IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 1.1 Iti|2j8 |25 15.0 "^^ R^^H Ui lii 12.2 u lai Z tiS, 12.0 I' L25 iHiu 11.6 I V ^^^' (? / Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WIST MAIN STRUT WnSTM.N.Y. US80 (716)S7a-4S03 CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/iCIVIH Collection de microfiches. Canadian tnttitut* for Historical IWIicroroproductions / Institut Canadian da microraproductions historiquas Tachnicai and Bibliographic NotM/Notas tachniquaa at bibllographiquaa Thac toth€ Tlia tnatituta hat attamptad to obtain tha batt original copy availabia for filming. Facturaa of thia copy which may ba bibliographically uniqua, which may altar any of tha imagaa in tha raproduction. or which may aignificantly changa tha uaual mathod of filming, ara chaclcad balow. L'Inatitut a microfilm* la maillaur examplaire qu'il iui a itt poaaibia da sa procurer. Las details da cat axamplaira qui sont paut-Atra uniquas du point da vua bibliographiqua. qui pauvent modifier una imaga raproduita. ou qui pauvant axigar una modification dana la mithoda normala da fiimage aont indiquia ci-daaaoua. Thaii poaail of the filmin n D D n D D D D D D Coloured covara/ Couverture da coulaur Covara damaged/ Couverture endommagto Covert reatored and/or laminated/ Couverture reataurie at/ou pelliculAe Cover title miaaing/ La titre de couverture manque Coloured mapa/ Cartat gtegraphiquea un coulaur Coloured ink (i.e. other than blue or black)/ Encra de couleur (i.e. autre que blaue ou noire) Coloured platet and/or illuatratlona/ Planchea at/ou illuatrationa an couleur Bound with other meterial/ Relii avac d'autrea documentt Tight binding may cauta thadowa or dittortion along interior margin/ Lareliure terrie peut cauaar de I'ombre ou de la diatoralon la long da la marg* intiriaura Blank laavea added during rettoration may appear within tha text. Whenever pottible. thete have been omitted from filming/ II ae peut que certaSnea pagea blanchet ajouttea lore d'une reatauration apparaiaaant dana la taxte. mala, lortqua cela 4tait poaaibia. caa pagea n'ont paa 4t« filmiaa. D D D D El D D D Coloured pagea/ Pagea da coulaur Pagea damaged/ Pagea endommagiet Pagea reatored and/or laminated/ Paget rettauriea et/ou pellicuiiet Origir begin the la tion, other f irtt f tion, or illu FTj Pagea ditcoloured. atained or foxed/ Pagea dAcoloriaa, tachatiet ou piqutea Pagea detached/ Pagea dAtachtea Showthrough/ Tranaparance Quality of print variea/ QualitA inilgala de I'impreation Includea tupplementary material/ Comprend du matAriai auppl^mantaira Only edition available/ Seule Mition diaponibi* Pagea wholly or partially obicured by errata alipa. tiaauaa. etc., have been refilmed to enaure the beat pottible image/ Lea pagea totalamant ou partiallement obtcurciet par un feuillet d'errata. una pelure, etc., ont 4tA filmAea A nouvaau de fa^on A obtenir la mailleure imaga poaaibia. Theli ahall ( TINUi whici Mapa, differ entire begini right ( requir meth< n Additional oommanta:/ Commantairea tupplimantairaa; T:iit item it filmed at tha reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document eat film* au taux da rAduction indiquA ci-deaaoua. 10X 14X 18X 22X 26X 30X y 12X lex aox 24X 28X 32X TtM copy fllm«d har« has b««n reproducad thanks to tha ganarosity of: La BibliotMqiM (to la Villa da MontrM L'axamplaira film* f ut raproduit grioa k la gAnAroaiti da: La BMiothtqua da la Villa da MontrM Tha imagas appaaring hara ara tha baat quality posslbia considaring tha condition and lagibility of tha original copy and in kaaping with tha filming contract spacif Ications. Original copias in printad papar covars ara fiimad baginning with tha front covar and anding on tha last paga with a printad or illustratad impras- sion. or tha back covar whan appropriata. All othar original copias ara fiimad baginning on tha first paga with a printad or illustratad impras- sion. and anding on tha last paga with a printad or illustratad imprasslon. Tha last racordad frama on aach microficha shall contain tha symbol — ^ (moaning "CON- TINUED"), or tha symbol ▼ (maaning "END"), whichavar applias. Laa imagas suhrantas ont 4t4 raproduitaa avac la plua grand soln, compta tanu da la condition at da la nattati da l'axamplaira fiimA, at an conformity avac las conditions du contrat da filmaga. Las axamplairaa originaux dont la couvartura an papiar ast ImprimAa sont filmAs an commanpant par la pramiar plat at an taripinant soit par la darnlAra paga qui comporta una amprainta d'impraasion ou dlliustration, soit par la aacond plat, salon la caa. Tous laa autras axamplairaa originaux sont fiimAs an commanpant par la pramiAra paga qui comporta una amprainta d'impraasion ou d'illustration at an tarminant par la darnlAra paga qui comporta una talla amprainta. Un das symboias suivants apparattra sur la darniAra imaga da chaqua microficha, salon ia caa: la symbols -^ signifia "A SUIVRE". la symbols V signifia "FIN". IMaps, piatas, charts, ate, may \f fiimad at diffarant raduction ratios. Thoaa too larga to ba antiraly includad in ona axpoaura ara fiimad baginning in tha uppar laft hand cornar, laft to right and top to bottom, as many framaa as raquirad. Tha following diagrams illuatrata tha mathod: Laa cartas, planchas, tabiaaux, ate, pauvant ttra f ilniAs A daa taux da rMuction diffiranta. Lorsqua la documant aat trop grand pour Atra raproduit an un aaul clieh*, il ast filmA A partir da I'angle supAriaur gaucha, da gaucha i droita, at da haut an baa, an pranant la nombra d'imagas nAcaaaaira. Las diagrammaa suivanta illustrant la mithoda. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 ^* 41 iu\M ^2^^^ AN ABBIDGEMENT or MTJERAT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. AND EXERCISES; WITH QUESTIONS, ADAPTED TO THE USE OF SCHOOJ.S AND ACADEMIES ; ' ' ALSO ■■'■,;'''-'^" Containing Rules perspicuity and accuracy ^/ BY M. J. KERNEY, AVTHOA or COMPKNDIVM OV ANCIKNT AMD MODIKlf HIITOKT. MONTREALi' ARMOUR k RAM i AT. TORONTO I A. B. ARMOUR H Oo. 1852. ''"■ ■>. ■' •{ -r *? ■ **i«;*%:.i 'i ^ifb: 'KS '^ .(.■ A .* A.' 'J m # 1 1 cj 1 .1 - i i * •', 4 ■4'- J ASM 'y mt* 4* 3 1 PREFACE. Thb long established reputation of Murray's English 'Grammar renders it unnecessary at the present time to add anj comment on its merits. The large Gramsiar, however, has been generally found too prolix to render it a suitable text-book for the younger class of learners ; but on the other hand the abridgements, that have already ap- peared, are in many respects too concise to meet the ends for which they were designed. The principal object, therefore, of the present abridgement is to obviate the ob- jection urged against the former, -and to supply the defi- ciency of the latter. All experience proved that no sys- tem of teaching is so well calculated to ensure success as that which is accompanied by. explicit and appropriate illtt^ations of tbe principles inculcated. A short example often gives a clearer conception of a precept thaa th« most explicit words could convey. For this reason it has been thought proper to combine the Grammar and Exer- cises, to adapt an exercise to each chapter and section throughout the work, so that the pupil at every stage of his progress may have a practical illustration of the portion under his immediate study. By this arrangement, it is believed, the present abridgement will in a gre^^t measure supersede the use of the Exercise heretofore used in connection with the Grammar, as it contains the most important portions of that Exercise. Those, how- ever, who may think proper to make use of Murray'^ Ex- ercise and K ey, will find this abridgement to correspond in general with the arrangement of these works. The Ques- tions, arranged at the bottom of each page, it is hoped, will give a value to the work, and prove useful both to teachers and pupils. Some slight deviation will be found in the arrangement of the Uules of Syntax ; but in general the language of the Original has been carefully perserred. i-rf<-^^%!f\' I M. ;. K. CONTENTS. k ■" f PACK. ORTHOGRAPHY.— Chapter i, 5 Chapter n. — Of Syllables and Words, .... 9 ETYMOLOGY.— Chapter i.— Parts of Speech, 1 1 Chapter n. — Of the Articles, 13 . . 14 , . 17 . . 19 , .. 23 . . 46 . . 47 . . 47 * . 40 , . 49 . . 49 , . 52 . . 54 . ^S . .79 .80 . . 83- . «3 . . 85 . . 86 . . 88 , . 92 • • '"" . . 104 . 107 Chapter hi. — Of the Noun, Chapter iv. — Of Adjectives, . . . Chapter v.-^f Pronouns, . . . Chapter vi — Of the Verb, . . * . Chapter vn. — Of the Adverb, . . . Chapter viii. — Of Prepositions, . . Chapter ix. — Of Conjunctions, . . . Chapter x. — Of Interjections, . . .Parsing, Directions for Parsing, - SYNTAX, '. . . Rules for Syntax, . . PROSODY.— Accent, . . . . . Quantity, Emphasis, Pause, Tone, Versification Punctuation, Comma, . Rules for the Comma, . Semicolon, .... Colon, Period, - , . . Exercise in Punctuation, Promiscuous Exercises, . APPENDIX.— Perspicuity, ... Figures of Speech, . . Log[ic, ....•* Oratory, 109 Gender, ........ 110 Number, ........ Ill Rules for Spelling, . . . . . 112 Elliptical Phrases, 115 Latin Phrases, 116 '' ENGLISH GRAMMAR. English Grammar is the art of speaking and writ- ing the English language with proprietj. It is divided into four parts, yiz. ORTHbGRAPHY, EttmoIiGOt, Syntax, and Prosody. ORTHOGRAPHY. CHAPTER I. 1 . Orthography, the first part of grammar, treats of the nature and powers of letters, and the proper method of spelling words. A letter is the first principle, or least part of a word. The letters of the English language, called the Alpha- bet, are twenty-six in number. '' These letters are the representatives of certain articu- late sounds, the elements of the language. An articulate (*sound is a sound of the human voice formed by the ?■' organs of speech. j» 2. Letters are divided into vowels and cmisonanU* A vowel is an articulate sound, that can be perfectly uttered by itself without the aid of any other sound. The vowels are a, e, f, o, w, and sometimes to and y. W and y are consonants when they begin a word or syllable ; but in every other situation they are vowels, ^ A consonant is an articulate sound, which cannot be perfectly uttered without the aid of a vowel ; as, ft, d, /, /, which require vowels to express them fully. ''1. What is English Grammar 1 How is it divided 1 Of what docs Orthography treat ] What is a letter 1 What are they called ? What are these letters 1 What is an articulate sound 1 2. How are letters divided 1 What is a vowel 1 What is said n( uj and y ? What is a consonant 1 6 ENGLISH ORAMMAH. JVbfe — The fbllowing is a list of the Roman. lulie, a'nd Old English characters, both Ci^im and Snail. Cap. Small. Cap. Small. Cap. Small. A a A a ^ n at. B b B b as fi bee. C c C c ct: t see. D d ' D d m H dee. E e E e n e ee. F f F f s i ef. G g G g ^ fi jee. H b H h n h aitch. I • 1 I * t fi f i or eye. J • J J J n 1 j<^y' K k K k 9Et ft - kay. L 1 L I E I el. M m M m Jw m em. N n N n N n e». ' :'"' O a 0. P P p P ^ P pee. Q q Q 9 €t Q cue. E r R r St V ar. S s S s ^ s ess. T t T t ST t tee, * U a U u « u u or yen*. V V V V m b vee. w w w w w ttt doidle u. X X X X X V eks. •! Y y Y y Y n icy. 7^ z z z z ! zed or zee. i *- ■m^ h ^ f^' A ^rtkct alphabet of any laiisiuge would contain a number of lettem precuiely equal to the number ^ simple articulate sounds be- lonffing to the languafe, and each simple sound would be represented ■by 11$ own distinct ehancter. lliia, however, is fiur flxna betog the state of the £ngluh Alphabet ; it has more original soiwida than distinct signi^ant letters. But, to obviate the mconvenience that would naturally arise, many of these letters are made to represent .not only one, but several sounds. The following tabl« represents the number of vowel sounds : ' Letters denoting Vie simple sounds. A has fOHr simple sounds. 1 . -The tong dender English 2. The loog Italian 3. The broiad German 4. The short sound of Uie Italian E has two sounds. 1. The toiig ?i^ :^ ^^--^^ -; 2. The abort 1 has two sounds. 1. The long 2. The short O has four sounds, , 'fi^ ''■'' 1. The long^pen ^ 2. The long'closed * 3. The long broad 4. The short broad *j utxa iiiiev avuuUS< .^ : - ^(' 1. The long diphthongal u, as in , tieto, &CC., and y that of i in hymn, fly, &c. Consonants are distin*- guishcd by the organs of speech employed in pronouncing them into labial, dental, guttural, and natal. The labials are those forified by the iips ; as, b, p,f, v. The dentals are formed by the teeth j as« t, d, t, z and g sofl. The gutturals are formed from the throat ; as, k, q, e. The nasals are pro'nounced through the nose ; as, m,n. The mutes are divided into pure and impure. The pure are those whose sounds cannot be at all prolonged ; as, k, p, t. The impure are those whose sounds may be continued, though for a very short space; as, b, d, g. The semi-vowels may be subdivided into vocal and aspirated. The vocal-are those formed by the voice, and are /, in, n, r, v, w, y, z ; the aspirated are formed by the breath, and are/, h, s, th and sA. The sound of c is hard before a, o,u, r, t, and /; as, cart, cottage, curions, craft, tract, cloth, Stc, and when it ends a syllable ; as, victim, &c. It has the soft sound before e, i, and y, Sisface, civil, cymbal, mercy, Inc. G is hard hefote a, o, u, I and r ; as, game, gone, gull, glory, grandeur ; and also at the end of words ; as, bag, nag, dog. But it has generally the soft sound before e, i and y ; as, genius, ginger, Egypt. 4.'What is a diphthong I What is a triphthongh ? What is a proper diphthong 1 Whatis an improper diphthong 1 1. 2. 'i^ 3. pi in is oi 9ta te J ar so se w tv 3, &t -3 )' ORTHOORAPHT. 9 L * BZERCISE. '. Full many a gem of parest ray serene The dark unfathomed eaves of ocean bear ; Full many a flower is bom to bldob unseen, And waste its sweetness in the desert air. Dawn by yon woods where oaks their branches wave. The bloom of youth fades with advancing years. 2. Vital spark of heavenly flame, Quit,, oh ?, quit this mortal frame^ , ' Trembling, hoping, lingering, flyings Oh ! the pain, the bliss of dying. iExalt the brave and idolize succe$8. The zealous mind«is ever anxious to improve. 3. Earth, tear, boil, read, toil, paid, day, Beauty, people, -oil, new, always, react, die^ Guess, heroic, sound, taught, aunt, joy. Coal, violet, bilious, adieu, poniard, coil^,* ■ Factious, lieu, speak, situation, down> Foe, doubt, precious, buy, djew, deceit.. tip )4 m CHAPTER It. OF SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 1. A syllable is a sound, either simple or compound, pronounced by a single, impujse of the voice, and constitut- ing a word, or part of a word i as, o^ aUf ant. Spelling ' is the art of rightly dividing words into their syllables, or of expressing a word by it^ proper letters. ^2. Words are articulate sounds used by common cbn- tient as signs of our ideas. A word of one syllable is termed a Mom^syllable ; a word of two syllables, a JHssyllable f a word of tliree syllables, ^ Tri^yltable y and a word .of four or more syllables, a JPolysyllable. 3. All words are either primitive or derivative. A 1. rointout the vowels?. Point out the coDBOnants 1 Point out the words in which w and y ore vowels 1. In what words are they con- sonants 1 And why 1 2. Point out the mutest Point out the semi-vowels and liquids 1 3. Point out the diphthongs in the above words 1 Point out the triphthongs 1 What are the words in which two vowels come together, butdo liet foraii^ diphthong i- 1. What is a syllable 1 What is speUing 1 2. What are word»? What is a monosyllable I a diHyllable I a trisylltble 1 a polysyHable ?. 3. Wh&t ore all words 1. What is a primitive word '{ What is a dedv ajtive word-l A'2. .-V^A-::: 10 E56LI8H GRAMMAR. primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to any simpler word in the language ; as, man, goody content* A derivative word is that wmch may be reduced to another word in English of greater simidioitf ; as, handful t good- ness, contentment. 2fo!«.— >A primitiTe word it the limpleat form to whiah a word can be reduced ; m, |)en,4«a, man, A deri?atiT» is a word compounded of two or iQore primitiTe words, or deri?ed ftbm a primitiTB word 1 at, pen^enifet tea-cupf mmUy. Words are derived from each other iuTarioaaways, tIz. $ nouns aredcrired firom verbs j as, from to loTe, conies Untr ; to visit, vuUoTf to surWve, survivor ; to act, actor* Verbs are deriiad from nouns ; as, ftt>m salt, to mU j also trota adjectives and adverbs: as, length, to Ungthen } short, to shorten ; forward, to forwards Nouns are derivedfrom adjectives ; as, ftam white, tPAtfensss; good, fpodnest. Adjectives are Jenved from nouns ; as, from health, heatthy ; joj, joy/w ; care, eartlett. Nouns are , also derived from other nouns ; as, from king, kingdom \ law, laiover ; senate, senator. Adverbs are derived from a4jecUves ; as, from slow, slowly J base, bastly ; able, ably, £jLuB>CIS£i* 1. Lo, the poor Indian ! whose untutored mind Sees God in clouds, or hd^cs Jbim in the wind. His soul proud science n^veiftaught to stray Far as the solar walk or milky-way. 2. And thou, who, mindful of the unhonored dead, Post in these lines their artless tale relate, ]^ night and lonely contemplation led To wander in the gloomy walks of fate, Hark ! how the sacred calm« that breathes around. Bids every fierce tumultuous passion cease. 3. Man, earth, healthy, oak, manhood,earthIy, Toil, careless, child, toilsome, joyful, fruit, --^^ Joy, manful, childish, childhood, sin, kind, * ' Sinful, lover, kindness, white, fruitful, oaken, . Worth, whiteness, freedom, kingdom, beautiful, Salt, shortoeasi saltish, good, goodness. 'M 25) 1. l^qlintout the word* eontaininc but oneqrllable t What words contain iv(fl or more sytlabfes t 2. Point outthe monosjilables 7 the disqrilables 1 the trisyllables 1 the polysyllables 1 3. Point out the primitive words In the above secuon 1 Point out the derivative words t From what are they derived 1 trei cat sor Sp: the JPn 1 thei 4 thit ma N bek notfi gene thini are notli they ^^Sts' )», '[ H by I thin hum thei anai 4 avo « ^ is u 19 ofth noui 1. InE I. adje< -ffi"i ^ ITTlfOLOOr. ">?(.-»*«lt 11 s^ PARTE. ETYMOLOGY. CHAPTER I. The Parts of speech, 1. The second part of Grammu ia EiTMOLOG'lf which treatf of tibe Cerent sorts of words, their various inoM- cationSy and their derivation. There are in EneUsh nine sorts of words, or, as they are commonly called, Pabtib of Spkech ; naiaely, the Article, the Sumantive or Nouitf the Adfectwe, the Pronoufif the Verb, the Acherb, the Preposition, the Conjunction^ and the Interjection, 1. An Article is a wqrd prefixed to nouns to point them out and show how far their signification extends ; as, a field, a houae, an e&^e,tke woman. 2. The Substantive or Noun is the name of any thing that exists, or of which we have any notion ; as, jUmdon, man, virtue. A'bto.— Whatever has a name is a noun. A noun, therefore, may be known by asking the question, Is it the name of a thing t Xbe word noun is more appropriate than lubttaniwe, because it is much n^ore general in its at^Mication ; the latter in its IHeral sense ^piifiet som«i> thing that has tubslanee. The words, idea,'ih(mglU, tpbrtt, atigtl, Uc. are not properly substanUTes, because Uiey contMi no substance, nothing that we can hear, taste, feel ; but they are nouns, beeauw they are the names of certain thuass. s 3. An Adjective is a word added to a noun to express ts quality ', as, an industrious man ; a virtuious woman. ^<<.— An adjective simply expresses quality, andmay be known by its maUng sense with the addition of the word thing ; as, a good thing, a bad thing ; or of any particular noun ; as, a vri$e man, an humU mind | or by answering to the question. What is the quality of the noun 1 as, ^ tweet apple } What is the quality of the apj^ 1 the answer is weet, 4. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word ; as, *< The man is happy, he is virtuous, fte is benevolent, he is useful." ^o. 1, What is the second part of Grammar, and of what does it treat t In English how many parts of speeeh, and what are they 1 \, What Is an article 1 2. What is a noun I 2. WJiat is an adjective 1 4. What is a pronoun 1 .,;i»f.v„(i ,7i«issi< "■♦ -'iHl''- 13 SNGUm OmAMMAR. 5. A Verb is a word, lirhicfi a^ifies, to be, to doy or to suffer ; as, T am, I rule, Vam ruhd\ jSk4*.'-~A Verb may be mart (iiUy deQmd « word which exjAresses, Int, astate of being ; as, to be, to live ',jor, secondhr, an action per- formod by some agents •>»/' Washington liberated htt country '," or, tUnil^, the receiving of an action ;. as, " Washington wat loved by hb lotntrymen." A terb may he knowH by asking the ^estion, '^Does Uk word ezpresr&ctnf , action, or Uie ceoeiring o^^n action ',** if so, it it a verb. Q, Jkji Adverb, is ^ part of speecb jaioed to a verb, an adjectiye, and. sometinies another adverb, to express some qualitj or circurnstance respecting them ; as. He reads well ; a trul^ good man ; he writes verycorredJy. Note. — ^The adverb may be generally known by its answering to the question, how 1 as, he reads correctly ; how does he read ? the answer is correctly. The words, hcret therif no, uot, hew, now, qften,ju$tly, yes, why, more, most, are adverbs. 7. Pirepositions serve to connect words with oneanother,* and toi|how the relation between them f as, '^ He weot from London to York," " She is- a^c disguise," " They ■ are supported 6y industry." Note*te- Any word, which shows the relative position of two objects, is a proposition ; as, " The man descended into the well,'-* He is 9ear the bottom," "Place the book on the ta1)le." Prepositions may be generally known by making ssnse with any of the personal SOROuns in, the objective ease after them : as, '< with him, for her, : them, (a^^ou, tnyou, e^fter them, on it, against me,**^ Ac. 8. A Conjunction is a part of speech chiefly used to conneet sentences, so as out of two or more to make but on^. It sometimes connects only wordjs ; as, " Thou and he are haiipy, ftccawse^you Itre good j" " Two and three are five." 9. An Interjection is a word used to express some passion ^ies or kinds are comprdiended, and it is common to the whole class of men. The noun ire* is common, because there are many kinds of trees ; animal is commonVor the same reason* When prop- er nouns hare an article annexed to them, thejr are used as com> mon nouns ; as, ** He is the deero of his age ;"" he is a Waihing- ion." When a common noun is particularlj distinguished by an article or pronoun, it may be used to signify an individual : as, " the boy is studious ;'* " that ^ui is discreet.*' Some nouns are thus distinguished : 1st. ColUctWi nouns, or nouns of multitude t as, the peopU, the parliamerUf tbejies/, the army. 2d. ,dMraet nouns : as, whtUn*$$, goodiuut, knowledge. 3d. VetOfd or partietpial noun«.i^ as, beginningf ending, vfriting. EXERCISE. 1* A flower, a tree, an apple, an orange, the field, vir- tue, temperance, a prince, the laws, beauty. 2*. Washington, Europe, wisdom, America, the sun, Boston, street, house, Baltimore, winter, heart, Gregory, a volume, the stars, a book, Mary, Delaware, city, animal, a country, Bristol* Qfuttione on the 2Vinint.-~l. What is a noun 1 How many kinds of nouns 1 2. What are proper r.ouns t What are common nouns t What have nouns f QueitioM on ExercUe,—\, Point out the articles and nouns t 2. Point out the proper and common nouns 1 , ■ ■\l i '. % r'' ■I XTTMOLOOT. m SECTION n^^Oender, 1. Gender it tlij|jlutm^oa of Douns witb regard to sex. There we tuee genders, Maaouline, F^namnet KoA Neuter, '%;^r 2. The Msscvluie Gender* denotes Ihtmals of the « male kind : a», « niAHt a horse, a Mng, The Feminine Gender signifies animals of the female kind : as, a woman, a ^pteent n hen* The Neuter Gender denotes oineett ^jAllJi are neither males nor females : as, a jidd, a A0iia% l^'^giQpdim. Seme nouns, naturally neuter, are bjr a llpf ol'Jpeech converted into the masculine or feminu^ gender : as, when we say of the sun, he is settingff ^snd of a ship, the sails wells. Ji^ylii.'— iffbvni, whidi tignify either mdes or femtles, hare, what is usually termed, the Common 0«nder; because their gender is com- mon to both sexes ; as, parmUtfriendt ttrvoiU, eotmn. Fwuratively in English tiie MaseuKne CtMder is given to nouns which are con- q)ieaous Ibr Uieir attributes of imparting or communicating, or whidi are naturdly strong and effieaeious. Those Main are made ibminioe, whiieh are conspicuous for tlieir attributes of attaining or bringing forth, or wliich are peeiriiarly beautiftil or amiable. On Uiese brin- einies the nrn and Hm* am said to be in the masculine gencwr ; wmh tiie moon, the tarthf a ^tif, a eUy, a eounlry, and virtM are in the femfaiine gMider. XXERCISB. 1. Mother, table, book, desk, wood, boy, wife, king, lady, husband, tree, knife, cup, sea, lion, son-, daughter, lioness, fear, axe, aunt. 2. Parent, child, friend, servant, the earth, the sun, the moon, virtue, Boston, France, Asia, Paris, sparrow, dove, face. SECTION III. — of Number, ^ 1. Nunber is the consideration of an object as one or more. Nouns have two numbers, the singular and the plural. The singular number expresses but one object : as, a diaiir, a tMe. The plural number signifies more ol>jects than one : as, chairSf tables, iQiMiMoM on OuuUr.-^l . What Is gender 1 How many genders 1 2. What is the maaettUm gender 1 The feminine 1 Tbc neuter t What is said of some nouns naturally neuter 1 Qm$tion$ on Extrciu.^l. What is the gender of the nonns in paragraph 1st. 2. What is the gender of parent, be. ^ition* on Nwnbir,—\. What is number 1 How many numbers have nouns 1 What is the singular number t What is the phiral . number 1 ,. . ., ,.: ; ,; .; i 16 ENGLISH ORXMMAR. y the ^ halvles; 2. Some nouns, from tfae'h&tare of the things which they express, are used only in iln^vttigttlar .form : as, ^I'hcatf gold, slei^fpridef ice*, j^otbevs only in the phnvt fbrm 'f as, bellowSf scissors, asheSf ridieSy iic, ; some are the same in bdth numbers, as ifet^, jhaiepf swine. 3. The plural number of nouns is generally formed by ndding s to the angular : as, doY^dcatei ; ^tfie^ faces y pett^ pens. Biit, when the singular %vk^vMt^0k^^j^§^^!i^yOV s, the noun takes es in the plural : as boit^ii churches; larib,/as^s ,* kiss, kisses:; chc the noun ends in ch haurd, the phural is s: as monarch, fKomzrdb. ;m 4. Nouns ending in / (m: ^ are renderedl change of these terminations into ves: as, 1 , . , loaf,l«j««7s; knife, knives; except grief, relief^ attS some others which have s; those in^nave s: as, muffj Tmtffs. Nouns, which haVe y in the singular with no other vowel in the sjllable, change it intot>$ in the plural : as, beauty, beauties; fly,j^i^; l)ut the^ is nbt changed whM there is another vowel in the syllable : as, key, A;^s ; d&lAjf delays. Notc.'.'Somo nouns are rendered plural by the change of a into «, man, men; woman, women ; others hy the change of oo into ee; as. foot feetf goose, geeee; ox and child, oxen and children. The word nsiM is considered singular,' and the Qoun meant is ysed in both numbers. ' BXERCtiSi!. 1» Bode, table, gloves, dollar^ i^ail, Irfes, pen, canes, horse^ farms, river, cities, bank, streets, parent. 2. Box, foot, man, fly, goose, wife, ruiT, calf, faith, piety, temple, spy, 4^9r,i4m84.pri4$^ bijrd, house, flower, .poei^'boyi ., "V-./.!-.is>!: •> ■;'*•,,■;■',,;,• WBCTioN IV. — Case., 1. In English nouns have three cases,, the Nomina^ tivCf the JPossessivey and the Objective. The nominative QfmtwM on Attfnfrer<— 2. How arie some nouns used A 3. How is the plural number of nouns formed \ When do nouns takeei in the plural t 4. How are nouns endinrin/or/« rendered plural 1 What are the exceptions % Nounain y 1 <2tt«ilay8,'' ** ti»e g»r|» leani. 2. The possessive case expresses the relation of proper- ty or possession, and may be known by hairing generally an apostrophe with the letter sisomine after it : as, '^ My ftO^shqiftsfif" ".the adiolar's duty.** When the plural ends in s, the other $ is omitted, but the apoah'Ophe is retso&ed: as, " On ea^le^ wings," " the draper^ com- pany." When the sbgylar ends u ss or 5, the apostrophic 5 is often odiitted : as, « For goodness^ &dke,^^ ** limes' b«)k," " 2T%««a«* hat." . ' 3. The objective case expresses thg object' of an action or of a relation, and generally follows a verb active or a prepositions as, "John assists Charles^ "they Uve in NoU.'-=-}!io\isa in English are thus declined : •Singutar, '' Nominative. A mother, Possessiv$, A mother's* Objtctiv*. A mother. Nominative, The man Possessive. The man's Objective* The man. Exercise on 1. Charles reads his lesson. the city. I^eleus' son. John lost his brother's cap. The author wrote a book. Plural. Mothers. Motiiers' Mothers. Men. Men's. Men* Case. The cars have arrived in The wrath of The child tore the book. The boy plays with a ball. Thomas broke John's cane. Peace of mind is virtue's reward. The president's chair. Virtue rewards her followers. Caesar conquered Panapey. CHAPTER IV. Of the Adjective. 1. An Adjective is a word added to a noun to express its quality : as, An industrious man, a benevolent mind. In English the adjective is not varied on account of gen- der, number, or case : as, a careless boy, careless girls. The only variation, which it admits, is that of the degrees Q;u.e9tions on Case.-^2. What fs the pcsseRsive 1 When is tho other s omitted 1 3. What is the objective case 1 Decline mother 1 man 1 Questions on Exercise. — 1 . Point out the ncminative cares 1 1 he possessive cases 1 The ohjextive cases 1 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. of coroparisoB. There are conunQuljr reckooed thi$t degree of comparisoD, namely^tbe Podtive, Convpayabivey and SupeJatwe* 2. The Foutive state expresses the quality of an object without ai^ increase or diminution : |b}„ go$df wise^ great. The comparative degree increases oriessens tli? pqsitiye in signification ; as, toiseTf greater ^ less tejige,, The niper- latiTe increases or lessens the positive to th^ highest or lowest degree : as, toisest, greaiesty ledst wise. 3. The Comparative ii formed by adding r or er to the positive : as, wise, toiser; gce&tf greater } and the superla- tive by adding st or ^st : as, wise, vnsest ; g^eat, greatest. The adverbs more and mosty placed before the a^ective, have the same efii^pt : ^^y more yi\9ity most ytiw^. 4.' Monosyllables, for the most, are compared by er and e^ ; and dissyllables by more and most : as, mild, milder, mildest ; frugal, more frugal, rtwst frugal. Some words have an irregular comparison : as, good, better y best ; body uvrsey wor^ ; litthy less, least ; much, or many, morcy most ; and a few others. When an adjective, "with the definite article before it, is used without a noun, it is taken as a noun : as. The virttums are alway jhappy ; Provi-' dence fewards the good and punishes tlie bad. Note.--Tha termination ish is sometimes employed as a degree of comparison, and tends to diminish the signification below the positive : as, black, 6/acfcwA J salt, saltish. The word rathw expresses a small degree, or excess of quality : as, " »She is rather profuse in her ex- penses*" In comparing two things tlie superlative should never be employed ; Uiese expressions, " the wiuit of the two ;" " the tUut, the btit of the two," &c. are improper ; it should be ** the xouer, the eUUr, and the betUr of the two." The same noun may be qualified by several adjectives in the same sentence : as, " a iojn, unriwnu, and benevolent man. Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative signification do not admit of the degrees of comparison : as chief, extreme, supreme, right : chiefest, extremest, rightest. Sec., are im- proper. Various nouns placed before, other nouns express some quality, and may be considered as adjectives in that position ; cs, sea- fish, i/nn«-veesel, u>tnt/(no>glass, g^tn-powder, corn-field, & c. Ad* Qsettione on the jidjfdive.—l. What is an adjective ? In English what is said of the adjective '{ What variation does it admit 1 2. What is the positive 1 the comparative 1 the superlative 1 3. How is the comparative formed 1 How is the superlative formed 1 What effect ha«e more and most f 4. How are monosyllables and dissyllables compared t What words have an irregular comparison 1 When is au adjective tuken as a noun ? • jeci ther ordu dpi httti bod A sua! thot son, pie ^''Ma Chi Tw 1 avoi The; the. .1. ^, j 2. and /, E l^ y T 3. nouni tives i Qu of pre ETYMOLOGT. i$ r« • Jt A • j«cUt9« expi«8Bins number are called nunural adjecUres, of which there are two Mnde } the cariinal : as, Singular, i Plural, 20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ral ; m, If thou, he, toe, ye or you, they. Gender has rei^>ect 0017 to the third person singular : afr, he, she, it. He is masculine, she is femine, and U is neuter. 4. Personal pronouns have three cases, the nomina- tive, possessive, and objective : the^ are thus declined: Person. Case. Singular. Plural. First. Norn. ' I We Poss. Mine Ours. Obj. Me Us. Second. Norn. Thou Ye or you Poss. , Thine Yours. ■ Obj. Thee You. Third, Nom. He. They. Masc, Poss. •His. Theirs. Obj. Him. Them. Third. Noni. She. They. Fern. Poss. Hers. Theirs. Obj. Her. - Them. Third. Nbm. itr They. Neut. Poss. Its. Theirs. ^KR- Obj. It. • Them, Note. — ^The objective of the pronoun has in general a form different froQv that of the nominative or possessive case. Personal pronouns , compounded with the word $elf, are called compound personal pro' nouns J they are employed lo denote emphasis, or distifiction, and they are used eiUier in the nominative or objective cases only : as,'* he came himself;*' ** I saw the person himMlf;" ** she herself will do it ;" -" this is the book itself;** and in the plural, they themselves per- formed it," we heard from the men themselves.** SECTION II — Of Relative Pronouns. 1. Relative Pronouns are such as relate in general to some word or phrase going before, which is thence called the antecedent ; they are wlio, which, and that : as, " The man is happy wJio Uv2s virtuously." ^ ''^' Y" ' ' .' ■ , ■ J^uestions' on Personal Pronouns. — 1, How many personal pro- nouns 1 2. Of what do they admit *? How many are the {lersons, and what are they t 3. How many numbers have pronouns 'i iVhatiasaid of gender 1 4. How many cases have pronouns 1 Decline the pro« nouns in both numbers 1 Questions 071 Relative Pronouns.-~l . What are relative pronouns \ 4^ vj:, ETTMOLOGT. u irvt \a, ro- ley ne .» it**'"** ; to ed ro- ind aid ro» lit Tr%at is a kind of compoimd relative includinr both the antecedent and the relative, and is mostly equivalent to thcct which : as, ** This is tffhat I wanted ;^ that is to say, ih£ thing tahich I wanted." 2. JVho is applied to persons, tchich to animals and in- animate things : as, " He is a friendy who is faithful in adversity ;" " The bird, whidi sung so sweetly, is flown ;" " This 18 the tree, which produces no fniit." That, as a relative, is often used to prevent the too frequent repetition of who and which. It is appKed to both persons and things : as, " He that acts wisely de- serves praise ;" " Modesty is & qtialitf/ that highly adorns a woman." 3. W7io is of both numbers, and i& thus declined : Singular and Plural, Nominative^ Who. Possessive, Whose. Obj^tive, ' Whom. WfiOy which, and what are called InterrogativeSy when they are used in asking questions : as, " Who ia he ?" " Which is the book ?" ** Jfhat are you doing?" . }; V SECTION HI. — of Adjective Pronouns, 1. Adjective Pronouns are of a mixed nature, partici- pating of the properties both of pronouns and adjectives. The adjective pronouns may be subdivided into four sorts ; namely, the possessive, the distributivey the de^ numstrativey and t\ie ^indefinite. The possessive are those which relate to possession or property. There are seven of ^hem, viz., my, tkyy his, her, our, your, their. Mine and thincy instead of my and thy, were formerly used before a substantive or adjective beginning with a vowel or a silent h : as, " Blot out all mine iniquities." .. QtMtfiolM on Relative Pronoune. — 2. What ia said ef wAa< t To what are toho and which applied t What ia said of that t 3. What number is who ? Decline it 1 What are vho, which, and what called when used in asking questions 1 Quettioruon Mjective Pronoun$.—1, What area^Jecttre pro- nouna 1 How are they divided 1 What are the poaseMiye t^^ 22 £NG SH " VMMAR. 2.. The distributive ar^ those which denote the per- sons or things that make up a number, as taken sepa - atelf and sin{ They are each, every, either: a^ " Eadi of his brothers is in a favourable situation p " Every man musf iccount for himself j" " I have not seen either of them." 3. The demonstrative are those whicb precisely point out the subjects to which they relate : this and that, tJiese &nd those, are of this class : as, ** This is true charity, that is only its image.** This refers to the nearer person or thing, and tJiat to tbe more distant : as, '' 7%is man is more intelligent than thatJ*^ This indicatF'S^ the latter, or last mentioned ; that, the former, or first mentioned ; as, Wealth and pover- ty are both temptations ; that tends to excite pride, this, discontent." 4. The indefinite are those which express their sub- jects in an indefinite or genentl manner. The following are of this kind : some other, any one, all sudi,.Scc. Other and one are declined in the following manner : Singular. Plural. Singular Plural, others. one. or*.? others'. one's. Oiics.' others. one. ones. J^bfo.— The words ovm and telf are frequently added-to the posses- NV« adjective pronouns : thejr are used to express empha^oroppesi- tioa : as> " I u^e in my ovm house }" that is, the house btUmgt^ to me. not a hired house ; " I myself will do k ;" that is, *' no' otter person ;" " We may blame ovrselve*." *' It is her own bosk.'* ** It isMetr 9io«rault,"&c.;the8e are called wmpound adjective pron : swim, &c., neuter, would seem to be contrary to the definition of a neuter verb, because they give the idea of action or motion. They ex- press action, but do not generally admit after them the objective case ; they are denominated intramiliveyio distinguish tliem from those verbs ^ which admit an object after them. An active-transitive verb, that has no immediate object after it, may be taken as intransitive : as, " he wow* the book'}" the verb is transitive; •* he nuwc« fonvard j" the ' verb is intransitive. An active-transitive verb may be known by observing that the action always passes from the nominative to some object: as, " John assists Charles." The intransitive may be known by the action being always confined to its nominative without affecting any object : as, " John walks." The passive may be known by the action always passing from i^ome other object to the nominative ; as, )^-" John is assisted by Charles j" and the neuter verb, by expressing I ! limply a state of being without action or motion j as, " John stands," ';^«rsi(*t,"» ■•#•-•»■' •■'■-fcr'. EXERCISE — On Verhs. . "• .1 ff 1. Act. Trans. Verb. Virtue rewards her followers ; ,^ Sarah loves her parents ; She wrote a letter ; Charles abuses Samuel ; The man assists me ; I removed the books ; John sold the knife ; James bought it ; Send them to me J The trees bear apples j Ctesar conquered Pom- pey. 2. Act. Intrans. Verbs. The ship sails; the fish swim ; the boy runs ; the birds fly ; the man walks \ tho rain falls ; the earth revolves ; he reflects. QttP»/ion« on the Verb.— 4. What is a verb neuter 1 What are auxiliary ^rha, and what are they 1 QueHtioriA on the Exercise. — 1. Point out the verba, and tell their nominatives and the object after them 7 2. Point out the intransitiv* verbs 1 thd P0| ETYMOLOGY. 25 First Person. Second Person. Third Person. 3. Passive Verbs. Sarah Is loved ; the letter was written ; Charles is abused ; I am assisted ; the books were removed ; the slate was broken ; th&H knives have been sold ; Pompey was conquered. i 4. Neuter Verbs. I am ', he stands ; the men sleep ; they lie ; she sits ; they seem. 5. Promisctwus. They know him; the glass is bro- ken ; Henry stands ; he struck, llie horse ; the boy goes home ; he runs ; Emily is loved ; pay the boy ; they sit ; , the child sleeps. -- /.SECTION II — Of Number and Person. ' .1. Verbs have two niimbers, the Singular and Pltiral: HB, " I run, we run." In each number there are three persons : as, ' _ Singular. ; v"ii_^;^ PluraK ' '^^■' Hove. " ''^.'-''^0-- We love. \ TliGU lovest. Ye or You lore^ He, she, or it loves. They love. Note. — The verb in the .three pgrsons plural has in general the same termination as the first person singular ; the second and third pei S0Q8 singular only vary in termination. -i, ^-^jj ^ SECTION III — Of Moods a7zd Participles^ 1. Mood or Mode is a particular form of the verb, showing the njanner in which the being, action, or passion, ^ j^ represented j( J. it There are fiVe moods of verbs, viz. the Indicative j the ; Imperative, the Potential, the Subjunctive and the v Infinitive. 2. The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares a thing : as," He loves ; he is loved ;" or it asks a question f, i as, " Does he love I Ts he loved ?" - •S'**^. ^it ^i The Imperative Mood is used for commandlng,4Bxhort- ing, entreating, or permitlin<>- ; as, '* Depart thou ; mind ye ; let us stay ; go in peace." The Potential Mood implies possibility or liberty, power, Questions on the Exercise.. — 3. Point out the pastiivc verbs % A* The neuter verbs 1 5. Point out the active, passive, and neuter verbs ? Questions on Number.— J . W h;;( h : ve verbs t How niany persons 1 Questions on Mood. — 1. U'hut is mood ': \\'hat is the number of the moods 1 2. VViiat is the indicative mood'? Tlie imperative 1 The potjenUaJ \ - ■* , ■ m- ■ Of V \l'-' 26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. will, or obligation ; as, " It may rain ; he may go or stay ; 1 can ride ; he would walk ; they should learn." 3. The Subjunctive Mood represents -a thing under a condition, motive, wish, supposition, &:c. ; and is preceded by a conjunction expressed or understood, and attended by another verb : as," I will respect him, i/iOM^A he chide me ;" " Were he good, he would be happy :" that is, " if he were good." The Infinitive Mood expresses a thing in "a general and unlimited manner without any distinction of number or person : as, " to act, to speak, to be feared." ,^1 ,.1^ The Participle is a certain fo^m of the verb, and de- rives its name from its not only participating the proper- ties of a verb, but also those of an adjective : as, " I am desirous of knotving him ;" " Admired and ajyplauded, he became vain ;" " iyaw'wgj^ms/iec? his work, he submit- ted it ;" &c. " * There are three Participles, the Present or Active, the Perfect or Passive, and the compound Perfect j or "lp>^- ing, loved, having loved." ; li";.^}; « v •;-.,;: "^^^'*<'i^> Note. — The imperative mood in its literal sense implies a com* mand ; it must, however, be employed on occasions of a very different nature, often to express the humblest supplication of an inferior being to one who is infinitely his superior ; as, " Give us this day our daily bread ; vxiA forgive us our trespasses." Participles convey an idea of time, and also signify action j but, if from the participles we take away the idea of time, they simply express quality,and are called participial adjectives; as, <' Writing.to a friend ; moving in haste ; heated with wine ;" here the words writing, moving, and heated, are participles, conveying a reference to the time at which the actions were performed ; but in the following sentences they are adjectives ; ''writing paper; a moving spectacle ; a heated imagina- tion." Every present participle in English ends in ing : as, reading, doing, flying, &ic. ^^^ 'q*. SECTION IV — Of Tetise. • > 1. Tense, being the distinction of time, might seem to admit only o" the present, past, and future ; but, to mark it more accurately, it is made to consist of six variations ; viz, the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluper- fect, and the First and Seco?id Future Tenses. Queelions on Mood.— 3. What is the subjunctive 1 The infinitive t What is a parUciple 1 Their number '? Quistiont on Tente, — 1. What is said of tense, and what are they 1 I .*?:■■ 'ii-- £TYMOL0Gir. '^i m 2. The Present Tense represents an action or event as passing at the time in which it is mentioned : as, " I rule ; I am ruled ; I think ; I fear." The Imperfect Tense represents the action or event either as past and finished, or as remaining unfinished at a certain time past : as, " I loved her for her modesty and virtue ;" " They were travelling post when he met them." 3. The Perfect iTense not only refers to what is past, but also conveys an allusion to the present time : as, " I have finished my letter ;" " I have seen the person that was recommended to me." The Pluperfect Tense represents a thing not only as past, but also as prior to some other point of time specified in the sentence ; as, " I had finished my letter before he arrived." 4. The first Future Tense represents the action as yet to come, either with or without respect to the precise time when : as, " The sun will rise tomorrow ;" I shall see them again." The second Future intimates that the action will be fully accomplished at or before the time of another future action or event : as, " I shall have dined at one o'clock 5" " The two houses will have finished their business when the king comes to prorogue them." *!- Note. — Theprescnt tense is sometimes used in reference to persons long since dead, whose writings are still extant fit the present time : as, " Seneca reasjns and moralizea well,'' " Job speaks feelingly in his afflictions." The present tense preceded by the words, when, before, as toon as, &c., is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future action : as, " When he arrives he will hear the news :'* *' He will hear the news before he arrives, or as soon as he arrives." In animated historical narrations this tense is sometimes used for the imperfect : as, " He enters the territory of his enemies, fights and cotiquers, takes an immense booty, and returns to eryoy a triumph." The imperfect and perfc:ct tenses both denote past actions ; but they differ from each other with regard to the time in which the actions were performed. The imperfect denotes the action performed within a period of time, which has entirely passed away, without any regard to the length of tlie period : as, '* The ancient philosophers urrote learnedly on many subjects. 7'he philosophers of the last certury made great discoveries ; I wrote last year ; I saw the man last week; he went yesterday." Q[xestions on Tense. — 2. What is the present tensel the imperfect 1 3. What is the perfect '{ the pluperfect 1 4. What is the first future the second future 1 m BNGLISI^ GRAMMAR. The perfect tense denotes the action performed within a period of time, ot which period there is still a portion to pass away : as, ''Modern philosophers Aave written more extensively ; the philosophers of the present age have made still greater discoveries ; I have written Mb year } I have seen the man this week ; he has returned to-day." SECTION V. — Of the Conjugation of the Verb. 1. The conjugation of the verb is tbe regular combi- nation and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, moods, and tensesi '' ^ The conjugation of the active verb is styled the Active Voice ; and that of the passive verb, the Passive Voice. /Vb/e.— The present and imperfect tenses in the active voice are called simple tenses, because they are seldom compounded with any of the auxiliary verbs, unless for the sake oC. emphasis : as, " 1; do love, he did u>n7c,"*&.c. The auxiliary verbs may be used as signs to point out the moods and tenses of the principal verbs. The sign of the present tense indic- ative, when used emphatically, is do, and of the imperfect did: as, •'I do love ; 1 did write." The sign of the perfect is have: as, I havi written. The sign of the pluperfect is had : as, I had written." The sign of the first future is shall or tvill, and of the second future shall or ioill have ; as, " I shall or will write, I shall or will have written." The sing of the potential mood, present tense, is may or can ; as, '* I may or can write." The sign of the imperfect is might, could, should, or would; as, I might, could, should, or would write." The sign of the perfect is may or cnn have; as, " I' may or can have written "' The sign of the pluperfect is might, could, should, or would have ; as, *' I might, could, should, or would have written." Tiie sign of the infinitive mood is to : as, to read, to write ; and the sign of the subjunctive mood is, t/j though, unless, or some other « oi^unction implying doubt or contingency. By learning the above signs the pupil may be easily taught to conjugate any verb in the. English language. The auxiliary attd active verb To have is conjugated in the follov^'ing manner : ..-^ TO HAVE. ^^ » » . * ' Indicative Mood. t.v Present Tense, ■'i' Singular. 1. Pers. I have. 2. Pers. Thou hast. 3. Pers. He, she, or it, hath or has. 1. What is the conjugation ofa verb ? What is th( conjugation of' the active and passive voice styled 1 In the Note what tenses arc called simple 1 What are the si^as of the moods and tenses '{ ;■%( -'4^»?*i; Plural. 1. VVc have. 2. Ye or you have. 3. They have. m: ■■; #: . i\. ' . ,' ^:i 2. Ye or you bad. jSi - 3. They had. \Perfect Ten$e. 1 «* , Plural. "»*"^ 1. ViVhave had. 2. Ye or you have had. 3. They have bad. Pluperfect Tense. ^:;^/-i ■ Plural.' ,; r ;_ i' J, 1. We had had. ;i^;;t ' " 2. Ye or you had had. 3. They had had. ; First Future Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall or will have. 1. We shall or will have- 2. Thou shalt or wilt have. 2. Ye or you shall or will have. 3u He, 9iC.y shall or will have. 3. They shall or will have. Second, Futwe Tense. , ' • : Plural. 1. 2. Singular. I had had. Thou hadst had. 3. He, &c., had had. r- '4; ;i' u,; ?:■•'*• :, '. .';,. Singular. ■ % 1. I shall, kc, have had. 2. Thou shalt or wilt have had. 3. He, &c., shall or will^bave had. ■■'■If-;, 1 . We shall or will have had. i^ 2. Yc or you shall or will have had. f'l'a-W S')'<*^r' ^' ^ *^^y *^*^' <^'' w>^^ ^^® ^**'' Imperative Mood. Plural. 1. Let us have. "^i^ 2. Have, or have ye or you, or do ye or you have. 3. Let them have. Singular. : 1 . Let me have. in'm-hL. 2. Have, or have thou, or do thou have. 3. Let him, her, or it, have. 'f Or, witJumt the auxiliaries. Sinsiular. ra . Plural. 2. Have, Sic, thou. 2. Have, or have ye or you. >3 Wofc. — The imperative mood is not properly entilled to three per- sons. The command, entreaty, or pci mission expressed by the im- perative mood, is always made to the second person, but never to the ^. first or third. The word Let is otic of those verbs which have the infinitive mood after them without the sign to, and seems lo be equiv- alent to the word permit or allow ; as, ** Let mc have," that is, " Let me to have," or, '* permit or allow me to have ;" let being in the second person imperative mood, »nd have in the inflnitive mood, the sign to being understood. The phrases, " Let John go j let them speak ; let James read," tec, must be analysed in the same tnanner that they be properly parsed. % 30 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. Potential Moo4. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1 . I may or can have^ 1 . We may or can have. 2. Thou mayst or canst hare. 2. Ye or you may or can have. 3. He, &c., may or can have. 3. They may or can have. ^ IilgKrfect Tense. Siiigular. Plural. 1. I might, cotdd, should, or 1. We migh^,, coutd, should, or would have. would have. 2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, should, shouldst, or wouldst have. or would have. 3. He, &c., might, could, should, 3. They might, could, should, «■ or would have. would h&re. •^ Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I may or can have had. 1. We may or can have had. 2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have had. had. 3. He, Sec, thay orean have had. 3. They may or tan have had. Pluperfect Tense. Singular. ' Plural. 1. I might, could, should; or 1. We might, ' could, should or woulahave had. would have had'. 2. Thou mightst,couldst,shouldst, 2. Ye or you might, eoidd, should, or wouldst have had. or would have had. 3. He, &C., might,could. should, 3. They might, could, should, or (^ woulA have had. would have had. Subjunciive Mood. v ;; ^ Present Tense. PluraL 1. If we have. 2. If ye or you have. 3. If they have. Imperfect Tense. Plural. \ 1. If we had. 2. If ye or you had. ~ 3. Iftheyhad. Perfect Tense. Pluriil. 1. If we have had. 2. If ye or you have had. 3. Iftiiey have had* Singular. 1 . If 1 have. 2. If thou have. 3. If he, &c., have. Singular. 1 4 If I had. 2. If thou hadst. 3f If he, &c , had. 1 Singular. 1. If I have had. 2. If thou hast had. 3. If he, 8cc.,hashad •W ETYMOLOGT; 31 Pluperffc^ Tense» Singular. 1. If I had had. 2. Ifthotthadstbad. 3. Ifhe, lie., badhad. First Future Tense. Plural. 1. If we had had. 2. If ye or you had had. 3. If theylhad bad. Singular. ^ Plural. 1 . If I shall or will have. 1 . If we shall or will have. 2. If ihou shalt or wilt hare. 2. If ye or you shall or will have. 3. If he, &c., shall or will have. 3. If they shall of will have. Second Future Teme. Singular. Plural. 1. If I shall or will have had. 1. If we shall or will have had. 2. If thou shalt or wilt have had. 2. If ye or you shall or will have had. 3. If he, &c., shall or will have 3. If they shall or will have had. bad. JVb/<.— The indicative mood is convertedinto the subjunctive when- ever a condition, motion, wish, or supposition is implied: so the potential mood may in the same manner be turned into the sub- junctive ; as, If I cwdd deC«ive him, I would not}" '* Though he tkould increoBt his wealth ;" &c; It is not necessary that the con- junction, which accompanies the subjunctive mood, diouldbe always ezpresBed ; it is frequently understood, as, " Were I to £0!, 1|9 woum not follow ." " Had l>e kpown me, he would have treated me differ- ently ;" that is, *' If I were to go ; If he had known ;" &c. It should be observed that the. present subjunctive ofien points out . the relative time of a ftiture action ;** If they arrive to-morrow, I will see them j" "If I send ttie note this evening he will receive it." The auxiliaries should and toould are used to express the present and Aiture, as well as the past ; so that the precise time of the verb i* the subjunctive mood must often be determined by the nature and drift of the sentence ; as, '< It is ipy desire that he should or would come now or to-morrow }" *• It wai my desire that he should or would come last week." ,^, VH , Infinitive Mood. Present. To have. Perfect. To have had. Participles. PreMnt or jSctive. Perfect or Passivt. Compound Perfect, Having. ; Had. Having had. The auxiliary and neuter, verh, To be^ is conjugated as follows ; '..i.i 4><« «•• > SNGLISH GRAlfKAK. Indicatiire Mood. Present Tense, Singidftr. 1. lam. 2. Thou art. 3. He, she, erit, i8» Siogular. 1. I was. 2. Thou wast. 3. He, &e., was. ^ Flitral. 1 . We are. 2. Ye or you arfc 3. They are. , Imperfect Tertse. Plural. 1. We were. 2. Ye or you were. 3. Tb^ were. Perfect Tense, Singular. 1. I haveheen. 2./ntou hast be«n. 3. He, he., has or hath been. Plural. 1 . We hare been. 2. Ye pr you hare beea. 3. They have been. Singular. !• I liad been. 2. Thou hadstri)een. 3.' He, &e,, had been. Pltcperfecc Tense. Plural. 1.- We had been. 2. Y^ or you had been. 3. They had been. Fv^st Future Tense. Singular. 1. I shall or will be. 2. Thou Shalt or will be. 3. He, &c. shall or will be. ■■ Plural. 1. We shall or will be. 2. Ye or you shall or will be. 3. I'hey shall or will be. Second Future Tense, Singular. Plural. 1 . I shall or will have been. 1. We shall or will have been. 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been. 2. Ye or you shall or will have been. 3. He, *Stc., shall or will have 3. They shall or will have been, been. Imperative Mood. Singular. Plural. 1. Let me be. 1. Let us be. 2. Be, or be thou, or do Uiou be. 2. Be, or be ye or you, or do ye or you be. 3. l^t him, her, or it, be. 3. Let^th^m be. %;--¥:"'•: s.> .-.t A ttwnHoiiiMnr. m m Present Tense. i'\\ Sfiigttlsrif Plural. 1. Imayoretrbe. I. We nriiyi^««D be. 2. Thou mtyst or caosl bet. r 2. Ye ar you may or can be. 3. He, &c., may or can be. 3. They may or can be* Imperfect Tmse, Singular. Pliind. - ' 1. I Migfa^ could, 8ho(ritl4-or 1. W4 tnight, eooM, OloM or would be. f,-^S\ would be. 2. Thou mightst, <;ouida^ 2. Ye or you might, could, stnuM, shouldst, or wouldst be. or would be. 3. He, tec, ta^ght^could, should, 3. They might, cpuld, dwuld, or or Would be. would be. r Perfect Tense* Singular. Plural. 1. I may or can have been 1. We may cnr can hare been. 2. Tnpu nuyst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have been. been, 3. He,tcc.,may or can have b^en. 3. They may or can have been. Pluperfect Tense* • Sinister. Plural. 1. I might, could, should, or }. We might, could, ikoidd, or would have been. would have been. 2. Thou mightBt,couldst,shbuld8t, 2. Ye or you might, could, should, or wouldst have been. > or woiudhav^ bMo« 3. He, &c., might, could, fhoold, 3. Th^ 9>ight, could, should, or or would have been. would have been. Subjunctive Mood. * Present Tense* PlMral. 1. If we be. 2. If ye or you be. S. If they be. Imperfect Tense. Plural. ^ , 1. If we were. 2. If ye or you were. 3. If they were. . Perfect Tense. Plural. 1. If we have been. 2. If ye or you have been. Singtdar. 1. If I be. 2. If thou be. 3. If he, &c., be. Singular. 1. If I were. 2. Ifthou wert. 3. If he, dtc, \vere. Singular. 1. If I have been. 2. If thou hast been. 3. If he, &c., has »■ Snguhr. 1. I loved. 2. Thoiilo«adrt. 3. He, Uc., loTid. SiBgttlar. 1. I have loved. 2. Thou hast loved. 3. H^ &e., hu or MttffWfea TtfU0. Plural. ' 1. We loved. * 2. Ye or voaloved^ 3. Tbeykyved. JPetfect Tense, -' Plural. n 1. We have loved. 2. Ye or you have loved, hath loved. 3. Thqr htve loved< Pluplerfea Ttfue. Singular, '^ft^f had loved. 2. Hkni hadst loved. 3. He, tic, had loved. Plural. ^^i.3 1. We h»d loved. 3. Ye or you had loved. 3. They had loved. Ftrst Future Tense, Sii^lar. Plural. 1. I ihall or will love. 1. We shall or wUl love. '1. Thou rtialt or iriH love. 2. Ye or you shall or vrttl love. 3. He, &c , shall or will love. 3. lliey shall or will love. • Second Future Tense, Singular.' Plural. 1. I shall or will have loved. 1. We shall or will have loved. 2. Thou shall or wilt have loved, i. Ye or you shall or will have loved. 3. He, fice., jhall or will hav^ 3. They diall or wUl have loved, loved. - Not^.—'thib following forms are used in present and imperfect tenses when emphasis or positiveness is e^q^resiwd, and when a ques- tion is adud. . > FMsent Tense Emphatic. .#&?jI Singular. - Plural. '''^- f^^ 1. I do love. , ^« , 1. We do love. 2. Thou dost love. ' '*■'' '^* ^^' 2. Ye or you do love, 3. He, &€., does or doth love. 3. They do love. J '■ ,'^^^i-i^')s C' Iinpetfect Tense EntjjhcUic, ' Singular. Plural. ' - 1. I did love. 1. We did love. 2. Thou didst love. 2. Ye or you did love. ^»^^ ' S. He, &e., did love. 3. They did love. < « » ; Present Tense Emj^uxtic and Interrogative, Singular. , „ , ^,._, . Plural. 1. Do I love 1 1. Do we love t - 2. Dost thou love t 2. Do ye or you love 1 8. Does or doth he, ke., love t 3. Do they,love t ,, ^ ^ ,;■:» ^5 ^ / ae ENGLira CmAMHAR. Impetfect TenSHs ]l^mp9uaie and Interrogative. Sinrular. / PlursL 1. Did I lore 1 1. Did ire love 1 2. Cidst thou love ? 2. Did ye or you love 1 9. Didlie,&,c.,lov». 3. Did they !««• i Imperaiim Mgod. Siittular. Plural. 1. LetmeloTc 1. Let us love. 2. Lore, or Xott (hou, or do thou 2. Lore, or love ye or you, or io lore. ye or you^lote. 3. Let him, her, or it, love. 3. Let them love. Or, tcithout th€ Auxiliaries, Singular. - Plural. 2. Love, or love thou. 2. Love, or love y« or you. u Potential Mood. Present TenM, Singular. Plural. 1 . I may or can love. 1 . We may or cao love. 2. Thou raayst or eanat love. 2. Ye or you may or can love 3. He &e., may or can iove. 3. They may or can love. V Imperfect Tense. Singular. PluralJ 1. I might,could,8houId,or would 1. We might, coold, ihould, or love. would love. 2. lliou mightat,couldBt,ahould8t, 2. Ye or you might, eoidd, shouUi or wouldst love. or would love. 3. He, die, might, CQuld,sbould, 3. They might, could, ihoidd, or or would love. would love. Perfect Tense, Singular. PluraL ,^ 1. I may or can have loved. 1 . We may or can have loved.'^ ' t. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or^ou may or can have loved. loved. 3. He, &c., may or can have 3. They may or can hare loved* loved. • Plwjperf&A Tense* Singular. Plural. 1. I might, could, should, or 1. We might, could,* should, or would have loved. would have loved. ^ 2. Thoumightst,cQuldst,shouldst,2. Ye or you might, eouM, should, or wouldst have loved. or would have loved. 3. He, &c.,0dght,couldj8hould, 3. They might, could, should,. or or would have loved. would have- loved. Subjunctive Mood. Present Tense. Singular. 1. If Hove. 2. If thou love. 3. !f he, &c., love. Plural. 1. If we love. 2. If ye or you love. ^'WmtOLOGT. 87 i Singular. 1. irilQved. ' 2. Ifthoa kHrecbt 3. Ifbe, 4ic,lovedt Singular. 1. If I hare loved. 2. If thou hast loved. PtaraL 1. If tve loveC 2. If ye or you loved. 3. If thr loved. Perfeti Tense. Plural. • 1. If we have loved. 2. If ye or you have loved. 3. If he, &e., hai or hath loved. 3. If they have loveU.^ Plup&rfect Tense. Singular. ^ PNlral. 1. If I had loved. 1. I five had loved. 2. If thou hadst loved. 2. If ye or you iuid loved. 3. If he, &c., had loved. 3. If they had loved. Finrst Future Tense. Sinnilar. Plural. 1. If I shafi or will love. 1. If we shall or will love. 2. If thou riialt or wilt love. 2. If ye or you shall or will love. 3. If he, &c., shall or will love. 3. If they shall or will love. Second Future Tense, Singular. Plural. 1 . If I shafi or will have loved. I . If we %hall or will have loved. 2. If thou shalt or wilt have loved. 2. If ye or you shall or will have loved. 3. If he, Ac, AaSl or will hate 3. If they shall or will have loved, loved. Infinitive Mood. Preunt. To love. Perfect. To have loved. Participles. Pnsent. Lomg. Perfect Loved. Compound Perfect. Having loved. Note. — The active verb may be conjugated differently by adding its present or active participle to the auxiliary verb to be through all its moods and tenses ; as, instead of " I teach, thou teachest, he teaches," &c., we may say, " I am teaching ; thou art teaching ; he is teaching ; he was teaching ; I have been teaching," &c. The terminatlone, st and eth, are oQly used on grave subjects. , PASSIVE. 1. Verbs passive are called regular when they form their perfect participle bj the a(Mition of c? or ed to the verb ; as^ from the verb, " to love," is formed the passive, ** I am loved, I was loved, I sb&U be loved, &C.'* , , r:: r - ■m- 33 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. . ?;.< i: 'Vxp A passive verb is ctibjugated t^ adding the perfect participle to the auxiliarj, to be, through all its changes of number, person, mood, and tense, in the following manner : (iuettion.—\. When are paMive verbs called regular 1 How ia the passive verb conjugated % Conjugate tlie verb to be loved. ^ TO BE LOVED, ''.■''■■'^^>.^f Indicative Mood. ^^«1"?I'W «*l'4 ;. ^ -Mi^'^.-^^i^. Present Teme. Singular. .;, ...^v, y.. Plural. 1.^ I am loved. '''>'^'':'-'''^\.yi%9XQiaftdi. 2. Thou art loved. ^*/ ' 2. Ye or jou are loved* 3. He, &c., is loved. 3. They are loved. , ;:«r . j Imperfect Tense. .■:^\^>^}.. ' Singular. Plural. f ' ^ 1. I was loved. T" 1. We were loved. 2. Thou wast loved. 2. Ye w you were loved. 3. He, &c., was loved. 3. They were loved. > ' - Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1 . I have been loved. 1 . We have been loved- 2. Thou hast been loved. 2. Ye or you have been loved. 3. He, &c., has w hath been 3. They have been loved. loved. Pluperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. ^ 2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. Ye or you had been. 3. He, die, had been loved. 3. They had been loved, t^^'- Fir A Future Tense. r^j^iSirf Singular. Plural. 1. I shall or will be loved. 1. We shall or will be loved. 2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved. 2. Ye or you shall or will be loved. 3. He, &c., shall or will be loved. 3. They shall or will be loved. . Second Future Tense. ?vir .^ Singular. Plural. 1. 1 shall or will have been loved. 1. We shall or will have b«aa loved. 2. Thou shalt or wilt hate been 2. Ye or you shall ,or will have loved. been loved. 3. He, be, will have been loved. 3. They, &c.,will.have been loved. Imperative Mood. Singular. i -y?^'*f^ '. rr pjural. 1. Let me be loved. 1. Let us be loved, 2. Be loved, or be thou loved, or 2. Be loved, or be ye or you loved, do thou be loved. or do ye or you be ioved» f. Z-. Lst hj">- her, or it b§ loved^ ' 3. Let tiiem be loved. > . I Itf ., *■»** ct ng fi.t \it ftT« ed. ed. *J ViTXMQJmiU. .i. 'm T Potential Mood. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1 . I may or can be loved. 1. We may or can be loTed. 2. Thou mayat or 4!an8tbeJoTed. 2. ^Te or you may or can be lored. 3. He, &C.J may or can be lovei]. 3. i^ey may or can be loved. S-t ■.:*•- Singular. Plural. 1. 1 might,could,ihould,or would 1. We might, could, should or be loved. would be loved. 2. Thou mishtst,eouldst,shouldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, ■hould, or wouldft be loved. or would be loved. 3. He, &c., might, could, should, 3. They mieht, could, should, •;■ ■ pr would be loved. would be loved. Perfect Tense, i%Ki4v^l/' 'd^M Singular. Tlural. , -,;'> . d . ■ 4.1 may oi^an have been loved. 1. We may dr can have been loved. 2. Thou mayst or canst have been 2. Ye or you may or can have loved. been loved. 3. He, &c., may or can have been 3. They may or can have been- loved* loved. Pluperfect Tense, '? ^;l Singular. Plural, ^ ** 1. Imight,could,should,o)-would 1. We might, could, should, or have oeen loved. would have been loved. 2. Thou might8t,couIdst,shouldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, should or wouldst have been loved. or would have been loved. 3. He. &e., mlght,could, should, 3. They might, could, should or or would have been loved. would have been loved. <(,>*• i^'v Subjunctive Mood. Present Tense, si ■,viij.,~tr!^ JiA.i .■'m ■'I' ^ *'{-*?# Ml Singular. Plural. 1. If I be Ktved. ■ jj» 1. If we be loved. 2. If thou be loved. ' " ' 2. If ye or you be loved. 3. If he, &e , be loved. 3. If they be loved. <^ «^« Imperfect Tense, . , , Jr !f Ifj Singular, v - Plural. v»1t 1. If I were loved, o 1. If we were loved. >« 2. If thou wert loved. 2. If ye or you were loved. ) 3. If he, &e., were loved. 3. If they were loved* • Perfect Tense, y«r^ Singular. Pkir^. ^ i. If I have been loved. 1. If we have been loved. 2. If thou hast been loved. 2. If ye or you have been loved. I. if he, &c., has of haih beei loved. 3. If they have been loved. -VI 40 ENGLISH ORAM]HAB. Pluperfect Tense. r Singular. .viH«\. s Plural. 1., If I had been loteiK'f 1. If we had been loved< 2. Ifthouhadst been loved. 2. If ye or you had been loved > 3. Ifhe, &c., hadbeen loved* 3. If .they had. been loved. '' FirsttjFuture Tense.. Singular. ^ Plural. 1. If 1 shall or will be loved. 1. If we shall or will be loved. 2. If thou Shalt or wilt be luved- 2. If ye or you shall or will be loved. 3. If he, Sic, shall or will be 3. If they shall or wil^be loved, loved. :. Second Fupurc Tense. -« ««»w^^ ^^^' Singular. Plural :S 1. If I shall or will have been 1. If we shall or will 4iave beisn loved. loved. 2. If thou shall or wilt have been 2. If ye or you shall or will loved. - have been loved. 3 If he, Sic, shall or will have 3. If they shall or will have .becin ■ " been l(vved. »' ■ ['■ , ■•i ■— loved. ■•*■->:» xj-'pt^j^c^i k'..^;, ,^^ , . Infinitive Mood. , Present Tente. .. , Perfect. To be loved. ^ »» . ^ ; s^ Tc have been loved. Participles. J^ Present. Being loved. Perfect or Passive Being lovel^ Coh'pound Perfect. Having been luved. ,? «: IRREGULAR VERBS. ' \r*3 • Irregular verbs are those which do not form theif ii|i^ perfect tense and perfect participle by the addition of 4 or ed to the verb ; as, ,. , ;> Present. imper/ect. Perfect Participle. I begin I began begun I know I knew known ,• _ , ■. Irregular verbs are of various sorts, * ; * t. 1. Such as have the present and imperfect tenses, and the perfect participle, the same j as. Present. Imperfect. Burst burst Cast east Cost eott Cut % eat Hit ^ hit Hurt hurt Knit knit or knitted Let let ^ QrMclKm.— Whi^t ar« irr^uUr verbs ? Perfect Participle, burst cast cost cut hit hurt knit or knitted let 4^y Prutmt, Lift Put Quit Rid Set Shed Shred Shut Slit Split Spread Thrust ETYMOLOGV. TmpeyfitcL lifted vr lift Perfect PartidpU lifted or lift put quit or quitted ri Climb Creep Peal Dig Dwell Feel Fight Find v':» Flee " [i^^:^' niif -■'•■"■ Fling Get Gild Gird Grind Hang Have Imperfect. abode baked '''."V. bent or bciid<;d bertfi or btircavcd besought bound 4^5* bled .^^^ blessL'd or blest 'vjst;!?'^' bred '.y brought built cr l.'.iildp'l bigkt or bunicd bwRnt caught or cnlche:! clave or < leaved clove, clave, or cleft clung cliinbod or clomb crept dealt or dcalcd dug oV di'j;^'.cd dvvell ur dwelled felt fought found iled flung got i)r gnt gilt 0( gll led girt or 2;iided ground hung 0/- hiuigcd had heard Perfect Participle. abode buked or baken bent or bended bereft or bereaved besought bound I bled ^blessed or blest bred brought built or builded burnt or burned bouglit . caugl^t or catched cleaved cloven or cleft clung climbed crept dealt or dealed dug or digged dwell or dwelled felt fought ^ ;. found I ' ,. fled flung gotten or goi gilt or gilded girt or girded gn)und hung or hanged had heard a. ''4' ^'^■■■, M'. m ■>'■: 418 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Praent. Imperfect. Heave » heaved or hove Help helped ^ Hold held Keep kept Kneel knelt Lay laid Lead led Learn learned ar learnt Leave left Lend lent Light lighted or lit Loie :;; lost Moke ^. made Mean shaved S Shine , : shone or shined ~ Shoe : shod ' Shoot ■ > shot Shrink ' r « shrunk or shrank Shrive shrived or shrove Sit sat Sleep slept Sling Slink slung or slang slunk or slank Smell , ^.i /v^vvs^v smelled or smelt SP«^ , ^ * ■ sped Spell ■ Ki spelled or spelt Spend spent Spill spilt or spilled Spin spun or span Stand stood Stave ',*'":•";' '-'..i * stove i Stick ;X--^--:^ !■ ■' stuck ■ :':';^•■:,,:v:•'■•• Sting <• Stink stung stunk 07' stank Sirew or strow ; ilrike ^ strewed or strowed struck Perfect Participle. heaved or hoven helped or holpen held or boldeii kept knelt - laid led learned or learnt left lent lighted or lit / lost made meant or meaned met melted or molten, paid ■■■''■<■: pent rapped or rapt read ^ u rent -^^^ ridden or rid rotted or rotten said sought sold sent shaped or shapcn shaved or shavea shone or shined shod ; shot < shrunk ''*l ,, shrived or shrive* sat or sitten slept " ''■•:*"' ^'P'7t'; • slung slunk ' ' smelled or amelt sped spelled or spelt spent {aJ spilt or spilled spun stood staved or stove stuck stune stunk strewn oi' strown, > strewed or strowed > n Pret Strii Swe Swe Swii Teat Tell Thir Toss Wee Wet Win Win Wor Wra Wrii Writ 3 ticif Pres Am Arisi Awa Bear Bear Beat Begii Bid Bite Blow Breal Chid< Choo Cleai Clott Comi -. Crow Dare. Do Drav Drive Drinl Bat Fall Feed Fly Forge Forsa Freez Give Go V» WWt f I ETYMOLOGY. Prmnt. String Jmperfsct, strung PerfjjsiParlie^t. Strang' • Sweat sweated or swet sweated or swet Sweep swept swept Swing swung or swang swung Teach taught teught , Tell told told ^ Think thought thought Toss tossed or tost tossed or tost. JJ^^P wept wept Wet wetted or wet wetted or wet Win won won Wind wound or winded wound Work wrought or worked wrought or worked J^'^P wrapped or wrapt wrapped or wrapt Wring . wrung or wringed wrung or wringed Writhe writhed writhen or writhed 3. Such as have the imperfect, tense and perfect p ticiple different j as, PnMnt. Imperfect. Perfect Participle. Am was been Arise arose arisen Awake awoke or awaked . awaked Bear, to bring forth bare or bore born Bear, to carry. bore or bare borne Beat beat : i;_^ beat or beaten Begin began begun bid or bidden Bid bade or bid Bite bit bitten or bit Blow blew ' blown Break broke or brake broken Chide chid or chode chidden or chid Choose chose chosen Cleave, to split clove, clave, orcleft cleft or cloven Clothe clothed or clad clothed or clad Come came come Crow crew crowed Dare, to ventun durst or dared- dared Do did done Draw drew drawn Drive drove driven Drink drank ">. dk-unk Eat eat or ate eaten or eat Fall fell fallen Feed fed fed Fly flew flown Forget forgot or forgat forgotten or forgot. Forsake forsook forsaken Freeze froze fVozen Give gave given Gq '\f':,^-'' went gone ^ 43 44 Grave • Grow Hew Hide Lade Wp Lie, to lie down Load Mow King ■' i^f-^' 4 Kiae Kive , ^ Run " "^ " " Saw See See^ Shake Shear Shew or show Sing Sink Slay Slide ■ Smite Sow !::^peak Spit Spring Steal Stride Strive ^wear Swell Swim Take Tear 'I hrive Throw Tread Wax- Wear Weave Write ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Iinperfecir graved grew hewed hid knew lailed lay loaded ' mowed rang or ~^^i:m -bi:. .t'^A'. rung Perfect Participle, graven or graved grown hewn or hewed hidden or hid known ladeh Iain or lien laden or loaded mown or mowed rose rived ran sawed saw ^vj-.'.^' seethed or sod sliook sheai cdT)r shore shewed or sho^ved sung or sar:g sunk 01 sank slew slid' ■■^'--''-^ ■'-♦'>'?' smote '^*«^ **'- sowed J' if^^i '■*•>• spoke or spake spit or spat sprung or sprang stole 8' rode or slrid strove swore or sware swelled swum or swam took tore or tare throve or thrived threw trod or trodo waxed wore wove ■''./";3t wrote or writ ■■■A risen riven run sawn or sawed seen sodden shaken sliorn . shewn or shown sung sunk slain y w;«*^' slidden or slid smitten or smit sown or sowed spoken spit or spitten sprung stolen 1.; • stridden '^''^'^ striven .. ^i sworn swollen or sT^elled swum (Ki t a. taken torn ' thriven thrown < trodden waxen * worn woven written or writ •^j DEFECTIVE VERBS. Defective Verbs are those which are used only in some of their moods and tenses ; as, am, w«s, heen i canp ^^ could ; may, might ; shall ^ slwuld ; tvill, wouldy S^'cJ i Note. — The whole number of verba in the English language U » abaut 4,300, including ii regular and dufectivo verbs, which Q^IUQV^J to aboiJl 200. '^-r^v^^': « ^ ■■KX \t«' ill BTYMOLOGT, 45 Perfect Participle, (wanting). i ;■ i] bunt { Present. Imperfect. Can could Maj might • Must must Ought ought Quuth quoth -' - ■. — Shall should Will would Wis wist . '" ' Wit or wot wot EXERCISE — On the Verbs. 1. T write. John loves to read. The Vy killed the bird. He committed a fault. We complei^d our jour- ney. They have deceived me. He had resigned the office. I will submit. They will have dined before he arrives. J^^c will have determined. Prepare your les- son. Know yourselves. Let him consider. Pardofi. Allow liie to spenk. I can forgive. They may offend. You may ^o. He may overtake us. He would goi lie may have resigned. They might have sold it. He couU have gone. I may be there. If they sell it. You will receive it if they come. To see the sun is pleasant. If I shouM write. Cun we trust him 1 Is he to be trusted ? To have been admired avails him not. They' ought -to avoid bad company. Having a book. Writing a letter. Moving slowly. 2. He is admired. The man was condemned. You are loved. They are deceived. He has been honoured. They have been forgiven. He had been xsonvicted, John was abused. Virtue will be rewarded. If I be ad- mitted. If they were loved. Charles may be admired, lie might be convinced. The boy may have been there. The pierson will have been executed before the pardon arrives. The book is now his, it was mine formerly. If I may be allowed to speak. Be tnou a friend to the poor. Allow me to be your friend. The letter was written. He is paid, lie has been forsaken. Thou QueSwejpr<'sewi ; as, " Now, today," &c. Of time past : as, " Already, before, lately, hitherto, long since, long ago." Of time to come : as, " To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, instantly, presently, by and by," &c» Of time indefinite : as, " Often, soon, seldom, daily, yearly, always, when, then, ever, never, again," &c. 5. Oiquantity: as," Much,sufficiently,abundantly," &c. Questions dreExercise.— 3. What verbs in paragraph the third arc regular 1 What irregular and why ? Conjugate them in the pres- ent tense 1 What is the imperfect tenae of each 1 The perfect 'i Pluperfect, &c. What is the imperative mood ^ The potential 1 The subjunctive 1 The infinitive 1 The participles 1 Conjugate them in tiie passive voice through all their moods and tenses. Questiont on Jdverbs,—! . What is an ad.erb 1 How are flom« adverbs compared 1 <( 1. to cor to ina Coi Copiu Th, contin Ques ths Kat Ques they dii ETYMOLOGY. 47 we bless. 3d. The perceive, mit, blow, a verb, an to express : ^s, " He writes very *' er and est ; oftenest •," [ most : as, requfenlly per- >rbial phrast ; 10 means, not ;lasse4 :— » &c. ^^ ^rdly, lastly, fwhere, any- :c. ♦ Itoday," &c« iitherto,long •morrow, not " &c» Of flaily, yearly, ^dantly," &c. jjph the third ar« tern in the pres- The perfect '{ The potential 1 ts 1 Conjugal* ] tenaest How are «om« 6. 0( ma?ine^ or quality : as, Wisely, justly, quickly, Slowly, badly, ably," &c. • 7. Of doubt: as, " Perhaps, perchance, possibly," dec. 8. Of affirmation : as, Verily, truly, yea, yes, indeed, surely," &c. 9. Of negation : as, Nay, no, not, not at all," &c. 10. Of interrogation : aa, " How, why, whierefore, &c. 11. Of co??iparison : as, "More, most, better, best, almost, alike," &c. '^" ■ CHAVTER vrrt. " , i -..'■■ ■^' Of Prepositions. 1. Prepositions serve to connect words with one another^ - and to show the relation between them. They are for ' the most part set before nouns and pronouns : as, " He vreut from London to York ;" " She is above disguise ;" '' They are supported by industry." ■:i^- 2. The following is a list of the principal prepositions : ' About Above Across After Against Along amid amidst among amongst around at Save through throughout to toMrards under before behind below beneath beside besides between betwixt beyond but by down except for from in Into near underneath. up npon with within without T oft on over CHAPTER IX. Of Conjunctions. 1. A Conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect sentences ; so as, out of two or more sentences, to make but one. It sometimes connects only words. Conjunctions are principally divided into two sorts, th« Cojmlative and Disjunctive. The Conjunction Copulative serves to connect or to continue a sentence by expressing an addition, a sup- Questions on Prepoaiiiona. — 1 . What is a preposition 1 2. Recit* thf, list of the principal prepositions. Questions on Conjunctions. — 1. What is a cor^unction 1 How art they divided 1 What is the copulative conjunction 1 ^>«t tt*b»*»r iS ENGLISH CIRAMMAR. position, a cause, &c. : as, '• He and his brother reside in London ," " I will {ro 'if he will accompany me j'* " You are happy because you are good." 2, The Conjunction Diisjunctive serves not only to con- nect and continue the seiitciict!, but also to express op- position or' meaning in dilYcrent degrees ; as, " Though he was IVequenlly reproved, yet he did not reform j" " They came with her, but went away without her." J:f The following* is a list of tl:c principal conjunctions : * Th^ Copulative. And, that, both, for, therefore, if, then, since, becaut;e, wherefore. * j^,>.» ,, The Disjunctive. But, than, thou, either, or, as, uft* Uss, neither, nor, lest, yet, notwithstanding. ^' Ab^e.— The same word is occasionally used as a conjunction and an adverb, and sometimes as a preposition ; as, " I rest then upon this argument ;" " He arrived then, and not before :" in the first sen- tence then is a conjunclidn. in tlic second it is an adverb. " I sub- mitted, for it was vain to contend ;" " He contcndedybr ^lory ;" in the first «(.n^rice,/<;r is a conjunction j in tbeseconditisaprepo^fi- tion. ^ .}'.:.^:i,i..L.;:- i_ .-_.,-.. .'...'■'""'■■.. '-''" -. EXERCISE. — On the Advert), P/-ep6siti6?i,and Conjunc- tion. 1. I have seen him once, and perhaps twice. Thirdly and lastly, 1 will conclude. The task is already perform- ed. We could not serve him then, but will hereafter. They traveled in haste through France towards It»]y. From virtue to vice the progress is gradual. "We ofteb resolve, but seldom perform. We are wisely and haapily directed. How sweetly the birds sing ! Why art toQU 80 heedless 1 When will he arrive ? Where sHall tre stop 1 Mentally and morally we arc afflicted. He lives within his income. The house was sold at a great price and above. its value. 2. By diligence and frugality we arrive at competency. We are often beloAv our wishes, and above our desert. Without the aid of charity he supported himself with credit. Though often advised, yet he does not reform. We must'live temperately if we would be healthy. Question on Conjunctions. — Recife the lists of conjunctions. ^ • Quest ioiiB on Exercise. — I. Point out the adverbs in the above exercise, 2. Point out the prepositions. The conjunctions. What parts of speech arc all the other words ? Questiom on Conjunctions. —2. What is the disjunctive 1 P CJ h > <■■ ■^■•"i s- coi :'i; u STTM0L06T. «t ^M<-'' ReprcFbf either softens or hardens its object. Neither pi'osperitj nor adversity has improved hira. Charkt is esteemed, becavse he is both discreet and benevolent. John came sooner than James. He is as old as his class-«aate, but not so learned . If thou wert his. superior, thou shouldst not have boasted. One may easily deceive one's self. CHAPTER X. ^ Of Interjections, j>'l. Interjections are words thrown in between the parts of a sentence to express the passions or emotions of the roeaker : as, " Oh! I have alienated my friend ; Alas ! I < (ear for life." 2. In terjections are of various kinds : First; o( Sur- prise ; as, Really ! sure ! strange ! Second ; of G/'ief or earnestness : as. Ah ! ,alas ! O ! on ! Third ; of CW- tempt: as, Pho ! fie ! fudge 1 Fourth ; of CcUling: ^, Lo t behold ! hark ! holloa ! ho ! Fifth ; of Saluting : as, Welcome ! hail ! all hail ! , Que$tion8 on Interjections. — What is an inteigection 9 2. What •re the Yarious kinds pf interjections ? V-«V-i PARSING. Farsine it usually denominated Etymologkal and Syntadiad. 'By the rormor Etymology of the parts m speech is given ; by .tm latter the rules of Syntax for the agreement, government or jjiQMtion of words, in a sentencoj are dionvn. After the pupils have jiarefully examined the following table of parsing, which embraces W&\ the Etymological and Syntactical system, and ^ specimens binder it, they may be employed in parsing with great advantage. It is by no means necessary that they should commit to memory all the rules of Syntax before ihey proceed to this exercise ; but, hcv- ing learned the first rule they should be obliged to correct and parae the exercise under it, and taught to apply the rule } and, as they ad- vance, the same meihod should be observed, requiring them at the same time, if necessary, to apply the rules, which they have alre&dy committed lo memory. DIRECTIONS f6r PARSING. Pirst determine what part of speech the word is, then g^e all its attributes according to the following system : Article, Tell whether it is cafinite or indefinite. -^ ^Noun. Tell whether it is proper or common, give its gen- der, number, and case j if nominative case, point out -=!»■ 50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. .«2 the yerb to which -it is nominative ; or, if nominative tb no verb, tell what kind of nominative it is i if it be in the possessive or objective case, point out the word hj which it is governed, and repeat the rule of Syntax for such government, v Adjective. Tell what degree of comparison, and what word it qualifies. Pronoun. Tell what kind ; if personal, tell its gender, number, and case, and why it is in such case. Verb. Tell whether it is active, passive, or neuter ; regu- . lar, irregular, or defective ; tell its number, person, 7^ mood, anT tense ; with> what nominative it agrees, and give the rule of Syntax for such agreement. ^ ' Adverb. Tell what kind^and what word it servei to qualify.^v Preposition. Tell the, word it governs. '% Conjunction. Tell whether copulative or di^unctive, andr' point out the words or sentences it connects. ^J Interjection. Tell the kind. . ;^ .i» SPECIMENS OF PARSING. ', *' A virtuous son delights hia father's heart." A is an indefinite article. Virtuous is an adjective in the positive degree and qualifies son. Son is a noun common, of the masculine gender, third person, singular number, and nominative case to the verb delights, ac»- cording to Note 3, under Rule I, which says, &c. D'S^'^ lights is n. regular active-transitive verb in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, singular number, to agree with its nominative case son, according to Rule I, which says, &c. ; ?.nd governs heart in the objective case, according to Rule IV. His is a possessive adjective pro;'" noun. Fatlter''s is a noun common, of the masculine gen?rti der, third person, singular number, and in the possessive case governed by the word heart, according to Rule VII. Heart is a noun common, of the neuter gender, third person, singular number, in the objective case, and governed by the active-transitive verb delights, accordii^ to Rule IV ; and governs father's in the possessive case,,, ' accor^g to Rule VII. ,j;j. ' '^r- " Virtue will rewnrd her followers." <;"t ,^, Virtue is a noun common, of the feminine gender, '■ i ifH:' -;.. \ ■-■«<_- ■ Pf^t^ 'l ■■:-'M -»' l^v'f; 5^^:: ••% • V ■;'■. KTTMOLOGT. third person, singular number, and nominatire case to will reward. WUlreward is a regular a^ve-transitive verb, of the indicative mood, first future tense, and in the third person, singular number, to agree .with its nomina- tive case virtue, according to Rule I, and gorennfollotoers in the objective case, according to Rule lY. Her n a possessive adjective pronoun. Follmaers is a noun com-; mon, of the common gender, third person, plural numbeF, and in the objective case governed )>y nrill I'eioardf ac- cording to Rule rV". ** He walked iuto the garden." |j He is a personal pronoun, of the masculine gender/ third person, singular number, and nominative case to walked. Walked is a regular a<;tive-intransitive verb, of the indicative mood, imperfect tense, third person, singu-^' ; lar number, to agree with its nominative he, according to Rule I. Into is a preposition, and governs gardenin the objective case, according to Rule V. The is a definite article. Garden is a noun common, of the neuter gender ,,*~ thii*d person, singular number, and in the objective case governed by the preposition into, according to Rule V. " Cicero, the orator, was a man of superior talents." " *'i Cicero is a noun proper, of the masculine gender, third person, singular number, and nominative case to wcu^l^ The is a. definite article. Orator is a un common, of" the masculine gender, third person, singular number, and in the nominative case, in apposition to Cicero, according to Rule X. Was is an irregular neuter verb, of the indica- tive mood, imperfect tense, third person, singular number, to agree with its nominative case Cicero, according to Rule I. A is an indefinite article. Man is a nojin common, of the-masculine gender, third person, singular number, and , the nominative case after the verb was, according lo Riile IX. Q^ is a prepositioD, and governs lifdents in the objective case, according to Rule V. Superior is an ad- jective in the positive degree, qualifying talents. Talents is a noun common, of the neuter gender, third person^., plural number, and in the o^ective case governed by thei prepositon of, according to Rule.V. -^ " The man, who lives virtuously, will be rewarded.'' Who is a relative pronoun, and has man for its antece «*• 92 XNGLUR GRAMMAR. d^t* liMMS ia a regular neater yerb, in the indicattvi; moodf preaenljiitenae, third person, singalar number, td i%ree with its iiiominatire ii^, according to Rule XII* Viriuoushf is an adverb of manner or quality and qualifiel^ the ?erb lives. Will be rewarded is a regular passive verb, in the indicatiye mood, first future tense, and third person angular, agreeing with, its nominative manf ac- cording to Rule I. *^ H^ err is human.*' 2b err is a verb in the infinitive mood.. Is is anf irregular neuter verb, of the indicative mood, present tense J third person singular, to agree with its nominative, to err] according to Note under Rule I. Human is an adjective; qualifying nature understood, according to' Rule XVIt. • "Let me go." Xe£ is an irregular active-transitive verb, in the impera- t^VA mood, seccnd person singular or plural, to agree with its nominative thouy or ye or you understood, and governj| me in the objective case, according to Rule IV, and alsok governs go in the infinitive mood, according to Rule VIII. Me is a personal pronoun, of the first person singular, common gender, and in the objective case governed hf letf according to Rule IV. Go is an irregular active- intransitive verb, in the infinitive mood, present ten|^|' t^e sign to being understood, an^ governed by /e^, accord-* ing to Rule Vm. "^ ^ PART m. SYNTAX. 1. The third part of Grammar is Syntax, which treats of the agreement and construction of words in a sentence. A sentence is an assemblage of words, forming a compIetQ sense. Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. A simple sentence has in it but one subject and one finite verb ; as, ** Life is short." A compound sentence con- sists of two or more simple sentences connected toget^r ; I Qne$tionton Syntax.—l. What is the third part of grammar, and of what does it treat 1 What-is a sentence 1 How many kinds of sentences 1 What is a simple sentence 1 Compound sentence 1 A -S'i, ,:t SYNTAX. 63 « I i 1» i& %ay** Life is short, and art is long." A phrase is two or pfflfe srorcl% fonniia^ generally a part of a sentence, «nd acNnetimes a whole sentence ; as, f* He endeavoured in a particular manner t» diow hift friendsh^t." ** It is itf no means just." 2. Principal parts of a simple sentence are the subf&^t the attribute, and the obfect. The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of j the attribute is the thing or action a£Srm- ed or denied of it ; and the object the thing affected by such dction. The nominative denotes the subject, and usually goes before the verb or attribute ; and the word or phrase, di^poting the object, follows the verb ; as, " A wise m^ |;pverns his passions. Here, a unse tnan, is the subject ; governs, the attribute, or thing affirmed ; ULtkA passions, the object." 3. Syntax principally consists of two parts. Concord and Government. Concord is the agreement which one word has with another in gender, number, case, or person. Govern- ment is that jpower which one part of speech has over fttoother in directing Its mood, tense or case. Note. — Besides the division of sentences into simple and com* pound they are atsa divided into Explicative, Interrogative, and Imperative. By the first something is declared or explained; as, *5 1 write ; he is loved}" by the second a question is asked > as, v*< Was it John V by the third a command is given ; as, " Go. thou Iriilor." To analyse a compound sentence is to show the simple senteneet and phrases of which it consists^ EXERCISE. Analyse the follomng sentences, and show • the simple sentences of which they consist. Many are the trials of the virtuous, but their reward will be great. It is an important truth, that rpligion, practised with sincerity, is the most powerful auxil- iary of reason in promoting that peace of mind which renders us tranquil and happy under all the vicissi- tudes of life. A virtuous son loves his mother, venerates Qiuttiont on Syntax. — 2. What are the principal parts of a ilmpUf lentence 1 Uhat is the subject t Attribute 1 Tte objeet % What is •aid of Ihe nominative, Ac. 1 3. Of what doea Syntax conilstl What is concord 1 What is government 1^. ' •■.,,• •V'.*»"Ti? '»: vv 54 SKGLISH GRAMMAR. his fatiieri and hearkens to their admonitions ; he is at all tines condescendiag^ to his friends, respectfnl tostrangnw, and -obedient to bis snpertors. No man ean serve two jpuitera; for h^ will either despise the one, and cling to the i^ construction ; *^ as it foUSwt ; -of adverbial piurases. .., N<9>*— The pupils may be required to correct the exercises that follow the rules* either in writing or verbally, a:t th? discretion of i^ Teacher ; it would, however, be better to allow the sfcholars, . Vfhtle they are studying the grammar for the first tinie, to correct the jixercises verbally, and afterwards to furnish a written correction of the same. The numbers to the exercises correspond with the num- bers attached to the notes under the respective rule. As the rules of Syntax are generally shorf, questions on them have been dispensed with. EXERCISE — For Correction, The school of ek;^ ce teach many useful lessons. Disappointments sin?' heart of man, but the renewal pf hppe gire consolaiioa. The fame of this person and ■*pf his actions were diffused throughout the country- The %quisitive is generally talkative. What signifies good opinions when our crnduct is had i We may suppose *there was more impostors than one. I have, considered ^h&tt have heen said on both sides. If thou would be nealthy, live temperately. He canst not blame me. He •houldst have written before this time. A variety of l, would b6 a ^graot injusticcr^ Ttiese articles we imported from China, and are similar t» thiose vhich we brought from Africa. 3. Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, mea are s» constituted a;~ ultimately to acknowled^ genuine merit. 4. The crown of virtue is ^eace' and honour. His chief occupation and employment were' controversy. 5. Him being destroyed, the place may be easily taken. The business being concluded, the Senate adjourned. The cloth being removed from the table,- he desired the servant to bring in the wiiSe. Charles being absent^ Henry was unable to perform the task. Wofe.— 1. Lend me your hat. Give John the book. Get him the paper. He was banished the country. 2. To have no friend, whom we heartily wish welt to, and whom we are warmly concerned for, is a deplorabU state. J, Whom did you receive it from \ RULE V.I. Participles, derived from active-transitive verbs, govern the objective case ; as, " Seeing \m friend in distress, he assisted him." '' Having finished the letter^ he &ent it to the office." '' Having finished his vxfrk, he submitted it." (0 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Ifole 1. — ^When th« perfect participle and imperfect tense are dif^ fereot io form, the latter must not be used for Uie former ; as, it is improper to say ; " He begun ; He run ; They come ; Charles diMM. it ;" it should be ; " He begem ;. He ranj They came -, Charles didit." Oburvtttion. — When a participle ia taken as the subject of the T^rb, or the object of an action or of a relation, it becomes a noun, and is called a participal noun y as, " Reading is useful ;" *' He commenced at the beginnings " Much depends on the rule's being obeerved* A participial nonn may govern the objective case ; as, " .John was sent to prepare the way by preaching repentance." "Her employment is drawing maps." ' Much depends on their observing the i^t.'* In tliese cases, however, it is better to insert the article, and preposl* tion off after the participal noun, by which all ambiguity respecting the government will be avoided ; as, " the preaching q/* repentance ;'* . ** the O'bserving of the rule :" " the drawing o/maps.'^ The partici- ple is sometimes used witliout reference to any noun ; as^ " Generally speaking, his conduct was good." EXERCISE — For Correction. Esteeming theirselves wise, they became fools. I eould not avoid considering they in some degree as enemies to me. Suspecting not only thou, but they also, I have avoided all intercourse. 1. By being toa eager in the pursuit he run a great risk of being disappointed. He was greatly heated, and drunk with avidity. He begun the work early. They have forgat it. He has mistook his true interest, and he now finds himself forsook by former friends. The coat had no seam, but it was wove throughout. -He would have went with us, had he been invited. They, whp have bore a part of the, labour, shall share the reward. The rules have been broke. The French lacnguajge is much spoke. , , RULE VII. i Oae noun governs another, signifying a different thing, in the possessive or genitive case ; as, " My father'^s house ;" " Virtue'i reward ;" " Man^s happiness," Pronov.^ in the possessive case arc also governed by the soons 'ch foUow them; as " Every tree is known ' A>.-. — . .ou siveksl nouns come together in the posseesiTV ease, the aposthrophe with the letter < is annexed t? the last and un- derstood to the rest j ss,. •< John and Eliwth book j" " This is my .1 SYNTAX. «f .1 (atlier, mother^ and uncUU advice." 3ut, if any words ii »:iveiie, it ii proper that the sign of tlie possessive should be annexed to each; as, " They are John% as well as Etiza*8, books.'* - Ifi^e 2 — In poetry the additional « is frequently omitted, but the apostrophe retained; as, " The wrath of Pe^x' 'son." Some* times, also, the apostrophic s is omitted even in prose, particulariy when it occasions a hissing sound, or a difficulty of pronunciation ; as, " For conscience* sake ;" " For goodnesti' sake." ^ ^oU 3. — Little exphinatory circumstances (should not be used between the possessive case, and the v ords which follow it ; as, "^ She extolled her friend's excellent work, as she called him ;" or better, " the excellent work of her friend." NoU 4. — When a sentence consists of terms signifying a name and an office, that which. signifies the name of the person should be put in the possessive case ; as, " I lefl the parcel at Smith*8 the bookseller." A phrase, in which the words are so closely connected as to admit of no pause before the conclusion, requires the possessive sign at or near the end of the phrase ; as, *' Whose prerogative is it 1 It is the Queen of Great Britain^s ;" " The Lord mayor of Lon- don's authority." Nouns in apposition, which follow each other in Iuick succecsion, have also the possessive sign ; as, " The emperor Leopold'? ;" " For David my servanVa sake." . Nutc 5. — If the application of the possessive case should occasion an unpleasant sound, the particle q/, which expresses the same rela- tion, should be used in its place ; as, " The general in the army's name ;" it should be, •* in the name of the army ;" " The Com- mons' vote ;" '•. O/the Commons;" "The Country's condition ;" " O/the country ;" " The king in parliament's name;" " in Uie ,t)^e o/ parliament." Note 6. — In some cases both the possessive termination and the preposition o/may be used ; as, " It is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's." Observation. — The pronoun his, when used apart from the noun to which it relates, is tu be considered as the possessive case of the personal pronoun ; but, when united with a noun, as a possessive adjective pronoun : as, "The book is not mine, but A h ' STKTAX.' e^ I r f EXERCISE — For Correction, 1. 1 dare not to proceed so hastily lest I jhould give offence. H'e bade his friend to receive the favour.' We have seen him to go into the house. They heard the bird to sing. Let the boy to read. He made me to'do it. I bid ^him to say it. The multitude wondered when they saw the ]ame to walk and the blind to se^ Charles saw him to commit the fault. Let the bird to go. RULE IX. - The verb To be through all its variations has the sam* case after it as before it ; as, " / am he ,•" " Idleness is the parent of many vices ;" " We at first took it to be Aer." Note 1. — When the verb to he is understood, it has also the same case before and after it ; as, ''■ He seems the leader of the party ;" that i3, " io be the leader," &c. Note 2. — Passive verbs, Tvhich signify naming, calling, ftc", and certain neuter verbs, have the same case before and after them j as, " He ivas called Ccesar ;'* " She was named Mary ; "The general was saluted emperor j" Homer is styled the prince of poets j'* ** H$ became my friend." - EXERCISE — Fo7' Correction, You maybe afraid, it is him indeed. .Be composed, it is me. I would act the same part if I were him. He so much resembled ijny brother that at first sight I took it to be he. After all their professions can it be them ? If it were not liim, who do you imagine it to have been ? Whom do you thinTc he to be 1 ■' RULE X. Nouns, which signify 11^,6 same thing, are put by appositiort in the same case ; as, " Johnson, the Senator; has arrived ;" " Cicero, the orator ;" " I coni^ulted Wil- liams, the lawyer."*^ Note 1. — Nouns, which arc placed by apposition in the same case, always agree in number and person ; as, " I, Paul the Apostle, write to you ;" ** We, the representatives of the people.*' Note k. — Nouns are frequently put in apposition to pronouns, and sometimes to sentences, or parts of a sentence ; as, " I, the president of the association." '' Can mattenexist and not exist at the same time 1 an absurdity too gross to be confuted.'' Note 3. — When an address is made, the person or thing addressed is the nominative ia apposition to thou, ye or you, generally under- stood J as, " John,' assist me,'^ that is, '« thou John j" " GcntlAntik of the iury ;" " ye or ijou gentlemen.'* M ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Note 4. — Nouns, used to describe other nouns, stand in apposition io the nouns Ihey clescribe ; as, " John Hiclcman, of Baltimore citj, sold tiie book j" " William. Henry Harrison was president" Observation. — Nouns in apposition appear to be thus situated merely for liie salie of brevity ; the interposition of the rqlatiye and the verb will generally break the construction : as, '* Gecrge I , king of Great Britain ;'' that is, " George I. who vma king," &c.; " Cicero, toko is htyled the ora* t. The words king and orator in the I&tter sentences are lA the illuminative case, according to Kule IX. EXERCISE — For Correctiori. 1. Johnson, the senators, will propose the measure. I, James the first, kings of England. I sent it to ye, the printer. Taylor, the generals of the army, sends this or- der to Hamilton, the commanders of the fort. I, Caesar, > the consuls, issue the proclamation. We, the representa- ' tive of the people in congress assembled, assume the re- sponsibility that may follow from this measure. RULE XI. 'Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents,, and nouns for which they stand, in gender and number ; ii as, ', This is the friend whom I love," " That is the vicfr'^> which I hate ;" " The king and the queen have put oa"* 'their robes. 'Sit The relative is of the same persoiuas the antecedent/^ and the verb agrees with it -accordingly ; as, " Thou who :.. lovest wisdom ;" " " I wJio speak from experience." ^ ,<^' • Note 1. — Tersonai pronouns, being used to supply the place of the * noun, are not employed in the same part of a sentence as the nourt',** which they represent j as, " The king, he is just :" " I saw A^r, the% Queen i" it should be, *• The king is just ;" •* I sa^j the Queen*" '* Note 2. — The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons, a* g well as to things, but, after an adjective in the superlative degree, „ and the word sanfe, it is generally used in preference to who or which ;. | as ; ** Catiline's followers were the most profligate that could be *| found in any city }" " He is the same man that I saw before," There are cases in which we cannot conveniently dispense with this relative ^ First ; after tcAo, when used as an interrogative ; as, " W|jo, that ^ has any sense of religion, would have argued thus ?" Secondly ; ^ When persons make up a part of the antecedent ; as, " The woman,, J,,, and the estate, that became his fortune, were too much for his. |L consideration." . ,. Not* 3. — The pronouns whichsoever and whosoevevt &c. are a eleg&ntJy divided by the interposition of the corresponding noun ^ as„ isi **^ On which side soever he cast bis ejes." „ .,, .t\jSs| .Hal'' hnj noi U** saj Bei sul day Uoi] tt> 10 of ■ ^f- X-'-'^rr^- •' 4 STNTAZ. W on ty» ted ind iDg ro, tter I, the or-.* ata-r re- jnts,; )er 5 if vice t oa^ ient^ whq of thfe ^ noun ' !r,the , ns, a« - egree, , chich; I uld be ■ There laUve> 0, that ondly't roman^ for hi» NitU 4. — The iA>ilN$tive ea«e of the peraonal pronouns it often Uk- properly put for thm and Mote : as, " Ghre me them bookt ;*' instead of '* those books." The nominatire case, howerer, is generally utfd in the preference to ihote j as, ** Thity who weep ;'* instead of" Thorn who weep.** '' Noit 5. — ^The word itfia/ is sometimes improperly used for that i M, ** They will not belicTe, but v>h(U I have been entirely to blame.** H Note 6.-->Tiie pronoun relative toko should be confined to the prop- er names of persons, or to the general terms of men, women, Aic, except when a term directly implies persons. The following ex- amples are therefore^ incorrect ; ** The faction xoho \ France who ; the court %eho ;" which should be used. Note 7.— >The application of the relative who to very young childrcR teems to carry with it a harshness ; as, " The child icAo." It is stilly more improperly applied to animak ^ as, ** The fowl vohom nature has taught.'* Hote 8. — When the name of a person is used merely as a name and does not refer to the person, the relative toAo ought not to be applied ; as, " It is no wonder if such a man did not shine at court; toAo was but another name for prudence andeconomy.** Better t)uu " whose name was,** &c. Note 9. — The interjections O ! Oh ! and Jih ! require the objec- tive cases of a pronoun in the first person after them ; as, *' O me ! Oh me I Ah me !" but the nominative case of the second person ; «8. O thou persecutor ! Oh ye hypocrites !'* Lc. are if in 5 at> d Note 10. — It ie and it was are often used in a plural construction ^ •s, ** It is a few great men who decide.** " It was the her^ee tiiat first began to rail.'* Observation. — Every relative ought to have an antecedent te which it refers, expressed or implied ; as, " toho is fatal to others, it so to himself;" that is, " the man who." The relative sometimes refers to a whole or part of a sentence. ; as, *' The resolution wat offered and adopted without due consideration, whidi produced great dissatisfaction." The neuter pronoun it by an idiom peculiar to the English language is fVequently joined in the explanatory sentence with a noun or pronoun of the masculine or feminine gender ; ,as, '* It wat I*** " It was a man or woman." It is often omitted } thus we tayj *« As appears ; as follows ;" for ** As it appears ;" &c. The neuter pronoun it is sometimes employed to express ; First ; the subject of a discourse or inquiry ; as, *' It happened on a summer's day ;** " Who is it that calls me 1" Second ; the state or condi- tion of any person or thing } as, ** How is it with you ?" Third f the thing that is the cause of any effect or event, or any person con- sidered merely as the cause ; as, " Wb heard her say it was not he." " The truth is, it was I that sent the note." Care should be takea. in the position of the relative that no ambiguity may arise in the ute of it; as, when we say, "The disciples of Christ whom we Uoitate ^*' we may mean the imitation of Christ or of His disciples. $6 ENGLISH GRAMMAlt. I I i 1 I , 11 The exehciset-JFVw Correaion. lliey, which seek wisdom, will certainly find her. male amo^g birds seem to discover no beauty but in the colour of its species. Rebecca took goodly raiment, which were with her in the house, and put tl&em upon Jacob. The wheel killed another man, which is the sixth which lost their lives by this means. The fair sex, whose task is not to mingle in the labours of public life, has its^own part to act. I do r.ot think that any one should incur censure for being careful of their reputation. Thou, who has bceh a witness of the fact, can give an account of it. Thfe mind of Jnan cannot be Ipng without some food to nourish the activity of his thoughts. The exercise of reason appears as liitle iu these sportsmen as ip the beasts #rhom they hunt, and by whom they are sometimes hunted. 1. Whoever entertains such an opinion, he jndges erroneously. The cares of tliis workl,ihey often choke the' growth of virtue,. Disappointments abd afflictions, they often improve us. 2. Moses was the meekest man whom we^ read of in the Old Testament. Humility is one of the most amia; ble virtues, which we can possess. They are the sam^ persoris who assisted us yesterday. 3. Howsoever beautiful they appear, they havd : ho real merit. On whichsoever side they are contemplated. 4. Which of them two persons has most distinguished himself. None suffer injuries more impatiently than those that are most forward in comniitffng them. .'). He would not be persuaded but what I was m fault. , ^ ~\ 6. He instructed and fed the crowds who surrounded Him. The courts, who gives currency to manners, ought ,to be exemplary. He was the ab'est minister which James possessed. I am happy in the friend which I have long proved. 7. The child whom you have just seen. He is like i beast.of prey who destroys without pity. 8. Having once disgusted him, he could never regain the favour of Nero, who was another name of cruelty. to deceive, should be avoided. T?l-ifp>., .„l./^«.n ..nf J.' IdLtCI ;» WUvdi^ UUvUre IS I UYJSTAX. «!r ,9. Ah ? unhappy thou. Ob ! happy, we, surrounded by so many blessings. '*' 10. It is remarkable his continual endeavours to serrc ad after our ingratitude towards him. # RULE XII. t The relative is the nominative case to the verb, wIwa Ad nominative comes between it and the verb / as, ^* Th9 master who taught us." The trees which were planted*'! When a nominative' comes between the relative And the verb, the relative is governed by some word in its own Dij^mber of the sentence ; as, " He, who preserves me, to y^m 1 owe my being, and whom I serve, is eternal.*' iVb/«.-r-Whcn a question is asked, the noun or pronoun, cOntaijiing me answer, must be in the same case as that iviiich contains the ques- tion } as,'** Whose books are these V* •♦ They are John's." " Of vihom, did he buy them r* " Of the bookseller." Observation. — When the antecedent and relative both become nominatives, each to diJOTercnt verbs, the relative is nominative to the former, and the antecedent to the latter verb ; as, " True Philosophy, which is the wnamentof our nature, consists in the love of our duly.** ' EXERCISE— JPw Correction. . We are dependent on each other's assistance ; whom can subsist by himself t If he will not hear his best ^lend, whom will be sent to admonish him ? The per- sons, who conscience and virtue support, may smile at the caprices of fortune. That is the student, to who I gave i^^^||>ook, and whom, I am persuaded, deserved it. Who ]w|i|i_ the money paid to 1 il^ili RULE XIII. When the relative is preceded by .two nominatives of different persons, the relative and the verb may agree in person with either according to the sense ^ as, " I am the man wfio command you ;" or, " I am thf man who com" mands you ;" Observation. — When the relative and the verb have been deter* mined to agree with either of the preceding nominatives, that agree- ment must be preserved throughout the sentence ; as, *' I am th« Lord, who maketk all things and §tretcheth forth the heavens,*' & c. EXERCISE — For Corrcctiofi. .< I am the teacher, who adopt that sentiment, and main- tains the propriety of such measures. Thou art the man •vrJ :• ■'■■-• •:■•■■■ •■ ■ . ■■ ■ • ■ ' .'■- ■ - : ■ -':■," ' ■ '■*'-■"- '.,. i i,.. .. ■.. -l ^.,, . \ ^ , • » [X': 68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. f who bast often relieved me, and who has not deserted me in the^ hour of need. I am the man who approves, ^nt^ recommend the measure. ^^, ■ ?#^".' ' RULE XIT. . ■' A eoliective noun, or a noun of multitude, may have a verb or pronoun a^eeing with it either in the singular or plural number, according to the unity or plurality of the idea which it conveys ; as, '' The meeting was large ;" " The committee were divided in their opinions ;" " The nation is powerful ;" " My people do not consider, they Aa-yc not known Me." ^^yr EXERCISE — For Correction, '^^^rtj The people rejoices in that which should give it sorro#i4 The flock^ and not the fleece, are the objects of the shep- herd's care. The crowd were great. The British parlit^ ment are composed of a king or queen, lords, and commons. When a nation-complain, the rulers should listen to their voice. Why do this generation look for greater evidence I RULE XV. ,' Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses q£,> verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns ; as, " Candour is to be approved and practised ," " I respect and reverb the man ;" "Jdtn and Francis were school-feltows." •'''' iVofe.-'Coi^unctions are BOtnetimes made to connect different modQf and tenses of verba, but in those instances the nominative should* K£< gonwaUy repeated ; as, " He i$ dangerously ill, but he may recoVfti", EXERCISE — For Correction. ,.,^ Professing regard, and to act differently, discover a baS#* mind. My brother and him are well. You and'us en- joy many privileges. She and him are very unhappil^l^' connected. To be moderate in our views, and proceed- ing moderately w the pursuit of them, is the best way to ensure success. Between I ^dtd him there is some dii- parity of years. RULE XVI. Some conjunctions require the indicative, and others the subjunctive mood after them. It is a general rule that, when any thing contingent or doubtful is implied, the sub- junctive should be used ; as, " Ifl toere to write, he would not regard it j" ** He will not be pardoned ufidess he 8TNTAX. 69 , i-r: ■u'j '-*i ■W"' ihctions, that are of a poutiVe and absolute natare, liiquire the indicatiTe mood ; ^' As virtue advances^ so vice rec&ks.^ " He i» healthy, because he is temperate.'* Nate 1.— ^he conjunctions ify though, nnleas, except, vjhether^ be., generally require the sulyuneUre mood afler them : abo leU and that, when annexed to a command ; as, ** Love fiot sleep, lett thou ecnm to poverty ;" " Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob." Note Z.—Btith the indicative and subjunctive are^ sometimes im- properly put after the same conjunction in the same sentence, and unaer similar circumstances, as, *' IJ there he but one body of legis- li^tprs, it is no better than a tyranny ; if there are two, there wiu be t' easting voice;*' it should be, " ifUiere he two,"&c. Note 3. — An ellipsis in the cor^unctive form of speech oAen crettee irregularities in construction of sentences ; as., " We shad overtake Jijoi though he run ;" that is, *< though he ehould run.** ' J Nate 4 — ^The auxiliary have in the perfect tense of the subjunctive mood is sometimes improperly used instead of hast and has ; as, " If thou have determined, we must submit ;" "^ Unless he Aat;< consent* ed ;" it should be, " hast determined ; has consented." N(»te 5. — ^The auxiliaries had, shall, and will, are sometimes im< properly used in the pluperfect and future tenses of the subjunctive mood, instead of hadst, shalt, and wilt ; as, ** If thou had applied tlursplf ;" " Unless thou sha U speak the truth ;" « If thou mil unde»« twklB the business." "'■ Imte §.— The auxiliaries of the potential mood, when applied to the' subjunctive, do not change the termination of the secondpefson shigular. We properly say ; " If thou mayst or caMt go ;" *' Though t||Ou mightst live,*' he But the second person singular of the im" Mtrfeet tense in the subjunctive is sometimes improperly. used ; as, *nf thou loved him truly." *' Though thou did conform." The verb» should \ydd0ved9t and didst.** * Note 7. — Some conjunctions have cot-responding conjunctions, btilonging to them, either expressed or understood ; as, 1. T7iough—yet, nevertheless, " Thotigh He was rich> yet He be- came poor." 2. W~ 'tker — or ; as, " Whether he will or not, I cannot tell." 3. Ndther — nor ; — a^, " Ndthar he nir I am in fault." 4. As'-oM and wt ; expressing a comparison of equality ; •■ *' She is as amiable as her sister." " As the stars, to shall thy wed be." 6. As 'SO, and so — as ; expressing a comparison of quality ; as *' As one dieth, so dieth the other." *' To see Thy glory so a« I have seen," &c. 7. So-^as i with a negative and adjective, expressing a compari* ■OR'nf quality ; as, *< Poropey was not so great a gentleman. «• CMsar.' 8. So^that \ expressing a consequence t fatigued that he could scarcely move." * as. " He wft am m TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. .T,frt ii ' i (^tervatiok — Contingency und futurity bbth concuf in (lie pro^r uee of the tu'djunctiTe mood ; therefore, whenever contingency fltid' futurity are '>iot expressed, it is not proper to turn the verb from its Big> nification of present time, or to varyjts form or termination. If the person or tbing, which forms the subject of discourse, is repreaentedjli a certain state orcphdition, or in the act of performing some action at Uie p'.-eii7nt time, 'be verb should be in the indicative inood, altlMUgh preceded by a conjunction implying contingency j M, ** Thouf,'h he i« sick, he may recover." '* //he thinks as he speaks, hit may be trusted." In the above examples contingency is express* ed without futurity; in the following contingency and futurity are botti implied, and the use of the subjunctive is proper ; as, '* He wifl not be pardoned unless he repent.*' " If thou injure another, thoa wilt injure thyself*" If with but following it7 when futurity is . de- ndted, requires the subjunctive mood ; as, •* If He d> tut touch ihfi hills, they shall smoke." The particle as after the words such ihd many has the force of a relative pronoun ; as, ^^ Let such as pres^me.'^ *}\»i» many as were ordained." EXERCISE — For Corxection. ■i If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind. Though he urges me yet more earnestly, I shall not com^ ply unless he advanceb more forcible reasons. I shall walk in the fields today unless it rains. As the teactie'i* were present, the pupils behaved properly. She driap- proved the measure, because it were very improper. Though he be her friend, he does not attempt to juBtifV her conduct. - 1. I will submit if he convinces me of my error. Un- . less I am present, he will not succeed.* If John^as to accompany me, I would feci safe. D,eKpise no conditioji . of life, lest it happens to he your own. Let Bim, that mT' sanguine, take heed lest he miscarries. Take care that thou breakest not the rules. If he does hut intimate his desire, it will be sufficient. 2. If one man prefer a life of industry, it is because he has an idea of comfort in wealth ; if another prefers a Mii .d gaiety, it is from a like idea concerning pleasure.* No nr.ar engages in that business unless he aim at repu«' tation, or hopes for some advantage. ^ ; 3. Unles'i he learns faster, he will be no scholar. Though he falls, he shall not be utterly cast down. On condition that he comes, I will consent to stay. Till T^na^ pentance composes his mind, he will be a stranger Wi peace. Thou.^h virtue appear severe, she is truly amia<^ , « (it NtAX. 71 »» bleir^ Uoless tbe account deceive me, my estate ^i con- siH^nibly improved. Though the ascent to the temple of virtue appears craggy, be not discouraged. ' 4. If thou have promised, be faithful to thy engage- ments. Though he have proved his right, he will no! elcact it. TJaless he have improviat }" •♦ LouiM the BoM." '3. When .levctJ ai^jeclhres belong to the same noun j as, ^ A ' tmajV'fi, wm, and cha>ii:fble." 4. V: *?'m the verb to be, in any of' its forms, comes between * ;' ROun and :ui adjective?, the adjeclive may either precede or follo# ^ ' the noun ; ' Tb^ man is happy, or happy i# the man, who Uv«| ▼irtuou8ly.*'v T .i ly 5. When th(> xdjective is preceded by nn adverb, or ezpressea^ sonie ciicumutancf- of a noun placed after an active Terb ; as, " A**^ boy regularly etwtioue.^* " Vanity often renders its posseiwor «. d«j»ieao/«." ^ Obtervation. — Adjective pronouns in the plural number Will f . sopnetiinf^s properly associate with a singular noun ; as, '* Our deshna is that you accept the favour.*' •» We received their resignation." ' The a((iective ttrnny, *vith the indefinite article a after it, is some" v times used ^vitl.. u noun in the singular number ; as, *' JUbny a , gem." '* Many a flower," fiic. These phrases refer to many gem$ and many^iocrs considered separately and not collectively* EXERCISE — For Correctioti, J These kind of indulgences soften and injure the minel^ ^ Instead of improving yourselves you have been playing ^ thit two hours. Those sort of favours did real injury* v The board is- three foot broad . How many sorrow* ^ should we avoid, if we were not ^ . strious to make it. SYNTAX. 73 The i /^ 1. Charles was extrayagant, and by this meftn became poor. He obtaioed his end hy that mean, industrj is the mean of obtaining competency. 2, Re I'gion raises man above himself; irreligion sinks him bencjaii the brutes ; that binds him down to a poor pitij^^je p. ' k of .perishable earth; this opens for him a pros. 'jct to -uft s/ies, 3. Eacii of tbem in their turn receive the Benefits to which Hhey are entitled. Every person, whatever be their station, are bound by the duties of morality and re- ligioy^, E\« ry leaf, and every drop of wHter, teem with Hie. Neither of those men have an idea that their or inioDS are ill-founded. On either sides»f the river. > . She reads proper, writes neat, and composes accu- rate. He was extreme prodigal, and his property is now near exhausted. They live conformable to the rules. We may reason very clear. He was exceeding beloved. He ' came agreeable to his promise, and conducted himself suitable to the occasion. He speaks fluent, and reads excellent. He lived agreeable to the dictates of reason. ' ■ The study of Syntax should be previously to that of punc- tuation. They were left solitarily and distressed. 5. It is more easier to build two chimnies than to main- tain one. The nightingale has the most sweetest voice in Ae grove. That is the elegantest tree oa the farm. She is more beautifuler than her sister. The Supreme Being i| the most Avisest and most best of beings. - 6. He spoke in a distinct enough manner to be heard by the whole assembly. Thomas received a new pair of gloves ; he lives with a old ric'i mi>n. The two first in the row are cherry-trees, the tv/o others are pear-trees, \ . RULE XVIII. . .* Two negatives in the same sentence are equivalent to an affirmative ; as, " His language was not ungrammcUi- cal ;" that is, " it was grammattcaiy " He needs not do fiotldng ;" that is, " he ;3';'-: ;;?1 do mmei-.ing^'''* ^ E.yT?,Rcisr .For Corrcctio-i, Neither riches, no honours, nor no such perishable things, can satisfy the desires of an immortal spirit, "^f iere cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity. They 74^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. did not receive no letter. I am resolved not to comply with no proposals they may offer. Nor did they not perceive him. . IT'. S, RULE XIX. - ' The indefinite article agrees with nouns in the singular number only, individually or collectively ; as, " A CHfis- tian i^^-**Ah infidel ;" " A score ;" " A thousand." The definite article may agree with nouns either in t he singular or plural number ; as, " The garden ;" ^* the house ;" " the siiirs." iVo/ie 1.— The articles are often properly omitted ; when used* they should be justl^applied according to their distinct nature ; as, -'* Charity is a virtue?* " The sea is ereen.'* " »d lion is bold.'* Note 2.— It may in general be sufEcient to prefix the article to the former of two words m the same sentence, unless for the sake of emphasis : as, '' He sold the house and farm." *' It was for the 'benefit of tht widow and the orphans." Obset^atien. — A nice distinction of the sense is somelimes made by the use or omission of the article a ; If I say, " tie behaved with a little reverence ;" the meaning is positive ; but if I say, " He be- haved with little reverence ;" the meaning is negative. In common "conversation or in familiar style we frequently omit the articles which might be inserted in writing, especially a grave style ; as, " At worst, time might be gained by this expedient." ** At the . worst." Give me here John Baptist's head." " J^hn the Baptist's." EXERCISE — For Correction. A Christian countries. An enemies in the field. A brothers of my uncle. A partners of my father. A virtuous boys. 1. The fire, the air, the earth, and the water are four elements of the philosophers. The reason wjre given to man to control his passions. A man is the noblest work of the creation. Wisest and best men sometimes com- mit errors. King conferred on him the title of the duke. 2. He bought the bouse and the garden. He paid for the hat and the coat. The fear of shame and desire of approbation prevent many bad actions. He was influenc- ed by a just and generous principle. RULE XX. In the use of words and phrases, which in point of time relate to each other, a due regard to that relation should be observed ; as, " The Lord hath given, and the Lord I SYNTAX. 75 hath taken away ;" it should be, " The Lord gave and the Lord hath taken away." ' Note 1 . — Verbs that express desire, hope, intention, or comniftnd, must invariably be followed by the present, and not the perfect of the infinitive mood j as, '* It is now a long time since I commanded him tar have done it j" it should be, " to do it." Observation. — ^^When the action or event, signified by the rerb hi the infinitire mood, is contemporary or future with respect to the verb to which it is chiefly related, the present of the infinitive should be used; as, " Last week I intended to write }** but, when the ac- tion or event u neither contemporary nor future, the perfect infinitive should be employed ; as, " It would have afforded me great pleasure, as often as I reflected upon it, to have been the messenger of such in- telligence." If the thing assocted be at all times iintnutabty the same, or supposed to be so, the present tense must be used ; as, " Virtue is commendab'.e at any season of life." But, if a declara- tion be made relative to something that is not always the same, or supposed to be so, the past tense should be applied } as, " The judge ^aid he was in fevour of the measure." It is not easy to give particular rules for tlie management of the Tnoods and tenses of verbs with respect to one another, so that they may be proper and consistent. The best rule that can be given is this very general one ; " To obsetre what the sense necessarily requires." EXERCISE — Foi' Correction. The next new year's day I shall be at school three years. He, that was dead, sat up and began to speak. I should be obliged to him if he will gratify me in that particular. I have compassion on the multitude because they continue with Me now three days. John will earn his wages when his service is completed. Be that as it will, he cannot justify his conduct. After we visited London, we returned to our peaceful home. .1 have been at Lon- don a year, and seen the king last summer. 1. I propose to go to York in a few months, and, after I shall finish my business there, to proceed to America. From the little conversation I bad with him, he appeared to have been a man of letters. I always intended to liave rewarded my son according to his merits. We done no inore than it was our duty to have done. These proscriptions seem to be the most iniquitous measures pursued at that time. RULE XXI. When the qualities iv l.'erent things are compared, the latter noun or pronoi . agrees with the verb, or is v> 76 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. governed by the verb or preposition expressed or under- stood, as, " Thou art wiser than I ;" that is, " than I am/* " They love hira more than me j" that is, f* more than they love me." Observation. — The relative who seems t'> rarm -r... .' rption to this rule ; it sometime? follpws than in the (>>>, iclr ca^c , as, " A'Qppd than whom a greater king never reigned.'^ The phrase than whom is, however, avoided by the best modern writers. The above sen- tence might be rendered muah better by changing it in the follofVing manner } " A greater Jcing than Alfred never reigned.'' EXERCISE — For Correction. 'They are much. greater gainers than me. The under- taking was much better executed by his brother than he; In some respects we hr e had as many advantages as them; but they have h. a greater privilege than us. They know how to write a-i well as him ; but he is a, bet- ter grammarian than lliem. Who wrote this ? Not me. Who revealed the secrets? Not him. Who said so % Not us. You kpow the difficulty better than me. There is but one in fault, and that is me. . RULE XXII. To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to express our ideas in few words, an ellipjis, or omission of some words, is frequently admitted ; as, " He was a learned, wi«e, and good man ; instead of, " He was a learned man, "he was^ a wise man, and he was a good man." But, if the omission ofwords would obscure the sentence, weaken its force, or be attended with any other impro* priety, they must be expressed ; as," We are apt to lovej who love us ;" the word them should la supplied. Not*. — Every compound sentence is more or less elliptical ; tho following examples will show the ellipsis of thr* ^Ufierent parts of speech : 1. Of the article ; as, '*' A man, woman, and child ;" that *s, '* A man, a woman, and a child." 2. Of the noun ; a&, " The laws of God and man w" that ?s, " T>4 Ivvs of God and the laws of man." 3. Of the adjective ; as, " A delightftil garilen and crt. ■ ;" *hat is, ** A delightful garden and o delightful orchard." 4. Of the pronoun ; as, '< I love and respect iilm ;" iLat is, ' . love Aim and / respf him. 6. Of the verb : a :., *' The man was old and crafty j" that is, " The man was old and Iha man was crafty." SYNTAX. 77 * ife The auxiliaries (2o, did, havey kad, $hall, willt may, migut, &c., are frequently used alone to spare the repetition of the verb ; as, " He gloves intemperance, but I do not ;*' that is, ** I do not love," 4k c. " We succeeded, but he did not ','* that is, be did not ntcceed." ' a. Of the adverb ; as, " He spoke and acted wisely ;" that is", *• He spoke wisely, and acted wisely." Y. or the preposition ; as, '• He spoke to every man and woman ;" that is '- io eveiy woman." " This day last year," that is, •' on this day in last year." 8. Of the conjunction ; as, " I confess tlie power, wisdom^ and love of the Creator ;" tliat is, *' the power, and wLsdom, and love," &c. 9. Of the interjection j as, " Oh ! pity and shame !" that is, " Oh pity ! Oh shame !" Observatioi,.— When the omission of words would obscure the sentence or weaken its force, they should be supplied ; and on the other hand, when the repetition <;f the words becomes disagreeable or tedious, of is attended with any impropriety, 'hey should be omitted. The repetition of vords for the sake of ei phasis is often proper ; as, "I have seen him, and / have heard him too." lu elliptical expressit is care should be taken that the adjective have exactly the same signification, and be quite as proper when juhied fo the latter noun as to the former ; otherwise the ellipsis should not be admitted ; as, " A beautiful lield and trees }" it should be, *' A beauti'ul field and fine trees." EXERCISE— For Correction, I gladly su ned wli gladlj fled from me. What is it men mean by distributive justice "? His honour, interest, and religion ai. ! embarked in this undertaking. The fear of death, nor hope of life, could make him submit to a dishonest action. .^ elegant house and furniture by this event vras lost to tijc owner. RULE XXIII. Adverbs, though they have no government of case? tense, &c., require an appropriate situation in the sentence ; for the most part before adjectives, after verbs active and neuter, and frequently between the auxiliary and the verb ; as, " He made a very sensible discourse ; he spoke forcibly, and was attentively heard by the w hole assembly." Pfote 1. — The adverb never generally precedes the verb, or is placed between the auxiliary and the verb ; as, " I never was there." " He was never seen to laugh." Ever is sometimes im- properly used for never ; as, •* I seldom or ever see him }" for, " I seldom or never see him." ObserViHion. — Some adverbs are improperly used for nouns and 78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. relative pronouns ; '*' In 1687 the company was chartered, since vdUn it began to prosper ;" that is, ** Since tohieh time." " They framed a protestation icAere they repeated all their former claims y\ that 19, « in which/' &c. " It is worth their whiU ;" that is, " their time and pains." The adverbs here, there, and tohere are often improperly applied to verbs signifying motion instead othUfier, thither t whither ; as, '• He came here hastily." " They rode there.',''* " Where are you going 1" They should be ; *• He cnme hit/er;** •' They rode thither-',** *' hTiither are you going V* The latter form of expres- sion is nearly obsolete, unless in grave style; the sentences, " he arrived here to-d*y j" *Uhey went there last week ;" " where will you go," &c. are now used by the best modem writers. EXERCISE — For Correction. He was pleased not often because he was vain. Wil- liam nobly acted. We may happily live though poor. We may expect reasonably that he will come. It can- not be impertinent therefore to remonstrate. Wft always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. It is impossible continually to be at work. These things should be never separated. So well educated a boy gives great hopes to his friends, 1. They could not persuade him though they were never so eloquent. He comes never at a proper time. He was seen to enter the house never again. PAilT IV. PROSODY. Prosody consists of two parts : the formef teaches, the true pronunciation of words, comprising accent, quan- tity, EMPHASIS, PAUSE, and TONE J and the latter the laws of VERSIFICATION. accent. Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the rest, as distinguished from them ; as in the word presdme the stress of the voice must be on the letter 21 and second syllable siime, which take ihe accent. Note. — Every word in the language of more than one sjllablo has one of them distinguished from the rest by accent, Words of I PROSODY. P two syllables hare iMcessarily one of thom accented, and but one unless for the sake of emphasis we sometimes lay an equal stres^ upon two successive svllables ; as, " JH-rict." For the accent o dissyllables no general rule can be given. Trisjllables and poljr- syllables generally follow the accent of the word from which they are derived j as, " Loveliness j" " cfintinency.*' QUANTITY. The quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied in pronouncingit. It is considered as long or short. A vowel or syllable is- long when the accent is on the vowel, which occasions it to be slowly joined in pro- nunciation to the following letter or letters ; as,"" FaH, bale, mood, boDse, feature." A syllable is short when the accent is on the consonant, which occasions the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter ; as, " an't, bon'net, hun'ger." A long syllable requires nation of the voice during a perceptible, and, in manj cases, a measurable space of time. '^:;»w" X5t?ifet{^, f| TONES. ■v^f^ u?*'^ Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses, consisting in the modulation of the voice, the notes or variations of sound which we employ in the expression pf our sentiments. Note: — Emphasis affects particular words and phrases with a de- gree of tone or inflection -of the voice, but tones, peculiarly so called, affect sentences, paragraphs, and sometimes even the whole of a dis- course. To show the use and necessity of tones, we need only observe that the mind, in communicating its ideas, is in a continual state of activ> ity, emotion, or agitation, from the different effects which those ideas produce in the speaker. ': ,^ VERSIFICATION. -' " • - ^ '^'^ Versification is the arrangement of a certain number and variety of syllables according to certain laws. Rhyme is the correspondovice of the last sound of one verse to the last sound or syllable of another. iVo/e.—PoETiCAL Feet. — A certain number of syllables con- nected together form a foot. They are called feet, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it wi re, steps along through the verse in a measured space of time. All feel used in poetry consist either of . two or three syllables ; they are reducible to eight kinds ; four of tivo syllables, and four of three. 1 n the following table the straight line over a syllable shows that the syllabic is long, or accented J and tlic curve line, that the syllable is short, or unaccented. ' \t-f^: .. .. DISSYLLABLE. . . -5 ■Ml' A Trochee — o } as. Hateful. , ■. , An Iamb o — ; (( B6tray. ■<■ A Spondee - — ; u Pale Moon. A Pyrrhic \j *j I t( Onthj. ■i , TRISYLLABLE. A Dactyl — V \j i as, Labourer. An Amphibrach o - u j " Dglightffil. An Anapest o u — • " CSntriivenc. A Tribrach u u u J " Numerable. ■Ite ,Ques/ion».— What is a pause 1 What is a lone 1 What ii refii- fication 1 ^wes^jon.— What is rliyme 1 I / ■, j:t.iii:*:t PROSODY. •^ ~ 81 -i/m%. The IamSic, Trochaic, Dactylic, an4 Anapestic, are called the principal feet, as poetical compositions tonsist chiefly of them ; the other feet, called secondary, are introduced to diversify the numljers, and to improve the verse. English verse may be divided into several species according to the number of feet or syllables of which it is composed. Iambic. — The Iambic verse consists of several kinds. 1. The first form consists of one Iamb and a short syllable ; as, i. .,,„', - "* ' . •. , Disdaining, ' . ' "T *%. "'' C5mpl3,ining. v. 2. The second of two Iambs ; as, ' >>: '"-^t- - ■■^.'i!.;.'f-- .—^'■: y v- '.- - To trie th^ rose '- ' ''■^ '^^ ^ \ :^'-,U' , No longer grows. _> ' ' It may sometimes take an additional syllable. •->■:,?. 3. The third consist of three Iambs ; as, ;1 . ;: ,,, , ., .;. . In places far cir near, ■ .,. ■ Gr famous, or obscure. ' ,« 4. The fourth consists of four lambs ; as. And may at last my wearjf age, Find out a ppacefill hermitage. , 5. The fifth, called the Heroic measure, consists of five ; as, A heap of dust alone remains of thee ; ^ • lOi.lr; *Ti8 all thou art, iind all thS proud shall bg. .. «vj^/ 1 • - '■\ 6. The sixth form is called the Alexandrine measure ; as, .?^-; For thou art but 6f dust, b6 humtlS and b6 wfse. 7. The seventh form consists of seven Iambs, gener- ally written in two lines ; the first containing four, and the second three feet ; as, --&..■ VVhCn all thj^ mercies, my God ! : My rising soul surveys ; Trdnsported with th6 view I'm lost , ' '- In wonder, love, Jlnd praise. Trochaic. — The Trochaic verse is also of several kinds. 1. The first consists of one Trochee and syllable ; as, Tumillt cea«e, ♦^ .'M-"" W^** ! ,•--' Sink to pe&ce. ■ ■•':•" ^ o long "'■r ^-^^t.-_ m ENGLISH GRAMMAR. iH. The second, of tno, and sometimes a long syllable ; il I ■, •J 3^1' » On lh« mountain -X*> By 9. fountain. — -r - ;- . jf > Inth6day«6fold. ,. ^^ . , ^A^j,r Fablfts plainly told. ' ^ 3. The third, of three, and sometimes an additioial long syllable ; as, *,*>-, When oiir hearts &re mourninv. > *•.$•■ liestloss mortals toil for nought. '.."*' ■ Bliss in vain frdtn earth is sought. J . '.' 4. The fo'irth, of four Trochees ; as, ; Round us roars th6 tempest loader. __• 5. The fifth, of five ; but very seldom used j as, *^;. *^. .. ,. ~ All that walk 6n foot 6r ride in chari5t9, All that dwell in palaces 6r garrets. 6. The sixth form consists of six Trochees ; as, .*; On ti mountain stretched bSneath a hoarj? willdw. Dactylic. — This measure is very uncommon ; aa,^ :- From th5 low pleasures 5f this fallen nature •;^ Rise ye to highCr. Anapestic. — Of tliis measure there are several kinds ; 1. The shortest form consists of the Anapest; as, But, in vain Th6y complain. This form is ambiguous ; for by laying the stress of the ▼oice on the first and third syllable it becomes a Trochaic ; therefore the simplest form of the Anapestic verse coa- ■kts of two Anapests ; as, j^ But hia courage 'giin fail, For no arts could ftvoil. f. The second form consists of three; as, ' ' O y6 woods, spread your branches &p&co j :\\ T6 your dcejifijt rfiioss I fly ; I woiild hide ("Kiin 'lie beasts of thfi ch&se, I would vaiiih tV6m evcr5' eye. 8. The third species consists of four Anapests; as, ^ :. May I govern uiy pilsaidns with absdlute away, >< ^-. ' And grow wisC- and bettSr ^s life wears ^wfty. " j, POKTICAL PAUSES. ' ' ^^ There are two kinds of pauses in poety, called th« ; PUNCTUATION. J6 93 « ; '■ !■ lal ds ; the lie ; on- th« sentential and harmonic. The sentential takes place after the comma, semicolon, &c., as the sense -may re- quire J the harmonic, wh.ch tends to preserve the melody of the verse, is divided into the final and the ca^sural pauses. The final pause takes place at the end of every line, j^ although the sense may not require it ; it also mark's the difference on»many occasions between prose and Verse. The caesural pause divides the line into equal or -unequal parts ; as, ■:^v -' ■, m-y*ri::^ti:mi r:^^. Round broken columns" clasping ivy twined, '!'. O'er heaps of ruiit'' stalked the stately hind. ' PUNCTUATION Is the art of dividing a written composition into sentences, or parts of sentences, by points or stops for the purposes of marking the different pauses which the sense and an accurate pronunciatioo require. The Comma represents the shortest pause ; the Semi- colon, a pause double that of the comma ; the Colon, double that of the semicolon 5 and the Period double that of the colon. '^ The points are marked in the following manner ; * » The Comma , The Colon : The Semicolon ; The Period , COMMA. ,j, The Comma usually separates those parts of a sen- tence, which, though very closely connected in sense require a paiise between them ; as, " 1 remember, with gratitude, his love and services." ^^ Charles is beloved, esteemed, and respocted." RULES FOR THE COMMA, Rule I. A simple sentence in general requires no point except a full stop at the end ; as, " Virtue refines the affections." But, when a simple sentence is long, and the nominative separated from the verb by some interven- ■V ing words, a comma should be inserted immediately be- fore the verb ; as, " Th« good taste 'of the present age, ?ias rot allowed us. to neglect the cultivation of the En- glish language." Questions. — What ia punctuation ? What do the Comma, Colon* lie. represent ? How are the points marked 1 What does th^ Comma separate 1 *... ,-., I D m ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Ride 11. When the coanection of the different parta of ft sentsnce is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a com- ma is usually introduced at the beginning and end of this phrase : as " I remember, with, gratitude, his kindness to me." Rule III. When two or more parts of speech occur in the same construction without a conjunction between them, thev should be parted by a comma ; as, " Truth, justice, iind mercy dwell here." " Plain, honest truth wants no artificial covering." " David was a brave, ' wise, just, arrd pious man." " In a letter we may advise, exhort, co??/ fort, request, and discuss." " He \i\ed esteem- ed, respected, and loved by all." " He acted prudently , fteadUy, and vigorously." But, when two parts of speech are immediately connected by a" conjunction, the comma should not be introduced ; as, " How great the contrast between virtue and vice, wisdom and folly." " He is just and honest." " Study expands and elevates the mind." r...^ ■'.'',. ^-kr :<^.^fk4. RuWk IV. Participles, followed by something that de- pends on them, are generally separated from the rest of the sentence by commas ; as, " The king, approving of the plan, put it in execution." ' ; Rule V. When a conjunction is separated from the word to which it belongs, the intervening phrase should have a comma at each extremity ; as, " They set out early, and, befiore evening, arrived at the destined place."- RiUe vr. Expressions, in direct addrer,,?, are followed by a comma ; as, " My son, give me thy heart ;" " I am obliged to you, my friends, for your many favours." Rule VII. The case absolute, and the infinitive mood ' absolute, should be separated from tlie rest of the sentence by commas ; as, " His father dying, he succeeded to the estate." '' To conjess the truth, 1 was much in fault." RmIc VIII. Nouns in apposition, when something is ad'ikd by w^y ot explanation, should be set off by com- mas ; as, " Paul, the Apostle of the Gentiles ;" but, if •iinh nouns are single, they are not separated : as, " Pau' the Apostle." •' Ihe emperor Antoninu ;." Rule IK. Simple members of sentences, connected by »( comparatives, are generally distinguished by comma«i, un- ' 1 ri' Uibkl.^ . J^.J^1■ 4 PUNCTUATION. .$fi$' less the sentences are very short ; as," As the heart panteth after the water, so my soul panteth after Thee." " It is better to acquire wisdom titan gold." Rule X. A remarkable expression, a short ohservation, or a quotation, may be properly marked by a comma ; as, ," He often made use of these words, Know thyself.'*'* :'" Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves. "^^ Rule XI. Relative pronouns, being connective words, generally admit a comma before them ; as, " He preaches sublimely, wlio lives virtuously." " This is the tree, which produces no fruit." But, if the relative is followed by a phrase tending to confine the antecedent to some particu- lar sense, the comma should be omitted before the rela- tive ; asj " A man wlw deviates from the truth, will not be credited." Rule XII. The verb, to be, when followed by the infin- itive mood, or the particle tltat, should have a comma after it ; as, " The most prudent course is, to withdraw from the country." " My desire is, that you go immedi- ^ately." Rule XIII. When a verb or another part of speech is understood, a comma should be introduced in its place ; as, " From law arises security ; from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, knowledge." ;. Rule XIV. The words ivay, so, hence, again, first, tecotidli/, now, lastly, once more, in sliort, &c., should be generally separated from the context by commas ; as, " He is my hiend^i formerly, the supporter of my infancy ; now, the guardian of my youth." Rule XV. The simple sentences and explanatory phrases that make up a compound sentence, should be generally separated from each other by commas ; as, " Very oftpn, while we are complaining of the vanity and the evils of human l-fe, we make that vanity, and increase those evils." • Obscrvalion.—U is not easy to give rules that will apply in ^Tery ease for the insertion of commas. As they are geiisrally used to distinguish Uie sense, their introduetion will greatly depend on lh« meaning "C the seut<;nce. SEMICOLON. '' " > The Semicoloi is used for dividing compound i^entenct J ,».^;.. i.,iL^«i.:-i^yi:->^^:j' ■ i I 86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. into two rr more parts not so closely connected as thoM wbich are separated by a comma, nor yet so little depen- dent on each other as those which are distinguished by a colon ; as, " Straws swim upon the surface ; but pearls lie at the' bottom." -"'•'■• ..'.» -•^.r-K.,-,:-/:i4'.'v._:-^ --."^; Note. — The Semicolon ia sometimes used, when the preceding member of the sentence dees not of itself give a complete sense, but depends on the following cluuse ; and sometimes, when the sense of that member would be complete without the concluding one ; as, *'' Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil, the better artist ^in the one we more admire the mim ; in the other, the work.*' *' Heligion does not require* hat man should retreat from worldly affairs j much IcsSj that he should aeglect them." ,^ COLON. The Colon Is used to divide a, sentence into two of more par unites three poetical lines ; or connects a number of words in prose with one common term. An Asterisk or little star* directs the reader to Bote iu the margin, or at the foot of the page. ttUDM SN6LISH GR^^MAR. I I An Ellipsis is thus marked- for King. . as, « K g, »» -■>■•■•■» f'i An Obelisk, which is marked thus f , Double Obelisk, thus t, and Parallels, thus ||, together with the letters of the alphabet, and figures, are used as references to th« margin. CAPITALS. The following words should begin with copitals | 1 . The first word of every book, chapter, letter, para- ' graph, &c. 2. The first 'word after a period, and freqiiently after the notes of interrogation and exclamation. 3. The names of the Deity ; as, God, Jehovah, the Supreme Being, &c. • 4. Proper names of persons, places, ships, &c. 5. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places ; as, Grecian, Roman, English, &c. 6. The first word of an example, and cf a quotation in a direct form ; as, " Always remember this ancient maxim ;" " Know thyself." 7. The first word of every line in poetry. 8. The pronoun 1, and the interjection O ! 9. "Words of particular importance ; as, the Reforma- tion, the Restoration, the Revolution. ' 10. Words contracted ; as, Mr., Mrs., Dr., Cr., A.' D., P. S., Esq., &c. • -:-- •„,• ^_.^^^ ■ -^-^ . EXERCISES IN PUNCTUATION. rjj/V'=>^,j SECTION I. — Containing sentences that require the in- ,; sertion of the comma, according to the Rules. t; Rule I. The tear of repentance brings its own relief. Idleness is the great fomenter of all corruptions in the ^ human heart. All finery is a sign of littleness. Many of ' the pretended friendships of youth are mere combinations in pleasure. The indulgence of harsh dispositions is the introduction of future misery. Rule II. Gentleness is in truth the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. Charity like the sun brightens all its objects. Trials in this stage of being are the lot of man. * Rtde III. Reason virtue answer one great aim. The 1^ kvgband wife and children suffered extremely. Health PUNCTUATION. »» peace a moderate fortune and a few friends make up the sura of temporal felicity. Temperance, and industry will gain competency, A religious sensible and well educated woman. He advised exhorte' .easoned and entreated his friend. Virtue supports in aav ersity moder- ates in prosperity. He reads and writes well. A. maa fearing serving and loving his Creator. To live soberly and piously comprehend the whole duty of man. Rule IV. His talents formed for great enterprises could , not fail of rendering him conspicuous. All mankind compose one family assembled under the eye of one common father. Kule V. He may rest assured that by the steady pur- suit of virtue we shall obtain our end. If from any exter- nal cause a man's mind be di: *^urbed. Kiile VI. Continue my chuJ to practice virtue. T^ you my respected friends I am much indebted. Rule VII. Peace of mind being restored we may smile at misfortune. Charles being absent the business wai concluded without him. To enjoy present pleasure he sacrificed his future ease. To confess the truth I am to blame. Rule VIII. Hope the balm of life soothes us under .every misfortune. Contentment the offspring of virtue dwells in retirement. Joseph the patriarch is an illustriou* example of chastity and resignation. Rule IX. The more a man speaks of himself the less he likes to hear others spoken of. Nothing more strongly inculcates resignation than the experience of our own in- ability to guide ourselves. Rule X. One of the noblest of the Christian virtues it '* to love our enemies." Remember this proverb " Know thyself." .. . -■-^"i^/A.y ■•w^ :■ '.^ •■^: 'H-.^:i-;-; Rule XI. The gentle mind is like the smooth stream' which reflects every object in ita just proportion. Beware of thoge connections whi(?h may load you with dishonour. They who raise envy wi'l easily incur censure. * Rule XII. The greatest misery is to be condemned by our own hearts. Ilis highest enjoyment was to relieve the distressed and good. It is a fact that wo must die. Rule xiiJ, Intemperance leads to want, from want te 90 ENGLISH G&JLMMAR. misery from misery to sickness and from sickness to death. He led fo-th his array fights c ■ ^jcrs aud returns in triumph. Rule XIV. Be assured then that order shall prevail. I will proceed secondly to point out our positioii. Finally, I will repeat what I iiave already said. Rule XV. To improve time while we are blessed with hep.lth will soothe the bed of sickness. Ygtj often while we are complaining of the vanity and evils of life we make that vanity and increase those evils. If youth b€ trifled away without improvement riper years may be contemp- tible and old age miserable. SECTION II. — Sentences requiring the SemiQolon ^■\mmmmm^M--y- and Comma. . ■■'^mv^m^-^'^''^' The path of truth is plain and safe the path of falsehood is a perplexing maze. The passions are t4je chief de- stroyers of our peace the storms and tempests of the moral world. Heaven is the region ,of gentleness and peace earth a place of trial and vexation. Levity is fre- quently the forced production of folly or vice cheerfulness - the natural offspring of wisdom and virtue. ,. ,3^ ' ■. SECTION III. — Sentencci, ry^iring the Colorij SfC. ;: The three great ener.it s to t; anquillity are vice super* stition and idleness vice which poisons and disturbs the mind with bad passions superstition which fills it with imaginary terrors idleness which loads it v.'ith todiousness and distrust. "^^i^^T^t:'- M''^^-f-^r0i^''i!^^m%{W'^ WiMA\ A metaphor is a comparison e"?pressed in an abridged form but without any of the words that denote compari- To the upright there ariseth light in darkness." son, as u ' SECTION IV. ■if.;! Se?itenccs reqvimig the insertion of the Period, i^'C. ^^imm^- The*absence of evil is real good Worldly pleasures when too eagerly sought after |^nd to corrupt the heart Feeding the hungry clothing Ihc naked and comforting' the afflicted afford true pleasure to the virtuous mind If we look around us we shall see that the whole universe is full of active power Pwemember thy Creatur in the days of thy youth I know this my friend that I have com- mitted an error. , PUNCTUATION. 91 •■f .v-r*' SECTION V. — Sentences requiring Capitals, points of Interrogation f Sfc. History informs us That constantiDe The great, After his advancement to Sole Dominion of the reman world, openly professed The christian faith, you know that i Wish to cultivate your Acquaintance, solomon, the Son of david, built the Temple of Jerusalem ; he wa. the richest Monarch of the jews. Of whom were the A ti- des bought. To whom was the money paid. W ho counted It/ Ah me. What folly. regard the World with cautious eye, i ; nor Raise your expectations high. •• tt<#i'%'j7'4^ see That the Balanced scales be such, you neither fear nor hope too much. SECTION VI. — Promiscuous examples of defective Punc- tuation, misap2ylicatio7i of Capitals, SjC. When Socrates was asked what man approached the nearest to perfect happiness he answered That Man who has the fewest wants - She who studies her Glass neglects her heart Between Passion and Lying there is not a Finger's . breadth . -Hn-v^r,. ^i\''m'^'' '^■'^sii> ", : • lA-v ENGLISH GRAMMAR^ The house framed a cemonstrance where they spoke with great freedom of the king's prerogative. The conduct, which has b^en mentioned, is one of those artifices which seduces men most easily under ap- pearance of benevolence. - , This is the person, who we are so much obliged to, and who we expected to have seen, when the favour was conferred. ^ He is a person of- great property but does not possess the esteem o(his neighbours. They were solicitous to ingratiate with those, who it was dishonourable to favour. ti„ The great diversity, which takes place among men, is 'tt^ owing to a distinction that nature made in their orig- inal powen, as much as to the superior diligence with which some have improved those powers beyond others. While we are unoccupied in what is good, evil% at hand continually. Not a creature is there that moves, nor. a vegetable grows, but what, when minutely examined, furnished materials of pious admiration. < «>? What can be the reason of the committee having de* layed this business 1 I know not whether Charles was the author, but I un- derstood it to be he. A good and well cultivated mind is far more preferable than the rank or riches. Neither flatter nor contemn the rich or the great. He has travelled much, and .passed .through many stormy seas and lands. You must be sensible that there is, and can be, no oUier person but me who could give the information desired. To be patient, resigned, and thankful, under afflictions and disappointments, demonstrate genuine piety. Alvarez was a man of corrupt principles, and of de** testable conduct ; and what is still worse, gloried in his shaihe. As soon as the sense of the Supreme Being is lost so soon the great check is taken off which keep undor re- straint tho passions of men. Mean desires, low pleas- PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. m ures, take place of the greater and the nobler sentiments which reason and religion inspires. We should be careful not to follow the example of many persons, to censure the opinions, manners, and . customs of others, merely because they are foreign to us. Steady application, as well as genius and abilities, are necessary to produce eminence. There is in that seminary several students considerably skilled in mathematicarknowledge. If Providence clothe the grass of the field, and shelters and adorns the flowers that everywhere grows wild amongst it, will He not clothe and protect His servants and children much more 1 We are too often hurried with the violence of passion, or with the allurements of pleasure. High hopes and florid views is a great enemy to tran- quillity. Year after year steal somelhing^ from us till the decay- ing fabric totters of itself, and crumbles at length into dust. I intended to have finished the letter before the bearer called, that he might not have been detained ; but I was prevented by coinpany. EXERCISE — A few instances of the same wcfrds constitut' ^ ing severcil of the parts of speech. Calm was the day, and the scene delightful. We may expect a calm after a* storm. To prevent passion is easier than to calm it. Better is a little with content than a great deal with anxiety. _ * The gay and dissolute think little of the miseries which are stealing softly after them. A little attention will rectify some errors. Though he is out of danger, he is still afraid. He laboured to still the tumult. The few and the many have their prepossessions. Few days pass without some clouds. Much money is corrupting. Think much, and speak little. 1.,^. He has seen much of the world, and been muck caressed. E -;i*j ENGLISH GRAMMAR. >■' His years are more than hers ; hut he has not more knowledge. ' The more we are blessed, the more grateful we should W. The desire of getting more is rarely satisfied. He has eqnal knowledge, hut inferior judgement. She is his inferior in sense, but his equal in prudence. \ We must make like space between the lines. Still waters are commonly deepest. Damp^ air is unwholesome.. Guilt often casts a damp over our sprightliest hours. SoYt bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones. Though she is rich and fair, yet she is not amiable. They are yet young, and must suspend their judgement yet awhile. Many persons are better than we suppose them to be.- ^. Every thing loves itsrlike. ■ Behave yourselves like men. ' We are too apt to like pernicious company. He may go or stay as he likes. They strive to learn. He goes to and fro. To his wisdom we owe our privilege. The proportion is ten to one. * He served with his utmost ability. ' When we do our utmost, no more is required. I will submit, for submission brings peace. It is for our health to be temperate. ! for better times. • 1 have a regard for him. He is esteemed, both on his own account^ and on that •f his parents. Both of them deserve praise. \ .'~.!!^ .;,'-.-. ■ / ^v;:^ APFENDll. (•! M^ APPENDIX. Containing Rules for assisting young persons to wrii$ with perspicuity and accuracy. PERSPICUITY. Perspicuitj or clearness is the fundamental quality of style : a quality so essential in every kind of writing that for the want of it nothing can alone. We are pleased with an author, who frees us from the fatigue of searching for his meaning ; who carries us throiudi his subject without any embarrassment or confusion ; whose style flows l.coined, Hac. Ail such words and phrases as the following should be atoidcd; Quoth he; I wist nol ; tmohile ; hmUmr for haughtinesa ; polite$st for politeneaa, &.c. SECTION II — Of Propriety. Propriety of language consists in the selection of such words as th* best Qsage has appropriated to those ideas which we intend to ex- press by them, 'ihe fpUpwing are the rules' for propriety : « Rule I. Avoid low expressions ; such as, topsy-turvy t hurPy-hurly, pell-mell, currying famur, left to diiftfir themselves^, ifc. Rule II. In the same sentence be careful not to use the same u>ord too frequently, nor in different senses ; as, " A person mny have an air which proceeds from a knowle^« of the inattor before him, which may naturally produce some motion of head or body, which might become the bench better than the bar. The repetiUon of the pronoun tcAtcA throws obscurity over the whole seiiteDrc. " Charity expands our hearts in lo?e to God and man : it is by the virtue of charity that the rich are blessed, and the poor sup|)lurl.'' The word charity is improperly used in two different sen; es ; for the highest benevolence, and for alncsgiving. 100 APPENDIX. Rule III. Avoid the injudicums use of technical terms. Technical terms being lued only by a peculiar class, we shoiild nerer employ thera but when we know they will be understood. To say, <* We tacked to the larboard, and stood off to sea," would- be expressing ourselTes rery obscurely to those who 'do not under« stand sea -phrases. Ride IV. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous words ; as, " He aimed at nothing less than the crown." This sentence may denote cither, *' Nothing inferior to the crown could satisfy his ambition ;" or, '' That the obtaining of the crown was the least of his ambition ; and so ior the ex|!ression j " 1 wiU havt mercy, and not sacrifice :" Rule V. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent tvordi or phra^s ; as, " This temper of mind keeps our under- standing tight about us." It is not easy to determine the meaning of this sentence, or whether it has any meaning whatever. Rule VI. Avoid all those words and phrases which are not adapted to the ideas we mean to communicate^ or which ai'e less significant than others of those ideas ; aSy "He feels all the sorrow thai can arrive at man ; it should be '* happen to man." *' We as$ent to the beauty of the objects, and we acA:nou'/e<2ge the truth of the proposition," better, "We acknotefr edge the beauty and assent to the truth." *' A traveller obeerveB the most striking objects; a generai reTnar/rs all the motions of the enemy ;" better thus, " A general observes ; a traveller rcnuirfct.*?; .SECTION III. — Of Precision. " Precision in writing consists in retrenching superfluities, and in pruning the expression, so as to exhibit neither more nor less than an exact copy of the person's idea who uses it. The following are the most general rules for precision ; Rule I. Tfie words used should exactly exptess the idea which the autJior intends, --h Rule II. They should express that idea fully and com" pletely. Rule III. They should exp'ess the idea, afid nothing mare. The human mind never can view clearly and distinctly more than one object at the same time. If it must look at two or three togeth- er, especially objects that bear resemblance or connection, it finds itself confused and embarrassed. It cannot clearly perceive in what they agree and in what they differ. All subjects do not require an e^ual degree of precision. In those of a well-known and familiar kmd we are at no hazard of mistaking the sense of the author, though every word is not precise and exact. A great source of loose style arises from the injudicious use of APPENDIX. 101 words which are improperly termed synonymous. They agree in ex- presMBg one principal id^a ; but they most generally expreu it with acme diversity of circumstance. The following are instances which will show the difference in the meaning of words reputed synonymous. Custom, habit.— By custom we mean the frequent repetition of the same act ; by habit, the effect which that repetition produces on the mind or body. By the cuttom of walking the streets a person ac- quires the habit of idleness. Pride, vanity. — Pride makes us esteem ourselves, vanity makes us desire the esteem of others. Haughtiness, disdain — Haughtiness is founded on the high opin- ion we entertain of ourselves ; disdain, on the low opinion we have of others. Wisdom, prudence. — Wisdom leads us to speak and do what is most proper ; prudence prevents us from speaking or acting improperly. Tranquillity, peace, ccdm. — Tranquillity represents a situation free from 'trouble ; peace, the same situation with respect to any cause that might interrupt it ; calm, \vith regard to a disturbed situation going before or following it. CHAPTER II. Of Perspicuity, Accuracy of expression toith respect to the construction of sentences. . Sentences in general sh»uld neither be very long, nor very short : long sentences require close attention to make us clearly perceive the connection of the several parts ; and short ones are apt to break the sense and i^eaken the connection of thought. A succession of either long or short sentences should be avoided ; but by a prop- er mixture of both the ear will be gratified, and anima- tion given to style. The things most essential in an ac- curate and perfect sentence are Clearness ; Unity ; Strength, and A Judicious use of the Figures of Speech. section I. — Of the Cifiirness of a Sentence. Whatever leaves the mind in suspense as to the meaning should be avoided. Obscurity arises from two causes ; either from a wrong choice of words,' or from the arrangement of them. The following rule may serve in some degree to direct the learner with regard to Uie proper disposition of words in a sentence. Rule I. Let those tvords or members, ivhich are nearly related, he placed in the sentence as near to each other a» possible,so that their mutual relation may clearly appear. Rule II. Never crowd too many circumstances togeth- er, but rather intersjieise them in different parts of the sentence, joined with the principal tvords on which they ■■ depend. W'0.'^^W^'-f^:¥'W ^fW^fW^'S^^J'WW*^"*''^*^ ' m APPBItSIX. ^ Obscurity fr? quenlly arise* from a wrong BOsiUon of the advtrhif relative pronouns^ and particles that expFetis the coanection of differs aot parts of speech ; as in the following examples ; " The KomaiM understood liberty at least as well as we." The words are capabb of two different meanings according as the emphasis in readktg Uwm is laid tipou liberty or at least. The construction should be, ** The Romans understood liberty as well at least as we." « This kind of wit among our countrymen about a century ago was ver/ Buch in vogue, tMo did not use it for any other purpose than purely for the sake of being witty:" it should be, *' Thb knid of wit about a century ago was very much in vogue among our eountrymsn, who" &c. The relative should generally be placed immediately after its anteceileiit. Much obscurity sometimes arises from too frequent use of the pronouns ; as, ** Men look with an evil eye upon the virtues of others, , and think that their reputation obscures //lem, and their commenda- ble qualities stand Tn their light ; and therefore tliey do what thejf can to cast a cloud over thm. that the bright shining of their virtues may not obscure them," This is altogether careless writing, and iriiould be avoided. SECTION II — Of the unity of a sentence. To preserve the unity of a sentence the following rules should be observed. Rule I. Dwing the course of a sentence let the scen& ie changed as little asj)ossible. We should not be hurried from person to person, or from object to object. There is commonly in every sentence some person or thing which is the governing word ; this should be conlinuedi if pals'* siblci from the beginning to the end. Rule II. Never crowd into one sentence things thai have so little connection that they could bear to be divided into two or three sente?ices. The violation of this rule tends so much to perplex and obscure th« sense that it is safer to err by too many short sentences than by one that is overladed and embarrassed. For instance, an author tells us ; " Archbishop I illotson died in the last year. He was exceedingly beloved by King William and Mary, who nominated Dr TennisoOi bishop of Lincoln, to succeed him." Who would expect the latter part of the sentence to follow as a consequence of the former % ;• . Rule III. Avoid all unnecessary parentheses. On some occasions, when the sense is not too l(Mig sus^iended by them, and when they are introduced in a proper place, they may add both to the vivacity and to the eneigy cT the sentence. But for the most part their eti'ect is bad ; they are wheels within wheels; sen- tences in the midst of sentences; a perplexed method of disposing of some thought^ which the writer for the want of judgement did not in-, troduce in its proper place. The parenthesis in this sentence is striking and proper ; " And was the ransom paid 1 It was ; and paid ** (What can exalt the bounty more 1) for thee." JtiW,. APPENDIX. 108 ' But in the following aentence we become aensible of an impro- priety in the use of it. 'Mf your hearts secretly reproaeh you for tht wrong choice you hare m^de (kich, wh6se, &c., are frequently the most important words to a sentence. They are the joints or hinges upon whicli the sentence turns ; and of course much of its strength will depend on these particles. The various forms, in which they are used, are so numerous that no particular system of rules respecting them can be given. With regard to the particle and, however, it may be observed that the unnecessary repeti- tion of it tends to enfeeble style ; and on some occasions, when the connection is clear without it, the expression is more forcible and rapid than if the particle had been used j as, " I came, I saw, I conquered." Rule III. The third rule is to dispose of the capital word or words so that they may niake the greatest im- pression. lt)4 APPENDIX. n The important 'words for the most part are placed in the beginnfni vf the sentence ; as in the following examples ; " Silver and gold I haTe none ; but what I have 1 will give you." " Your fathers, where are they 1" Rule IV. The fourth rule is that a tveaker assertion or preposition should never come after a stronger one ; and that, when the sentence consists of two members, the lon- ger should generally be the concluding one. In general it is agreeable to find a sentence rising in 'its progress and importance to the very last word, when this coiialruction can he managed without aflectatjon. Rule V. ^ sentence should never he concluded udth an adverb, a preposition^ or any inconsiderable word, iw The following sentences are therefore inaccurate ; ** Avarice is k crime which wise men are often guilty of j" it should be "o/ wWch wise men," &c. *' He may have been unfortunate in his businessj but he failed through his own neglect, to say no worse." The last phrase, to say no wotse, has a bad effect at the end of the sentence. Care should be taken noi to conclude a sentence with the words of, tOf with, by, it, about, &c. ' SECTION III. — Tropes or Figures of Speech. '^* "'■'' The fourth requisite of a perfect sentence is a judicious use of the Figures of Speech. *_ In general Figures of Speech imply some departure from simplicity of expression ; the idea, which we mean to convey, is expressed in a particular manner, and with some circumstance added, which 19 designed to render the impression mt>re strong and vivid. When we say " A good man enjoys comfort in the midst of adversity j" we ex«« press our thoughts in the simplest manner ; but, when we say *'T(> the upright there ariseth a lighi in the hour of darkness," the saiQe sentiment is expressed in a figurative style ; light is put for comfort and darkness for adversity. The principal advantages of the figures of speech are the following j First, They enrich language, and render it more copious. Secontt^ They frequently give us a nwjch clearer and more striking view of the priixcipal object than we could have, if it were expressed in simple terms, and divested of its accessory idea. ^ The following are the principal, viz ; Metaphor, Synecdoche, Allegory, , Personification, Comparison, Apostrophe, Metonymy, Antithesis, A Metaphor is a figure founded entirely on the resem^ blance which one thing bears to another ; as, when we •ay of a great man, " He is the pillar of the State." The following rules should be observed in the use of the metaphor. Rule I. They should not be used too profusely, and .j>%- Hyperbole, <.;^,.^ Exclamation, %' Irony, Climax. a i^^t APPENDIX .- 105 should always be such as accord with the strain of our sentiment. Kule II. Care should be taken that the resemblance, which is the foundation of metaphor, be clear and per- spieuous, not far-fetched nor difficult to discover. Rule III. Metaphorical and -f lain language should never be jumbled together. Rule IV. Two inconsistent metaphors sjiould never meet on one subject ; as, I bridle in my strus:glinv muse with pain That longs to launch into a bolder strain. The muse, figured as a horse, m&y be bridled ; but, when we speak of launching, we make it a ship : and by no focce of imagination can it be supposed -both a hori^e and a ship at the same moment. Allegory. — An allegory may be regarded as a meta- phor continued through a series of sentences, ^he rules /or the metaphor may in genera be applied to allegory ; indeed the only material difference between the two figures is, that a metaphor always explains itself by words that are connected with it in their proper mean- ing ; as, " Achilles was a lion in battle ;" here the word lion is sufficiently interpreted by the mention of Achilles. The Scriptures contain many beautiful examples of allegory ; we shall select one from the 80th Psalm, where the people of Israel are represented under the image of a vine ; " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt : Thou hast cast out tbci heathen and planted it. Thou prcparedst room before it ; and dr48t cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it : and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out her boughs unto the sea, and the branches unto the river. Why hast Thou broken down her hedges, so that all they, which pass by the way, do pluck her 1 The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and the wild beast of the field doth devour it. Return, we beseech Thee, O God of Hosts, look down from heav-- en, and behold and visit this vine !" Companson or Simile. — Comparison, or Simile, is the resemblance between two objects expressed in form, and generally pursued more fully than the nature of the met- aphor admits ; as, " True virtue is like gold in the furnace : the more it is heated, the brighter it shines.*'' " As the mountains are about Jerusalem, so the Lord is. round about His people.'" Metonymy. — Metonymy is the substitution of the name of the cause for the effect, the container for the contained,, the sign for the thing signified ;.as, ** He read MHton •>** 'te. m APPENDIX. b«Nf « Th» i tlmt is, " Milton's works." *^ Gray hairs should respected ;" " gray hairs" are put for " old age." kettle boils j" " kettle," for water. Synecdoche. — By Synecdoche is meant the substitiH tion of a part for the whole, or a whole for a part ; tun, " A fleet of twenty saz**" SaUy for ships ; and when we use the Jiead for the person ; waves for the sea, &;c» Fersonifwatmi. — Personification is that figui^ by which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects ; as, • " The earth smiles with plenty ;" History informs is ;" " The desert shall rejoice and bloom as the rose." * Apostrophe.- — Apostrophe is a turning off from the regular subject to address some absent person or thing ;* as,* " Death is swallowed up in victory. O death ! where is thy sting 1 O grave % where is thy victory 1" " Antithesis. — Antithesis ^is a figure which strengtheniT^ the language and heightens the effect by contrasting objects of opposite characters ; as, " If you wish to en-*' rich a man, study not to increase his stores, but to- diminish his desires." '* Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull." , * Hyperbole. — The Hyperbole consists in magnifying aqi object beyond, its natural bounds ; as, when we say^ " As swift as the wind ;" " As quick as lightning p <* White as snow^"^ . ^ Hyperboles are of two kinds ; cither such as are employed in dey virtue is commendable.''* < 'Jhe minor prop* osition contains the minor extreme and the middle term j as, ** Diligence is a virtue." The conclusion contains the major and gninor terms or extremes; as," There/ore diligence is cominendable." Li forming a Syllogism its validity may be tested by the following piles; Rule I. If two terms .agree with one and the sam^ third, they will agree with each other ; as, A is equal to B, sV And C is eqi^al to 6 ; Therefore A is equal to C Rule II. If one term agrees, and another disagrees with one and the same third, these two will disagree with each other. On the former of these rules rests the yalidity oi affirmative conclusions; on the latter, of negative. The major proposition of every Syllogism should be universal, and incontestabiy true. The folr lowing Syllogism is therefore incorrect. '^'' Some men are intemperate } J ihn is a man ; , . . ,...«^!; Therefore he is intemperate. ■'' :« .'"^ a . •-■ i But if we eay ; All men shall die ; T??r' *o5- •,«; ^x^&p-^ti^'X^-K,' " John is a man ; .'. Therefore he shall die ; it is correct. From an ambiguous middle no definite conclusioa can be drawn ; as, Light is contrary to darkness | Feathers are lisi/it ; therefore Feathers arc contrary to darkness. , From )(|e|;ative premises nothing can be inferred j as,, '■ ' A fish is not a quadruped } ,"' , A bird is isot a quadruped, proves nothing.. -\ APPfiNJOiar. 109 '}^¥P,! '1 .■^JJCJ -i SECTION m — Of the Dilemma* A Dilemma is a conditional Syllogism with several anteeedenfei fa| the major and a disjunctive minor term. The beauty of the dilemma consista chiefly in this, that the truth of the proposition i^ indisputably estublished from either of its premises j the opponent is leu no alternative, but forced to admit the inference. Example. — " If that man were wise, he would not speak irreverently of Scripture in a jest ; and, if he were virtuous, he would not do so in earnest ; but he does it either in jest or earnest ; therefore he is either umoise or vicious.'''' Demosthenes in his Oration for the Crown says ; " If Machines joined in the public rejoicings, he is inconsistent ; if he did not, he is unpatriotic ; but he either joined in the public rejoicings, or did not ; there* fore he is either incondsteiit or unpatriotic.''^ SECTION IV. — Of the Enthymeme and Sorites. The Enthymeme is a kind of Syllogism with one premise express* ed and the other understood. It is the ordinary form of spealctng aod writing ; as, " Caesar was a tyrant ; therefore he deserved death." " A free people are happy ; therefore the British are happy." When ue have a series of Syllogisms in which the conclusion of the first is made the premise of the second, and so on, till we arrive at the ultimate conclusion, it is called a Sorites ; as, " The British are a brave people : a brave people are free : a free people are happy ; therefore the British are hftppy." SECTION V. — Of Oratory. Oratory is the art of speaking justly, methodically, and elegantly upon any subject, so as to please, persuade, and instruct. A speech, made or delivered according to the rules of this art, is called an oration, and the speaker, an orator. An Oration has five parts, viz, the Exordium, Narra- tion, Confirmation, lleflitation, and Peroration. The 'Exordium, or Preamble, is the beginning of the Oration, designed to secure the attention of the hearers, gain their good opinion, and give them a general idea of the subject. It should be brief, modest, and perspicu- ous. The Nan'ation is a recital of facts as they occurred, or supposed to have occurred. It should be made as pro-^ bable, perspicuous, interesting, and concise as possible^ no APPENDIX. The Confirmation is the establishing of the truth, or proposition, as advanced in the Narration. The Refutation, which should ever be lively wuk pungent, is the repelling of the arguments of the oppos- ing party by showing them to be false, unsound, or ia- conclusive. The Teroration^ or Conclusion, recapitulates the prin- cipal arguments in a concise, forcible, and impres£av« manner, so as to excite the feelings, and awaken love, pity, or hatred. GEI^DER. There are in the English language many words which require a different termination in order to distinguish the sex j for, when w* lay of a woman, she is a philosopher, Sn astronomer, an actor, a Jtuilder, &c., we perceive an impropriety in the termination ; henott •rises the necessity of a difference in form or termination in order to point out the proper distinction. Our language has three methods of distinguishing tb« ■ex. 1. By different words j 1 JHoscttZtne. Feminim, Masculine, Femlnint. 1 Bachelor, maid. King, queen. 1 5°'"'» 1 J»oy» sow. Lad. lass. girl. Lord, lady. |{ Brother, sister. Man, woman. i Buck^ doe. Master, mistress. Bull, cow. Milter, spawner. 1 Cock, hen. Nephew, niece. i ^°8» bitch, slut. Ram. ewe. fMnf^f' 1 Drake, duck. Singer, songstress, or 1 Earl, countess. Sir, madam. •; 1 Father, mother. Sloven, slut. ^ 1 Friar, nun. Son, daughter. 1 Gander, goose. Stag, hind. 1 Hart, roe. Steer, heifer. ' ' ^ 1 Horse, mare. Uncle, aunt. 1 « Husband, wife. Wizard, wit*. • i 2. By a terminational difference !. 1 Abbot, abbess. Bridegroom, bride. 1 Actor, actress. Caterer, cateress. 1 Administrator, administratrix. Chanter, chan tress. 1 Adulterer, adulteress. Conductor, conductress^. || Ambassador, ambassadress. Count, countess. 1 Arbiter, arbitress. Czar, czarina. ll Auditor, auditress. Deacon, deaconess. 1 Author, authoress. Director, directress. ■ |i Baron, baroness. Duke, duchess. 1'; , Benefactor, benefactress. Elector, electresft. :5. '?/«:■' V i--' ■ Hypotheses. Metamorphoses. Phenomena^ "•"f^flplftf'^'' 11& APPENDIX. Singular. Arcanum, Axis, Calx, Datum, Effluyium, Encomium, Erratum, Genius, Genus, Index, Lamina, Medium, _ Magus, Memorandum, Radius, Stamen, Stratum, Vortex, Plurcil, Arcana. Axes. Calces. Data. Effluvia, i Encomia or i Encomiums. Errata. Genii or Geniuses. Genera. I Indices or t Indexes. Laminae. Media. Magi. i Memoranda or ( Memorandums. Radii. Stamina. Strata. it da Mi Vortices. .yx Some words, derived from the learned languages, are confined tttt the plural number ; as, antipodes, credenda, literati, minutiae. -> si The following nouns, being in Latin both singular and plurftl, are used in the same manner when adopted intD our tongue ; liiatus, ap^- paratus, series, species. f Rules of Spelling and Exercises in false OrtJwgraphy^^, Rule 1. Monosyllables ending with f, I, or s, preceded by a single Towel, double the final consonant ; as, staff, mill, pass, &c. 'Die only exceptions are, of, as, is, has, was, yes, his, this, us, and thus. It is no great merit 1;o spel properly j but a gre$it defect to do it incorrectly. ' W5r '(• ^tt^^. ^'> Jacob worshiped his Creator leaning on the top of his staf. We may place too little as well as to much stres upon dreams. Our manner should be neither gros, nor excessively refined. Ruk 2. — Monosyllables ending with any consonant but f, 1, or b, and preceded by a single vowel, never double the final consonant \ excepting only,add.ebb, but, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, purr,and buzz. A carr signifies a chariot of war, or a small carriage ef burden. APPENDIX. 113 ■ri iGned to iae. iirlil, are iiuB, ap! raphy-_ a single c. Tim id thus. great top of h stres. jssiveljr r, 1, or By nsonant } nd buzz, arriage Tsk the iiames of drugs and plants the mistake in a word may endanger life. The finn of a fish is the limh by which he balances l^ii body and moves in the water. Many a trapp is laid to insnare the feet of youth. RuU 3. — Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, form the plurals of nouns, the persons of verbs, verbal nouns, past participles, comparatives, and superlatives, bj changing into i ; as spy, spies ; I cany, thou carriest ; he carricth or carries ; carried ; bappiery happiest. The present participle in ing retains the y, that i may not be doubled; as cfirry, carrying ; burying, &c. But y, preceded by a vovvel, in such instances as the above, is not changed ; as, boy, boys ; I cloy, he cloys, cloyed, &.c. ; except in lay, pay, and say ; from which are formed, laid, paid, and said ; and their compounds, unlaid, unsaid, &c. We should subject our fancy s to the government of reason. If thou -art seeking for the living amongst the dead, thou wearyest thyself in vain. If we have denyed ourselves 'sinful pleasures, we shall be great gainers in the end. Rule 4.— Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, upon assuming an additional syllable beginning with a' consonant, com- monly changed y into i ; as happy, happily, happiness. But, when y is ureceded by a vowel, it is very rarely changed in the additional syllable ; as, coy, coyly ; boy, boyish, boyhood } annoy, annoyed, aoooyance ; joy, joyless, joyful, &c. ^ It is a great blessing to have a sound mind, uninflu-' untied by fanciful humours. Common calamities, and common blessings, fall heav- ily upon the envious. -The comelyness of youth are modesty and frankness^; of age, condescei sion and dignity. When we aci against conscience, we become the destroiers of our peace. Rule 5.— Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, ertding with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double that consonant, when they take another syllable beginning with a vowel ; as wit, witty j thin, thinnish ; to abet, an abettor j to begin, a beginner. But, if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the preceding* syllable, the consonant remains single ; as, to toil, toiling^ to offer, ^n offering, maid, maiden, &ic. When we bring the lawmaker into contempt, we havQ in effect aoAwled S#s. laws. lU APPSIVDIX. 67 defering our repentance we accumulate our sorrow. The pupils should be permited to ask questions. ^ We all have many faillings and lapses to lament and recover. The Cbristfan Lawgiver has prohibitted manj things, which the heathen philosophers allowed. Bul$ 6. — Words ending with any double letter but 1, and takfaig aeMj less, ly, or ful, after them, preserve thi ietler double ; as, hann« lessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful, distressAil, &c. But those words which end with double I, and takes ness, less, ly, or ful, after them, generally omit one 1, as fulness^ skillessj fully, skil* ful, kc. Kestlesness of mind disqualified us for the enjoyment •f peace. The road to the blisful regions is open to all. A^hilnes or shivering of the body generally precedes a fever. To recommend virtue to others, our lights must shine brightly, not dully. Rule 7. — Ness, less, ly, and ful, added to words ending with silent e, do not cut it off; as, paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful, except in a few words ; as, duly, awful. The warmth of disputation destroys that sedatness of mind which is necessary to discover truth. Ir all our reasonings our minds should be sincerly em- ployed in the pursuit of truth. 1 J, The true worship of God is an important and aweful service. Rul9 8. — Ment, added to words ending with silent e, generally preserves the e from elision ; as, abatement, chastisement, incite* ment, &c. * Like other terminations it changes y into i, when preceded by a consonant ; as, acconip:iny, accompaniment ; merry, merriment. The study of the English language is making daily ftdvancment. A judicious arrangment of studies facilitates improv- ment. Rule 9.— Able and ibie, when incorporated into words ending with silent e, almost always cut it off ; as, blumc, blamable ; cure, curable ; sense, sensible, »Vc. ; but, if c or g soft comes before e in the original word, the e is then preserved in words compounded with »ble; as, change, changeable ; peace, peaceable, ^c. Every person and thing connected with self is apt to appear good and desireable in our eyes. The Divine laws are not reverseible by those of men. ^ ▲Fpumiz. lis Gratitude is a f lodf ing ; slave, slavish ; prude, prudish. An obligeing and humble disposition is totally uncon- nected with a servile and crinffeinoc humour. By solaceing the sorrows of others the heart is imprOT- ed, at the same time that our duty is performed. Labour and expense are lost upon a droneish spirit. The inadvertencies of yoiHh may be excused, but kn&veish tricks should meet with severe reproof. Rule II. — Words taken into composition often drop those letters which were superfluous in their simples ; as, handful, dunghil, witiial^ also, chilblain, foretel. Love woiketh no ill to our neighbour, and is the full- filling of the Taw. That which is sometimes expedient, is not allways so. "We may be hurtfuU to others by our example as well as by personal injuues. Where diligence opens the door of the understanding, and impartiality keeps it, truth finds an entrance and a wellcome too. ELLIPTICAL PHRASES. The following table contains a few examples of contracted words, which are frequently made use of, both in writing and conversation ; they should however be avoided in dignified style, and even in familiar discourse. for I have known him. You are sneaking again. r---'1 .« I've known him, J^^vtiis You're speaking again, He's been out, She's gone, He's well, We've recited. They've gone, I'm going, „-; I'll not offend, He'll not please, »Tis true, "Who'll hear him, I can't bear it, I don't know, « !?•• H-'H'i'<-< i>i^'<\\^ -.M-lr-Jl " He has been out. " She has gone. " He is well. " We have recited. " They have gone, " I am going. " I will not offend. " He will not please. " It is true. ^s^„M»ci.«..„A 4. " Who will hear him. " I cannot bear it. I do not know, ., ■iJ,,J(..i'--i'»>^ « -^■^^t '■,-■. 1J<5 APPEin>lX. He couldu t ^ J, She won't speak, I did'nt do it, You wouldn't, T a'nt well, xle i n't at home, for He could not go. 8?, In loco ] ' p>'^"?. Inp,/piic u-3on(f. In stci'ti (^u> In terrormu Ipse dixit. With stronger 'reason, 1 From behind. * From before. From the beginning. Without limit. According to value. Cherishing mother. Otherwise. Elsewhere. A. D. , in the Year of our Lord. 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