French Notables, 4M. Assignats, French, 430. Assizes ot Jerusalem, 125. Association of English meichanta itar trading to HIndoJtan, 346, 7. Atlialaric, son of Amalasontha, M. Atterbury, Bishop, 347. *"»'». »tyled " the Scourge of God," ». Augsburg Confederacy, 836. Augustine, St., Bishop of Hippo, 10. Augustus, Emperor, 2. Augustus II. King uf Poland, 412. Augustus III. King of Poland. 412. Augustus, Elector of Saxony, 277, 291, Augustus, King of Poland, 375. . Aurungsebe, the Groat Mocul. U4. iirsEx. r Alnina ' Pnnet, ughtorof W. 361. nt, U. I. SI. 14S-S. L >,454. Ltotlw ,r. kndnv , lU. Honijr XlBg ,4M. s. 10. Austria made a dukedom, 113 HSr^r""" A,''"P''''"»'» King ilicbard Coeur de Lion, 131. 4M^i.fr'*''*'- ?"?' "«"'"»' France, gre»i or Vienna, 457. Avignon, Pope Clement VI. tettlei at. «nd purchases, in-z. ' Avitus, Emperor of the West. 13 Avitus, Bishop of VienneTs'* Azores, the, reached by Cabral, 232, 473 k sou ulrfce. M6.'"' "'• "'''"'' *"* Turk. BadMr, the Venetian Enroy, his oor- BiS!!d"U755"'-"°*«''^»."'- SlTcl'ofS'J^et'er""'''"*- Baldwins (the), I. II. ni. IV. and V.. Kings of Jerusalem, 127. """»•' Baldwin, Count of Flanders, first Latin Emperor of the East. 136. Eirt!"l39: '"' '*"" ^■"P*«» »«' the Baharites. dynasty of the, 142. B'alli^Ce'in'"''' ">''»^'*'°«. 364. nf^.* PiT^rg, mother of Don John Hm/h^""""',,"'*.*'"" of I-epanto, 2857 Barbarossa, Frederick I., Emperor of Germany, us, 117, 130. ^ BMdasexcommunicated by St. Ignatius, *^« P^jWPP'cu., Emperor of the * Wl^' *'*''*"™*^ "onk of Calabria, rJ,'?!!*'. "''*'"' ^*"='' Directory, 439. Bartholomew, maksacre of St., J83-4 Bartram of St. Giles, 124. IhiLtw'Sr*"'"""' ^*«<« »' ^«i' *^' ^"l^ror of the East, his looK reign and victorious deeds, 81. * Baai lan dynasty, the, 87. Basilel, the Czar, 413. BasUicus, code of the, 88. Bassora founded, 53. Baatlle stormed, the, 428. Baton, the Tartar, 200. Bautzen, battle of (1813). 460 Bavaria made a kingdom, 440. nf vfJi'",.* "•/,»•'««'» "od Norlcum, 8. Baylen, battle of ( 1809), 443 ' Bayard, the Chevalier, 272. Beachy Head, battle off(1690), 338. wi'.*' ^'"»=^^' "'ft of FnSerIc Bar barossa, emperor, 1 is. B^fitfies sf Ts:u!s s** BMiuuTu, GvMial^Ml. Bede, the Venerable, 184. 2rfPl*'''«l"eof(17l7),S4e. BdlsMlus, the celebrated general. S«, **.n'.IJ"l"*' Cardinal, and others, on the authority of the popes. 41, Bellelsle, Marshal, 37^' Benedict XI , Pope, 171. Benedict XII., Pope, 171,230. BenedctXIII.,an^iope 173. Benedict XIV., PopCsss. Berlin and Milan decrees, 442. 4T2T4's5.*' **'"•""' King of Sweden, Bernard, St., 129, 133. 'crfemSn"f.7l^''^^' «'•»'»•«'»«" Bernis, the Abb«, 380. Berthler, Marshal, 440. B«rS.v' 5'«i?op of Hildesheim, 184. Berwick, Duke of, 342. Beza, Theodore, 282. Bianchl on theauthorlty of the popei. Bibars, the, 142. *or Yortfs'is.*"' ■"*"'* ^""••' """• Black death, iti ravages, 242. B'«*e. Admiral, his victory over the ?"'«'» ««t (1642), 320, destroy.. Spanish .quadron in the Caniile.; *'h2*'''*' **"**"' ""*''•' of St. i:,oulip Bleda, brother of Attlla, 12. ' Blenheim, battle of (1704), 342. Kc?i^51^"^'"*"*«''»»«- Bo«thlus, 18. Bogdol khans, or Hanehou prince*, 363 Bohemian .tate. Imbued ^iShemy, Bohemian Insurgents, 293. * Bohomond, son of Robert Gutacard.«i#' Prince of Antioch, 123-4, Boleyn, Anne, 306. Bolingbroke, Lord, 346. Bombay acquired, 367. p«t""' •'"'•*P'»—S" Joseph Boni^ " IwSf^O ^"^' "••*• ^'"« "' ^'''• '"Bo"„i"£.^''«'*»"-*- Napoleon Boode, royal race of, 397. r™ >f*'^,'i?"«KovernorofAIHca, 10 c^^ «,!iV'.^T'."* magnanlSoi. lesX^r ^'* '■'^°"* J"»»"~' BonUkc'e IX*.. Pone, !?». Bonne, Uuch'eu of 'saVoy. S3d. ^MMt, Bbbop, 307. " ^^ -'• ^. 474 nrosz. BorKites, dynasty of the, 142. Borodino, battle of the (18121. 45S Boscawen, Admiral, 382. Honphorua, naval expedition to the, 104. power'>.,"5l!''*'P"*"''' •"" '•"i""*' Boufflers,' Miwhal, 344. Bouillon, Duke de, 301. 44»'"'"'' '"*'»'••'' *^o» Fwnce, the, Bourbon, tliaConsUMe, iri. Boyer, General, 453. Boy ne, battle of the (1690), SSr. Briicio de Monione, il7. BragaiiM, hoiiae of, 468. Brahmins, the, 361. Bremen, an outpost of Christianity, 74. Breslau, paciflcation of. 376. Breuteuil, Baron de, 428. Bridget, St., her predications, 173. Brienne, Archbishop of Toulouse, 426. Britain, Great, its progress and proape- rity after the peace o/ Utrecht, 860: British orders in council, 466. Broglio, General, 385. Bromsebrae. treaty of, 400. Bruges, Us former commercial Imoor lAncGf I S3. Brtlhl, the Saxon minister, 879. Brunette of Rnmagna, 160. Brunswick. Duke of, 433-38. Bucharest, peace of (1812), 438. Buddhism, or Fo-{«m, 862. Bulgarians, their origin. 108, 188. Bull, the golden, 228" Bull Unij^enitus, 389. Bull, Vnam Sanctam, 171. Bunker's Hill, battle of (1778). 804. Bnrgcqrne, Genera], surrenden to Gene- ral Gates, 303. w"^nB- Burgundians, 6, 7. Bn^ondy, dukedom of, 249. Burgundian kingdom, its extent, 7. Burnet, Bishop, 323-4. Burning glasses, 23. Cabal, the, 318. Cabial, tlie Portuguese navigator, 281. Caffa, or Crim Stamboul, its growth and importance, 148. Calais captured, 2S1. '^a'e'l. gene:8i of Ahn-Beker. 82. Laliphsi, Green or Fatimite, 121. Calixtines, sect of the, 22fi. Calmar. pacification of ( 1 398), 229 ; union Calvin and Luther retaliate, 291. Cambray, peace of (1329), 278. camperdown, battle of (1797) 441 Campo Formio, peace of (1797), 448. Canada, failure of attack on, 4m: Caniacuienos, the Eegent, 198. cape of Good Hope, doubled byVaieo de Gama, 232j captured, 441. Capet, Hugh, 76. Capetian dynasty, the, 78. Capitano del Popolo, 240. Capitularies, their origin, 88. Capitulation, first, of Paria (1814). 46Si second (181S), 464. '' ' ' Caracorum, the Tartar capital. 201. Carinthia, the Duke of, 73. Car smUns, or Choresmiana, MO. Car ovingian dynasty, the, 60. c"n"oT'44s'""'' o'('699), 339. ^"i"!' ' v.' King of Poland. M9. Casimir, the priest, 228. tatalons, grand company of. 198. Catharists, the, 176. ' Cathedral of St. Sophia, 24. Catherine de Medicis, Queen, 288. Catherine, Duchess of Braganxs. tsJ Catherine Cornaro, 237. ^ Catherine, St., of Sienna, 173. " '^ Catherine, daughter of Charles VI It* France, 261. Ca^therine II. Empress of Eussia, 4t», Catholic principles alone true, 89. Cavaliers and Roundheads, the. 817 Causes of the French Rovolutioii. 129. CsMfs predications, 424. ^lesttaf phenomena, extraordinary, 38. Cerinthus, the heretic, 45, Centuries of fWth, religion, civilisBtlou. and improvements iS thi, 177. Chagon of the Avars, the, 38. Chalons, battle of (451), 12. Chalons-Orange lineage, lords of, 228. Charlemagne enthroned, 67 j his otift- Chw^M Marlel, 60; deCsats the San- Charlei Emanuel of Sardinia, 880. Char esH King of Spain, S2C. rK*""!" ?"K'"K»'' Spain, 891. Charles IV. Kingof Spain, 438. 76'. ' ^^^ ^^^^ ^^« of Prance, ^^loe** "■ '"***""?'«) Kingof Prance, ' NieTii^ »■""•-•' ^^«» «' '^2M°* V- C«he Wise) King ottna^t, Chwlea Vj, Kinv «#«bs,;e. .mm^ % imMuc. ebttlw Vll. Ktnif of Prance, as, J63. Charles VIII King of France, 231, i65 Chwiet IX. IC-,n< of Prance, 281, Charles the bold, Duke of Burgundy, Charlei of An|ou, brother of St. Lou's, iW '♦?! JnvMtea r,ith Naples and Sicily, 159. Charles II. King of Naples. 220. Charles III, King of Naples, 221. Charles IV. Emperor of Germany and King of the Romans, 223. Charles V. Emperor of Germany, 233 ; his interference with the Church, 27G- ■ 0( 79, ^m'^ ^'I- Emperor of Germany, 859, Charles VIl. E.-nperor ofOermany, 376. Charles I. Kmgof Enj-land, state of the nation during hi« reign. 814- 16: his execution, 317. Charles H. of England, 817-19. Cjja^es IX. X.and XI. Kings of Sweden, Charles XII. King of Sweden, 403, 4. Charles XIII. King of Swedei, 453. Charles Borrome >, St., 280. Charles, Duke of Neverg and Rethel an'l Duke of Msintua, 295 ' Charles Edward Stuart, Prince, 893. Char es Theodore von Sulzbach, Elector Palatneofthe Rhine, 387. Charles Canuteson of Sweden, 897. ^ ries (iustavus of Deux Ponts. 80.1. 4*S5 ^'*='"*"''« of Austria, 442, 446, Charjes Albert, Elector of Bavaria, 875. Charlotte Elisabeth of Slmmern, Prin- cess, 336. .••"■ ChMobert, King r>f Hungary, 220. Chartres, Duke of, 435. Chateau Cainbresis, peace of (1659), 280. Chaucer, poet, 187. Chei!hinieeas, the, 351. Cherases, treaty uf (1631), J95. Chevalier Bayard, the, 272. nil m"]^'' ?'• ^"''^' '•"'' *♦'■«• Child, Sir Joiihua, on the growing great- ness of England, 336. ««"»" Chio^gla. war of, with Venice, 235. China, war in, 4. Chivalry, its influence and principle of action, and degeneracy, 182-3. Choseul, Ducde, 391. Cho>roe8, King of Persia, 79. Chcuans, the, 447. Chk>t«ire, King of Prance, 89. Christendom, its state in the 15th cen- tury, 261. Chrlatiem I. King of Denmark and Norway, 2.10. ^ N^" m *^'°' *" "Denmark and Christiern' 111.' Kin

»lf«in8t France, Co^^^'^'Jon. the third, acainst FranM, Ci^lition, the fourth, againat Fntuw, 454. Coburg, Prinea of, ^SJ-r. 5««s ^ thr SssSicas, 5S. Coda, the abodlu.UV. 476 Cod* N«l»l«on, 448. i-olbert, flnancler, 329, Collgni. Admiral, 288, Collot d'Herbota, 437. Cola dl Rienzi, 1 72. ColonlaJ ,y,tem of the European poweri, Colonisation, French, S57, 401, Columbut. Chriitophir, 282. Comnenlan dynasty, the, 92 Commanden of the Faithful, jocaUed, Committee for public safety, 435. eZ'm. '"* """""■•ctuw. of the ^TiStul "'""'''"• "' «>• Middle '^"theT^M'. " """" '"*'•• tafluenoeof Commonwealth, the, 317. Company, East India, first .„d second. Companies of ordonnance, 264. Companies, French chartered, 338. ToTut^'"' »°»»I««« "i the Condi, 'the Great, 282, 301 , 2. cZi^l'i!^' oj Augsburg (1688). 336. Confederacy of Chaumont (1814), 481. Confederacy of Smalcalde. 273. 227!^*""^ "' "" ^'^' ««tons (1308), Confedewtlon of Germany, 487, Conference at Polsey, 882. Conferences at Pllnlta, 432. 8m"* **"*"'**^ by Admiral Hawke, *'wo%'.U8!'''"*'*'*^'''«''««lt''« Congress of Chatillon, 481. Congress of Erftjrth, 444. Congress of Radstadt, 448. Congress of Vienna, 463, 467. Conon, the Isaurlu, 63. Conquests of Protestantism, S2«-fl. Conrad, Emperor of Germany, 76. Z^J 'he Salic, Empeiti' of Ger- >'Glr'i'4,?,tr2r*-' =""«'" w.'"^e?frr'''°'"^^''^«^'" Conspiracy of Aviero, 390. Conspiracy of Cinque Mars, 301, Conspiracy of Geoige, 449. ConspiwMsy of the Pacci, 241. 272. • ^'""^''' «">n»Pir«cy of the Constance, treaty of (1183), 118. moxx. ^tnXs'ioleTo"' " ^'^ ^♦^ Constantine the Great, Emperor, hi. Constantino III. Emperor of the East, ^?f'^*p •.'^- (P««»"«tus) Emperor mH.^ ?".V f"^* t""* »i«»r of his two "M{ii;'^Ko1rt5ri^ rp^''fi?'''-'''^''^^«S;'>«'r ^"rT^^tS^ 7- (Copronymlua) Empe- ror of the East, hfs afomlnrtle ifc, ConVtantino VI. Emperor of the East, 'ES-pSi^r^ftVeUy^'^-'*-) Con«antine VIH. Emj^eror of the EMt. Cowiantlne IX. Emperor of the Bast, CoMtantlne X. Emperor of the Bast, ConnantineXI. Emperor of the Eart, Consianttoe XII. Emperor of the East, ^Tm'^"^!!',''''''' •'i'^rfpaon of In IMS. JM; decay and termination of tti iSs^s-L^r4ir !Sn^WK?i;Sp3;J!iC Consulship, the'prencnw. ' Consular constitution, 447/ Contades, General, 381, ■nd Henry of Anjoi, 134. """"VU ^?J!f' i:? ill.' ^^^^' pintosula be- iween the Christies anrthSl!to5.S; r™?i*.T"''*i'«A™«rt«»ncoloiifea 104 Convention of Closter-Sevem iUniZl: reus conflicts, 3e0-81 "" Convention, French, 433. Convocation of the States-Oeneral 4M Co^P^^nhagen, treaty Of, 404lSSid5 Cornbury, iuord, the first milltar* *.. jerter to William, PrinUToSnJ?; Comwallis, Marquis, 368, Conuma, battle of (IN9X^4m^ Coraw, rtyJwl the Father of hit Country. Co»rdCKf of the Wolga, 30J . Council of the Ancient., 439. Council ofCoiisiantinople, 4S. Council of Chalcedon, 46. Council of Clermont, 12S. Council of Constance, 173. 270. Council of Five Hundred, 439. CouncI (general), of Lyons, 192. Council of Nice, 4J. ConncilofPlicentia, 123. CounclliifTrent. 279, 80. Count Roger, 107. oTsavS^ytm'' '""'"'""" »"• «««• Count Brilhl, 379. Count de Merci, 302. Counu of Nassau, their descent, 222. Counts of Paris and Orleans. 76! Cracow, hattle of, 406. Cranmer, 306. Crecy,battlB0ffl346i,2Sl. Cretcent, pro;jre8H of the. i4. Crespi, (leace of (iJ44). 276. Crispus con»pire.s against Phoclat, 78. Cromwell, Oliver, 317. Cromwell, Richard, 318. 139" °'^"*'*™*' *"•• brought to Prance, *^jrj}jy>fgEngland and ScotUnd, union Croiier iubatituted for the sceptre, the. Crusade of the children, 177. Crusades, the, 93, 123. 128, ISO, 140-42; their beneficial eifects, 144. Ctesipbon sacked, 53. CubW Khan, the Great Mogul, 862. Cufa founded, 53. Cumberland, Diike of, 377. Curfew, the, 1.13. Cuatine, General, 435. IHDIZ. 477 D«BEX, battle of (I5I6), 217. Danby, Earl of, 318. Dandolo, the Doge of Venice, 134-fl. Danes, the, 9. 77. * 5'"!*?'*' *''''P'e<' metier of Basil I., 88. Danish coloiiiHiitlon. 359. Danish East In.iia C.impany, 359. Damon, one of the chitfs of the Moun- tAiiif 437* Dante, his Divine Comedy, 187. Dm , its double walls and lofty towers, Dauphin, the (Louis XVII.), 436. Declaration of Rghts, 325. Defeat of the united fleets of France and Spain off Toulun (1744). 376. De MaUtre on the p ,pal authorltr, 42. Democratic societies, or dubs, French, De Huyter, th« Dvteh admiral, aweepa *•>• •*»**»•» • hroom at hia maal- IJe Tiv'andes, Marshal, 288. De Witt, the l)utch admiral, burns Eng- Ush ships in the Medway, and attuika Portsmouth and Plymouth, 322. Denain, battle of (1712), 3^5. Denis, King of Portugal, 281. Denmark and Norway, union ot, 400. Denmark, her West India coloniet, 359 1 her persecutions, confiscations, and loss of liberty, on the change of reli- gion, 399; levenues and miliUry re- sourcen, 401. Derbaud, its celebrated Iberian gatea.SS. Derwentwater, Lord, 346. Dcksalines of Maytl, 462. Diderot and his associates, 393. DiUon, General, 433. Dionysius Exiguus adopts the modem chronoloKy, 32. '~»»» Dioicorus, the schismatic, 46. Directory, the French. 4.18, 446, 7. Dispute between the royal and dttcal lines of Holstein-Gottorp, 401, Diversity of government of the Oer' .^rnans and Sclavonlans, 410. Division of the French Empire by Pepla, DivUlon of France into -military dla. tricts, 447. ^^ Docet«s, the, 45. Dominic, St., 132. Don Philip, second son of Ellzabetli 378°"*' ^^^"^ Dowager of Spain, Don Sebastian, 287. Donation hy Pepin to the papacy. «4i confession of faith, deed of donation. «c , laid by him upon the altar of St. Doryleum, battle of (1097), 124. Drake. Francis, 288, 310. Dresden, peace of, 377. Dsongar, deserts of, 4. Du Guesclin, 252. Dugommier, Ge:>eral, 4J7. Duke of Alva. 285. Duke of Parma. 290. Duke of York, 447. Dumruriez, General, 433-35. Dundee, Lord, 338. Durazzo, battle of (1081), 107. Dutch repui.lic.itsindependnnctfonn. ally recognised, 303. sle* ^"*' ^''*'' *^'""P'"y' *■>• f«moui, Dutch BrazUian Company, 857. Dutch, the, lose their possessions in Ceylon and the East Indies, and De- merara, in the Wtst Indies,'441. ?* '„" woollen cloths introdnecd into England from the Nathcrlanda. 330. Dyimty Qftha Abaaaidaa, 5S. m ^limi pytii»ty, tit Amoritn, 89. D) n«»ty, the Basllian, 87. g Dynasty, the Comnetilan, 92 ynaaiy, the Capetian, 76. yiitttty, the Carluvlnrian. 60 Dynasty, the Casnavlde, 121 pyn/i»ty, the Heracllan, 79. Dynasty, the I saurian, 83. Dynasty, the Macedonian, 87 Dynaaty, tlie Merovingian, 7. Dynasty, the Ommlad«8, 33. Dynasty, the Plantagenet, 246. Dynasty, tie Tudor, 261. Dynasty of Souen, founded by tb« Mon- gols, overthrown, 362. _ '"* "i^ Sea, fearful ravages of, 32 P«f T,?^^.'*^^°"'P*">' Che first), 369. E*3tl„diaCompany(theseeond)formee East, afterwarS wife of Rpmanus III. Emperor, 91 Eugene, Prince, 340. *^ ' Eugene Reauhamols, 430-55. iustace, brother of Godfl-ey of Bouillon, Euthar the Ostrogoth, J8. tutyches, the heresiarch, 46. Evangelicals and Puritans, 393. c^Ied"«7*""^""" '■"'" ^^"* *•• ?^P-"'"J°?.,'«""" OunwTon, 438. Eylau, battle of (1807), 4«1. Pactioh* of the Circus, 24. Fact ons of the Hats and Caps, 4l». Falkland, Lord, 317. • Famine in Franco, 338. ^ 86'*"' ^'***°'*"' Prine* It VxtiUk ^ aX^V^aT-sr*^ '"" '^•'"'■- Fatiina, daughter of Mahomet,' 52. ? Fenelon on the spiritual and tempotil powerofthe Popes, 41. ""P"™ Feodor I. Czar of Muscovy, 414. vlr^u! "..• C/ar of Muscovy, 415. 291. • ^P"^" o' GenB«ny, ^*2M.l"'' "• *^P"" «" Qermtny, Ferdmmd IIX. Emperor of QermMiy, Ferdii^d of Austria, Emperor of Aus. "Sfry"- **"* "^ ^*"' •»« P«dln»nd, Ktnr of Kaplei and moir. TXOTZ. 479 Ferdinand VI. Ung erspalii, Sit. Ferdinand VII. King of SpainMBI. Ferdinuid, Duke of Bruniwick, 381. FeriB, Duke of, 290. FeuMd»ky, King of Huugarv, 226. George Prince of Denmark, 3li, Otottfi U. King >f Eq^nd, S|t» 480 nrsKx. 0*rm»n Confederation, the, 29. Oeyten, the, of Mount Hecia, I04. Ghent, pacification of (1814), 285. Ghent, peace of, 466. Glaii Oaleazzo, Duke of Milan, J34. Gianni Caracclolo, 221. Olannonl on the revolt agalnit Leo the Emperor, 6S. GIM.OM on the devaitatlons of the Saxoiii, 9. Gibraltar taken, 342. 4ms'"* P'"""""^** "d executed, ^'Cr^.'J "It •*;'*'? Po«"««lon» of t»,mK'" '''«'""', eleventh, and twelfth centuries, 98. Glastonbury Abbey, it> library, 18S. Olencoe, maisacre of, 338. Glycerius, Emperor of Rome, 13. Gnostlclim, 4S. I Godfrey of Bouillon, 128 j elected to the crown of ^aleatlni, 12a. Oodoy, Manuel, Prince of Peace, 433. 266 "' ^*"<'''''"' "» 0'««t C'ptain, Goths, the. S i settle in Portugal, 6. Grand Alliance againat Prance, 341. Grand Cairo, 56. Grand Company of Catalani, 193. Grand Pti, battle of, 433. Great Britain, her continuous progress and psperity atter the peace of Jin */i ' K^*** ' her periloui state, «0-41 ; her acquUitloni after the long war. 468. Great Mo^ul, Cublal Khan, U>e, 361. Great Peate of 1 360, 253. Great Revolution in Trance, Its causes career, and consequences, 422-443 rlZl ^"li'"""^' "» de'erioratlon, 93. Greek fire. Its efficacy, 54. Green Count of Savoy, 22r Greenland, or Vinland, the fUth carried there from Iceland, 105. Gregory il.,'poi)e, 64. Gregory, St. (vfl.). Pope, bii character, Gregory X., Pope, 159. Gregory XI., Pope, restore, the papal thairtoRome, 173. *^^ GrMi^ada conquered from the Moors, Grey, Lady Jane, 307. Guelderlaod, Duke of, 271. Guesclin E'u, 252. I Guelfs and Ghibellines, their titles whence derived, 113, 117, Guibriandt, General, 301. Guise, Duke of, 282. Gttiaes, the, 28S. Oulot de ProTlnt, 181. Oulscard. Robert, 93, lOf. uundamund, js. n.fJ^'lli.'"' Ounttenie, ehtef of Qm Burgundlans, «. Oundobald, King of the Burguadtana. ^! defeated by Clevis, 8. ^ Gunpowder known to thi» Moort. 1«S Gunpowder Plot, 812. "°°"' '"• m/"",.*, Adolphus, King of Sweden. ??f ' •?'• eharacter, 397; defeat, th; i.'S;:';^,!""'" """ "•"«" °«- °4M «V^""' *'"» «'8w«l.n, 398. °rin Vf!-4i'S!"'' «'''''•*'»' •-- °rord,i5^,-.^'"'' •""--". -- Habba. Corpus Act, 319. Hakem the Caliph. 122. Hamadanifes of MesopotamU, tb*. M, ul^'i' "' }*?''•»"». »•>• Emir, 843. Hampden, John, 317. Hanover made an Electorate, S4fl. Hanover erected into a Kingdom, 461. Hanovettan succession recognised. 348 Hanseatic League, 151. "»""•"• »*»• Hanse Towns, 151. Hapaburg, rise of the houM of, I«5. Harcourt, General, 302. ' Harley, the Minister. 346. Harolds of Norway, the, 108. . Haroun Al Raschid, 38. HMtngs, battle of (1066). IWI. I Hastings, Lord, 368. Hastings, Warren, 378. Hats and Caps, factions of the, 409. Hawke, Admiral, 378. Hayraddin of the Red Beard, 274. Hayti, its disorganlMtion, 452. Hedwiges, Queen of Poland, 228. Hegira, or the Flight, 30. VIl!, mT"""' *** "' Constantlne "xhwlt'i* """' ''"" '" "" '•'• "' ilenotlcon of the Emperor Zeno, 47. l"o;M''nt2?r"''''''»»^''"'«« nlnH 't"?' vi"*" ?i"«f "' Portugal, 288. 5*'"> "; King of Prance, 277. ff^. "/•,?„'"« of Prance, 281 ; „sa^ •inated, 289. "••«•- SfH"^ iyj^^Hfl of Prance, 290-1, 296. Etmj III. Emperor of Germany, m, mix. , Mwiry IV. Kmpcror of Otnunr. hii ml«er»ble r ''"f "«» <««- ^V^iaJ^'^^??"" »'0«nMny, ton of H«rbaroi«a, 113, U«. Sfnl'' VII Emperor i.f Oerm»ny. 221. Henry the Fowler. DukeofS«xonv. 109. OuJlf lis""''' •"'^"•™«"' "»• Wolf or Henry the Lion, IIS. Henry, brother of Count Baldwin, Em- peroroftheEaal, 138. Henry of Bollngbroke, founder of the HouMofI'"'''«" divine*, Hockklrchen, battle of (1758), 381, Hohen;.nden, battle of, 447. 373"'""""'"' ""' Swabian famUy of, Holieiiaiauffens, the, 220. Ho land, i.er commercial enterprise, 846. Ho and united to France, 456. Hi. stein-Oldenburg, House of, 897. «oiy See, its estMea and paUlmonies. Aftl Holy lance, discovery of the, 124. HonorU, ilster of the Emperor Mareiao, Hood, Admiral, 436. Horn, Count, 285. Hospitallers, the, 126. House of Lancaster, 160. Hou»e of Hurick, 414. House of Savoy, 227. Ilouseof York, 261. Howe, Central, 304. Hubertsbufj?, 384. Hugh Capet, King of France, (bonder of tlie C^petlan dynasty, 76, 248. Hugh of France, the Crusader, 128. Huguenits. or CalvinUts of France, tho. 2»2. ^ Humboldt, his researches, 881. Hume and Hartley, 293. HungarUns, the, 77, lOI, 108. Hunnerlc. son of Oenserlo, 17. Hunnlade*. the celebrated Hungarian general. 211. 226. Huns, the, 4, 6. Huis. John, 225. Hussein the Affghan, 364. Hyde, Anne, daughter of the Earl of Clarendon, wife of James. Duke of York, .'ilS. Hyder AH, 305. IlKAHiM, son of Agtab. 86. Iceland its Logmans or Judgos, Orw Goose Code, 104. Iconoclastic persecutions, 86. Ignatius (St.). Patriarch of Constantino- ple, 86. Igor, the Muscovite, 104. Ikthidites, 56. Iminuiiities of the clergy, SI. Inans, the, 353. Independence of the Dutch Republle formally recognised, 303. Independence of the Swiss Cantons rt- cog liaed, 327. Independence of the thirteen Urlted States, 394. Independency erected on the ruina of Hresbyterlanism, 817. Ind:a, itsrevenues,anny.and vast trade, 368. IndulKcnces abused, 268. Ingulf establishes a republic in Iceland, 104. Innocent III., Pope, 114, 120; his cha. racter, 132 ; reproaches the Crunaders, 137; and famous Pun Ideate, 182. Innocent IV., Pope, 150, Innocent VI., Pope, 173. Innocent VII., Pope, 173. Innocent X , Pope, 335. Innocent XI., P.^pe, 323, 335, 355. Innocent XII., Pope, 335, 341. Inquisition of the ADRlicsn estabUsb- BMOt, Hi. n 't5;/rr'""^-^-P— roe, IM^rf'."'''"' *^»"'' «*"«"« 'bout. U» »'V.ZT'f'^ /o EnBUnd. pr^v ou.i,. Iiene, tiiiproig, 54^ g^ •"""«. io». l.a«Ar,Belu,. Emperor „r.hBEa.t. 9?. Sty, »f "'"•'"•"«» ComnenUn {*j\urlan dynatty, the, 83. I.l.m««l sophl. th. Per..an monarch, l»i«m, croedofthe. 60. WiM. 15 Id. ). . "' ^*""» 'o Theodore. , ^rJSch'Et.lp^^e':';,*''"""""'' "•"" Ivan BasilovMch, the Czar. 229-30. J.« ^'"' ">''"'h th« Great 413. 'Tc«r:'K' ''• "'"™" »"• ""e |v«nV.theCsar".41S. '""•• ''**'«" o'Odo and Adelaide, 22;, iAcoaiM,, the, 431-32.34. Jncobiniiim, 4S2. Jaderi.dorf, battle of (l?J7). .., Jamaica conquered, 320. lm'S7r.*„^"r"'""^""?«-'vl Janlxarfi' •nstltuted, :;04 •lanseult. I, itt spread Mo redb''r *! ?•; revlv«l „f the Order, 4M '"^ '**' ■'oan of Arc, the Maid of Or) rii l«7 Joannal OueenofNnpieB' 22I Joanna II. Queen of Haplei, 221 Jodochut, Margrave of ifori/la »»« John Albert I, king of PoUnrt Vo John Ca»lmer Vasa, Ki.iK 01 Poland 4 1 • John. Kln» of Bohen.ll'^ "^ P"'-". *»«. John. King Of England, 157. John, Don, King if rorti.i»I sm Joimvn/''p''°'\:';'»"«-'."'- th" Bih,.',^r''""''p"' '" *'"•»'»• JohnXIl, Pope, III. JolmXlV. Pope 111. JohnXXII., pip;, 17 . John XXIIl..amipopi 178. John, tmperor of the Eait 94 I a" °'^'''""*' 'o-eraperor oftheBWt, John^P.,.oiogu. 11. Emperor of the jnJiI? v."!'""' Emperor of the Eait 202 %'e:S'l4^'.''""'''''^«-"-'»^' John of Austria, Don 218 58^ John Sobleakl, King of Po/and."jI»,1»l. /°2X"/o9.''''''"''"' ''•''' ''*"''«'''^«».' I Jolm of Gaunt, third son of EdWard III.. JrK D-.'-eofBurgunfi,2»s. ^', old, the tailor 37| '•'111 Hi .iadea, 226. "^^y.'"^- • ' n hubs, 226. John Lascaris, 139. ioRl!o'Krd;i,'?6'o^''-'"^- '°Ta"rta"ry!'{ro'''"^"^"'"°'««'»«y«o John de Witt, 330. John Wycliffe, 159. J^^hnlKVi.*'" *"""»'•» •»-.««. Joseph Bonaparte, 4S0-33 : creatod if in- Joiir(I«n, M«ri.hiil. iit, ^jo ui <.« , Juann,. Q,.„„ of Ch«,*.'vilK King or France, M8. ■ Judicial ciimlMit, to. JtiHjin ()• wfediol, }4| Jullu, II., Pope 2flg J'rttUB III., fope, 879 Juiiot, M«r»li«I, in. Junta of 8fvlllf,«3. Jury trial by, Jo. 5M7 *?!."'??• "*•'• of (irrs), 419. crSlx'::;^:.''""'""''''^'' •'«•'• ltw», Miiitapha, JI9. B«Ji';*''i'"5f.: »"•'«'" «» »>>. Em- pr«i8 MarJ«-Th*resB, 879. *«llennan, General, 4S3. Heermeli'er of LIronl. and Erthonla, Kjlilcranky, battle of, SJB. Kl'jK of Rome born, 4S6. KniBhts Templarg luppreMed, iri. Koran, In tenets, 80. ''?hi,''n ? '■"V""'"' ^I 0»*««"- K'«« of the Bohemians, 151 Kremlin, ti.e, burnt by the Ruiibni, Kunemdorf, battle of, sjl. .KutUMff, the Russian Renaral. 4M. Kymen, peace of, 420. La Fayette, 431-3. It Hogue. „attle of (1668), 8J8. l.a, Kochejflcquelein, 436. Xady Jane Grey, 397. tambello, Princess of, 438. -Lancaster, House of, 260. I-ance, discovery of the Holy, 124. Landgrave of Hesse, the pigamlst, J74. Ungara the Spanish admiral, 486 tanglanrt, William, poet, 187. ffJ-J ^"""h OEcumenleal Council or, 1 32. Latimer, 308. Latin hymns and sequences of the Bte- vlary and Missal, 185. Laud, Archbishop, 314 ; his fall, 317. Layanion, a priest of Ernley-npon- Severn, the poet, 186. '^ Leaders of the first Crusade. «3. League of Sraalcalde, 276. Leaxue between Pope Pius V., Venice "■ rta»."- '"«'••'"• •«^«»"« Leake. Sir John, HtH. m ^ Vs2*"' *'"•'*•''* '*»^«'fiW Bonapajt,, htf. General, lyj. I.PKlil»tive A ,embly of Prance, 482 Frenciro?*""""' *"" TribuiM., Legion of Honour, 448. tepninn, battle «f 017«), Jrt. Leicester. Earl of, ilj, Lcl^jlc, batiU. of (1881 and IBIS), H8, Lelpsic market established, 166, Leo n., Pope; Home spared at hli In. tercesslrm by Attila, fJ. Leo HI .1 tpe, crown, Charlemagne, 6^, LeoX., i' i>e, Jh?, 270, 398. Leo the Or. (. Emperor of the East. SI ^•» I (C. on the Isaurtan) C^^i ofljie E»»i.6S, 83. *^ Leo IV, Knu frorof (h» East, 84 Leo V Emp« ar of the East. 83. The Eait'.'si/''"""*'"'""^ =""»•"" »* Leo Pllatus, ll. lecturer on Homer. I4| Leont us Pilat, „f Thessalonir; »o Leontius, the 1' render, 81. ■°i'"*ll''/^'"P'"" »f Oemiany, 828, SMi his Padua circii ir, 432. """'"••' Lepanio, battle of 1571), 218 Lepaux of the Fri eh Directory, 43* Lerma, Dwke of, mfnUter to PhillD III of Spain, 2a4. !"«•. Letonmeur of the Fr Lettres de Cachet si 430. Lewis, or Lladis1au» and Hungary, 2ifl Lexington, first bloo contest with the , 304. Liberties, the OalHcat nrh Directory, 489. •pressed in Prance, King or Bohenria split there In «« toricu eoloBlM, --—...., _...,., 3SB. LIgnltB, battle of {I24(. 200. -4 Llgny. battle of 1815), j3. 4 LIgonler, Sir Jo.nn, 377 Limerick, Treaty of, 83? Liguria or Lombardy, 3 Lionel, founder »f the i itii* of T^i% second son of Edward I., 161. Literature, its extent am ffkct in wlnt are called the Dark Ag 181 Lithuania Incorporated Livonians, the, 104. Lladislaus, King of Hungary, Jn, tSO- LladlslBus, Kingof NapIeK, 221. Warns, the, of Thibet, 362. Locke and Cudwortli, 393. Lodi, passage of the bridge < Lollards, the, 176. Lombards, the, seixe part of 6; settle iu Liguria, 34 ; s Fepin, 64. London, deMriptlon of, in thet lirteenth •mturjr, ite tlmi tTowing importance. 4 wit Polaad;4l0. 443. 'annonia, 'dued by m fonffFBr;Mmient,sl7. J-onfuerJlte, Ouke of, 300. ford Ru,»«ii, 319. ""* fords of Chalona, J28. t!^I!"."° '^» Magnificent, 338->42 toujs le DebonnaJr*. ?5. touu „f Bavana, Jjn.peror of Gen?a,;y, ""HuVa'r^izT '''"«»''•«•*"«»-'' louw Bonaparte. m«le King of Holland, fouiabourg taken, 882. fowen, battle of, 435. fowoiltx, battle of, 380. Luckner, General, 432. lunevllle Treaty of, 447. f u her, Martin, the HereaUrch SM ''n'iS?.'" •"" c-^vinur r'S„,. lutzen, battle, of (1632 and UlSJ, 2»8, J'ar&'f.'3°"8'''"'''''«'"''»'»«'^«tch tyona. general council of, 192, Bf«BX. Macedon an dynasty, ,he, 87. Mace onions, the, 45. M^a-^KT,^."-'-'''"- ».e.' V'"'"' '""'-" ♦«» «he Magyars or Madshares, the. 108 wfi!""""',"'* •"'"at impoalor, 47-8 flO-: m25ZS1 ^pt'oma" empem; aw '• MWiomet 11. ottooaa empwoT be- ftlie"* ••'^^ Coi«t«ntta»pto, Mahomet iv., 219, Mahrattaa, the, 364. Malatre, de, 42. Malorian. Emperor of the West IS Mr***"' ""•""»•«> orfflcLmof, "^tridWr' «"•<•-. •«-«•' MalekShah, 121. Malmesbury, Earlor,44l. ""JirtieslYw""' •"'""'"»"'*''• "y- *'p?ot:'l'8^^'"^"'»''-»''.rofE„gn.h Mangou. the Tartar chief, 201. Manicha-B, their tenet., 176 Manichaeism, 45; theory of revived IM , Manning, the poit, l!,7. "'"*«•''"• Mansueie, the Fransciwan friar SJS Mantua surrendered to the French «, m "• ^"'^"" "f '"•' ^. 195, Manuftcturea in iron, brass *<■ i-». troducHl l..to EngUndr336 '" '"*'*^ Mar, Lord, 346. Marat, oneofthechlefa of theMountriD, Marcellus 11., Pope, 279. March of the Marseill«,e,4SS. ?J"<>Jfield, battle of (12;8), 165. Marchioness of Pompadour' MO ''iTffnXdiJr »"''•'«•"•»•. Maria, consort of LouU XV, S48 presa, 375; l,er noble ap3^o the Hungarians, 376; her high character ?J*r'?, ^<>"'»e. Empreas, 442. en ?n» ""''"'i'^ •*'"««" 'he North- er I Powera and Holland. 3»5. JJ«"""""''w»ofOleron, IS7 Mj^lborough, the Duke of. hU chme- Marseilles, l.f|. Marshal de Tavandes, 283 '*"Xreri52^'''''*^'^"»'»-«»'^ Marahal Sue. art. I Martin I., Pope, 62. Martin V., Pope, US. M?I!i'M?"f'''"^°"^'>arle. the BoU.JM Mary. Queen of Charles II. of Naplee. Maiiacre of Glencoe, 388. M^.*^'" ?J^'- Bartholomew, 288-4, JJ*J»«n». Marshal, 447. 457. m! ^•v'?' **'*."' wuntew, 117. M?!Im"' /"'Pwof o' Germany, 291. 226 *^°'*'""'' K»"« of Hungary, Maurepaa, colleague of Turgot, 42S Maurice, Duke ol Saxony, 277, 291 Maurice, Emperor of the Eaat, hit bad «5'*.f"^r"^K* «'• G"«^ the Greal and the Church, 356. Maxen, battle of, 381 ^"?ary.'i5s*""*•'•^"'>=°*^- Maximilian II. Emperor of Germany, MaxIraUian, Duke of Bavaria, 293. Maximus, Emperor of the West, 13. Mayennt, Duke of, 289. Mayors ofthe palace, 59. mI^^H!' S":"'"""' 301 ; hi. policy, 328. Mazeppa. Httman of the Cos.acki 407 Mellisenda. daughter of Baldwin 1 . 127 ??9.'""' '^''' tbelxaei^iTd feri"'; Meridines, the, 286. Merovingian dynasty, the, t. Mf rovlngum famUy, their possessions, Merson, treaty o£(847), 76. Methodism. 393. Mexicans, ojr Aatecs, the, 361 at'm'^'^ ''"^"'' •«'ert^nment Michael I. Emperor of the Eaat 85 ''ihe'"'^'; ^T ^'''ys*"'') Emperor of dynas^'w.*"""'*' •" '''' ^""O'"" Mi^il*"! ^Ib ^njperorof the East, 86-7. ''prof'L^i!5:t.^9r'"«°"''"^ ^'"- TrofVhe'a'«i'""°"'-'> =- Michael VH. (named Parapinaces) Em- ^ peror of the East, 92-3. '''""'*> *">- Michael VIl I (j-HlsBologus) Emperor ort'»eEa»t, 139, 193. *^ m'^I!"".' i^. Emperor of the East, 193. ^T^^L^^^lh '?.•>» n^ive price of uroKz. 44Sff Michael Federofltch aomanoff, nand. son of the Czar Ivan, elected cia^4W Michael Viesnovltsky. King of mi'd,' Milan, Dukedom of, 285. "'anrr/n'tirfa^,'"'"''' *«'^' M!r"1?Sl,^V6^'^""">''»''- Mirrors of polished brass, >(. Mississippi sclieme, 374. Moawigah or Ommiades dynasty. 88 Moeilo morass, 5. ""•Vf M. Mohacs,battleof(l527).2i7. Molinisra, 389. '"oWno, the Venetian ambassador, hti l! 316. ''*"""" ^ *"• wlgn^jimM Moiwlu,*battIeof(l741).378. Weftf "«""»'«•' *»?««» o'th. Mouastio Orders suppressed in Prance, Moncontour, battle of (1570), 284. Monmouth, rebellion of the Duke of, ^^IJSl*'" ^""P'" ''*'•"<"' 'nto fifteen subahs, or vice-royalties, 363. Monk and Dean, Admirali, defeat the French fleet (I053), 320 Mongols, or Moguls. 140, 195, 363 Monophysiiisni, 46. Monothelitlsm. 47. Monttcuculi, the imperial general. iU Montesquieu, General, 434. Montmorin, colleague of Neckar. 4SS Mompensier.sisterof the DukeS-oiL Duchess of, 289. "uise, Moore, General Sir John, his retreat. 484 '^Be'i^sS^'.r' "^ •'>• "-'"i^i i &.t."t\rm!"'*''"- Moral, butile of, 264. More, Sir Thomas, 307. Moreau^ General, his famous retreat. Mortimer, Earl of March, 260. Moscow, its growth, 414; burnt, 458 • disastrous ret.eat of the French froi: Mo:[iraa»,i5r'"''-' ""• Mount Tliabor, battle of (1644), 802. Mountain, the, 434. Mowaheddins, the, 128. Muley Hasbam, of Tunis, 274. Muley Muhamed. 287. Mulhausen, battle of (1547), 276. Muncer, chief of the AnabaptlaU. 274 Munchou Tartars, 282. Munldnalitiiia «■».... -....- j >_ » ^««t. ;Jb*ehl*i,, King of Naplrt. 4ss, thohc princes, 165. ^^ '^" Nadir 8h»h,36i5.6. Nithtrt, KdJctof. 290; wpeiled 31, gemi w the affair of the 13th v.nX. -iti J"'*'*''*^ «"'«• for life 44S.* ' J*?**! emperor, 4«. enter, VlentiV . «nd Bbdicateg, exiled »n wmt i- '* .Which he re,i«*' ,0 F?anJe V'SIT «ar«i«, the celebrated eunuch er. m- ch«.eter.29,Mieltot.TSaii^„^J Narva, battle of, 406. ■W««efcy,l>«tIeor(164S),»l?. N««u. the count, orthdr descent, ^GSS!?.rp'iSf s^.aVtia^^^lo^'^ frerf-7or.trr^^^^^ Ne^clcar.mini.,er^ffl„;„c; ,„!,„,. Negotiation, at Radstadt-and Biden, Kelson^ Admiral Lord, 446-48 •Nepo.;^Eniperor of th^ Weatf 'is JJ«?i»f'"«. the Heresiarch, 45.6 Nether and. united to Ho land 4flji Neus.rm conquered by RoHo? Vs''' N^?sJnr„:"3.,^"^''^«- Nicephorus I. Emperor of the Ea«t «i< N oephorus III. Emperorof the E^l't B3 N cephorus Phocaa, 90 ^*' "'• SrHr^^ '"^'""« ''''°'"'» fe ''&b%rd'"oaXe^o/& 4j^^omtantlnop.e. 1?7.** ' amiBt N|copo1h.b,t«e,>f (,,»«), ,Bj, > , Nika, the, M. Nile battle of the (1 798). 446 Nonjurors, the, 393. "''•^"• No^^lh,g*„. battles of(1634),»9. (M4») Normans, the, i«f. nIZII "uH f?!?""'^' ""Ion of. 400. S'd! w^"^ •"'' indep^denc. Notable., assembly of the Freneii 49a Noureddln,.onof^h.l1:,Sro?V„'.Si. Nushlmn orChosrm. Shg of P«nto, Nystadt," treaty of, 403. Oatm, Titui, sis. law.,''[<»?."'''^*"'P"" «'*'»'«,« Mpfll^r f'Genjh'* Khan. 199. oaLV"^ Adelaide, parents of Ivrea 827 St. Sever iiu. In his cell ; hi. advice S .h. warnor. who U elected '^1^ if O Iga, wife of iRor the Muscov Ue 104 O eron, maritime law. of/isr ' O va,treatvof,404. ' * OlWawz, mrnlster of PhUlp IV.of Sprtl. Oliver Cromwell, 3 1 r. O mutz, battle of, 381 Olybriu.. Emperor of the Wist Is &:tn\te??ffi^^^^^^ Opening; of the Council of iVLnV vrn its conclusion, 280. "*' *'"'' Orchan, .on of Othman ant Ordeal, trial hy, 20. ''''*• nr!!!r*"f?' »f justice In Florence 240 Or gen. hi. errors condemned 47 Origin of the Revolution In r;,I|-„. commonly called the .?Refom:,'g,V °n?cVm';' """*'"•''« •»<»°»>«w- Orleans, Duke of. 428. Orleans ReBcncy, 346. Orthogral, father of Othmttn. 203 Ostrogoths, the. 5, c, 2? * °™«^fo"''*'''"'^"P«"'»'G». ss2ili.xr5f^^s/ih. OM^ uontor of tfte Cottnt* of Nmmu, I Otric of Saxony, 184. ( Ot|ocar, King Of Bohemia, 165. nf. ■" ""'•Mission fixed, 218. Ottoman Turks, the, 202. Ourique,baltleof(llS9), 164. m Pacci, conspiracy of the, 241. |»cification of Breslaw, 376. Pacification of Ghent, 285. Pacification of Prague, 299. Pacification of Ryswick, 338. Pacihcaiion of Utrecht, 346. Palafox, Genera], 4.H Palkul, the Polish patriot. 408. Pampeliina captured, 457. "^renc'eSfla'r ""'""«•• -^""O- Paraguay, millions of, 355. Pans, peace of, 377. Parii, treaty of, 465. on^r"A"'t^'"*«''. begins to rise out of obMurity and iniignificance. Parliamentary writs first issued, 158. Parliaments in France, 247 PHrma, Dulte of, 290. Parthenopsean Republic, 466. Pansage ol the lieresina, 4Stf. Passarowitz, peace of, 346. Pa«Bau, treaty of, 277. Passive obedience (unlimited) openly patronised at Oxford, 319. ^ Patarins, the, 176. Sf. J ^H- ^^- ^- Pope"' ^^»- Paul of Samosata, is. Paul, Emperor of Russia, 442. tendlm P^i'g"""**?*"*? through Chris- Paulicians revive the Manichean theory p»',?i V?' **«'««:" parts of Armenia, 176. "^ o^f'Se^l'/r""' '"* °»«'' »' ""^•' Pavia, battle of (1525), 272. Peaceof Abo (1743), 409. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 367. Peace of AltranstPdt, 407. Peace of Bucharest, 458. Peace of Cambray, 273. Peace of Campo F.irmlo, 143. Peace of Chateau CambresU, 280 Peace of Crespi, 276. Peace of Dresden, 377 Peace of Ghent. 469. Peace, the Great, of 1360. 253. rcscc or HuiMtiseorg, IMM. Peace of Kymen, 420. Peace of Paris, 377. Peaoe of Passarowitz, 34(1. Peace of Presburg, 450. Peace of the Pyrenees, 328. Peace of Religion, 203. Peace of Btettin, 400. Peaceof VersaUles (1763), 884, (irti) Peace of Vervins, 290. hltl^ of Vienna (1735-8), 849, 412, Peace of Vienna (1809), 456. Peace of Westphalia, 303. ^edro. King of Portugal. 231 Peers, spiritual and temporal, called rh''^?tixt7?7^'"' •"''-"- 5 Pepin dHcristl.al, founder or the Car- lovingian dynasty, 60. Pepin, son and successor of Charles Ei;,'^hr'''f' ""= ^"""h Emp" C«7oman!"6'7.'"'* """• <^"«''«» "^ Peroun, the idol of thunder, 104 Peter of Coiirtenay, 139 HrhVlf n*"?"' "ommlssioned by Pope Peter Ulast, 167. Peter III. King of Arairon, 161. 41". E™P""<" Russia, 805, M, ^ 4l" \fl! °"**' ^"P*""" of RuMta, 407. Peter, Duke de Blren of Courland. 421 Peterwarden, battle of, 346. ' Potion, President of Hayti, 458. '•oVrftMri'?ft^"''««^'«« Petre, P'ather, 323. "" NeSaVdJY*' ^""''' '''''' '» *"• "" Vio^/jT/.'"' "• "^'"8 "' ^«'"". Philip V,r- '''"» "^ ^'■»'«;e, 181, 247. Philip IV. (the Fair) King of France vfirlt3?,'|/r"'"' '"''*• «*"'"«" Philip y.J'i hi Tali) King of France 248 Ph.1^ Vr. (de Valols) £i„g'o7 FrincJ Ptlili J ]\t ^J"^ "' ^P"'"' 280 2-8. Ph iS V -Jf '"S 9f Spain, 294, 329. 5i^l|PY-*'»8 of Spain. 341. .hl^v 'fK^'?"''.^"'^^ of Burgundy %M „ •ij.e Netherlands, 256. D!l!l!£'.P_"?.?,"'LMil«n. 235. Philip, Duk« of Swabfk, 114. , m PWllpp^ofPoltou.M. PhocM the Centurion, 78. I'lasf* of Poland, the lir . .1. Pirej, 2;8. ' ""' ""^' '•«• »•«• ex Picards, the, m. P ccolomini. General. SOO. P^Wu, General, 437.39. P us 11;., Pope, 279. g"'f?tov'pope.2,8. Placent'ia. Council of, 123. P ajTue In the East, 33. Hague cailed "the Black Death >• i«. P 3ntag.net (iynaaty th^ 2« *"' ''2- «M;y. battle of, 367. ""■ *"• p,I.i^;on.a a„; EsU o^'i^™"'*"' *" pir".""' Serjeant, 308. Pode»ta», the, 233. P^f!."!?*"",: Emperor of the £a«t 81 IP^^urnc^/a^"' ^"^•"?' Christian fallh Iniroduced Info ' 1^5?" «'•??"' ""1 Ihlrd p'artftion 42^*' '*.o^.'Jd,*'?h'r!r'es^'i^V Si' ^^L"*™"' ati "^ '^"""^ *'"' •»« politician., K,;,T,7'""°" •«*""'" I* PMeinttii- SHnctton or B^uu^. asii muz. ^el.cy'be^'„|.'i',S'e"5.Ro»".»«9. SKice-K^^S-ur, PregidencyofSurBt,S6r. Prince Arthur, 303. ^"ceofAntloch, 124 Prince of Kawnltz, 379 PnncM of Mountaerrat." 227 Pri»eu.. ge„e«l to Maurfc. emperw, „ in Flanders, 332-3 *''^' "* P^^f~'"°^"'**^'««nt,S4. Progress and prosperity of Gre«t pw. i after the pekce if Utrecht Mo ''*^ •ults, 384.^^^ "' "'' *"* it* M- S"l!°*»'baUleof,407. Puritanism . 8tr«,ge repul.We .y.UB^ s«XttorA?"- teM^'e»«»- QwADi, the, 6. Of Naples, 241 ' "" A'Pi»on.o Kinf Quein ^cl?h1?* "• Medici., 283. Oulberon, expedlUon to, 438. Ra*., battle. OB the (1844), ai»,(ijo», R^«i>ofr«iyor«,a87. xxowx. Rajpoots, the, 884. lUmilies, battle or{i708), 84J. Raymond, Count of Thoulouse, 123 Reaction in relJKion after the TJiirty Years' War, 32;. ■'■■uiy *^T?entr243 ^^"""^ ^^ ">« Council of Reformation, so-called, its origin, 2fi7. Regency of the puke of OrleaS., 846. Re»rcncy ot tJie Duke of Bourbon, 347, lleicheiibach, battle of, 383, Reign of Terror, 435 4;i6. "325'°"' "'"'^ "''' '" *•" ""» eentury, Religion, peace of, 203. Rimigius. St., Bishop of Rheims, 7. Republi. an Calendar, 436. hestoration of tiie Stuarts, 318. 444'.5 "'"'* ^'**' ^''*"'''' ^'vo'ut'on. "■V/r' °^ fi»naP««e from Moscow, Ret», Cardinal de, his ambition, 327. Heubel, of the French Directory. 439 Reverses at Saratoga, 305. Revival of the Order of Jesus, 468. Revocatjon of the Edict of Nantes, 334. Rt^volution of the »th 1 hermidor, 438 Revo ut on of the I8th Fructidor 443. Reyolu.ion ofthe 18th Brumaire, 447. Khine, the Upper, possessed by theBur- gunaians, 6. ' Rhodian Code, 157. Richard Coeur de lion, 130-1. ». l!"1 y • ^'"? "' England, 254. Richard Cromwell, 318. ^Siy "294*:5''""'"' "'• "«'*"y ""^ Ricimer, Count, plunders Rome, 13. Ricd, treaty of, 161. Rienzi, Cola di. the Tribune. 172 Rivoli, battle of, 442. Robert Guiscard, 93, 107. Robert of Normandy, 123. Robert of Flanders, 123. ^ f!L" ^59*^°""*n»y' Emperor of the Robert'of Gloucester, the poet, 187. Robert, King of Naples, 220. Robert, Count Palatine, Emperor of Ger- many, 224. Robert X. King of France, 246. M?!? "■ ^^'^^ "' ***^ Mountain, Rochambeau, General, 432. Rocroi, battle of (164.1), 302. Rodney, Admiral Loid, his victory over De Grasse, 396. Roser. Count. fir>t Kin" "f ei.ii.. •«• j-j- o -• •'— ".Ti ivr. 4«9 Rolf Ganger, or Rollo, I0<. Romanus Lacopenus, Emperor of the Romanus 11. Eirperor ofthe East, 90. Romanus HI. (Diogenes) called Argr- rus, Emperor ofthe East, 91-2, 121, Komanoir, dynasty of, founded, 415. Romans evacuate Britain, the, 8. Home, reign of, as a religious power. ». Rome saclced, 5; invested by the bar- barians and relieved, 27; taken by ?^!lu •'"'/et»ken by Belisarlns. F?encV*2"?2".'"''"''**'^"*''^»'" Roncaglia on theauthority of the popes, Rosamond, queen of Alboin Kioc ofthe Lombards, 34. Roschild, treaty of, 348. Roses, wars ofthe, 261. Rosewitha of Gaudersheira, 184. Rossbach. battle of. 380. Roundheads and Cavaliers, the, SI 7. Rubriquis, Father, envoy and mla. sionaiy to Tartary, 150. RnHnlJ { Jt ^^PeifO'-of Germany. 76,291. 5^" J'i'- Emperor of Genniiy, 76. Rudolf. Count of Hapsburg, foubder of iSI «»P»''"rg or Austrian dynast/, 165, his character, surrenders Ro- magna to the popes, 168. Rupert and Monk defeat the Dbteh fleet twice ( 1 666), 321-2. Rurick establishes his sway over ttw Russians, 104. ' •«»/"•«• Rurick, house of, 167. Russell, Lord, 319. «***i''»:l'*"*'v''' ^*''«**» *•>• fttnch fleet oflrCape la Hogue (1692), 838. Russia under Peter the Great. 416-1 7- under Catherine H., 41819 ; dteUmi war against France, 451; heracquisJ- tions after the long war, 468. Russians, the, emerge from their his- torical obscurity, 104. Ruyter, de (see De Ruyter, 822). Rye House plot, the, 319. Ryswick, pacification of, 338. St. Andrew the Avostle, his head conveye.1 to the Vatican. 257. St. Bariholomew, massacre of, 288. St. Bede, the Venerable, 184. St. Bernard, 129. !!' 2"""<* of Hildesheim, 184. St. Bridget, her predications, 173. St. Charles Borromeo, 280. St. Catlierine of Sienna, J73. St. Denis, battle of (1547), 283. St Domingo, French expedition to, 10 « fiV 452'*** into a kingdom and lepub- St. Francis Xavier, 353, 355. ai. rrancsiOiAisisi, I3i. St. Oeorg^, th« Ch«valkr, M»«. iH If"" ''-.Pope. 13. «t. Pill, v., Pope, 218 s*. «. ScbMtJan captured, «r If iKaK,-:? ;■"«"»."• IHrfe.ft'.''"""''-'"'''" St. Thomas AquW«,iSfl. St. Thoma. A Hecket 154 *»/,»;<• elPoWador. King of Portup,,, oTr"* ?oi "S"'^" "y ChMJe. Mattel S«race„ dlfeatJd^C l^l^^*' '"♦ ' ('270). ,47^*"'«1 by the Croaaders Saragojsa taken. 454. Saunders, General. 382. Saxe. Marshal, 377. „DuTh'.^{''^''-">«En«"»handthe I»l>lBX> Septimus Serenw, ». Vutr%?r'"'^'«hoM.hr.etaM.«^ '7h'y:,^r''^-''~""»en«n,.nto, |?anT-4^'"- Sforra Attendolo. 221, •.« fe.'^ht'2^l^'"-'A Shah Abbas, the Persian „on.reh.Sl», »h«h Allum Gheer. .-isz Sfeyes, Abbe, 428,430 ., Peror of Germany f2",»K«n •"«• Em- 203. "••"fforPoland and Sweden. |"'f'««'«!e. 'conference Of, 2rs So^J^J""" '" Poland. 410 SoffSridea, the, 66. ' '"' SopWs.ofthesectofAll »io %ende'n'?.f'S«8" "°'°"""'' "'«'' "nd,. Sou.h Sea bubblel'M"""'^ ""»' ««• ■pam begins to decline wo ama. ■'?I?1*1."'" '*•«««'*'•. King of Poland, ■*J^^»'«>«'Poni«tow»kJ, Kingof PolMid, Star Chamber, the, 18, 314. Staremberg, General, 3<4. Stales General, 830, 426-7. State* General of Holland, 828. Stauriciui, Emperor of the £a«t, 8S. Stephen, the Pope, confirm* the Carlo- viiiglan dynasty, 848. Stephen the Savage, 82. Stephen, son of Romanui Lucopenua.89. Stephen, St.. Kingof HungaryrioD, 122. Stephen of Boulogne, 164. Stephen of Charires, 123. Stettin, peace of, 400. S!"^''.'''® Vendean chief, 436. Btraflbrd, LoTi, HH; his fall, 31/. •tuarts, restoration of the, 318. Stuaris, conspiracy to restore Ihem after the Ucvolution, 34fl. Stures, great family of the, 347. 152**"" *"^ ""* ^"^ '"'' B<"7««henei, Suchet, Marshal, 457. Siievi, the, Suflrein, the French admiral. 89«. iH Stigar, Abbot, 65. Sultan Baber, founder of the Mongolian empire throughout India, 808. Bultany divided into four parts, 121 Survey of religion, 32S. Suwirrow, the celebrated RassUn gene- Swate/laus, the grand duke, 104. Swedish colonisation, 8»9. Swiss cantons, their independence re- cognised, 227. Switzerland, its acquisitions, its neu- trality acknowledged, 468. Syagrjus defeated by Clovls, 7. SybiUa, sister of Baldwin IV., 127. Sylletibourg and Horn, the Swedish leaders, 408. Sylverius, Pope, remonstrates against the massacre of Naples by the troops of Belwarius, 27; is banished and starved to death, 28. Sylvester II., Pope, confers the title of King of Hungary on St. Stephen, his great science and learning, 184. Symmaehus. 18. Synod of PJ-a, 173. Sympathy in France with the great re- bellion in England, 327. Takcred, cousin of Bohomond, son of Robert Guiscard, 123. Tancred, natural grandson of Count Roi^ of Normandy, 1 14. Tagina, battle of (322), 2U. Talierites, the, 46. Talavera, battU ikf a«OS). 4M. Tailien, the danoui^ pf ii^sj^ii^m, tu. Twtlatry aad tha Brriion lawa, ijj. Tarragona besieged, 457. Tartars, the, Black and White, 19 J. Tartars, the. Kin or Eastern, 362. Toussalnt of Hayti, 452. Tavandes, Marshal de, 283. Teining, battle of, 442. Teja, the last of the Ostrogoth monarcha, Templars, 128i their great wealth, 171. Temporal power, Indirect, of St. Pctet and bia auooessors, 38. Temudton, or Obeagis Khan, the Tmv tar, 19C ■ ^ Tenochtillan, or Mexico, 351. Termination of the Western Empire, IS, Tetwl the Dominican, 268. Tuetonic Confraternity, 126. Thasito, Count of Zollem, ancestor of the Swabian family of Hoheniollem, Theodatus, aeeond son of Amalaaonth, Theodolinda, Queen of the Lombaxda, Theodora, Empress, 31. Theodora, Empress, wife of TheophUiu, o6. Theodora, Empress, eldeat daushtex of Consuntine I3f ., 93. ""«"^ W Theodore Angelus, 139. Theodore Beza, 282. Theodore Lascaris, 138. Theodoric the Ostrogoth crosses the Jib- lian Alps, defeats Odoacer, and air sumes the Roman purple, 16; hi* character, 17 j and death, 19; extent ofhis dominions, 18. Theodosius the Younger, Emperor of tha East, ai, ^ Theodosius III. Emperor o/ the Em^ Theology of ProteiUnticm, ite elements and features, 268-9. Theophana, Em;)re88,wifeofLeoV..8S. Theophana, Empress, wife of Romaniw Jl.i 90. TheophUus, Emperor of the Eaat, 8£«r Thirty Years' VTm, the, 293. ^ Thomas k Becket, St., 154. Thomas Aquinas, St., 186. Thomas, despot of the Morea, convey* the head of the Apostle Andrew to the Vatican, 217. Thrasimund the Vandal, 25. Thuringians tamed by Clovls, 7. Tiberius, Emperor of the East, succM* sor of Justin II., 34. Ticonderago taken, 382. Tilly, the famous Kcneral, Count, 294-8. Tmiothy the Cat, 46. Timour, or Tamerlane, the Tartar, hi* conquests and ravages, 206-8. 362. Tii^Gat;i^|»r^'*"^' 49» 1 oleration rejected hv .11 .v » ToUejki the. 331. Torri«nl, ractiou of the M* ^"^r^artte. |.»ttW»*"- ?^*'?'/^"don built. 138. Moflem!lS "•• CruMden «d th. ^«y or Amiens, «7. T«f2 <*f J?'on>iebrae, «o. ^•fy of Florence. 449. «»«y or Limerick, M7. ^"•ty of tuneviile. mV »*««tyofM.rMn ,30. • ?;!«yoJOliv«,328. Treaty of P,„au,j;r. Treaty of ToienJno;«3 IWDBX. !S-S ?6r ''•"»"•' «"»-T»dar T"35«nn..302,devMUte..h.P.U..„at.. H^^',e?pr„^-.n™||^JBo.phoru..„d menace Aii.Vria IrS^"'?'}"'"?*"* Tuscany, its facfioni. 23fl XyrBonnel,E,rIof.3;r Wiiva, 404 ' "-"'"'""■Ken, and .chleved'by it/afr"*"' "'»">«ion Trtaland acquittal of the Seven Bl.hop., ''^a»d.''a'Ke&." ?"»'""««. Hoi. Tripoli, Count or 12'4*'"' ""»*»«"• «»• Triumph, of the n^us.t. "nWa!" '*"""•'. Ktof of Pa. "i«y|'.o',; teiL?"ir'^ -"«• Hun. ^"'f^'frcWr*'''^''"'"^. ,, «f> Churihe.. 192 "'^ •«"» 0»cidei,: H"f°«ofCalmar,397. tt 2 K;/-- Scotland. 330. 3-pjeMbe.^pHeatedop. »tr°^«''-s-d-» urban VI., Pope, 173 lJt«f^' ""'?" «"■' 286. Utrecht, paciflcation of, 348. ''cou;;t"kn/fairi?' '«"*» ^^^ «>r V^en.. emperor, defeated by the Goth.. 3of&'^r23"5"' "''»''''« »"''-»Uk. '^1o."""*"""^-Wrorof.h.w..t, viSf;M'^'«^20. **nM, battle or /i^x^v... x ^•nw, battle Of (1444, , I, woftiMTndor ithePalatinatt. low, 42S. Botphoriu and ) Hungary and rictorioiu on King of fo, !iir mi Hua. ' Great, King loheaia and »nd, iu. »e M6. Peter tbf erutado. iNun. 49t Mca by pillaged « a na- Gotht, ■ Duke Wett, Varangiani of Norway, the, lOfl. Vaicp de Oama. the navigator, M2, yendeant and Chouani, the, 447. Vendte, civil war in La, 436. VendOme, Manhal, S44. Venerable Bede, 184. Venice. Queen of the Adriatic, her rise and glorioui career, 149, JS6-r. Vergennee, minister to Louii XVI., 425. VenjIUes, peace of (1763), 384, (1783) S96. Vervini, peace of, 200. Victor Amadeut 11. Duke ofSavoy, 341. Victor H UK hes. of Hayti, 442. Vienna, peace of (1734-8), 349,412, (1809) Vienna, tiege of, railed, 412. Vlffilini, Pope, 29. Villa Vitlosa, battle of (1710), 344. Villart, Manhal, 343. Villlere, Duke of Ruckinghani, 294. Vimiera, battle of (1808), 434. Virgil .a coloniaed, 31 1*. VIcoonti and his freebooten, 175. Vitconti, the, 234. Viaigoihi, tlie, 5. VUlgoths of Aquitain defeated by ao- vli, 8. Vitigea beaiegea Rome, ia defeated and taken prisoner, 27. Vittoria, battle or(18l3). 457. Vladimir, grandaon of Olga, establiahes aehoola, 105. Vortigern, the Britlah king, bringa into Britain Hengiat and Horsa, 9. Vizier of Oude, 367. WaanAM, battle of (1809), 455. Walcheren expedition, the, 455. Waldeek, defeat of the French at Wall- court by Prince, 338. Waldenaea, the, 176. Wallenatein, the great general, 298. Walpode of Mayence, 151. VTalpole, Sir Robrrt, 360. Walter of LimoRea, 123. Walter de Brienne, titular Duke of Athena, 240. Walter von Plettenberg, Heenneiater of Livonia and Eaihonia, 413. War declared againat Spain by Crom- well, 320. War in Africa conducted by Beliaariua, 25. ' Ware of the White and Red Roaes, 261. Wars of Charles I. of England, civil, 31f • War of the Spaniah suceesaion, Ita ori- gin, 339, 342. War with Spain in 1740, 361. War of the Augabuig league against War, eomracneeneatof thaSereaYeara*. 380. ' War with France, Spain, and Holland, War with the United States, 466. Warranta, general, 314. Warren, Admiral, 378. Warren Hastinga, 367. Warwick, the famoua Earl of, 261 Waahington, General, the Fablus of hia country, 394. Waterloo, battle of (1815), 463. Wellealey, Marquii, 368. Wellington, Duke of, 456-8. Wenceahius, EmpsMDr of Oennaayi Wencealaua, King of Bohemia, 165. Westeraaa, Diet of, 402. Western Empire terminatea, 15 : revived under Charlemagne, 67. Westphalia, peace of, 303. Whig and Tory, nicknames, 319. White Hill, battle on the, 293. William the Good, King of Sicily, William, Biahop of Tyre, 1«7. William Rufua, 153. William the Conqueror, 106, 154. William of Nogaret, 169. William Langland, poet, 187. William III. Prince of Orange, his In- triguea, landa in England, 318, 324, 338* William Friso the Stadtholder. SSO. William Pitt. 439, 442. William I. of Prussia, 350. William and Mary, 32J. William Henry Friso, 377. Wilna occupied by Bonaparte. 458. Windmtila fn the sixth century, 151. Wlslock, battlp of (1626), 300. Witt, De, the urand penaionary, 321. Wittelsbach, electoral house of, 387. WittenL>;;emo;e, or Parliament of Wis* Men, 153. Witts, De, torn in pieces, the, 832. "olfe, Generattle of, 442. Wyatt's rebellion, 307. Wycliffe, John, 159. Xatiib, St. PnAXcis, S8S. Xiuenes, Cirdinal, 370. 494 York, the Duke of. 447 * ^ York, til* HouM of, tai. Youen dyaaity, the, 363. i^M-x^-s-zsr^riiir''"- iSAU. Zeno, EmMtor of th* Mm, IS li.«. Zent*. Mtl. or (1698). MJL "' '* '" » Zliica. jQhD. the Wind. InvMitor «/».-. ' S'Jfy?' battle of (U0»), 445, I ^oa, Empreii, consort of Leo VI u ' I ZununoriuuMB, twttto of (1M8), wa. iTJls; .."■X? '■■■*■ CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE ov ■OME or THE MOST IMPORTANT EVENTS OF MODERK HrSTORY FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE CHRISTIAN BRA. THE filtST CENTURY. War in Germany Congpiracy of Cinna; adoption of Tiberius* ■ A uijiine Defupt and death of Varus in Germany Conspiracy, fall, and death of Sejanus,' minister to Tiberim Cbucipixign and Death of our Saviocb . Hi8 Resurrection and Ascension, and Descent op (Jhost .... Martyrdom of St. Stephen Conversion of St. Paul Death of Tiberius -...', St. Matthew writes his Gospel about this time Expedition of Plautus and Claudius to Britain Adoption of Nero by Claudius . Cologne founded by Agrippina . . '. Caractacus carried in chams to Rome Claudius murdered by Agrippina . '. Death of Britannicua Murder of Agrippina by Nero . St. Paul shipwrecked at Malta . The Gospels of St. Mark and St Luke written about'this tir Conflagration of Rome; persecution of the Christians begins Martyrdom of 8S Peter and Paul ^nn8"«ns begins Revolt of Vindex Otho defeated at Bcdriacum Jerusalem destroved by Titus Temple of Janus shut Antiochus, king of Comma^ene, 'subdued Holt time A.a. 1 4 5 9 81 38 *ik. 86 87 i^ 08 48 50 ib. 51 M 69 61 63 65 66 68 69 70 71 72 be.o\e\t ^earlil'S" rplS S.vlo„rw.. crucified foury«« the unai.imou. testimony oMKcent^cSH."?"."! 'J^'TM' " A-^^rding to «ul«te of the two R«mir.f Iki-u '""'>•"*»• Chrlat suffered in the year of the con- 106 CHROyoiOOICAl TABLB. iJ^dication of th« Tempi, of Peace AKricoU nrrivei in UHtain . Po^pen and „.....a„eu. de-t.^ed" b, an eruption' of Blount I'ZJIT"': '"'«. -«»««'■- in Hon.. , \,. 6.PU0. de-' Death of Titui. • • • • . . . £lfh"?'A";;?SrVAiH..i : ; .• ■ • : Sarmatiaii war . terter;Lii''-c'.H..u.. : : : ; :' A.». 7« 78 79 80 81 84 93 ii. 93 97 98 Tk I^ . SSCOXD CSNTVJtr. i ne Dacmn war. 1 he Dacian war. PI»,,f^„.„U,Bi,h,„i., „e„„on-. ■h.ChH-.,,...- i. .'W grKi*-»4if-'.»^.in.. : : : Ktei-j;.t*i: : : : The Emperor Hadrian arrive, in Hri/f * ' • Death of AlarcusAurelSs'"""" " ' • JevoItoftheJew. Kwcript of Antoninus in fkvoi.i. '«*♦».* />>i. : . • Battle of Lyons ' °' *''• Christians . Septimus Severn t«k«Ct;«iphon '.',[• 101 102 10.) 109 107 118 121 130 131 1A2 197 198 TaisD csifTvjtr. W.*"^"? "? «f the Christian. . mence. ? ^*^ *"*^"' ""d that of the Sassanid- ExJtd&„fn""^.*''«Chri.ti«n. .* ' * • 8e?eSh'X'cSra;^^^^^^^^^ i ! Elecuon of DiocleUan to the e^Jf„ .' 909 com* 208-9 225 229 . 23,5 . 242 . 250 . ib. . 257 . 269 . 272 . 274 . 277 . 279 . 284 ^^ 7& 78 79 80 81 84 93 ib. 95 97 98 . 101 etter . 103 . lOA . 109 . 107 . 118 . 121 . ISO . 181 . l«d . 197 . 188 . 229 . 23.5 . 242 . 250 > ib. , 257 , 269 272 274 277 279 284 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLB. Revolt of Cnraiufuii in Britain .... Britnin reconquered by Constantiug Ch!oru*« .* .* ' The I er»i«nB defeat Ouleriiu Miiximus on the EuphratM '. '. Nane. deleatc the king of Penia in Armenia . ? . ] roURTir CBNTVRY. Tenth periecution of the Christians Constantine the Great elected emperor by the ariny .' .* SIX Uomnn emperors at once . Christianity first Keneraliy tolerated b; law in th^ Roiiian empire by an edict of Constantine the Great at Milan . . ^ Ine Gothic war ... Licinius overthrown by Constantine before* Adrianople \ ' Constantine the Great sole Roman emperor He issues a general edict of toleration . • . . Foundation of Constantinople . . • . . First general Council of Nice . Discover, of the True Cross by St. Helen The seat of secular empire removed from Rome to* Constant!.' ftopio • • , , A laric crosses the Danube. '. \ Constantine the Gnat destroys the pagan t'emplcf ' DeftiitoftheGothsatMassia . ^ ' Wisumir, king of the Vandals, defeated .* * * ' * Peace in the empire ... • . . , Baptism and Death of Constantine the Great * ' * ' Commencement of the Persian war . . . . Division of the empire . Irruption of the ScoU and Picts'into 'Britain .' .' * ' Batre o/Sum'"''"! "' ** ^'T" ^ ^'""'"*"' ^'"« *''^«"»' Constantine conquers Italy Battle of Mount Seleucus. ' Council of Aries . , .' * Council of Milan . .' .' Julian subdues the Franks * Council of Rimini ... * Julian the apostate sole emperor Julian's attempt to rebuild the Tem'ple of Je^salem defeated by miraculous interposition . oweaiea Julian invades Assyria The Alemanni invade Gaul Persecution of the CathoUcs in the E^ut ' * ' ' ' Attack^of the Saxons on Britain repulsed by'TheodosiJ, the" Union of the Goths and Huna .* .' Baptism of Theodosius the Great Fall of Arianism in Con»t*ntinoBU =•— - » . « , , X K 497 A.D. . 2«7 , 298 . ib. 297 803 306 309 313 , 322 . 823 . 324 , ib. ib. 32.1 327 330 831 ib. 332 334 835 837 ib. 338 339 348 351 352 353 355 358 360 361 363 ib. 865 869 868 877 886 4D8 CHRONOLOaiCAL TABi,R. Atnens taken by Alaric . '*••.. 89S Alaric proclaimed king of the VWgoth. •••..«! • • • . . 398 Alano invades Italy Alano overruns Europe ***••. Thfv'"!f*,''^^*>»'»'n Italy : • • • • ifte Komans finally leave Britain * * a .ttrfisresrl^ -■■■'- •• : Publication of fho ti,« j .'»'""' Ti.« V I . . . ^ ^''^odosian Cod« * Atl.1. defeated atCh.S'"''^'"" • • I«fSaX''''"~'''°'<^''"''^''": : : Foandotion of Venice' SIXTH CSNTCTRt ?hSnta""'"'"*'^*^^-*hofCWi. . Establishment ofCerdic in Essex ' ' ' i he Justinian Pandec'ts ' ' * * • Koduction of Carthage brilLia. .' ', [ . 401 . 403 402-5 . 406 . 410 • iB. . 418 . 42Q . 427 . 431 . 435 . 488 . 439 . 445 . 450 . 461 • ib, . 453 • ib, . 453 . ib, . 455 . 457 .468 467 468 472 476 477 . 511 . 516 . 519 . 527 529 530 il>. 532 538 A.D. S8I 394 895 896 898 . 401 . 403 402-S . 406 . 410 • t5. . 418 . 420 . 427 . 481 . 435 . 438 . 439 . 445 . 450 . 4S1 • ib. . 452 > ii. . 453 > ii, 455 457 468 467 468 472 476 477 CHRONOLOQICAL T49I#B. Conquest of Africa by Beliiarius The Franks invade Italy Soppression of the Roman Consulate by Justinian Totila, king of the Ostrogoths, invades Italy First appearance of the Turks in Asia Rome taken by Totila Taken a second time by him lUyria ravaged by the Schlavonians . The Romtin Senate ceases to exist, circa Silk introduced into Europe from China Narses invades Italy, and takes Rome The fifth general Council, of Constantinopl Death of Childebert Death of Justinian, emperor and legislator Death of Belisarius .... Defection and death of Narses . Birth of Mahomet .... Government of the Lombards in Italy Creda founds the kingdom of Mercia , Conversion of the Visigoths to the true faith Christianity introduced into Britain by St. Augustine SEVENTH CENTURY. 499 A.D. . 635 . 538 . 541 . 542 . 545 , 546 . 549 , 550 , 551 . ib. . 552 553 558 565 ib. 567 569 575 586 587 597 Peter's (now Westminster Abbey) founded St. Paurs and St. about . . The Schlavonians and Avari ravage Italy . Murder of the Emperor Maurice . The nsurper Phocas deposed and murdered Conquest of Syria by Khosrou ..... Capture of Jerusalem and conquest of Palestine by Khosrou Alexandria taken by the Persians Conquest of Egypt and Asia Minor by Khosrou . Flight of Mahomet, and rise of Mahometanism . Expeditions of Heraclius against Persia . Conquest of Arabia Jerusalem taken by the Saracens The Alexandrian Library destroyed . , Death of the Emperor Heraclius Persia subdued by the Saracens .... Omar, Caliph of the Saracens, assassinated by a slave First invasion of Africa by Abdallah . Defeat and death of Totila .... Flnt siege of Constantinople by the Arabs. The sixth general Council, held at Constantinople Pepin d'Heristal sole sovereign of France . Conquest of Africa by Akbah and Tezid . Eatablishment of the Rtfpublic and Doyet ofy«aiM . 629 600 ib. 602 610 611 614 615 616 622 ib. 32 637 640 641 ib. 643 647 652 668 680 687 689 697 CHRONOLOOICAL TABLB. SIOHTH CBNTVnr. Final conquest of Africa by the Araba Spam conquered by the SaVacen. ' Second „ege of Constantinople * Invasion of France by the Arabs ' " The seventh general CoSTelJa^'S^^e''^ iflNTH CENTURT. t^harlemagne is crowned at Rome bv the P„n- ^^^S'r:^^^ - -K called E,.g,aad bS otS; Itr"^'™ «^ <^i>"i-aine J tised . . . "*^»^' *nd th« IconoclMt. wiuithem,: Defeat of the Danes by Kin* AIft«l' * They retire from Englinf * . . ] E™ of ChristiT^fn tt'!*'"''*"'' •"'«- • Chi;Li57nSidTcK?i'?^?"--' • Hugh Capi;S."^J^, cineuS". ' "•?" ' Invention of clocks with ffii ^""*^ ' . 709 . 718 716-18 . 721 . 726 . 732 . 752 . 762 . 768 . 774 . 787 . 800 803 809 828 839 843 849 857 869 id. 878 m 912 915 920 950 956 962 ' BLErSNTH CSJfTUXr. ?w^'k,n^*'';iP""*''^J'Ethe?red: * * • J>weyn, king of Norway, invade. Pnli j" Invasion of England by cSe *'*"'^ * "**'»'* «»• Ihe Normans enter Italy * * * • Invention of the Gamut . .'**•• 987 a. . 1000 . lOOI 1013 1015 1018 1022 CHRONOLOOICAI. TABLB. 501 A-B. . 709 . 718 716-18 . 721 . 726 . 732 . 752 . 762 . 768 . 774 . 787, 8M 803 809 828 839 848 849 837 869 id. 878 897 912 91S 920 9JS0 956 962 966 987 Commencement of the kingdoms of Castile and Amuron . Renewal ot the Greek schism .... The Morabeths arise ...'*' ' Origin of the Guelphs and Ghi'bellines .'.*** Conquest of Wales by Harold .... The Norman Conquest of England '''' ' Morocco founded by the Morabeths, eirea '. N.B. These Mahometan secfaries are ih« 6anie who are somettoea Almoravites, or the " Men of Faith." Tower of London commenced . Domesday- book began . . [ Council of Clermont The first Crusade preached in Europe Order of Knights of St. John instituted Siege of Jerusalem, and battle of Ascalon Tfr£Jf,FTH CENTURY. Snmcens defeated by Baldwin, king of Jerusalem . Order of Knights Templars instituted 1 he ninth general Council, of the Latemn Great Hre in London ....*' The tenth general Council, of the Lateran The second Crusade .... Birth of Richard Coeur de Lion, at Oxford* Council of Clarendon •Invasion of Ireland by Strongbow, ewl of Pembroke* Assassination of Thomas k Beckett . Conquest of Ireland by Henry II. • • • The eleventh gineral Council, of the' Lateran .* .' Diet of Mentz Defeat of the Christians by Sakdin, ind fell of*Jerui,lem Siege of Acre by the Crusaders . «"u««:ni The third Crusade . Richard I. defeats Saladin at Jaffa .* A.n. . 1035 . 1053 . 1056 . 1061 . 10G3 . 1066 . 1069 called . 1078 . 1083 . 1095 . 1096 . 1097 . 1099 . 1103 . 1118 . 1124 . 1132 . 1139 . 1147 . 1157 . 1164 . 1169 . 1170 . 1172 . 1179 . 1184 . 1187 . 1189 . ib. . 1191 THIRTEENTH CENTURY. The fourth Crusade. The bvelfth general Council, of the Lateran . . . rt ?/,i'r °^ ^,'- "r i"'*' ""^ St. Francis founded ril .if-^ ^T*^^' *^'^JJ ""^y ^ reckoned from . 1216 The thirteenth general Council, of Lyon. 1 he sixth Crusade, the fiist under St. Louis . ' ' House of Commons first summoned in England '. '. N.B. The deputle. of borousht, at all event., do not appear to have »«nimoned« an earlier dale. »'*'""•"•'* The seventh Crusade , 1282 . 1215 . lA. . 1226 to 122S . 1245 . 1248 . 1264 been 1270 m CHHONOLOOICAL TABLE. TernnnationoftheCrusadea . A regular succession of EiiKlish Pai-l'iAma^*. <■ ' .i.^ Institution of the Jubileef - "" " ®°*" *^" *'''' rear or Holy Year, by Pope Bonifece' FOVRTSSNTB CSNTUHT. A.D. 1274 i2di 1298 1300 Removal of the Popes to Avignon f-fte^nth general Council, of Vienne ln« Portuguese . . 8t Helena and Ceylon discovered bv /!m«v^„* Sumatra discovered by the Portuguese ' Treaty of Noyau ! ! I * * * . 1308 . ib. ib. . 1314 . 1331 . 1340 . ib. . 1346 . 1349 . 1358 . 1402 . 1408 . 1411 . 1414 • U\S. . 1429 . 1431 ib. ib, . 1440 . 1450 . 1453 . 1458 . 1485 . 1492 . 1494 . 1497 . 1501 . 1507 . 1508 . 1510 . 1512 . ib. . 1513 . 1518 OHROirOLOaiOAL TABLB. 603 li&ce ik.D. 1273 1274 1291 129S 1300 . 1308 ib. ib. 1314 1.^31 1340 ib. IU6 1849 1850 . 1402 . 1408 . I4tl . 1414 • 14U . 1429 . 1431 U>. ib, . 1440 . 1450 . 1453 . urn . 1485 . 1492 . 1494 . 1497 . 1 501 . 1507 . 1508 . 1510 1512 ib. 1513 151S A.D. Ltither cominencvs his public career . . . • . 1517 St. Francis Xavier introduces Christianitj into India . . 1522 Battle of Pavia ... 1525 Rome stormed, the Constable Bourbon killed • . . • 1^28 First siege of Vienna by the Turks 1529 Diet of Augsburg 1530 Change of religion in England 1534 Insurrection of the Anabaptists in Germany . . • . ih. Order of the Society of J Ksus founded ib. Bishop Fisher and Sir Thomas More beheaded . . • 1585 Th« Statute of the S«x Articles 1539 The Order of the Society of Jesus sanctioned by Pope Paul III. 27th September 1540 Birth of Mary Queen of Scots 1542 Council of Trent met, and continued its session 18 years, viz. from 1545 to 1563 Cardinal Beaton assassinated 1545 The Catholic religion restored in England . . . ' 1S53 Cardinal Pole succeeds to the see of Canterbury . . • i556 Change of religion in Scotland 1560 Marriage of Mary Queen of Scots and Lord Damley . . 1565 Battle of Lepanto 1571 Massacre of St Bartholomew 1572 Pacification of Ghent 1576 Union of Utrecht 1679 Reformation of the Calendar ....... 1582 Huguenot war renewed 1585 Judicial murder of Mary Queen of Scotland . . . .1587 Defeat of the Spanish Armada 1588 Invention of the telescope 1590 Edict of Nantes 1598 SBVSNTEENTH CENTUBT. first patent to the East India Company 1800 The Crowns of England and Scoth\nd united by the aeceiaion of James 1 1603 City of Quebec founded by the Frencii 1608 First intercourse with Japan by the Dutch .... 1611 New Amsterdam (now New York) founded by the Dutch . 1613 Breaking out of the Thirty y ears' War 1618 Batavia founded by the Dutch 1619 New England colonised by the Puritans 1620 Boston, in the United States, founded . . .. , .1630 Colony of Mar3;land founded by Lord Baltimore . . . 1684 The Long Parlinment meets • . . 1640 Battle of Edgehill 1642 Battle of Newbury 1648 Parliament held at Oxford ....... 1644 m OHHoWOLOOICAJt TABtB. S«!M^""*«" Moor . . Great Peace of Wet'tphalia ' gf"»« °fl'0'«l- abolished . • Pence of the Isle of Pheaaante* Revolutfon i„ EngfaJf °^^'">'« Battle of the Bovio f-tt'eofAghri-r. S|"f" i> i Battle of Blenhdm''^-*'^k« Battle of Ramilies . * Union with Scotland ' Battle of Pultowa * Peace of Utrecht . Rebeii, in Scotland Septennial Act passed * The'S^^^J^P'eAi'SLce" Se%^oSffiYX^i\^r^^ Pragmatc Sanction nf^u*^?*'*"** • Battle of Fontenoy / *"«««n ^a «ebeli,on ih Scotland ' ^tteofPrestonpans * BatteofCulIoden . * ^^ty of Aix.la-Chapelle* • 1644 • is. • l84ff • 1948 • 1849 • ib. • I860 . 18A0 • 18«1 • U. . I85S • 1860 • lA. . 1662 . 1663 . 1665 • 1868 . 1883 . 1685 > 1688 1690 1691 ib. 1692 1693 . iroi ib. . 1704 • ib. . 1706 . iror • 1710 . I7IS • ib. . 1715 . 1716 . 1718 . 1719 . 1720 . 1730 . 1740 . 1745 . ib. ib. 1748 1748 • «. • 1848 ' 1948 • 1049 • a. ' 16S0 ' 16&0 ' 1051 . ib. . 1853 • leeo • ib. . 1662 . 1665 • 1665 • 1666 • 1683 > 1685 • 1688 1690 1891 ib. 1692 1693 ORBONOLOOICAI. TABLB. 006 .iroi • ib. . iro4 • ib. . 1706 . 1707 . 1710 . 1713 • ib. . 1715 . 1716 . 1718 . 1719 . 1720 . 1730 . 1740 1745 ib. ib. 1746 1748 New Sty\t introduced into the United Kingdom . . . 1752 Lisbon deatroyed by an earthquake 1753 Battle of Quebec 17S9 Oonque*t af Canada 1700 Peace of Fontainebleau 17^2 First partition of Poland 1772 Declaration of American Independence 1776 Surrender of Burgoyne's army 1777 Independence of the United States recognised by England . 1782 Peace of Versailles , 1783 Impeachment of Warren Hastings 1786 First Assembly of the Notables at Versailles . . . ,1787 Meeting of the National Atisembly of France . . . .1789 Capture and destruction of the Bastile . .' . . . ib. Louis XVI. and his queen beheaded 1793 War with trance n. Habeas Corpus Act suspended 1794 Victory of Lord Howe m the Bay of Biscay ... . ib. Warren Hastings acquitted 1795 Victory of Lord Bridport off L'Orient a. Final partition of Poland <^ Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte . . . . «, . . '. ib. The French victorious in Italy 1798 Victory of Sir John Jervis off Cape St. Vincent . . .1797 Victory of Lord Duncan off Camperdown ....<«. The French invade Egypt 1799 Battle of the Nile . ', ib. Storming of Seringapatam 1799 NISBTSENTX CSlfTVXr. Battle of Marengo , jgOO Battle of Hohenlinden '. ib. Battle of Alexandria \ [ IgQj Battle of Copenhagen '. . ib. First meeting of the Imperial Parliament of Great Britain and Ireland, January ^ The Catholic religion re-established in Frv.ice . . . 1802 Peace of Amiens ^4^ Bonaparte declared Chief Consul for life ..'.'. \ ib. Renewal of war with France . ...... 1803 B.ittle8 of Assaye, Laswaree, and Argaum ...*.' 16. Napoleon declared emperor jgoi Assumption of the title of Emperor of Austria by the Emperor of Germany ^ Victory off Cape Trafalgar, and death of Lord Nelson .' ! 1805 W iir between France, Austria, and Russia . . n Surrender of Ulm '. . ib B»ttloofAu8tarlite • . . I . I . . H* fiod CHKONOIOOIOAL TABt^ -.c»iy or lUsit . of the lalja Insurrection against the Pr.^K^'^oP'"" • . ASruVorar;/J-''''M«Po-d Battles of wir"J*?;"»t France . Treaty of peacelT'' ^T""" • B-ttleV/STer^^"'^^" ^"»"- «"<« Austria The Walcheren expedition ' ' ' • • piS'-.SSr^'^^ : : : war between Great nJ» • . ^'"J' * • Danish fleet Maria 18M 189« Mb IJ. 1807 •A. . id. . 1808 . 06. il, . - i*. 2arJheS?.''"" *''^* »"*^" •»<' *^« United Belgium united to Holland .**''* Ketom of Napoleon from Elba .' ' ' ' pefoats the Prussians at Ligny • • • • Action at Quatre Bibs . B«ttie of Waterloo-total defekt of ihe F^wwh 1 States A.D. 1814 ib. ib. 1815 ib. tb. a. 1 1 TABLES CONTEMPORARY SOVERBIOITS, »EOM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE COMMON CHai.TlAlf TO THE CONQREaS OF VIENNA IN 1818. TABLzL^Fromthe Commencement of the common Christian Era to the Fall of the Western Empire, k.i>. ^Ti! Phndet IV. Phnwlires. Prodeill. Vononet I. ArUbMMi II. TiiidJttM. VardaiMt. Ootariei. VenoiiM. VolugeiM I. ArUbanei III. Pacoriu. ••• Khoirou. VoIogsMtll. r»rM. rst. PMw. L ApettlM. rnaMortiM ItUana. St.Cletiu. St. Clemtat St. Anaeletui. St. Ewiatut. St. Alezandw. St Sixtiu I. St. TIkiphonu. St. UjifiaM. Tablk I.— [a.b. 1 to A.D. i7 6]— contintud. ItantD Empaorii A.]>. I HI isr I ("Marcua Aurellui. lAI i Iiuciua Verui, aiao- C cUte. TlMArMdte.SlBfiof 16| l/« 180 IM m 199 aot an air au aaa aas aaa aso m aar a4o an an au a5i asr 359 aeo 368 269 370 371 373 375 376 383 383 284 386 293 296 303 SOS CommodiM. f Pertlnax'. (SeptimuiSevenu. fCarMtlla. lOHa. Manrimu. Hellogabuluw. AtouMdn Serena. Maximin. (■TwoGordiani.* I Gordlan, junior. Philip the" Arawlm. Deoiua. fGallui. I Voluidan. '•• ••• ••• (iliinilian, < Valerian, and (.Galllenua. Oallienua alone Claudiua II. ••• ••• .., Aurelian. j-aemiB. fProlnu. iPlorton. Cant*. Dioeletlan and Mtxfmin, oolleagiiei. rCnnstftnthti, -jC iorua, and th» ••• ••• ••• ••• VolofeMi III. ('AiUbaneiIV.,thelait I ortlieParihUnUnga. ••• ••• •■• ••• ••• ... Sauanian Dymatty. ... «*• ... Ardiiheor. ••• ••# ... •*• ••■ ... ••• ••• «•* Sliabpowl. "* •§• ••• ••• ••• ••« HoonniM I. Baltaram I. Baharamll. Baharam III. Kanei. Hoormuz n. ri>m . St. Piua I. St. Aniettua. St. Soter. St. Bleutheiiua. St. Victor. St. Zephyrlavi. St. CaUxtna. St. Urbu. St. Pontian. St. Anterua. St. Fabiaana St. Corneliui. St. Luciu.. St. Stephen. St. Slxtua II. St. Dionyaiua. St. F«1U. St. ButychiMi. St. Cidua. 6t. MareeUtauu. Tabm I.~[a.d. 1 to A.©. 476]~co«imu«i ""•^i^a"-"- Fopm. : TH * - 301 fContUntins the — 308 I UrMt. ... s 310 311 ••• •!• ««, flhahpoorfl. •*• 8t. Manellua. Ht. EuseMui. 314 '•• ••• ■•• *•• ••• *•• St. Mrlchtadn. , 330 ■•• •■• • •• St. Sylvester. St. Mark. (Conitantine Jl.',"' < Ciinstani, uid (.ContUntlui. ••• •*• ••• 3;i7 , 35j ••• tM ••• St. Julius. .•iOl 3tt.-; Julian the ApoiVate. Jovian. "• et* *•• Ilberioi. .'Itf'i f Valen* and I Valentlnlan. 366 Ju7 Gratlan i 'colleiiJue. ••« ,«a Mt It DunMui. 373 f (tratlan and I Valentinlan. ' ; 37:i 381 .'>b3 .•85 TheodojiuB the Great. Valenttnian alone. Ardiaheer 11. Shahpoor III. 8t. Serieiu. 1 ! fmptrim of tkt Wut. ■MIO 3VS 402 Honoriua. Baharam IV. **' '•• ••• ••• St Anastaaiua I. 404 417 Yezdejirdi. ••• St. Innocent 418 •"• ••■ ••• ,,, • •• St. Zozlmua. 420 422 •132 vaie„ti„i;i,nr *!!!■'"'".!• •*• St. Bonifaoe I. St. Celestine. 438 440 •'• ••• ••• yei'dejlrdil. **• St Sixtui III. 435 < Maximiu. lAvltue. ••■ ••• ... St. Leo the GiMtt , 4S(! 457 Majorian." Hoormus III. 4^8 4tfl Sevenii. Firose. ■ ■;67 408 Antbeniius. ••• •«• • •• St. Hilary. ■ 4?i» Oiyi)iiu».' ... St. Simpliclus. ■ il'i CJlvcerlug. ■ •I?* Julius Nepos. ■ 47S . Romulus Augustu- . lus. 1 476 J End of the Western a Empire. f . ^5* 1 J iU 4 V^ire to the JUito Gunderic. Henaenric, Sutvi. ration of die Empire oftJie West UTider CharUmagne, 395—800. '**Ma, siievl,"* •chiaitii;, Snevi. aWru, Suerl, umarlut, SuiVl. 'taiiinuDd. BurKundiani la Alwee. KiB|C«o(tbeFnn1ii. Ktnn of ibe IIoBi. ropM. • For the corres- ponding Pon- tiflcatef.from 89»to468,tec Table I. A.n. 39S 308 406 408 408 Guiidlcar 412 •M •«• ••» •M CM M* ••• ••• 413 418 Ittrotlngiani. • Phaninond(t) ■•• .M .M **• ••• 410 420 Clodion. M. ... ..• M« ••• «3r QundMto •■. AttiUudBleda ••• ••• ... ••• eee ••• ••• 429 433 436 ■•• ••« IM AttUa alone ... 441 443 Mciovlui ••• ••• ■•. •■• *•• 448 450 • 43 1 Hermtidai and Den- ••• ■•• 433 girio 487 CbUderiel. ... ••• ••• ••• •■• ••• 488 460 Chilperio ^ - - ». Empin of tlw *" > UttuaiMM ... S •M AM 46S 4« M. «M M> - 474 King* in Franet. Odoaeer, kinc of ) theHerali ... j ••• ••• ••• ••• eee 476 Clovb I. ••• ••• 477 481 St. Felix II. 483 484 Gondeband ^ ••• ••• ••• KingtofthtOilro- golhi. 488 491 — Gelaaliu ... 492 Theodorio St.Anaeta!-' ) •iUi 11. ... ) 493 496 Bymmaehua 498 907 ThUrry I., Metj "\ Ciodomar, Orlrani Childebert. Pwli ' • •• M. ... 511 Clotalie, SoUiont J Honnlidaa 514 «u y^^-n.-Fron,ti^ni„i^ o/tki Roman Smplre to the He ttaraiurn qfihe Smpin of the We*t—[99o to 800]~coniinued. r— — KliiR«ortkt8iM*i. Xinm in TnuiM. SigUmund Oondomar „ Conquered by Chiidebert and Ciouira } Kin(c of the Ottiogotlu. Theodebert I. tff Mets ., Kingi of the Smtti. Theodimir ThMdebert II. of ■) Metz j Atbalario Pop«t. St. John I. Felix III. ( IV. Boniface II } Clotaire lucceeds to Metz ... J Clotaire lole king \ of France ... j| Charihert i., Paris. GontranofOrleani. SIgebert I.. Mete Chilpeiic I., Sols- tont Theodatttt Vitige Thtodebald. ... Araric TotUa .> ... Tela Nanei, duke of Italy John II. ^ Agapetus... St. Sylveriui VIglUua ... Pelaglua I. John III. The Siievi con- quered by the Visigoths. } ChildMMrtII.,M«ta. Clotain IL, Soil- ■oni t) Lombardt. Alboin „. . Cleoph ... Authailt Benedict I. Peliigiua li'. A.D. 516 S18 533 520 8t7 529 530 531 532 534 535 536 538 540 541 548 550 552 553 554 555 558 559 561 565 567 568 569 572 573 575 577 578 579 582 583 584 S8« 515 I A 1). 590 501 .'M SO? 60] 602 fO.I 604 606 607 610 611 612 . dl3 614 615 616 617 619 620 621 622 625 626 628 630 631 Baharam-Choubeen Khoirou Purvez. PhocM. Heracllus." ■•• •■• ••• ••• I• Goodemv. SUebert ••• •«■ 632 634 636 est ti40 641 642 644 648 649 652 653 I 651 055 Sehirouih. Recared II. SuiotUJa. ••• ••• Romanut. — •'• ••• ta« CaUenieut. Smangdua again. Johannet Lemigiut. £ltuthetVui. Isaac. \i iMtking. ' CConstantiiw ] III. CConitaai II. I (Tenia conquered M bytheArabi ^ under Othoian. ClilntiUa. Tulea. Cbindaawind. Reobeawind. Plato. Theodorus I. Oljrmplui. Tlicodarus again. '•• ••• I MmlMoriUmiDa. •-r -.A nianui, lenleut. mgdiu agsin. lannw nigiiu. theriui. ruil. 111. us agaio. ••• ••• ttoratim of the Bmpira o/the ir«*—[396 to 800]--«w ' ••• M» ••• ••• ••■ 613 Dcutdedit GI4 Adawald •M BonUkce V. 619 616 ■ 630 Calipht of the ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• 631 Saractnu. ■ II ••• ••• ••• •M ..a ••• • •• M* 639 Atthcker, fint '> caliph. .> S •■• »•• ■■• ••• ••• •M • 634 Oaiar I Sigebert'ii. of'" ■> Ausiraiia • M ••• ••• • •• ••• 6S6 ... •■• •*• ••• ••« 68a ClGvUIl. of Bur--) Bandy and Ncus- [ ••• *•« ••• •.• ••. ._. UU „. ... ) Severinna ■) John IV.... S ■ 640 641 Thcodorua 642 Olhmaa „. •M M« «• •>■« ••• •*• Martin I. 044 64S 649 Rodoald — ••• •*. ... 692 V Aribeit I. ... ... 693 AB ».. •*. •.« ••• M. ••• Eugenlui i. 694 aotalrc III., Mcui. Ferthariatua •*• ... M. 699 iir I f TABI.E II.— /Vw» thB mynw, a/tU B»man £mpimtaJh< ^ Emperonoftbe Kau. Kings >B Xaclaad. A.D. 6S1T COO «6I MB 670 en Oti 674 676 <78 en est 683 683 684 6as 686 687 $91 695 rConstantine < IV. Pogo (. natus. ••• ••• KlBKiott^Tiai^tM EwikiorSMtkM. ••• ••• ••• • I.. G>*30ty. JusMnUnil. ••• ••• Xing* in England. Alfred. Wunba. ••• Ma Brvigla. • •• «•! ••• •*• ThMdoru* II. Egioa. waits. JohMmet Platon. ••• ••• t%» Jlmin. TheophUsetni. Rodcirlo. Tarie. Muta. Adelaali. Alhonr. Xingi 0/ Atturia*. Pelayo. AlSanuu Jobannet Rlsoeop. Zutyehte Eunuch f Eutjrchltti, tht' Scholaiticu* FaTlla. M» ••• ••• ••» M. ••• ••• ••• ••• ■•• ••« ••• ••• ••• "•• ••• ••« ••• ••■ «•• Paul. Eutychiua again. ^mjfiM.taMe J^ EsMtklorBMFMUM. 1 : — • f to o ^^j—conttntted. J CtflphtWiheSttictli •• Klnn !a frmce. t^».k_ mi. Pppet t>. _ •" ••• ••• Q. 3ory, 1 Hawn Moawtah I. .:; Childerio 11,, Ana. •*• ••« ,,, Gondibert Grimoald ••• ,.. ••• ••• Vltalian ... **■ •(• ••• ••• ••• «(, A.V. 6S7 SAO 661 .666 ••• ■•« »«. *** ■•• •■• 1 Thieny lil., Men. P«tharijltii( ■ again ••• •>• 068 670 ThMdoruit 11. *** ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• •■• 1 ««td I. Dafobert II., Ana. Pep n and Martta. Fepln alone. ••• n. ••• «•■ ••• Ad«odatu8 Domnua ... St. Agatho **■ •■• 672 674 676 678 680 JohumetPUtni! •»• ••• ~« 1 MoawtaTi II. ... Merivan 1. Abdeln.elic ... '•• "•• ,•• ■•■ ••• ••• Pepin sole ittvereigB, Cloyl.lII.,Neu.t5«. CWIdebert 111., "?• Neuitrla, j _ '•• ••• Cunlbert. ••• ••• • ••• •.. ••• • ■• ■ »• ••• St. Leo il." Benedict if. John V. ... Conon Sergius I. 681 683 fi83 68« 685 686 667 601 695 ••• ••• 'cap TheoiihUsetiu. Wtiid I. Lttitpert. Ragfmbwt. Aribert II. John VI. ... 8 700 701 7 Elwald. ..- C*^**"***"*'"* 7S0 VI. and V. Inne. " ••. ••• M. u. I Uturptr. 784 786 ••• ••• ••• • • '••• "• — m * ••• ••• ••• ••• • M CBonnttdal.ud •- "• m *~* ••• ... 789 I?'; Ma Osred. Hathem, KiBga of L Cerdeva, 'W £Ui«2rfd. f»l *** M* ••• 'AIfOB«OlI.,th« , Olutte. , JJJ iKMftlon*. J 7M Eidolt "6 — — ,n I 'AlbaMal., lUflf . ofCertDra. ' MO ... ... •M «• w f •M M* tM —• — — mpirtj^ the JU ^^;;^^i^-^^^^^^ «/«. r.-_[,90 to 8oo]-««j„^ p-IW-".b...»^. «lM.l.n..>. Lembardi. W«IM IT. Ibmhlrn... • MerwM II. .- .) Abdul Abbai Almaaior Carloman and ^•V^n, Au»trMl«^ Ch«d.rieIlI.,K.u,. HUdebrand .*" ^ KMchli, Duka of > It. Zaehary I Ml Pepin, sola loVa.'k »>fn, Auitruia J and Ncuauria. ) '" (M ' Pepin the Little, King of Fiance Mohadl Outrlamaffat. Aetcdfkia Deaiderlui, Duke oflatrU '*«n|»*rtyiubdBad> by CharlenagBo / •~ "• ... ••• ... ••• ... W Tii Stephen IV. Adrian I.... H«dl , HaroGBalSttchld I J! •~ "• ... ••• f.. I I'M III. Chwlemagiia er. Sniperoroftha Wjet^br P.P. 796 MO Tablb m^From the Itettoraewn o/the W^Urfn Empire under Emparon of tht Eaat. Ctlipbt of lb* SuMen*. A.D. 801 ■M 809 811 813 814 816 Sir 8X0 82S 824 nr 8t9 83a 838 840 842 84S •44 847 880 8i2 Irene ... Nlcephonu I Steuricltii. r Michael I. I Rhingabe. f Leo v., the (. AmienUn. r Michael 11., < the Stam- (. merer. Theophlluf. r Michael III. X the Sot. Attia. Mamun. ••• ... ••. ... ... ... ... •*• ' rfSS 856 8S8 860 861 862 883 866 867 860 870 871 873 Motatim. ••• ••• Wathek. ••• ••• 'Bun, the : Macedonian Motawakel. •e* ••• ••• Mostanier. Mostain. Motax. ••. ... ... Mohtadl. M^temed. * • ... ... •.• •*• ••• dmiiaon of tka Wnt. Carlovingian Smptrori, Charlemagne. KiDttofFnuw*. riouli I., le De- I bonnaire. Carlotingiunt. Charlemagne. •ea te* •e« ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• aee ••• •■• ••• ••• Western Empire divided. {lothaire I., Empe- ror of the West. ••• ••• >•• ••• <-CharleiII.,tb* I Bald. ••• ••• ■•• ••• ••• rLouU II., the Ger- i man. ••• •«■ •ea 9»» ••• AM ••• ••• •ee aea ••• aaa ••• aa* ••• ••• ••« Mt npire under inorriuM. ■ latingiani. Bmagn*. «•• ••• ••• ••• >•• Clf » II., th« ••• ••• • 4* 5fe ^ ■ '•* ••• ••• ••• ■•• «•• Charlemagne, to the CommmMment o/ih» CrmacUs, 800—1096. XlBffi In Siwln. Alfonaolt.,Ovl«do') Albaeamll., Cor- )> dov* ) KtBMarBnclaad, nam th« tcrmliiaiWg of AMenhmMi II., Cordova Xlngt of BcMlaad. Popm. Ramiio I., Oviedo Ordenno I., O*todo Mabomed I., CorO dov» ) Anglo-Saxon Xingi, Egbert Bthelwulf ••• ••• Leo III. ••• ••• Alfonio III., the ) Great, Oviedo J Ethelbald Btbelbert Ethelred Alfred the Great Kenneth II., Mao- Alpine Stephen V. Patchal ... ••• •■• Eugeniui II. Valentine •! Gregory IV. i «■• ••• CouBtantlne II. ••• cet Serfdus 11. St. Leo IV. Benedict III. Nicholas i".* Adrian II. John VIII. A.B. 801 801 809 811 818 814 818 817 810 8t3 824 837 830 833 8S6 840 843 843 844 847 850 852 855 856 858 860 861 863 863 H66 887 m 871 879 m TAIL! m.-^From th, RnKmUum o/th» Wntem Empirn undtr Bni|wran*f(lMBMI. Caltubaaflh* su M4 SM Mt 887 ••• 8W1 •M •»S 8M 8»7 •M QM Ml 90S M8 M4 Mf fteivr/the I PhiloMpher. •■• •■• ••• ••• • •• ••• ••• ••• BmrmnarOtnuv- UwaTFiMM*. f ChariM II., th« { "•>d, King of v Frue*. ••• #•• fChulMlI|.,thl Bi|r, cr. King of lUljr aiid Em- IMrorinttl. rL«ttlfn.,t]M I lUramMwr. Lottla III. Montail. tot »10 91 1 911 918 914 918 919 930 991 9M 924 -sir CAIexander ft } Coniuntin* 5 Vll.Porphy. V rogenitiu. ••• ••• , _ I nomanu* Le- '. capenus. 'Conttantin* , VIII. •*• ••• Moudhvd. ••* ••• flt* ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• at* ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• M* ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• •■• ••• ••• «** ••• ••• Moktadtr. ••• ••• ••• •■• ••• •■• •'• ••• ••• ••• ••• ■•• rAmuir, cr. Em- l perorln896. ••• ••• EudM, Connt or Pari*. ••• ••• fCh«rl.ilH.,th« ( Simplt. Z ^ MMk, OvMo / Mhelifan, flnt "j ttonsrth of Bnglaad ) ... .M ... MS M4 _ 1 1 *~^ 1 t Ta«^ III._JW *, Jfe.to«««» „/«. r«*„ ^^^ ^^ 1 EmperortoftheEMi A D . C.«ph..,th.8««n. r».p«««,o«nun,. K.»^„,.«„, ~ 1 9?6 -■ .^ '^ ' B 927 ••• ... as. ••• ••• •«. 1 (-Stephen and ••• ••• «•• f William i., Long . Sword. 1 928 ^ Christophei <. tee. 1 1 929 ... . ^_ ■ 931 1 ••• ••• «•« ■ «» Kiker. ••• ■■" ••• ■.» I 93* Radhi. 1 ■ M6 m »♦! ... r Decline of the Co- l liphat. ••• •■• aas rOthoI.^theGreat t cr. Emperor In 952 fl-ouIsIV., the I Stranger. 1 '" ... *** *•• ••• ... ^m >44 ... ... ... * H NI6 ••• H »0 ... ... ... B M ••• ■•• ,,, H S4 ••• •■• ••« "•• ••• ••• ^1 54 ••• ••• ••• ■f lothaire.' ^B 96 ■•• ••• ••• • •.. Wm 9 S9 Rumanu* II. ••• •■• «.« •■• ••* »,, ••• ••• aa« ■** ••• ••• H 91 " H a " \ ir., HhoCM. •'• «• ••• B ^^1 9r W ^^H i» ... :.; ' ... .„ •■• ••• ••. »•• ••• „, I M 9 John Zimi«oM. 1 ••■ ••• ••• ^B fBMil II. and 1 1 ^H 91 i Con»tantine ^H (. IX. ^H W 2 ^H 91 3 **• ••• ••• ^^B 91 4 Otho II. ••• ••• ••• ^m 91 s :;: ::: C Own II. and 5 < Constantine ( IX. ••• ••• •■■ *** ■*•• .kB '•• • ••• *** •»• U. ■ 91 ■ 9n « ••• ••• ••• ■ OSS ! ^H 98! PS1 ' *** ••• ••• *** *•• ••■ Otho III. ••• ••• ••• ■ WJfi ••• ••• ••• ••■ a*. ••' ••• ••• LouifV. Kouie of Captt, 1 987 987-13287 ^1 99* ■•* ... "• ■ ••• ••• a.e Hugh Capet. H 1 ws ... ..• ... ••• ••• „, ^H 1 986 ••• •(• ... ••• «„ e«. •«• ,^ B ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••» •*• ••« ... ] lobertll.theWlie. ••• ••• ••* 1 ^^aHmiagiu, to «l« OammoKemeiU of^ Oru$adn---(»ntiaml. ••• ••< ••• ••• WatHnUfU,. KiaatefBnUuid. SiBSiorSoatteA. Popca. Oaicis I., Navarre Ramiro it., Oviedo ••• ••• ••• •«• eaa ••• •■• ••• ••• eee LeoTL ... Stephen VIII. John XI.... Leo VII. ... A.D. 936 987 928 939 931 933 934 930 Ordonno III., ) Oviedo .„ j Edmund I. Edied ... 1»« • •• e»« ••• Malcolm I. ••• AM Indulf ... *•• •a* eee Stephen IX. Martin III! Agapetus I'l. ae* •■• et* ■•• 939 941 943 944 940 950 953 Sancho I,. Leoo Alhaeam II., Cor- ) dora ... ... } Edwy, or Edwin. Edgar \ '•• ••• ■•• ••• aee ••• ••* Duff ... ••• • •• JohnXIl!" •«• ••• ••• eee 954 955 950 959 901 Leo VIII. 963 lUialro III., Leon ••• ••• • •« Culen ... ••• ee* • •• ••• Benedict V. John Kill- ••• ••• 964 965 967 Sancho II. Abarea.) N«Tane j ••• eee ... Kenneth IIL ... ••• •■• Benedict VI. 969 970 973 973 974 975 976 Haahem II., Cor> ) dors ... „. J St Edward. Martjrr. Me ••■ aa. ••• eee ••• ••• ••• Domnnt IL Benedict VII. «•• ••• Bennudo 11., Leon Ethelred, the Unready. ••• ••* •e» M* ••• ••• ••• ••• ••« M* •■e •■• 978 981 983 984 986 John XIV. John XV.... OareU II., Navarre kltbnto v., Leon ••• M« ••• Conttantine IV. Kenneth III., the ) Grim S ••• ••• .ee ••• ••• ••• ammi ofOe Crusades ^^inued. Kingt is SpiOn. KiDciofEngUiid. Swncho IV., Navarrf Mahomed AIino«--\ teded, Seville t and CordoTa j } Bancho V., Rami- nZ( Arragon Alfonro VX., leon Sancho 11., Castile •*• ••• Harold II. Norma* Xingt. William the Con- queror } Mahomed A]moi> ^ tadir, Seville ( and Cordova ) Alfon*o VI., leon Stoeho Ramirea, > KingofArrag^i Pedro of Arragon Pedro! of ifavarre Yustef ben Taxi- dn, Seville and Cordova, WniiamRufku KioitofSeotUad. Popes. I>ulach Malcolm III. -i Canmore .„ / Damasui TI. St. Leo IX. Victor II. Stephen X. Nicholas II. Alexander II ••• ••• 1047 1041 1054 loss 1SS< 1087 loss 10S9 1060 1061 1068 1064 1065 1066 1067 1068 1071 1073 Donald Bane .. Duncan 11. Z Donald Bane sgain.j 1075 I07S 1077 1078 lOSl lOM 1087 1088 1003 lOM Victor m. Urban U. '*sCnu^deHo KiasiarrkaMa. lia VI. I Til. rt« Capture of Conttmtinoph by the Hktrh, 1095 to 1453. Siantaapda. XfaiparEBclMd. Kiapedeotlaai. ropt.. - Alfonso I., Nay.' ure ft Arragon. Henry I. ••• ••• •» Edgu ... *■• ••• ••• ••• ••• aee Pawhalll. ••• ••• A.B 1091 lOM lOOS IIOII 1104 Ali ben A'umef, \ Sev. and Cord. J Alexander ] f. ... eee ea* 1106 1107 UrIcaandAIfonio) VII., CutUe J ••• ••• ... •M to* •ee ••e eea Gelasiue II. 1108 i]0» 1114 HIS Alfonso VIII., -) Raymond, Cat- ' tUo •" David I. ••• cee eeo •ea Calixtui II. Honoiiui II. HIP 1124 lilt IIM Gareia-Ramirei, > Navarre ... ) namiro II., the \ Monk, Arragon / PttronillaandlUy>> mend, Arragon J ••' «. ■«• ••• ••• ,.. Stephen ... „, *•• ••« M. ••• ■•• ••• eee ••• ••• ••• Me eee ••e •ee ••• Innocent II. ••• eta ••• •■* ■*• ••• ■•• eee 1130 IlSi 11.14 MM iisr IMS II4« « Taxfln ben All, > Sev. and Cord. J Ibrahim. Sev. and) Abdelmumen, ' i Sev. and Cord, j Saneho VI., Navarre ••• •" ... ... ... M. ... ... ... ... .M ... ••• ••• ••• Mf ••• Mt ••• M ••• •e* ••• •et Celcitine 11. lueiui II. Eugcniue III. ••• ••• ••e ••• 1141 1I4S 1144 1145 1149 IIM 1 nffljir^' Malcolm •■• AnutaaluIV. IISS IISS p a «rdlnandn.,l«onl wcho III., CaaMIe A«onioIX.,Caitlle Hwuyll. ... •~ ... M. ... «.. .M ••• AM •M Adrian IV. MM II5B ''.^:^i^!zf^z!^:f^::r^^ tnvttonotlhttut. KliiMofHnuiniiT L Stephen 111. 4.D Ui9 1]61 1163 116S 1169 1174 1180 fAlwluiil., 1183 1184 1181 1187 II88 1189 1190 1191 1194 I19f I Andronicui /Imc 11., I Angclu*. 1198 nog 1303 r liasc, ftc. i again. "04 I Theodore I I20« If Henry I.', Lai .208 1^ *'"^™''- 1212 1317 CPetOTd*' < Courtenay, I. Latin Emp. C Robert de < Cowrten^r, (. Latin Emp. 1933 J /John Ducas IMI Aleziuelll. ■ UOfi |Ange)ugthe) _ . I Tyrant / Emeric, Hungary 1197 ' n>wAMiki.i...- > *h o/C<»vUa>nii,u>pU Ay th> IM^^IXQU to U5S]-.«m«im«rf. KIOM in Sp.li,. Klii«.«fBn,Uu4. Alfoato II., the \ Chaate, Arragon / Yusar ben Yacub, i Sev. and Cord. / Yacub ben Yusef,\ Sev. and Cord. / Atfonso IX., Leon SanehoVI I., Navarre Pedro I.. Arragoa Richard l. Mahomed AInai- »ar, Cordova SevUle ■^1 John Jame; I., Arragon Yusef Abu Yacub, Sev. and Cord. Henry I., Castile Ferdinand 111., the Saint, Castile, U Leon in 1230 ■1 Hiliry HI. UatsafleotlaBd. WlUiam Uw Lion PopM. Alexand.III. ••• *M ••• ••• ••• ••• 41flWLDderII. Luciui III. Urban in. Gregory Viri Clement III. Celettine III Innocent III. Honorlutill, A.O. 1190 I16I 1163 II69 1165 im II80 1181 1183 1184 I IBS |lI87 1188 1189 1190 1191 1194 1198 1190 ii»r 1198 1190 IMS 120« 1206 1208 ISIS 1218 1S14 1216 1217 \ 1281 1333 ISS8 Mi I t Table IV.—Prtm tJ^ Commencmmt nftht Cru^d,, to the dtp empcranoriktEui. ""R* aT Haamrr •■r< ledbjr > theG.cektin K 1361. 123S ' ■ Ml 1243 1249 ItM Il3t UU 12«4 1253 >•• «•! ••• ■•• I2i7 1260 '261 •2f3 1270 1271 1173 1373 1274 127G 1277 <'Tli..-odor* ( iMca- I. JohnI....^iiri». (•Michael \ VIII., p,, (. laologui. fPremWaui n./'io- l hvmia. Conrad IV. WUllunefReUaiid. - I ^ j[W«»u«rt!,EMltf CorawklL ... ' /Stephen"! v., ik'nn ••• I ^adttlMlII., Hua. V. gary. 'l%IUpllI.,th;* Rodolpii, ... Hardy ••• ••• •M ••• liU.,tiMlaiBt ••• «•« Pill., tb« I_l ft«»/«a»«to,«^pfe Jy rt, 7V«I^[109- to US3)-,«rf,V«rfL KliHT. In Ipala. T~- KlttffaorKnflMd. *** *^ — KlRKtorSeotlftM. Popr* Abdelvahid, 8ev.^ and Coril. Aladtl, 8av. and Cord. ••• •« ••• ••• ••• 1 A.D. 1 1214 Almamun. ScTille'% and Cordova. Abu All, .' lie and Cord» ••• ••• ••• *•■ ••• t*» Oreiofjr IX. 1316 1227 1228 Theobald 1. of NaO varro / ••• ••• #•• •" • • •• xe 1230 1134 IIM 1217 Mahomed 1., OraO iiada j •M ••• ,„ . ••■ ••§ •*• 1338 Alexander III. ... Celeitine IV. Innocent IV. 1141 1241 1249 AIphoBioX.,Ca«tlIe Theobald J I.. N«.^ varre / ••• ••• ••» *** *■• ••• • M »•• ,,, ••• «•• Atexaadcriv. 1250 1151 IISI 1184 \ - IMS 1297 ISJB 1200 HenrrI.,Cr8Mut,'> Navarre ... / ••• ••• ••• *——••»% Urban IV. Clement IV. • •• ••• 1261 1168 1270 Mahomed II., ) Granada ... j Joanna. Queen of 1 Navarre ... / Bdwart I. ^ ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••, ••« «M M* ••• •«• ••• ••• ••• Me Gregory X. •• ••• ••• ••• 1171 1371 1273 1374 Pedro III Arragon '•• ••• ••• ••♦ ••• M» InneecntV.r Adrian V. / John XX. C or XXI. J Kichola* lit. 1S7« iirr Ta blk lY.-. J^vm the Comnumcement of the Crueadee to, the Cap .«..,,^.^.^„ K^n^onun^ B.pmri or a»tmur. K|,„ 0/ rrwc. m s A.a ■ 137 i fWenc«,lMlV., ( Ooherala, - 128 1 J CAndronieui "* *** ■•• ••• ••• ,,, 138i 1 < Il.PttlaeoI (■ gui, tlder. »- 1284 *** ••• ••• '** ••• ••• 138J 1386 ••• PhUlp IV., 11)0 Fair . 1288 ••• ■»• — •" *** **• ... 1200 ••* ••• fAndr.wIII.,Huii. ••• , 1291 I2»2 1294 '•" ••• •■• • ... • AdolphofNuiau. ••• ••• ... **• ••• ... I39S ••« «■• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• 1208 12.:u f Othman.Ol- \ torn. Emp, ••• ••• ••• ••• VM ... Albertl. ofAuitxla. ••• ••• a.. IMO •'• ••• ••• Charob«rt, Hungaiy. ••• " IMS ••• •«• 1303 ■■* •>( ••• ... „, 1305 ••« ••• ( WeneeilM, Bobe- . mia. •- ... 1308 1307 ••« ••• fHeniy&Hodolph, I Bohemia. «ouieofLu*m. ••• ••• .•• 1308 ISOB ••• ••• *** ••• •*• burg. Heniy VII. 1310 1313 ••• ••• ••• •■• ... John of Luxemburg, ••• ... ... 1318 ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• .*• ... f liouis iv!, of bW *** M. ... 1314 ••• ^M ••• •» ... > ria, and Frederick III.) of Austria. LouIaX. 1316 ••• ••« ••• M« ... L rivaU. f Johal. I PhiUpV. 1 '•• ••• ait 1323 '•• ••• .•• harles IV, ms ••• ••• ... ma 1327 Orchaii, Ot- ••' • ••• ••♦ tM toman Emp. •" ••• »• ••• ••• tM ffoiut of ValoU, im 1838-1589. ••• ♦« •^ ••• M. ] •hllip VI. m XIagi of rraac*. turi of (ro7ulaiMn&pU by th« ftirl»— [1095 to USS]-~conHnu«l. PhUlp IV., th* Ftlr. Xlnn In SpalD. Klo(sofEn(lud. KlBgiutttMUmi. fof. A.O. lira Mftrttn IV. 1381 Saneho IV., th* ) flreat, Caitile J Alfonio Iir., Arragoa ••• ••• «•* ••• VM ••« •~ •« •» *•* ... ... UargMtt, QuMn ••• ••• Honorlua IV. Nlcholaa'iv. 1381 1184 118S 1386 1388 '•met II., Amson Ferdinand IV., 1 Caitile ••• ••• (M ••• ••• ••• Jokn Baitol Z •M •«• sM flt.'Petercio lestlne V. BonilaceVIII. 1190 1301 1193 1194 13M 1398 1309 Mahomed III., ') Qranada ... / ..• ••• ••• M« •M ••« *4» ••■ 1300 ISOl Louis Hutin, Ka- ) varre J • *• ••• **• «•• ••• M« Benedict XI. Clement V. 1803 1808 Edward II. ... Robert Bruet .- !•• ••• *M ••• ••« 1800 1307 Almaatar, Oranada ••■ ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• tt* 1S08 lS(i9 Alfonso II., Caatile israail II., Granada ••• •■• Ma ■*' ••• ••• •*• ••• ••« ••• •#• ••• ••• ••* ISIO 1313 1313 John 1.. Navarre •) Philip, France and > Navane ... ) Charles I., France) and Na-arrc > Maho.iie IV., > (iranrda . ) ■•• ••• ••• • *• «•• ••• ••• ••• M* ••• •« ••• John XXII. 1314 1316 1323 :32S Alfonso I v., Arragon Edward III. •M M* «»* ••• ••• 1326 1327 Joanna It. and ) Philip, Count of V Bnvnx, Nvr. } — — mt •«• M* •■• ••« ••■ 1328 ^ii»~ Table IY.-Fr• ••• •■• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• tore qf Conitantinoph by the Turks— [1095 to U53]--cont. Foect. BtaedletXII. Clement VI. Charles III, Ka- "> varre j John I., Arragon. Henry III., Caitile. Yuaecf II., Granada Martin, Arracoa Moha»£d VI. Granada .„ ••• eee Richard II. e«e eee *ee ••• Robert II., Stuart ••• ••* Robert III. Innocent VI. •e* ••• Hotui oft»ncatttr, 1399—1460. Heniy IV. Urban V. Gregory XI. Urban VI. Clement VII. Boniface IX. see eee Benedict ) XIII. i «*« ••• ••• ••• A.O. 1329 1330 1333 1S34 ISM 1341 !S42 1343 1346 1347 13 !9 1350 1352 1354 1355 1359 1360 I3AS 1304 186* 1370 1371 1377 1371 1380 1382 1387 1389 1390 1391 1392 1304 ISVS 1S9« 1399 1400 Crumdn to th» Cap 144S 1448 1481 IMS Constantine xrrr., ?„ V, leologut, fMahomstll, COttom.JEmp, (tuAiAn v., Hun- l garyalso. ^toth^Cap hisi of FnoiM. ... I VI!. *«r, qfConstmainople by the Turk,-,[109B to USS]^con6inued. King* in Spain. Kinci of EniUnd. John II., Cattlle Yusief III., Granada Ferdinand, King of > SicUy, Arragon J Alfonso v., Arragon Mahomed VII., ) Granada ... j John II., Navarre, •» and of Arragon \ in 15S8. ... f Mahomed VIII., ) Granada ... f Mahomed VII. > again. j YuMeflV.Gra- •> Wda, Mahoin$d V VII.. Granada j Kint^ of Scotland. Mahomed IX., Granada ••• ••• Henry V. Henry VI, JameiL JauiM IT. Popes. BenedXICI.-) rest., dep. y in uir. j Innocent VII. Gregory ^ XII.,dei. t in Hoy. 1 Alexander V. JohnXKIII.,) dep. in 1415 J Martin V. Eugenins IV. NiehoUa V. A.D. 1402 1403 1404 U06 1408 1409 1410 1412 141S I4I6 1417 1419 1421 1422 I42S :42S 1427 1429 1431 Hit I4S7 HM 1440 I44S 1447 I44« 1481 145> lis Tablb y.-^From the Capture of ConataiUimpU 6y Ottomu Emperon. Emperon of OcmwiiT. Xinits of HuniniT and Bohemia. KiuciofFiaMi. ■— A.B ' 145 US Uii i Mabwnet II ' ••• ••• • ••• ••• ••« Frederick IV. ••• ••• ••• ••• ••« ••• LaditlBf v., Bohemia Chwla* Vlf. ••• ••• ■•• ••• ••• ••• "• ••• •" ••• ... ... CMatthiaa.Hunfranr. "* George Podir id, (. Bohomla. 1460 1461 1464 1«66 ••• ••• ••• ••• ••" ••• ••■ ••• ••• •■• ••• ••• ••• ••■ ••• a>a **• *•■ aa* *** ••• aa* ••• .»• a.a Louli XI. ••• aa* •.. 1471 ••• «i. ••• ■•• ,», ••• ••• ••• ri^lilat VI., ( Bohemia. ••• ••• ••• i •■• •«• *•■ ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ..Ti •'• ••• •.• •LouU II. of Hun- , Bary, and I. of \ Bohemia. < : touiiXIIaOfOr. ••• ••• •*• ••• «.« ... •'■ ••• ••• ••• ••* •,. PfMCil J. Henr> ir.» Low«r Navirrt. <^T!J 4M tlui Turks to tlui Congresa of Vienna, 1453—1815. KiDRs n Spain. Klnw of England. , Kinf . of ScotUnd, Henry VI John 11., Navarre Henry IV., Cistile , Mahomed X., ) Granada „. n •" •■ f Joh.n II., Navarre I and Castile Abul Hastao, ) Granada ... j Ferdinand V., the Catholic, and Inabella, Cas- tile Eleanor, Nararre ' Francis- Phcebus. Navarre ! Catherine and "v John D'Albret, i Navarre j . «aiiTlea r. elected > I 'sop«rM in 1519 j L Abu Abdallah, "V and Abdallah el I Zagel, Granada, > dethr. by Fer- f dinaad in 1491 }\ „ Hoiut of Tudor, 1485—1603. Taalb Y.—From the Capture of Cmatcmtinoph by th4 1 Ottomu Kmptran. ■ -■ 1 — — Emperor* of Oemuny. KInn of liunnrjr ■nd Bohemia. XiDirt of Fraace. A.D Soliman II. 1 ISti 19U ••• MM «•• ... •.• ••• ••• ••• ••• •^ ••• ••• ... ... ... ••t ••• ••> f John ZapoUki and Ijlfl •» — ••• j Ferdinand I. Kin» 1 • } of Bohemia, riva V king!. Kings of Mnhemia and 1 1 Ctart (rfRuiiia. lOB - - a van IV., Baaile- I vitz, first Ciar. im • >. ••• M« • •f /'Ferdinand, goto •»t ••« «•• -Hi ~ '•• «n -. 1 kingofHunKary, , elected emperor IMI ~. V in 1SS8. tar ••• MM «» '•• ••• ••• ••• ete «•« • •■ B„ • •• ^^ — ••• ••« 4*4 Henry 11. MB *•* ••• •"" •!*■ ~~ ••• ••• f»« ••• ••• ■•• "i^H; **• "^ ■^ ♦•• 11* ••• •« ••• ••• mm «. ^ — •^ «•• »«« S *•* ■•• fiMnuofl. ^^ ••• •^ M* ••• ••• ••• MW' *** — — ^ *** ••• ••• Francia II. mu aw Seii'm 11." *Kcanaijui IL^ ••• •*• ••• Charles IX. ISM *** *•• M* .•« ••• •" ••• /Henry III., King of <. Nav.& of France. 1574 Amnath III. ••• ••• *a. 1576 1584 Kedoqilin. I98S ••• ••• • •• ••• *•• yeodtorI.,Czar. •^ ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• •" m Houtt of Bourbon, 1589—1830. 18(9 1590 ••• ... •M f^ ... **• ••• ■•• Henry IV. ... ••• •■• ... *•• •„ ,,, ••« ... ••• USl ... **• ••• ••. *M •*» ••• ••• .*• ... 1592 '." ••• ••• ... ■■• ••« •«« 1505 Mabomedill. ••• ••• ... ••• ••• ••• ... •.• ... 1598 ••• M* •«« Boric Oodonoff;Csar 1603 Ahmed I. 1805 •M M* M« •M «♦ ^ ••• ■.. ..« -^- - , 1 M» M* — m .» „. •m ..• ••• fhbyths of tnatt* ••• M« '•• ••• »• ••• c. [., Kingot Bf France. lourbon, 1830. Turh to the Congrm of ri»ina--[ 1453—1 8 lff]-«,nftnu«rf. King! or Kpaiii. XlDKiofEncUad. KioK* of Scotland. POfKt. Adrian VI. Clement VII Paul III. A.D. 1520 1522 ■ 1523 1526 1533 1534 1541 Edward VI. ... Mary I 1942 IS47 1990 Mary .„ ^. Julius III. ■•• ••• ••• 1953 Marcelluail.l Paul IV. I'hUlp 11. S3M Ellaabeth. Piiis IV."* r3M 1998 1599 1960 1564 Jamei VI. Pius V. 12A6 1967 GregoryXIIl. 1972 1974 1976 1964 Sixtua V. 15.\5 1 Urban VI I. Gregory XIV. I3'9 1390 Innocent IX. 1591 Clement VIII. 1592 pwiip in. ... ••• 1995 *" ••• ••• 1988 Bouti of Stiiiu4, 1603—1680. James!., of SootO land VL ... «•• ,. ••• ••• 1603 Leo XI. 1G09 1 Paul V. Table y.-Fr XIII. j 1714 1715 1721 r.oulg Fliilip retume* ••• ••• «•• ••• ••• ••■ Benedict > XIII. j 1724 ( Seorge II'.' .'." ••• <•• ••« • •• ••• ,„ •■" t*« 1725 I79» — _ Clement XII. irso j TABta r.-J»V^ ths a^rt of Chfueantinople by tU TurkttoL Congrea, q/- Vienna^li53-^i8l5]-ccnUinued 1 KI«io(a»>ia. tofPnine^ 1 Khu. of GiMI Britain. ' K„„ ^ Pr»« .. Popn. 1 Frederick II. ... Denediet XIV. A n. 1 I 1 1711 1 m2 ••• ••• 1 FertiMoC VI. ... Chulet III. ... •*. ... ... _ ». Qeorg* III. ... ••• •.• .*. ••• ••• ... ••• ••• ClementXm. •te M* IM.1 1710 17.4 1757 17S8 t7A9 17fl» ■ 762 rl -' 1 Clurlei IV. ... •» m m Frederick- WlUUm^ *** ••• ••• Clement XIV. Pim VI. •t* ••• ••• ••• 17fiS I7IN) 177-* 1775 17M 1 179;) i7»2 1793 17M 1 Frederiek-Wnifftmy ••• »•• 1796 1797 •emperor. -1814. 11. ... /««eph KspetMw. F«rdln»nd VII. ••• »•• 4.. - t^ ?•• •«. ••• — ... •~ •.. «. Plu« vu. ••• ' ... 1798 1800 1801 1804 1807 IH08 1SI4 Ml IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 ;^i^ 1^ Ui Itt |2.2 1.1 f.-^Bsa IL25 imi 1.4 1.6 )1 i. u <^ V •1>^ Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MSaO (716) 872-4S03 ^ '^ '%'■ ? ,.v > K^ 4^ ^^ 'Vl.-^Contmporaiy Sovereigm not indwM m the/ongoing TaUet. Bwtwiuir. KU|terAri«M4 OiAeaefBwiwI,. DUeeefMeneaiy. A.O. •IS •4t MS ISO ChnUt, Pmranee. "• — u. ••• ••• U4 MS MI B«Mn, ProTtBci mcUrt ••• m M« •;• ITT •79 Berennr, Auk* ) ofPriull ••S W ••• M, ^, - tu Guy, Duke of Spj.' leto, crownrd *" M> M» •mptror in 881. ••• ••• see "••"«»• •«• ••• tn ! I«rii the Blind, ) Provence ... j ••• ••• M. ••• M. •90 I^un'iert, onpeior 892 ••• ••• M. ••• •** 894 Loun the Blind, ") •99 crowned empe- ' ror In 991 ... j ••• «.• .n. •••••• M. ••• ••• 900 BcrenKcr afaln, •) crowned empe- ror in 911 "Z. ) Xodolf li" King 'i of Arlrt, Bur. •"•"#•« •M tM MS f undy, Mid Pro- ■ vence, united ••• ••• ... HeUe ... •11 la93S... ^ ...J 913 Rodoir, Klni of ) Rodolph •e* ••• 919 9S1 Burtjundy' S ••• w« a*. ••• eee •.• ••e ee* 9t9 HuKh, Count dt ) Gitelbert ••• M. 9tS Provence ... } ••• ••• »• ••• ••• H. ••• ee« 1 9M WiUiaiB I. BX7 Conmd, Arte* niihnii'. -, 9S» •S7 Hugh tlie Great j ••• eee 9S9 Lotha re Richard I. 94S Herein er end "i Adilbert «. j — ••• Me MS "• ••• eee ISO Othc ... ^ •*• *•• ] IS< 1 Rtory I. ^ **• —9 1 It m r» 1 «3 -i 1 w __ fta Tabvm Y l^^OnUmpamr!, Awrayn. noi *'*'^*»^^^»M^ng Ta6le^...,xnuimud. >Couni le, tint voy. Klai**ro«wB«k. A.a. HIS lilt Ui7 IIM lltO nil IIM iitr 1I3II IMS IM6 tut Table VI.— Confcw^wiwy Smwmgni not Kiafl*oriw«4mk "•^JTCii"- CMatoaf8*««r. Brio IV, BricV. Philip I. Inigo II. •wwktrL •" M> M. ••• ... rL«lUIuIII.,t4 ( kiaf. Baldwin III. (•Hubert III., iht l Mat trmgninoi taeftafoy. III. !II., th« •• »•• mmiug^J '^'^^^ 1^ ^Ml,mff rablu-..caip I. MM jJM ErieVm. , ' »»e .J ISOO ' Ijm chri.toph«n. M;intt.ii. im ' >S29 ... I3S3 , issr 1S4> '('lUdomwinJ I *** ••• Albert I., ••• «• t.l {A«jd«.,V..»,. I UDginl32o! ... „, ••• •.• «.• Edward. Culmlr m. ... , A" fAImon.thoPeaeo. ( maker to* ••• ... MO ••• Ml ••• M. •» •>< •". ... "• .» *•• ••• • •0 • •• • •• •00 rAmadeui V.,tiio (, Oreen Count. ••• •.• ... ... 1 1 If Ignto. King of" l(. Hungary. •*• ... MI wne. Fftlt. *'*''''*^^*^Mv^ng TaUes-...,^^ t^l'Sf O/lfuptM. ChirlM II. RolMrt RuchV. Eudei IV.' Pe Prederickill. ISM 1290 1396 j 1300 I 1S04 XMtS 59 114 1^X0 isaa 1325 I 1339 I 1333 1337 1340 1343 1343 1330 1345 1357 1363 1364 1365 1367 1370 M«7l.,queen| 1377 1383 9tmffH§itOt tttafwr. 1 ■I «««• VII., tha •ni VIII,, , Mifle, Uuka rof. IX., Um nit. ) Hnntar Iha inelHthd m the/ortgoiny TabUa-^ixmtinutd. K\Mtt%nfSmpU%. 1 ~ UaknorBwiruMly. KtmnofrmanU. SkahiorrMa. 1 A.U. Joba I. ... •M ••• t** ISU LaditlAA. '■■■■■• ••• "••««« •M ••• •M •'•m'W j ISU ISU IMT IMl ISM mt , IIM Martin ) alono. j 1 Martin ^ John taiii Poor **■ ••• MM U04 Mnlor 1409 Sicily unl».-) •d to Aria- • 1411 Joanna II., of ■) fon ... ) Bourbon / •M PhUlp III. ... M14 B 14M AITonao V. •~ I4M 1440 I44S Fardtaand f. • 1441 14M Chailta tha Bold. ••• — •M •M M« I4U I46r 1470 /• 147: rebalL ••• ••• »•• 1411 1 ■ 4M • • '"""-«-«-•«.,&««,-.« *»<**«^ in tAt/brtgamg Tabtu-contmued. ■iM«*(NMlM. AlfMie It. P«rdln«n4 II. ... Frederic KlnadompurtllioB- •n by Franca and ■fiin ip 1501, fHacMcrOlMlf*. PhUibtit4«Cluloot Rui« dt ttuim WmiMBOftrHMU PbiUp William Maurice „. Frederie Hanry KiNKWPeHiVlJ. •kakt of rmU. EminaBttal John III. M« M4 limaU Tamup I. Sebaatlaa Rrary (ha Tardlnal Portugal united to) Spain Id KM J Iimatl Meeria Mahomed Maena Abba* I., the) Great j Shah Soofe A.D. HIS una un U9i 14M MM U9T IIOI UOI IN* 1 504 1506 ISIS 1511 isas 1580 153-1 1544 1548 1553 1557 ISS9 15(>f/ 1568 1574 I 1575 1576 1577 1578 1580 158t 1584 1587 1588 1592 IC04 1611 1618 t<>25 l()!i7 16.10 1632 less -Sis Tabm yi.'-Contmpo^ry Sw^dgnt not Sovereuftit not CiBfiorSanliaia. >ncl» Hyarliitli. , larlei £iuiuaiiu«|| indwhd in tU foregoing TabUa^eonUntud, U of Sardinia. orAmadeui II ■ini tile crown Sicily in 1 71 3, .Mclianuei (or ilmiaiu I7i8. t Emmanuelj SianefMarici. MacMotOnag*. XlsnorPeitaMsl, Shaiii«rr(r.la. WflllwBlI. «. youito/Braganxt John IV. ^ •~ •-• ~. ••* ... Abbu IX. AD I03i Wii 1040 IG4I 1S47 IMS tfJUlmm. », AlfonioVI. «. ••• Ma •» Soliman"* I0S4 ICSO lOCO I6C6 l'i(i!> in7o 1174 • WlUtomiv. ^ Pedro 11. ^ •" •« •M ••• ••• HiuMin... ••• ••• 1083 16!J4 ICU7 1(1 VU 1702 WilUaa T. ^ John V. « M* M« ••• •■• ... ••• ... Mahmo'^d AihnUr ... Tamasp II. liO-i 1700 1700 1711 I71U I7V2 1725 17; a 1 1730 Abbu HI. 1 1732 DoaCulot. Kulir Sbah 1734 ' 1735 1 17.'i6 1741 1 Joicph .„ Adil Shah Shah Rookh ••• ••• 1740 1747 1748 1750 Ftrdlnand f . — •« «.. J IC«tMciii Khan 1751 753 7.iy 704 700 771 Kiaii* of Onuatik. A.D. 1773 1777 1779 1781 178$ 1786 178» 17M 179« 1796 1802 1806 1808 1809 1815 Tamlm VI. ontmpormy Swmmgnt not Uatiofamdm. Dalm Md Kion Guttavui IV. "■aoflwdiiite. Victor Anudeiu III, rFtealputiUonor I Poland. Frederio VI. ClurlM ZIII. fChwlei Emmanuel f Vie tor Emmanuel horary Sovtmgna not *• Ki"VofIu4faite. Victor Amadeiu HI. •*• ••• indvdedin tite foregoing Tables -continued. [<*"'«• Emmanuel f Victor EmmaBuel Joseph Napoleon Joachim Murat. Ferdinand IV. Maiia alone. WillUmVn.,King- of the Nether- | lands in 1815. J Abool Fat- >eh Khan All Mtiorad ) Khan j Jaffler Khan Looft Ali" ) Khan j Aga Mah'o- > \ ined i I Fctteh Ali > ' Khaii j I 1806 THE END.